Division of the hormones based on their structural properties [1, 9-12].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10076",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Quantum Mechanics",title:"Quantum Mechanics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Quantum mechanics touches all areas of physics, chemistry, life sciences, and engineering. It has emerged as a tool for researching and developing new technology that has had a deep impact on modern life. An essential ingredient of quantum mechanics is the role of the observer and the duality between particle and wave properties of matter at very small scales. This book covers such topics as complex space forms of quantum mechanics, entropy in quantum mechanics, and equations of relativistic quantum mechanics as well as applications of quantum mechanics to more complicated situations. Written by international experts, the book illustrates the wide scope, influence, and applicability of quantum mechanics.",isbn:"978-1-83968-045-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-044-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-046-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87908",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"quantum-mechanics",numberOfPages:274,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"78f2b316d6bb97464dbbf9b683164aff",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken",publishedDate:"October 14th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10076.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7069,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:5,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 11th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92883/images/system/92883.jpg",biography:"Professor Paul Bracken is currently a Professor in the Department of Mathematics, at the University of Texas RGV in Edinburg, TX. He obtained his BSc degree from the University of Toronto and holds a Ph.D. from the University of Waterloo in Canada. His research interests include mathematical problems from the area of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, differential geometry, a study of partial differential equations as well as their overlap with other problems in physics. He has published more than 180 papers in journals and books and has given many talks at different levels over the years. This is the seventh volume he has worked on with IntechOpen publishers.",institutionString:"The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"230",title:"Quantum Mechanics",slug:"quantum-mechanics"}],chapters:[{id:"71547",title:"Dipolar Interactions: Hyperfine Structure Interaction and Fine Structure Interactions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91791",slug:"dipolar-interactions-hyperfine-structure-interaction-and-fine-structure-interactions",totalDownloads:671,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The interaction between the nuclear spin and the electron spin creates a hyperfine structure. Hyperfine structure interaction occurs in paramagnetic structures with unpaired electrons. Therefore, hyperfine structure interaction is the most important of the fundamental parameters investigated by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. For EPR spectroscopy the two effective Hamiltonian terms are the hyperfine structure interaction and the electronic Zeeman interaction. The hyperfine structure interaction has two types as isotropic and anisotropic hyperfine structure interactions. The zero-field splitting term (electronic quadrupole fine structure), the nuclear Zeeman term, and the nuclear quadrupole interaction term are among the Hamiltonian terms used in EPR. However, their effects are not as much as the term of the hyperfine structure interaction. The zero-field splitting term and the nuclear quadrupole interaction term are the fine structure terms. The interaction of two electron spins create a zero-field splitting, the interaction between the two nucleus spins form the nuclear quadrupole interaction. Hyperfine structure interaction, zero-field interaction, and nuclear quadrupole interaction are subclasses of dipolar interaction. Interaction tensors are available for all three interactions.",signatures:"Betül Çalişkan and Ali Cengiz Çalişkan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71547",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71547",authors:[{id:"199110",title:"Dr.",name:"Betül",surname:"Çalişkan",slug:"betul-caliskan",fullName:"Betül Çalişkan"},{id:"208732",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Cengiz",surname:"Çalişkan",slug:"ali-cengiz-caliskan",fullName:"Ali Cengiz Çalişkan"}],corrections:null},{id:"73016",title:"Exactly Solvable Problems in Quantum Mechanics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93317",slug:"exactly-solvable-problems-in-quantum-mechanics",totalDownloads:738,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Some of the problems in quantum mechanics can be exactly solved without any approximation. Some of the exactly solvable problems are discussed in this chapter. Broadly there are two main approaches to solve such problems. They are (i) based on the solution of the Schrödinger equation and (ii) based on operators. The normalized eigen function, eigen values, and the physical significance of some of the selected problems are discussed.",signatures:"Lourdhu Bruno Chandrasekar, Kanagasabapathi Gnanasekar and Marimuthu Karunakaran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73016",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73016",authors:[{id:"239576",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",surname:"Karunakaran",slug:"marimuthu-karunakaran",fullName:"Marimuthu Karunakaran"},{id:"252354",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno Chandrasekar",surname:"L",slug:"bruno-chandrasekar-l",fullName:"Bruno Chandrasekar L"},{id:"325784",title:"Dr.",name:"K",surname:"Gnanasekar",slug:"k-gnanasekar",fullName:"K Gnanasekar"}],corrections:null},{id:"71655",title:"Transitions between Stationary States and the Measurement Problem",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91801",slug:"transitions-between-stationary-states-and-the-measurement-problem",totalDownloads:677,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Accounting for projections during measurements is the traditional measurement problem. Transitions between stationary states require measurements, posing a different measurement problem. Both are compared. Several interpretations of quantum mechanics attempting to solve