Codebook with themes, their description, their appearance in only one or both focus groups and their frequency (extracted from NVivo 12).
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This group is characterized by a persistently disturbed eating behavior, which leads to changes in food intake, impaired physical health and psychosocial problems. According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of mental disorders (DSM)-5, people with AN show a restrictive eating behavior, a body weight that is significantly too low for age, sex, and developmental trajectory, fear of gaining weight and a disturbance in the perception of one’s own body (body image disturbance) [1]. AN occurs in approximately 0.5% of the population, with women being affected about 10 times more often [2]. The risk of death in patients with AN is five times higher compared to people of the same age and gender [3]. The course of AN is often chronic and can lead to a permanent disability.
The eating and feeding disorders cluster further includes bulimia nervosa (BN), binge eating disorder (BED), avoidant/restrictive food intake disorder (ARFID), pica and rumination disorder.
BN occurs in about 2% of the population with a male to female ratio of about 1:10 [2]. The main criteria for diagnosing BN are recurrent binge eating, compensatory behaviors and excessive concerns with body shape and weight [1]. BED is the most common eating disorder. It is about twice as common (approx. 4% of the population) as the BN, with the proportion of women in patients with BED being around 60% [2]. It is mainly characterized by binge eating without the use of compensation strategies [1]. ARFID is hallmarked by a restrictive eating pattern that leads to malnutrition; pica means the consumption of non-food; and rumination disorder features choking up and chewing food again. Within those eating disorders, clinical features may change over time, with some patients with AN changing to BN or BED. Therefore, we are dealing with a spectrum of eating disorders rather than well-defined disease entities [4].
According to the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) [5], the main pillars of therapy for eating disorders such as AN are psychological therapy, diet counseling as well as weight and physical health monitoring. Additional therapies can be family therapy, occupational and art therapy. Despite the availability of these therapies, a recent study that examined acutely ill AN patients over 20 years showed that despite existing therapies, only about 30% recovered after about 10 years and only 60% after 20 years [6]. Thus, there is a demand for additional treatments, and music therapy could be such an additional approach.
In a recently conducted systematic review on the effects of music in people with or at risk for eating disorders, researchers found that the use of music as an adjunct treatment was beneficial in certain cases [7]. The review encompassed 16 studies and 3792 participants using music in an experimental or observational study. Important studies cited in this review found that listening to classical piano improved food consumption with inpatients with AN [8] and that a “vodcast” of visual images and soothing music favorably influenced eating behaviors in patients with AN [9].
Apart from music therapy, the role music as such plays in daily life is expansive. Essentially, all cultures produce and use music in some way. Whether that is listening to a favorite song or dancing at a wedding, music seems to have an expansive power of triggering an emotional response. It is used as a source of healing and can be used as of source of comfort for many. The value of music on a person’s life is dependent on the context with which they hear it, how much they engage with it and the feeling that it evokes when listening to it [10]. Music can have transformative effects on stress levels and the autonomic nervous system. For instance, studies have shown that listening to slow and smooth music reduces blood pressure and regulates breathing, in comparison to fast paced music which can lead to increased blood pressure [11]. Music has also been shown to influence neurotransmission such as the amount of dopamine release [12].
We sought to conduct a software-assisted qualitative analysis of two in-depth interviews performed during focus groups with people with AN to find out how they use music in daily life, how they talk about music, and what they think about the therapeutic application of music. We used this qualitative approach, because we wanted to identify and conceptualize aspects of the use of music which are important for them [13, 14, 15, 16].
Study participants: Six female patients between 22 and 49 years with AN were recruited at the inpatient eating disorders service at the Bethlem Royal Hospital and the outpatient eating disorders service at the Maudsley Hospital. Both hospitals are managed by the South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation trust (SLaM), London. Patients gave written informed content to participate in the focus groups. They also agreed that the focus group would be recorded and transcribed, the content analyzed, the results of this analysis harnessed for further service development and publication. They also agreed that their recorded and transcribed statements may be cited, potentially verbatim, in an anonymized way.
Study Design: Each patient took part in one of the two focus groups. The focus groups were advertised within both the inpatient and outpatient eating disorders units with posters including the information about the topic and the focus group’s research purpose. In preparation of the group, a questionnaire was devised containing 15 questions on listening to music, making music and music as a therapeutic strategy in order to guide the in-depth interviews (see Appendix). The focus groups were recorded, transcribed and subjected to thematic and content analysis [13, 14, 15, 16].