the traditional measurement problem are summarized. A highly desirable aim is to account for both problems. Not every interpretation of quantum mechanics achieves this goal.",signatures:"María Esther Burgos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71655",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71655",authors:[{id:"96880",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Esther",surname:"Burgos",slug:"maria-esther-burgos",fullName:"Maria Esther Burgos"}],corrections:null},{id:"71964",title:"Uncertainty Relations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92137",slug:"uncertainty-relations",totalDownloads:432,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Uncertainty relations are inequalities representing the impossibility of simultaneous measurement in quantum mechanics. The most well-known uncertainty relations were presented by Heisenberg and Schrödinger. In this chapter, we generalize and extend them to produce several types of uncertainty relations.",signatures:"Kenjiro Yanagi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71964",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71964",authors:[{id:"315022",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenjiro",surname:"Yanagi",slug:"kenjiro-yanagi",fullName:"Kenjiro Yanagi"}],corrections:null},{id:"71370",title:"Complex Space Nature of the Quantum World: Return Causality to Quantum Mechanics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91669",slug:"complex-space-nature-of-the-quantum-world-return-causality-to-quantum-mechanics",totalDownloads:1031,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"As one chapter, we about to begin a journey with exploring the limitation of the causality that rules the whole universe. Quantum mechanics is established on the basis of the phenomenology and the lack of ontology builds the wall which blocks the causality. It is very difficult to reconcile the probability and the causality in such a platform. A higher dimension consideration may leverage this dilemma by expanding the vision. Information may seem to be discontinuous or even so weird if only be viewed from a part of the degree of freedoms. Based on this premise, we reexamined the microscopic world within a complex space. Significantly, some knowledge beyond the empirical findings is revealed and paves the way for a more detailed exploration of the quantum world. The random quantum motion is essential for atomic particle and exhibits a wave-related property with a bulk of trajectories. It seems we can break down the wall which forbids the causality entering the quantum kingdom and connect quantum mechanics with classical mechanics. The causality returns to the quantum world without any assumption in terms of the quantum random motion under the optimal guidance law in complex space. Thereby hangs a tale, we briefly introduce this new formulation from the fundamental theoretical description to the practical technology applications.",signatures:"Ciann-Dong Yang and Shiang-Yi Han",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71370",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71370",authors:[{id:"158670",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciann-Dong",surname:"Yang",slug:"ciann-dong-yang",fullName:"Ciann-Dong Yang"},{id:"315900",title:"Dr.",name:"Shiang-Yi",surname:"Han",slug:"shiang-yi-han",fullName:"Shiang-Yi Han"}],corrections:null},{id:"71814",title:"Entropy in Quantum Mechanics and Applications to Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91831",slug:"entropy-in-quantum-mechanics-and-applications-to-nonequilibrium-thermodynamics",totalDownloads:682,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Classical formulations of the entropy concept and its interpretation are introduced. This is to motivate the definition of the quantum von Neumann entropy. Some general properties of quantum entropy are developed, such as the quantum entropy which always increases. The current state of the area that includes thermodynamics and quantum mechanics is reviewed. This interaction shall be critical for the development of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. The Jarzynski inequality is developed in two separate but related ways. The nature of irreversibility and its role in physics are considered as well. Finally, a specific quantum spin model is defined and is studied in such a way as to illustrate many of the subjects that have appeared.",signatures:"Paul Bracken",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71814",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71814",authors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],corrections:null},{id:"73269",title:"Equations of Relativistic and Quantum Mechanics (without Spin)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93336",slug:"equations-of-relativistic-and-quantum-mechanics-without-spin-",totalDownloads:464,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A relativistically invariant representation of the generalized momentum of a particle in an external field is proposed. In this representation, the dependence of the potentials of the interaction of the particle with the field on the particle velocity is taken into account. The exact correspondence of the expressions of energy and potential energy for the classical Hamiltonian is established, which makes identical the solutions to the problems of mechanics with relativistic and nonrelativistic approaches. The invariance of the proposed representation of the generalized momentum makes it possible to equivalently describe a physical system in geometrically conjugate spaces of kinematic and dynamic variables. Relativistic invariant equations are proposed for the action function and the wave function based on the invariance of the representation of the generalized momentum. The equations have solutions for any values of the constant interaction of the particle with the field, for example, in the problem of a hydrogen-like atom, when the atomic number of the nucleus is Z > 137. Based on the parametric representation of the action, the expression for the canonical Lagrangian, the equations of motion, and the expression for the force acting on the charge are derived when moving in an external electromagnetic field. The Dirac equation with the correct inclusion of the interaction for a particle in an external field is presented. In this form, the solutions of the equations are not limited by the value of the interaction constant. The solutions of the problem of charge motion in a constant electric field, the problems