Procedure: For evaluation of the transcribed focus groups, we used the NVivo 12 software. NVivo is a qualitative data analysis computer software package for qualitative research on text-based information. It organizes and analyzes non-numerical or unstructured data and allows users to classify, sort and arrange information [17]. Using NVivo, themes were extracted, a word cloud developed, the most frequently used words, and the distribution of coded themes and references analyzed.
Following the transcription of both focus groups from audio recordings, a list of 14 themes were extracted from the data collected. Using Nvivo 12 software, the themes derived from both focus groups highlight the effects music has on the participants lives, the emotions experienced while listening to music, as well as the sentiments expressed about music therapy and its uses when treating their AN. The themes generated are as follows: Benefit of Music Therapy, Frequency (of music listening), Genre Listened To, How Music Makes You Feel, Importance of Music, Interest In Music Therapy, Music Dislikes, Music Making, Music Preference, Negative Emotion Elicited, Negative Memory Association, Neutral Emotion Elicited, Positive Emotion Elicited, and Positive Memory Association. Table 1 illustrates the codebook of the analysis along with the description of the theme, file number and number of references within the data.
Themes | Description | Files | References |
---|---|---|---|
Benefit of music therapy | What are the benefits one associates with music therapy? | 2 | 9 |
Frequency | How often does one listen to music? | 2 | 13 |
Genre listened to | What type of music one listens to? | 2 | 10 |
How music makes you feel | What feelings does one experience because of music? | 1 | 22 |
Importance of music | What value does music have on one’s life? | 2 | 24 |
Interest in music therapy | Is there an interest in the therapeutic uses of music therapy as well as attending a music therapy session? | 2 | 9 |
Music dislikes | What music does one dislike? | 2 | 14 |
Music making | Playing an instrument, singing, recording, composition etc. | 2 | 6 |
Music preference | What does one prefer to listen to? (i.e. favorite artists, song, recording etc.) | 2 | 21 |
Negative emotion elicited | Is there a negative emotion associated with music? | 2 | 12 |
Negative memory association | Is there a negative memory associated with music? | 2 | 9 |
Neutral emotion elicited | Is there an indifference/ impartiality to music? | 2 | 6 |
Positive emotion elicited | Is there a positive emotion associated with music? | 2 | 28 |
Positive memory association | Is there a positive memory associated with music? | 2 | 24 |
Codebook with themes, their description, their appearance in only one or both focus groups and their frequency (extracted from NVivo 12).
A word cloud of the two interviews was developed of the 1000 most frequently used words throughout both focus groups to illustrate which words/phrases appeared most frequently throughout data collection. Words most frequently used are indicated by the larger text size. These include ‘music,’ ‘think,’ ‘listen,’ and ‘feel,’ suggesting that music elicits a thoughtful emotive reaction within individual participants (Figure 1). Music accounts for the most frequently used word amongst participants with a count of 378, while’ think’ had a count of 327 and ‘feel’ a count of 145 (Table 2).
Word cloud illustrating which words or phrases appeared most frequently throughout both focus groups.
Frequency rank | Word | Length | Count | Weighted percentage | Similar Words |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Music | 5 | 378 | 3.52% | Music, Musical, Music’s |
2 | Think | 5 | 327 | 3.04% | Think, Thinking |
3 | Listen | 6 | 226 | 2.10% | Listen, Listening, Listens |
4 | Really | 6 | 187 | 1.74% | Really |
5 | Feel | 4 | 145 | 1.35% | Feel, Feeling, Feelings, Feels |
6 | Play | 4 | 126 | 1.17% | Play, Played, Playful, Playing, Plays |
7 | Get | 3 | 118 | 1.10% | Get, Gets, Getting |
8 | Make | 4 | 115 | 1.07% | Make, Makes, Making |
9 | Song | 4 | 106 | 0.99% | Song, Songs |
10 | Words | 5 | 100 | 0.93% | Word, Words |
Top 10 most frequently used words including weighted percentages.
The individual themes coded with the greatest number of text segments by participants include Music Preference, Positive Emotion Elicited, Positive Memory Association, Importance of Music and How Music Makes You Feel (Figure 2).
Distribution of the frequency of themes coded from both focus group.
The themes were grouped into six main segments based on the content outlined by the participant in their responses: Music Therapy, Preference, Positives, Negatives, Neutrals, and Beliefs. The Positives grouping accounted for 25.1% of coded segments, while Preference and Beliefs accounted for 30.9 and 22.2%, respectively (Table 3).
Coded theme group | Number of coded references | Percentages of all coded references |
---|---|---|
Music therapy | 18 | 8.7 |
Preference | 64 | 30.9 |
Positives | 52 | 25.1 |
Negatives | 21 | 10.1 |
Neutrals | 6 | 3 |
Beliefs | 46 | 22.2 |
Coded references by group.
Throughout both focus groups, the most commonly shared themes represented positive associations with music, in the form of Positive Memory Associations (28 references) and Positive Emotion Elicited (24 references). A commonality that participants shared throughout the focus group discussions were the positive emotions that music makes them feel. One patient described music as “(it) can be a comfort; it can be something to move you up… (it’s) obviously something that’s a release of emotions…and it definitely cheers me up and makes me more determined and motivated”. This was a popular sentiment amongst and between the two focus groups, with one patient stating “(music) makes me feel good, content even.”
The importance of music was also a common theme for participants accounting for 24 references within the data. Patients discussed the uses of music within their day to day life and through their recovery process. One patient stated “(music) gives you space to kind of like describe stuff that you can’t necessarily put into words yourself,” and serves as an “incentive” or “motivator” throughout their recovery process.
The most commonly discussed themes fall under the Preference grouping with a total of 64 references throughout both focus groups. Accounting for 30.9% of the coded references, patients discussed their music preferences in great detail (Table 3). Patients listed the genres they listened to and how often they listened, if they participated in making music, and their music dislikes. Music preference accounted for 21 references within both focus groups where patients stated “classical” “pop” “soul” “literally anything” as the genre of choice as well as how they consume the music they listen to (“headphones,” “iPod,” “CD,” “radio”).
Neutral themes, defined as an indifference or impartiality to music, represented the smallest percent of coded references (3% of the coded data) (Table 3). However, Negative Emotion Elicited and Negative Memory Association accounted for 10.1% of all coded references (Table 3). Patients described music as channeling an emotion based on a certain song as well as having a negative memory linked to a piece of music. One patient describes a particularly sad event in their life that was tied to an artist, saying, “that would be with Frank Sinatra’s song, that was played at my Granddad’s funeral. So, again if I feel like I need to cry and let it all out… Ten out of ten it would make those tears fall.” Music seems to elicit an emotive reaction based on the participants life experience.
Music Therapy was discussed totaling 18 references throughout both focus groups (Figure 2). Patients were asked for their thoughts on music therapy, if music therapy can be helpful through their recovery process, as well as if they would be interested in attending a music therapy session. None of the patients had any experience with music therapy but all six of the patients unanimously agreed that they would be interested in attending a music therapy session.
There were nine references during the focus groups about the benefits of music therapy. One patient stated “I know it’s brilliant. And I know it could help me sort through a lot of issues,” while another stated its uses in a group setting with others undergoing treatment for their eating disorder, saying “…a lot of girls I was in daycare with, music was definitely a thing that we did a lot. So, I think that sort of being able to mingle with other people through the recovery process too, I think would be really, really helpful.” Overall, patients all seemed to have a strong connection with music, specifically throughout their recovery process and viewed music as an important tool for healing throughout their lives.
In this study, we conducted a software-assisted qualitative study exploring people with AN’s attitudes toward music, music therapy, and the uses of music throughout their life, treatment and recovery. The results of the study point to a promising potential for the varied uses of music throughout the recovery process for eating disorders. Patients were questioned in focus groups concerning the uses of music in their day to day life and as a therapeutic strategy. Responses were analyzed with NVivo 12 qualitative software for recurring themes throughout the discussions.
The most prevalent theme throughout the focus groups involved positive expressions and positive memory associations related to music. This theme occurred in ~25% of the data and totaled 52/207 of all of the coded themes (Table 3). This suggests patients have pleasant feelings about music and associate good things that have happened in their lives along with musical experiences. The importance of music was the second most common theme accounting for 24 references throughout the focus groups (Figure 2). Patients described the effect music had on their day to day life, with regulating emotions and providing an outlet of peace through their recovery process, suggesting that it was the study participants’ opinion that music could be used to improve their mental state throughout their recovery.