for a particle in a potential well and the passage of a particle through a potential barrier, the problems of motion in an exponential field (Morse), and also the problems of a hydrogen atom are given.",signatures:"Vahram Mekhitarian",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73269",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73269",authors:[{id:"315832",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahram",surname:"Mekhitarian",slug:"vahram-mekhitarian",fullName:"Vahram Mekhitarian"}],corrections:null},{id:"73120",title:"Nature of Temporal (t > 0) Quantum Theory: Part I",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93561",slug:"nature-of-temporal-t-0-quantum-theory-part-i",totalDownloads:463,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It is our science governs the mathematics and it is “not” our mathematics governs our science. One of the very important aspects is that every science has to comply with the boundary condition of our universe; dimensionality and temporal (t > 0) or causality. In which I have shown that time is real and it is not an illusion, since every aspect within our universe is coexisted with time. Since our universe is a temporal (t > 0) subspace, everything within our universe is temporal. Science is mathematics but mathematics is not science, we have shown that any analytic solution has to be temporal (t > 0); otherwise, it cannot be implemented within our universe. Which includes all the laws, principles, and theories have to be temporal? Uncertainty principle is one of the most fascinated principles in quantum mechanics, yet Heisenberg principle was based on diffraction limited observation, it is not due to the nature of time. We have shown it is the temporal (t > 0) uncertainty that changes with time. We have introduced a certainty principle as in contrast with uncertainty principle. Of which certainty subspace can be created within our universe; which can be exploited for application. Overall of this chapter is to show that; it is not how rigorous the mathematics is, it is the physical realizable paradigm that we embrace.",signatures:"Francis T.S. Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73120",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73120",authors:[{id:"300154",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Francis",surname:"T.S. Yu",slug:"francis-t.s.-yu",fullName:"Francis T.S. Yu"}],corrections:null},{id:"73158",title:"Nature of Temporal (t > 0) Quantum Theory: Part II",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93562",slug:"nature-of-temporal-t-0-quantum-theory-part-ii",totalDownloads:454,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since Schrödinger’s quantum mechanics developed from Hamiltonian, I will show that his quantum machine is a timeless (t = 0) mechanics, which includes his fundamental principle of superposition. Since one of the most controversial paradoxes in science must be Schrödinger’s cat. We will show that the myth of his hypothesis is “not” a physical realizable postulation. The most important aspect in quantum theory must be the probabilistic implication of science, a set of most elegant and simple laws and principles, which will be discussed. Since information and entropy have a profound connection, we will show that information is one of very important science in quantum theory, for which several significant aspects of information transmission will be stressed. Nevertheless, the myth of quantum theory turns out to be not Schrodinger’s cat but the nature of a section of time Δt. Since time is a quantity that we cannot physically manipulate, we could change the section Δt but not the speed of time. Although we can squeeze a section of Δt, but we cannot squeeze Δt to zero. And this is the ultimate quantum limit of “instantaneous” response we can never be able to obtain. Since time traveling is one of the very interesting topics in science, I will show that time traveling is impossible even at the speed of light. Nevertheless, I will show quantum mechanics is a temporal (t > 0) physical realizable mechanics, and it should “not” be as virtual and timeless (t = 0) as mathematic does.",signatures:"Francis T.S. Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73158",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73158",authors:[{id:"300154",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Francis",surname:"T.S. Yu",slug:"francis-t.s.-yu",fullName:"Francis T.S. Yu"}],corrections:null},{id:"72922",title:"Analysis of Quantum Confinement and Carrier Transport of Nano-Transistor in Quantum Mechanics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93258",slug:"analysis-of-quantum-confinement-and-carrier-transport-of-nano-transistor-in-quantum-mechanics",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quantum mechanics is the branch of physics that consists of laws explaining the physical properties of the nature of nano-particles and their characteristics on an atomic scale. The study of nano-particles significantly challenges our current perception of the universe and the fabric of reality itself. Quantum particles have both wave-like and particle-like characteristics. The fundamental equation that predicts the physical behaviour of a quantum system is the Schrödinger equation and the Poisson equation using Monte Carlo simulations. This gives rise to the wavefunction, electron and hole densities, energy levels and band structure of the system which contains all the measurable information about the particle such as time and position, where position is represented using probabilities. This is because particles do not have one definite position during the time before measurement. In fact, they exist as a fuzzy distribution of all possible states where the likelihood of finding the particle in some states is more probable than others. This is known as being in a superposition of all states. When the quantum system is observed, however, its wavefunction collapses so it consequently falls into one specific position. Moreover, in this chapter we present the simulation results of conduction band profile, electron density (classical and quantum mechanical), eigenstate and eigenfunctions for Si, SOI and III-V MOSFET structures at bias voltage 1.0 V using 1D Poisson-Schrödinger solver.",signatures:"Aynul Islam and Anika Tasnim Aynul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72922",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72922",authors:[{id:"316001",title:"Dr.",name:"Islam",surname:"Aynul",slug:"islam-aynul",fullName:"Islam Aynul"},{id:"325161",title:"BSc.",name:"Anika Tasnim",surname:"Aynul",slug:"anika-tasnim-aynul",fullName:"Anika Tasnim Aynul"}],corrections:null},{id:"72779",title:"Development of Supersymmetric Background/Local Gauge Field Theory of Nucleon Based on Coupling of Electromagnetism with the Nucleon’s Background Space-Time Frame: The Physics beyond the Standard Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93087",slug:"development-of-supersymmetric-background-local-gauge-field-theory-of-nucleon-based-on-coupling-of-el",totalDownloads:387,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A new reformulated gauge field theory comprising discrete super symmetry matrixes U (1) = SU (2) + SO (3) has been developed which explains why all the elementary particles appear in three families with very similar structures. The three families’ performance is the product of discrete conservation of energy—momentum eigenvalue Es = 1/2Ea within space–time frame which appears to be the genetic code of new physics. A new supersymmetric gauge field theory of photon was developed, which describes fundamental conservation laws through invariant translation of the discrete symmetries of nature. A new gauge theory describes all the fundamental laws through isomorphism of the discrete space–time SU (2) frame and energy-momentum SO (3) symmetry group. Coupling of space and time phases of energy conservation generates the background gauge field, which in conjugation with the local gauge field mediates discrete performance of three fractional proton-neutron families of baryon structure. The presented theory requires to have a new look to our understanding of symmetry and conservation laws.",signatures:"Aghaddin Mamedov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72779",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72779",authors:[{id:"219617",title:"Dr.",name:"Aghaddin",surname:"Mamedov",slug:"aghaddin-mamedov",fullName:"Aghaddin Mamedov"}],corrections:null},{id:"72806",title:"Realization of the Quantum Confinement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93112",slug:"realization-of-the-quantum-confinement",totalDownloads:424,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter the three main technologies are described, which allows for the implementation of quantum structures (QS)—quantum wells (QWs) and hetero-structures. These are liquid phase epitaxy (LPE), molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), and metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). The most important properties, including the quantum Hall effect (QHE), of two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG) arising in a heterojunction on the boundary of two phases—the so-called interface—are also presented. The 2DEG properties in different kinds of QW are described. Double quantum wells as interesting example of quantum structure is considered also including such a spectacular quantum-mechanical phenomenon as splitting into symmetrical and anti-symmetrical states.",signatures:"Eugen M. 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The development of new technologies, progressive urbanization, increasing consumerism, and industrial boom in developing countries has led to elevated pollution of the environment. The broad spectrum of pollutants produced and released to the environment has increased in the last few decades, including the agricultural, industrial, pharmaceutical, and plastic industries. These chemicals can be found in the individual elements of the environment, both living (biota) and non-living. Chemists very often pay attention only to chemical compounds, which are treated as substances foreign to the average chemical composition of individual elements of the environment or occur at levels higher than the so-called mean composition. However, attention should also be paid to legal aspects connected with the presence of specific pollutants in the individual elements of the environment, which are often defined as xenobiotics. Environmental research includes a broader spectrum of chemical individuals – xenobiotics – that need to be detected, identified, and determined. They can be divided into [1]:
compounds that are already subjected to legal regulations because their physicochemical properties, as well as immediate and distant toxic effects (as a result of ecotoxicological tests), and appropriate methodologies are already available and it is possible to obtain reliable information about changes in the content of these analytes in various types of environmental samples. Thus, it was possible to propose appropriate standards defining the highest concentration of a given xenobiotic in a defined environmental element. These normative values are called the
compounds that are not subjected to legal regulations yet. This group includes xenobiotics detected in the environment because new analytical methodologies were introduced into the analytical practice, which make it possible to detect and determine analytes occurring in tested environmental samples at very low levels (so-called micropollutants). It is said that the determined compounds have been so far called
The examples of the EDC groups, whose presence in the environment are both regulated and non-regulated by legal aspects, are presented in the Figure 1.
Groups of EDC pollutants subjected/not-subjected to legal regulations.
To understand endocrine disruption, the basic features and mechanisms of the endocrine system must be explained. The endocrine system consists of a number of ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the circulatory system (to the blood) in order to regulate various functions of the body. In turn, a hormone is called a special signaling molecule that is produced by an endocrine gland. Hormone molecules travel through the blood to target distant cells and tissues to regulate physiological functions and behavior [6].
The endocrine system is made up by the following glands:
the pituitary gland at the base of the brain;
the thyroid gland in the neck;
the adrenal glands in the abdomen next to the kidneys;
the gonads (ovaries and testes) and certain parts of the pancreas;
the parathyroid gland;
the thymus.
Next to these specialized endocrine glands, many other organs and tissues have secondary endocrine functions and secrete hormones (e.g. heart, adipose tissue, muscle, liver, kidneys) [7, 8]. Just to make a story short, every system of internal secretion glands, hormones, and final organs sensitive to given stressors can be named the hormonal system. With such systems, the organism can reach and hold the homeostasis.