Negative feelings and negative memories associated with music accounted for only ~10% of all of the references from both focus groups (Table 3). Patients discussed how music they dislike can make them feel low in mood and also described negative memories linked to a certain genre or song. This suggests music can influence mood not only positively but negatively as well.
The final main result concerns the potential uses of music as a therapeutic adjunct to their treatment. When asked about music therapy, 6/6 patients stated they were interested in attending a music therapy session; in addition, all patients expressed that they see benefit in using music therapy as an adjunct to their current treatment for their eating disorder. This suggests music could be helpful for patients in the treatment of AN.
In previous studies on the use of music in eating disorder treatment, researchers found that patients with AN managed to eat more when listening to classical piano music and had a significant reduction in postprandial anxiety when participating and music therapy; listening to a violin concerto by Mozart induced the recall of autobiographical memories in patients with BN and reduced body width estimation [7, 8, 9, 18, 19, 20]. These previous findings align with the results of our current research as patients described that when listening to their favorite music, they generally feel happier and more positive. In addition, patients expressed their interest in attending music therapy citing the potential benefits it could have in their own life specifically with their treatment of their AN.
In other studies, however, negative symptoms presented when patients watched music videos. More specifically, researchers found that watching music videos was associated with an increase in body dissatisfaction [21], and sexually objectifying videos were associated with increased perception of body size in young women with suffering from low self-esteem [22]. In our study, we found that patients who listened to music outside their usual preference or that they did not like, as a result, had negative emotional reactions (i.e. crying, dissociation). This aligns with the previous findings suggesting that while music not only can produce positive side effects, it can also produce negatives as well [7].
Our study has several limitations. The number of participants (N = 6) was small. All study participants suffered from AN. Due to the small sample size, we could not differentiate between the subtypes of AN (restricting vs. binge eating/purging), length of illness duration and their stage of recovery. Our sample was ethnically homogeneous with only white Caucasian participants, and all patients were female. Thus, the results are not generalizable to other ethnic groups or males. From our perspective, the lack of generalizability is a main problem of research in the area of music therapy for people with eating disorders, and specifically AN. Even though there is plenty of case studies (for a comprehensive review and further literature see [23]), randomized controlled trials (RCT) are scarce [7].
AN is one of several eating disorders. As we have explained in the introduction, eating disorders are not distinct entities, but should rather be seen as symptom clusters within a spectrum of serious problems related to body image disturbance, disordered eating and their physical and psychosocial consequences. Therefore, it might be worth investigating, whether our findings can be reproduced and confirmed in people with BN, BED, ARFID or other eating disorders.
Taken together, our analysis shows that people with AN connect music mainly with positive emotions and memories. Therefore, music may be used more frequently and more extensively in psychological therapies as a tool to modulate emotions. As patients would welcome music therapy as an adjunct treatment option during inpatient or outpatient treatment, therapist might think about including music therapy into their overall treatment concept. However, quantitative research in bigger patient samples and RCTs will be necessary to verify these results.
Based on the current study and previous publications on music and music therapy in people with AN, the following preliminary conclusions can be drawn:
Music elicits mainly positive emotions and memories in people with AN.
Music is an integral and important part of life.
Music can help with recovery, overcome anxieties and improve eating.
People with AN would like to be offered music therapy as an adjunct to their usual treatment.
Music may be used as a tool to provoke emotions during psychotherapy.
Music may also elicit negative feelings and memories.
Watching sexually objectifying music videos can increase body dissatisfaction and the perception of body size in vulnerable people.
The MSc Mental Health Studies Programme, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London funded the publication costs of this book chapter. Hubertus Himmerich has received salary support from the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Biomedical Research Centre (BRC) at South London and Maudsley NHS Foundation Trust (SLaM) and King’s College London.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
How do you find listening to music?
What impact does listening to your favorite music have on your body and brain?
How often do you listen to music?
What type of music do you prefer to listen to?
Genre, style
Instrumental, vocals, both
Stimulating, relaxing
How do you prefer to listen to music?
Recordings, live music
TV, radio, DVD, CD, MP3
How often do you listen to something that is not your usual preference?
How does listening to music relate to your emotions?
Can you name of experience where music made you feel happy or sad?
Is there a time in your life that you connect a certain situation with a specific song?
How does it make you feel, if you have to listen to music you do not like?
Have you played, or do you play an instrument or sing?
Singing alone/in a choir
Play instrument alone/in a band/in an orchestra
How could listening to music be helpful to cope with difficult emotions or problems in your life?