Hormones produce effects by acting on specialized proteins called receptors that attract and bind to specific hormones. Hormone receptors provide specificity to hormone actions, both in terms of the time and the place of hormone action. A receptor proteins superfamily consists of glucocorticoid, mineralocorticoid, androgen, estrogen, progesterone, retinoic acid, vitamin D, and thyroid receptors. Binding with ligand (antagonist or agonist)
The target of the hormonal system is the activity of estrogenic, androgenic, thyroid, and glucocorticoids hormones. Classification of the hormones based on their structural properties is presented in Table 1. The modes of action of specific signaling systems are summarized in Figure 2 [1].
EDCs are chemicals responsible for the occurrence of disturbances in the hormonal balance of the organism. This group includes both egzogenic and endogenic substances or their mixtures that impact the function of the natural hormones in the organism [13]. Taking into account complexity and importance of hormones played in organisms functioning, it must be stated that endocrine chemicals have versatile and almost unlimited cells at low concentration levels. EDCs, also called xenohormones, disturb natural hormonal balance by modifying the functioning of the hormonal system in numerous ways [13-15]. Below are specified selected processes through which EDCs may influence human beings [8, 13, 16]:
modifying hormones synthesis pathways;
hormones excretion mechanisms;
cell/tissue transport of hormones in the organism;
binding to receptors;
hormones degradation pathways.
EDCs have also imprinted in the specific mechanisms of modifying organisms functioning, just to mention [15]:
mimicking the endogenous hormones’ functioning;
antagonism with synthesis of natural hormones or their metabolism;
changes of level or activity of the hormonal receptors.
EDCs can be assigned to one of two groups [17]:
natural endocrine chemicals;
chemicals emitted to the environment as a result of anthropopression.
Mode of hormonal action in target receptor.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Steroid hormones | \n\t\t\tThey have lipophilic characteristics and contain fragments similar to cholesterol. These belong mostly in sex hormones such as estrogens, androgens, and progesterone. Both males and females produce all these hormones, but in different quantities. | \n\t\t
Amino acids’ derivatives | \n\t\t\tThey have hydrophilic characteristics and are stored in endocrine cells until the moment it needs to be released. They connect with specific surface receptors and activate secondary signaling factors. Epinephrine is an example of such hormone. | \n\t\t
Polypeptides | \n\t\t\tThey contain amino acids varying from few to over 200 residues. These are water-soluble hormones such as insulin, growth hormone, prolactine and are stored in endocrine cells until they are needed, e.g., during metabolic regulations, lactation, growth, breeding. | \n\t\t
The first evidences of endocrine disruption in nature have been observed since the 1950s, but the source of the occuring phenomena was not known yet. Figure 3 shows the most important milestones in the development of the knowledge about endocrine disrupting micropollutants.
Currently, the studies on EDCs are spreading in all branches of science including analytical chemistry, toxicology, chemometrics (data treatment), modeling, chemical processing,
Selected milestones on Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals analysis and environmental issues.
Since the 1960s, the huge increase of the number of such scientific papers has been observed. The rate of this increase is presented in Figure 4.
Increasing number of manuscripts on EDC over the years.
There is still not enough knowledge about mechanisms, modes of action and the effects that endocrine disrupting compounds and their mixtures, which are present in the environment, have on single organisms and on whole ecosystems. That is the reason why researches in this field of expertise are being held in numerous scientific centers and laboratories all over the world. In Table 2, the above mentioned scientific units are presented. The studies conducted are aimed at:
developing new analytical methodologies and their validation;
the use of various procedures to obtain information about the content of various groups of xenobiotics in samples collected from various elements of non-living environment and biota samples.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Catalan Institute of Water Research (ICRA) Girona, Spain | \n\t\t
University of Saskatchewan, Department of Veterinary Biomedical Sciences and Toxicology Centre, Saskatoon, Canada | \n\t\t
Gdańsk University of Technology, Department of Analytical Chemistry | \n\t\t
University of Arizona, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Tuscon United States | \n\t\t
University of Exert, Bioscences Exeter, United Kingdom | \n\t\t
Carleton University, Department of Chemistry, Ottawa, Canada | \n\t\t
Institute of Molecular Science, Division of Molecular Environmental Endocrinology, Japan | \n\t\t
Universiteit Antwerpen, Toxicological Center, Antwerpen, Belgium | \n\t\t
Information on selected scientific units conducting research on EDCs.
Until now, there is no clear opinion in the scientific circles concerning the harmful effects of EDCs. However, it is hard to remain calm as the review of literature concerning the issues connected to environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology shows an increasing number of articles showing a relation between the presence of xenobiotics in the environment and the annually increasing rate of incidence of various kinds of neoplasms, distorted reproductive behavior, and an increasing level of feminization of specific populations at different levels of the food chain.
Even though the majority of those studies has been conducted on animals, there is evidence confirming the negative effect of even small doses of those substances have on humans [31]. The EDC group compounds are characterized by a similar structural construction to natural estrogens. Although the activity of many xenoestrogens has been estimated to be lower than the activity of the feminine sex hormone estradiol, numerous
In addition, as the latest reports from the scientific world indicate, many of these compounds may have an influence on organisms not only through receptors. The epigenetic tests conducted have confirmed that these compounds influence the process of methylation of histone proteins, influencing alterations in the molecule expression. There are many concerns regarding the fact that these contaminations are capable of crossing the placenta barrier and the blood-brain barrier, and thus, they may have a negative influence on organisms since the early stages of their lives. This fact has been confirmed in many epidemiological studies and experiments, what indicates to a strong correlation between an exposure of the mother to the activity of xenobiotics and the occurrence of neurodevelopmental disorders of her offspring, such as ADHD, autism, or alterations in behavioural development as well as impairment of cognitive functions [33]. There are many indications that show that the compound may be also responsible for the initiation of carcinogenesis, that is why studies conducted in numerous research centers are aimed at finding the relations between the presence of xenoestrogens in the human body and the frequency of incidence of neoplasms of e.g., the testicles, prostate, uterus, ovaries, and breasts [34].
Humans may be exposed to the harmful effects of the EDCs
Routes of human exposure to EDCs.
Most data about the adverse effects of endocrine disruptors present in the environment on wild aimals come from Europe and North America. Observed changes vary from very subtle, such as small changes in the physiology and sexual behavior of some species to permanently altered sexual diferentiation. Most affected are aquatic species located on the top of the food chain, but some effects have also been observed in terrestial species. Table 3 provides information concerning some health effects induced by EDCs on wildlife [5].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tEndometriosis | \n\t\t\tPCBs, phtalates, dioxins | \n\t\t
Fibroids | \n\t\t\tPhtalates | \n\t\t|
Interferences in endocrine signallig of pubertal timing, fecundity, fertility and menopause | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t | |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tTesticular cancer | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Testis germ cel | \n\t\t||
Genital abnormalities in babies | \n\t\t||
Cryptorchidism | \n\t\t\tDiethylstilbestrol, pesticides | \n\t\t|
Reduced semen quality | \n\t\t\tdioxins | \n\t\t|
Hypospadias | \n\t\t\tEndocrine disrupting pesticides | \n\t\t|
Feminization | \n\t\t\tEstrogenic chemicals | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tFewer male offsprings in human | \n\t\t\tDioxin, 1,2-dibromo-3-chloropropane | \n\t\t
EDC-related sex ratio imbalances in wild fish and molluscs | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t | |
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tInterferences in thyroid function, including pregnant women; reduced thyroid hormones levels in blood serum in rodents | \n\t\t\tPCBs, BPA, phtalates, perfluorinated chemicals | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tBreast, endometrial, ovarian, proostate cancers | \n\t\t\tXenoestrogens (PCBs, pesticides, dioxins) | \n\t\t
Thyroid cancer | \n\t\t\tPesticides,2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tAdrenocortical hyperplasia (Baltic Sea seals) | \n\t\t\tMixture of DDT and PCBs and their methyl sulfone metabolites | \n\t\t
Interfering development of the fetal adrenal cortex | \n\t\t\tPCBs | \n\t\t|
Induction delayed effects in the response to stress in animal | \n\t\t\tPCBs | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tBone disorders, decreased bone mineral density | \n\t\t\tPCBs, DDT, hexachlorobenzene | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tObesity, diabetes | \n\t\t\tBPA, PCBs, dioxins | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tProstate inflammation | \n\t\t\tXenoestrogens | \n\t\t
Allergic sensitization | \n\t\t\tBPA | \n\t\t|
Lymphoma and leukemia | \n\t\t\t- | \n\t\t|
Autoimmune thyroid disease | \n\t\t\tPAHs, PCBs | \n\t\t|
Endometriosis and allergies | \n\t\t\tPhtalates, dioxins | \n\t\t|
Asthma | \n\t\t\tPhtalates | \n\t\t
Summarized information about the adverese health effects of EDCs on wildlife [7].
There is still not enough knowledge on endocrine effects on invertebrates; however, these organisms seem to be good intermediates in modeling hormonal potential toward higher organisms. There are some historical reports in which females have exhibited signs of masculinization, apparently in association with exposure to EDCs. Exposure of marine gastropods to Tributyltin (TBT), a biocide used in anti-fouling paints, provides the clearest example in invertebrates of an endocrine-mediated adverse effect caused by exposure to an environmental contaminant. Masculinization of marine gastropods exposed to TBT has resulted in worldwide declines of gastropods. The endocrine mechanism probably involves elevated androgen levels possibly through altered aromatase activity. Tributyltin-induced imposex in prosobranch female snails is a condition in which the penis “imposes” on the normal female reproductive anatomy. The associated development of the sperm duct can, in extreme cases, lead to the blockage of the oviduct of the female, resulting in sterility and population declines [1, 5, 7].