Do you feel that there could be an effect of music in your life?
Do you have any experience with music therapy?
Would you attend a music therapy session?
The authors thank all six patients who took part in the focus group. They would also like to express their gratitude to Caroline Norton and to Zoe Vazquez-Sanchez for supporting the focus groups in the Maudsley and the Bethlem Royal Hospital.
Principal components analysis (PCA) is a popular dimension reduction method and is applied to analyze quantitative data. For PCA to qualitative data, the data are quantified by using optimal scaling that nonlinearly transforms qualitative data into quantitative data. The PCA with optimal scaling is called nonlinear PCA. Nonlinear PCA reveals all qualitative variables uniformly as numerical variables by using optimal scaling quantifiers in the analysis, that is, it can deal with nonlinear relationships among variables with different measurement levels.
Using this quantification, we can consider variable selection in the context of PCA for qualitative data. In PCA for quantitative data, Tanaka and Mori discussed a method called modified PCA (M.PCA) that can be used to compute principal components (PCs) using only a selected subset of variables that represents all of the variables, including those not selected [1]. Since M.PCA includes variable selection procedures in the analysis, if we quantify all the qualitative variables by using the optimal scaling and then apply M.PCA to the quantified data, we can select a reasonable subset of variables from the qualitative data.
In this chapter, we refer to Mori et al. [2] to revisit a variable selection problem in PCA for qualitative data. The proposed method here (we call it nonlinear M.PCA or NL.M.PCA) is an extension of M.PCA so as to deal with a mixture of quantitative and qualitative data. In Section 2 we provide the overview of NL.M.PCA (optimization, the original M.PCA and NL.M.PCA for qualitative data) based on studies by Mori et al. [2], and in Section 3, we apply this method to the customer engagement data [3] to show how it works in the real data and how you use the output from the method for variable selection, and to evaluate the performance of the method.
We must use a suitable quantification method in the context of PCA because we here wish to consider a variable selection problem in PCA. One of the best methods is the optimal scaling in nonlinear PCA. Nonlinear PCA is a method to deal with qualitative data, which estimates the parameters of PCA and quantifies qualitative variables simultaneously by alternating between estimation and quantification. PRINCIPALS of Young et al. [4] and PRINCIPALS of Gifi [5] are algorithms for nonlinear PCA. Here we use PRINCIPALS.
PRINCIPALS is an algorithm using the alternating least squares (ALS) algorithm as follows: Let
where
In the computation of PRINCIPALS,
where
for fixed
where
where
and then the optimally scaled vector
Re-compute
These two steps alternately iterate until convergence, and
M.PCA of Tanaka and Mori [1] derives PCs that are computed using only a selected subset but represent all of the variables, including those not selected. This means that M.PCA naturally includes variable selection procedures in its estimation process. Although there are several variable selection methods in PCA, we use M.PCA, because a subset of variables selected by M.PCA can represent all the variables very well and it is easy to incorporate the quantification method in Section 2.1 into M.PCA, which will be described in Section 2.3.
Suppose we obtain an
We denote the covariance matrix of
and the
respectively, where
The solution is obtained as a matrix
M.PCA is a good method to find a reasonable subset of numerical variables as described in the previous section. To select variables from mixed measurement level data by using a criterion in M.PCA, qualitative/categorical variables in the data should be quantified in an appropriate manner. Based on the original idea in ref. [9], considering PRINCIPALS in Section 2.1 and M.PCA in Section 2.2, it is easy to incorporate the quantification (PRINCIPALS) into M.PCA, because we can formulate M.PCA for qualitative data only by replacing the EVP (2)) in the
Here, we rewrite the ALS algorithm of PRINCIPALS as follows—for given initial data
Compute
NL.M.PCA procedure for fixed
The first type (
A reasonable subset of size
The data we analyze here was gathered in the survey about the relationship among customer engagement on “fashion,” “brand,” and “shop staff” [3]. The questions (variables) are divided into three groups based on the purposes for consumption: “Involvement” (16 variables), “Expectations” (35 variables), and “Values” (34 variables). The total number of questions is 85 on a five-level scale and 825 responses are obtained. Ohyabu et al. [3] analyzed this data to find the structure of the customer consciousness, but we use this data simply as sample data for variable selection in PCA without considering the original purpose in ref. [3]. Here we apply NL.M.PCA to the second question group “Expectation” (35 variables) to show the performance of the proposed method. The questions asked in the survey are indicated in the “Question” column of Table 1 and answers (responses) are shown in Table 2.