Fate and transport data interpretation is a very challenging task to perform. Although the amount of information is sufficient, it is crucial to identify critical processes and transport pathways for prioritization and screening purposes.
Analyzing the ways the endocrine active compunds enter the enviornment, it can be distinguished as an nonpoint or a one point source of pollution. Areas affected with pollution are mainly stream downs from cornfields and farm areas where different types of plant protetction products and fertilizers are used, which can contain significant quantities of pharmaceutical residue. Smaller quantities can reach the ecosystems by precipitation.
There\'s no doubt that the main source of xenoestrogene emissions to the enviornment are one point pollutuion sources. A significant part of the EDC group compounds is reaching water ecosystems with sewage.
And with that occuring, surface waters and underground waters have higher levels of concentration of these substances than in air or soil.
Residue of pharamceuticals and other substances that are biologically active coming from sources such as houses, hospitals, and production plants head to the sewer plants where they undergo different processes of water purification. Unfortunately, due to their physicochemical properties, they are resistant to biodegradation processes. This results in significant quantities of residue are not eliminated and get across to water ecosystems or with sewage sludge to the soil, groundwaters, and drinking waters. The ineptitude of widely used water purification systems has caused all the elements of the environment to be polluted by endocrine compounds. Xenobiotics, after reaching water ecosystems, undergo many different changes in chemical processes in living organisms as well as the abiotic part of the environment.
There are three environmental processes that affect the environmental fate of EDCs (as well as other pollutants). They are defined as:
Persistence – the tendency of a chemical substance or its degradation products to survive in the environment without being transformed into other forms, (measure: hydrolysis half-life, aerobic and anaerobic soil metabolism, and photolysis).
Mobility – the tendency of a chemical substance to move within environmental media or between media (measure: volatility, Henry’s law constant, Kd, Koc, groundwater ubiquitous score, aged soil column leaching, and terrestrial field dissipation studies).
Bioaccumulation – the capacity of a chemical to accumulate (be stored in tissue) in an organism as a result of uptake from all environmental sources (measure: octanol water partition coefficient, BCF, and animal metabolism).
The environmental fate of endocrine disruptors is shown schematically in Figure 6 [35].
Compounds interfereing in the endocrine balance can undergo biodegradation, photodegradation, sedimantation, elimination hydrolisys, or sorption on the matter particules suspended in water. The level on which they will be adsorbed depends on the physical and chemical properties and affinity to the particles present in water [35, 36].
Compounds included in this group, just like other types of xenobiotics, may undergo the bioaccumulation process in tissues and organs of organisms at higher trophic levels. This thesis is confirmed by data on toxaphene presented in Table 4. Toxaphene is an insecticide contained in over 670 products. Toxaphene is characterised by toxicity, stability, and ability to bioaccumulate in animals and to travel long distances. Toxaphene is poorly soluble in water, so it can be found in the air, soil, or sediments on the bottom of lakes and streams [37]. In the 1970s, toxaphene was one of the most commonly used pesticides in the world [38, 39].
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Air | \n\t\t\t0.0007 | \n\t\t
Snow | \n\t\t\t0.0009–0.002 | \n\t\t
Seawater | \n\t\t\t0.0003 | \n\t\t
Zooplankton | \n\t\t\t3.6 | \n\t\t
Arctic cod | \n\t\t\t14–46 | \n\t\t
Arctic char | \n\t\t\t44–157 | \n\t\t
Ringed seal oil | \n\t\t\t130–480 | \n\t\t
European sturgeon oil | \n\t\t\t1380–5780 | \n\t\t
Narwhal oil | \n\t\t\t2240–9160 | \n\t\t
Toxaphene concentrations in samples from various parts of non-living environment and biota accumulated in the Arctic areas of Canada [41].
Toxaphene was used for fighting pest insects feeding on cotton, grain, fruits, nuts, and vegetables. In the 1970s, fishing and hunting agencies also used toxaphene for killing fish species that were considered undesirable. It was also used for fighting ticks and other acari in domestic animals and poultry. Toxaphene is currently banned in the USA and in 57 other countries worldwide, while in other 12 countries, its use is strictly restricted. At the beginning of the 1990s, toxaphene was produced in Africa and Latin America; it is estimated that it is used in the largest quantities in Africa [37, 40].
Schematic presentation of the environmental fate of endocrine disruptors.
From a historical point of view, the instrumental techniques were first tools to determine trace organic pollutant concentration levels in the environment. With the run of time albo biological methods were introduced into the scientific routine to obtain more comprehensive and reliable information of the pollution levels of given environemtnal compartments. In Figure 7, (A and B below), basic instrumental and biological data together with their short description to present the development of tools in the field of endocrine potency determination with biological methods are presented.