Group | Item | Question | |
---|---|---|---|
About the fashion | Q | We would like to ask you about your thoughts and behaviors about fashion. | |
Q1 | I think about fashion by putting on clothes or choosing the clothes. | × | |
Q2 | I think about fashion by putting on clothes or choosing the clothes. | × | |
Q3 | I want to know about fashion by putting on clothes or choosing clothes. | × | |
Q4 | I’m enthusiastic when I think about fashion. | × | |
Q5 | I’m happy with thinking about fashion. | × | |
Q6 | I feel relaxed when I think about fashion. | × | |
Q7 | I’m proud of my fashions when I think about fashion. | × | |
Q8 | I spend a lot of one’s time when I think about the fashions. | ||
Q9 | I talk about fashion with my friends. | ||
Q10 | I’m checking about SNS or writing comment for fashion. | × | |
Q11 | I’m posting about a fashion to SNS. | × | |
About the brand | Q | We would like to ask you about your thoughts and behaviors about fashion brands. | |
Q12 | I think about the brand by putting on clothes or choosing the clothes. | ||
Q13 | I think about the brand by putting on clothes or choosing the clothes. | × | |
Q14 | I want to know about the brand by putting on clothes or choosing the clothes. | × | |
Q15 | I’m enthusiastic when I think about the brand. | × | |
Q16 | I’m happy when I think about the brand. | ||
Q17 | I feel relaxed good when I think about the brand. | × | |
Q18 | I’m proud when I think about the brand. | × | |
Q19 | I spend a lot of one’s time when I think about the brand. | × | |
Q20 | I always use a specific brand when I wear or choose clothes. | ||
Q21 | I always use the brand when I clothes or choice of clothes. | × | |
Q22 | I’m checking about SNS or writing comment for the brand. | × | |
Q23 | I’m posting about a brand to an SNS of mine. | × | |
About the shop staff | Q | We would like to ask you about your thoughts and behaviors about the staff member | |
Q24 | I think about the staff member by talking to other staff | × | |
Q25 | I think about staff members when I speak to other shop staff. | ||
Q26 | I want to know more about shop staff by speaking. | × | |
Q27 | I’m enthusiastic when I’m talking with staff members. | ||
Q28 | I’m happy when I’m talking with staff members. | × | |
Q29 | I feel relaxed when I’m talking with staff members. | × | |
Q30 | I’m proud when I’m talking with shop staff. | ||
Q31 | I spend a lot of time talking with shop staff. | × | |
Q32 | I always talk to the specific staff member when choosing clothes or putting on clothes. | ||
Q33 | I always talk the specific staff member. | × | |
Q34 | I’m checking about the specific staff member of SNS or writing comment for the brand. | ||
Q35 | I’m posting about the specific staff member to my SNS. | × |
35 questions in “expectation” and 25 selected ones (marked by
Expectation data (825 responses on 35 variables).
Table 3 shows the output of NL.M.PCA when NL.M.PCA is applied to Expectation data with
Selection results (expectations,
Change of the proportion
When using
Here we select a subset of variables from 35 variables of Expectation data focusing on the loss of proportion
To evaluate the significance of variables, we observe how many times each variable is selected through the selection for
We reconsider a variable selection problem in PCA for qualitative data based on the idea of Mori et al. [2]. For the problem of how to deal with qualitative data, we apply optimal scaling with the ALS algorithm [4] to the qualitative data. For the variable selection in PCA, we use the criteria in M.PCA of Tanaka and Mori [1] for optimally quantified data. That is, the proposed method is an extension of M.PCA by implementing optimal scaling into M.PCA so as to select a subset of qualitative variables. Using this method, since the quantification is done separately for each variable, we can select a subset of variables from mixed measurement level data.
We apply this method to real data from a customer engagement study [3] to select a subset of qualitative variables by using a criterion that maximizes the prediction efficiency. For a case where there is no preassigned number of variables to be selected, it can be suggested to specify the number in such a way that the maximum loss of the efficiency is not over a certain percentage.
As a result, variables are selected in a well-balanced manner from questions asking similar contents, and the selected subset, therefore, provides as much information as possible. It is expected that the nonlinear M.PCA works well for any mixed measurement level data.
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Contact angle is the main parameter that characterizes the drop shape on the solid surface and is also one of the directly measurable properties of the phase interface. In this chapter, the wettability and its related properties of pristine and modified polymer foils will be described. The wettability depends on surface roughness and chemical composition. Changes of these parameters can adjust the values of contact angle and, therefore, wettability. In the case of pristine polymer materials, their wettability is unsuitable for a wide range of applications (such as tissue engineering, printing, and coating). Polymer surfaces can easily be modified by, e.g., plasma discharge, whereas the bulk properties remain unchanged. This modification leads to oxidation of the treated layer and creation of new chemical groups that mainly contain oxygen. Immediately after plasma treatment, the values of the contact angles of the modified polymer significantly decrease. In the case of a specific polymer, the strongly hydrophilic surface is created and leads to total spreading of the water drop. Wettability is strongly dependent on time from modification.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Nikola Slepickova Kasalkova, Petr Slepicka, Zdenka Kolska and\nVaclav Svorcik",authors:[{id:"144929",title:"Prof.",name:"Vaclav",middleName:null,surname:"Svorcik",slug:"vaclav-svorcik",fullName:"Vaclav Svorcik"},{id:"146297",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Slepicka",slug:"petr-slepicka",fullName:"Petr Slepicka"},{id:"147600",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nikola",middleName:null,surname:"Slepičková Kasálková",slug:"nikola-slepickova-kasalkova",fullName:"Nikola Slepičková Kasálková"},{id:"153983",title:"Dr.",name:"Zdeňka",middleName:null,surname:"Kolská",slug:"zdenka-kolska",fullName:"Zdeňka Kolská"}]},{id:"64392",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80542",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:3427,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Corrosion is a natural process driven by energy consideration. Inhibition is a preventive measure against corrosive attack on metallic materials. Corrosion inhibitors have been frequently studied, since they offer simple solution for protection of metals against corrosion in aqueous environment. Mineral acids like hydrochloric and sulfuric acids are most widely used in pickling baths to remove the metal oxides formed on the surface. The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only increase the complexity of the subject. Inhibitors are used in industrial and commercial processes to minimize both the metal loss and acid consumption.",book:{id:"7550",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors"},signatures:"Geethamani Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"253697",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethamani",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"geethamani-palanisamy",fullName:"Geethamani Palanisamy"}]},{id:"48822",doi:"10.5772/60808",title:"Wettability of Nanostructured Surfaces",slug:"wettability-of-nanostructured-surfaces",totalDownloads:3196,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"There are many studies in literature concerning contact angle measurements on different materials/substrates. It is documented that textiles can be coated with multifunctional materials in form of thin films or nanoparticles to acquire characteristics that can improve the protection and comfort of the wearer. The capacity of oxide nanostructures to inhibit fungal development and neutralize bacteria is a direct consequence of their wetting behavior [1–6]. Moreover, the radical modification of wetting behavior of nanostructures from hydrophilic to hydrophobic when changing the pulsed laser deposition (PLD) ambient will be thoroughly discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"L. Duta, A.C. Popescu, I. Zgura, N. Preda and I.N. Mihailescu",authors:[{id:"17636",title:"Prof.",name:"Ion N.",middleName:null,surname:"Mihailescu",slug:"ion-n.-mihailescu",fullName:"Ion N. 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Various types of special wetting surfaces can be constructed by adjusting the topographical structure and chemical composition. In this chapter, recent advance of the super-wetting/antiwetting surfaces with special solid/liquid adhesion has been reviewed, with a focus on the biomimetic fabrication and applications of TiO2-based surfaces. Special super-wettability examples include lotus-leaf-inspired surfaces with low adhesion, rose-petal-inspired surfaces with high adhesion, spider silk bio-inspired surfaces with directional adhesion, fish-scale-inspired underwater superoleophobic surface, and artificial surfaces with controllable or stimuli-responsive liquid adhesion. In addition, we will review some potential applications related to artificial antiwetting surface with controllable adhesion, e.g., self-cleaning, antifogging/anti-icing, micro-droplet manipulation, fog/water collection, water/oil separation, anti-bioadhesion, micro-template for patterning, and friction reduction. Finally, the difficulty and prospects of this renascent and rapidly developing field are also briefly proposed and discussed.",book:{id:"5319",slug:"wetting-and-wettability",title:"Wetting and Wettability",fullTitle:"Wetting and Wettability"},signatures:"Jian-Ying Huang and Yue-Kun Lai",authors:[{id:"175512",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuekun",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"yuekun-lai",fullName:"Yuekun Lai"}]},{id:"64392",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",totalDownloads:3422,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Corrosion is a natural process driven by energy consideration. Inhibition is a preventive measure against corrosive attack on metallic materials. Corrosion inhibitors have been frequently studied, since they offer simple solution for protection of metals against corrosion in aqueous environment. Mineral acids like hydrochloric and sulfuric acids are most widely used in pickling baths to remove the metal oxides formed on the surface. The multidisciplinary aspect of corrosion problems combined with the distributed responsibilities associated with such problems only increase the complexity of the subject. Inhibitors are used in industrial and commercial processes to minimize both the metal loss and acid consumption.",book:{id:"7550",slug:"corrosion-inhibitors",title:"Corrosion Inhibitors",fullTitle:"Corrosion Inhibitors"},signatures:"Geethamani Palanisamy",authors:[{id:"253697",title:"Dr.",name:"Geethamani",middleName:null,surname:"Palanisamy",slug:"geethamani-palanisamy",fullName:"Geethamani Palanisamy"}]},{id:"68236",title:"The Arrhenius Acid and Base Theory",slug:"the-arrhenius-acid-and-base-theory",totalDownloads:1498,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Swedish Svante Arrhenius, in 1884 proposed the concept of acid and base based on the theory of ionization. According to Arrhenius, the acids are the hydrogen-containing compounds which give H+ ions or protons on dissociation in water and bases are the hydroxide compounds which give OH− ions on dissociation in water. This concept is only applicable to those compounds which dissolved in aqueous solution (or you can say where water is the solvent). It covers many common acids, bases and their chemical reactions, but there are also other compounds that have the characteristics of acids and bases but they do not fit into Arrhenius concept.",book:{id:"10050",slug:"corrosion",title:"Corrosion",fullTitle:"Corrosion"},signatures:"Shikha Munjal and Aakash Singh",authors:[{id:"290524",title:"Ms.",name:"Shikha",middleName:null,surname:"Munjal",slug:"shikha-munjal",fullName:"Shikha Munjal"}]},{id:"71924",title:"Technological Background and Properties of Thin Film Semiconductors",slug:"technological-background-and-properties-of-thin-film-semiconductors",totalDownloads:945,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Especially with the development of nanotechnology and polymer science, interest in research and production of both efficient and lower-cost semiconductor thin film materials is increasing day by day. The use of nano-structured thin films for efficient use of solar cells in production of n-type semiconductor materials is one of the most important sources of energy and new-generation energy. Considering the indicated trends and energy requirements, it has been important to transfer this technology in detail regarding the surface technologies related to the semiconductor materials produced with thin film technologies instead of bulk materials. With this aim, this book chapter “Technological Background and Properties of Thin Film Semiconductors” includes a brief story about semiconductors, band gap theory, thin film applications, and besides traditional thin film processing methods finally a new technology called aerosol deposition technique which allows room temperature processing of several materials for semiconductor applications, respectively. It is thought that it will make important contributions to the relevant field and bring a new perspective and direct scientific research in “process-structure–property-performance” relation.",book:{id:"10061",slug:"21st-century-surface-science-a-handbook",title:"21st Century Surface Science",fullTitle:"21st Century Surface Science - a Handbook"},signatures:"Orkut Sancakoglu",authors:[{id:"177188",title:"Dr.",name:"Orkut",middleName:null,surname:"Sancakoğlu",slug:"orkut-sancakoglu",fullName:"Orkut Sancakoğlu"}]},{id:"60426",title:"Applications of Viscoelastic Fluids Involving Hydrodynamic Stability and Heat Transfer",slug:"applications-of-viscoelastic-fluids-involving-hydrodynamic-stability-and-heat-transfer",totalDownloads:1395,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Rayleigh and Marangoni convection and rheology are linked in the thermal convection of viscoelastic fluids to some recent technological applications. Such technology developments as the ones presented here undoubtedly shall be based on interdisciplinary projects involving not only rheology or fluid mechanics but several other disciplines. Three practical applications which use Rayleigh or Marangoni convection in their working principle are presented along with some technical details. This contribution focus mainly on the physical mechanism and the involved hydrodynamics of some lab and industrial applications. 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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. 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He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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