(a) Classification of analytical approaches used in order to detect and determine EDCs in the environmental samples and the endocrine potency of different samples. (b) Description of selected bioassays utilized for endocrine potency determination.4.1 BIOLOGICAL METHODS
Cellular biotests are good alternative to traditional analytical procedures, as well as to immunotechniques and methods utilizing living organisms as biomarkers of exposure to EDC [91]. In these types of biotests, the yeast or human cells (e.g. cells of breast or kidney cancer) are used to determine disturbances in the run of hormonal signaling [92]. The cells can be used in unchanged form or altered with proper bioengineering methods to obtain the proper response of cells to the presence of specific chemicals belonging to EDC [93]. For example, the estrogen gene can be introduced to the yeast cells from human, fish, or other species genome. In such case, the term of estrogen equivalent concentration (EEC) finds its application in the form of the formula [42]:
where:
Numerical values of this factor determines in the relative way the endocrine character of given the chemical in relation to the endocrine potency of the reference chemical, most often estradiol or 17β-estradiol.
In this way, the endocrine potency can be described using the equation [32]:
In Table 5, there are given numerical values of EFF of selected chemicals belonging to EDC.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Estradiol | \n\t\t\t | \n
17α-etynyloestradiol | \n\t | \n
Estrone | \n\t | \n
Bisphenol A | \n\t | \n
Nonylophenol | \n\t|
Octylophenol | \n\t | \n
Numerical values of EFF of selected chemicals belonging to EDC
In Table 6, the data concerning the analysis of various samples with bioassays is given.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
1 | \n\t\tBisphenol A | \n\t\tBottled water samples | \n\t\t\n\t\t | ELISA | \n\t\t0.05 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.01–1.33 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[59] | \n\t
2 | \n\t\tEstradiol and estrone | \n\t\tRiver water | \n\t\tExtraction on C-18 columns | \n\t\tRadioimmunoassay | \n\t\t0.3 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t1.2–9.4 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[60] | \n\t
Testosterone | \n\t\t0.3 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t>0.4 ng/dm3\n | \n|||||
Estriol | \n\tELISA | \n\t0.1 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t>0.5 ng/dm3\n | \n||||
Ethinylestradiol | \n\t0.1 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t>0.2 ng/dm3\n | \n|||||
3 | \n\tAlkylphenol ethoxylates | \n\tWastewater | \n\tFiltration with a glass-fiber filter, SPE (HLB) | \n\tLC-MS/MS ELISA | \n\t20–1000 | \n\t0.724–78.15 | \n\t[61] | \n
Bisphenol A | \n\t5–500 | \n\t0.08–1.55 | \n|||||
17 | \n\t0.05–1 | \n\t0.57–1.73 | \n|||||
17α-ethinylestradiol | \n\t0.12 ng/cm3\n\t | \n\t0.5–1000 ng/cm3\n\t | \n|||||
1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethylcyclopenta[ | \n\t1.3 ng/g | \n\t<LOQ–62.1 ng/g | \n|||||
Musk xylene | \n\t0.5 ng/g | \n\t<LOQ–13.0 ng/g | \n|||||
Norethindrone | \n\t15 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t- \n\t | \n|||||
Levonorgestrel | \n\t15 ng/dm3\n\t | \n||||||
Nonylphenol | \n\t1.3 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t<LOD–118 ng/dm3\n\t | \n|||||
4 | \n\tTestosterone | \n\tRiver water | \n\tSPE (C18) | \n\tYES | \n\t- | \n\t0.8–35.5 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t[62] | \n
Estrone, estradiol | \n\tRadioimmunoassay | \n\t- | \n\t3.2–4.3 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t\n | |||
Estradiol | \n\tELISA | \n\t- | \n\t0.7–3.4 ng/dm3\n\t | \n||||
Ethinylestradiol | \n\t- | \n\t1.4–19.4 ng/dm3\n\t | \n|||||
5 | \n\tEstrone | \n\tSewage effluents | \n\tSPE (C18) | \n\tMCF-7 | \n\t- | \n\t70 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t[63] | \n
6 | \n\tEstradiol | \n\tCleaned wastewaters | \n\tSPE (C18) | \n\tYES | \n\t- | \n\t1.1–11.1 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t[64] | \n
7 | \n\t17 α-ethinilestradiol | \n\tSurface and sewage waters | \n\t\n\t | ELISA | \n\t- | \n\t0.035±0.002 μg /dm3\n\t | \n\t[65] | \n
Estradiol | \n\t- | \n\t0.085±0.010 μg/dm3\n\t | \n|||||
8 | \n\tEstrone | \n\tRiver waters | \n\tSPE (C18) | \n\tRIANA | \n\t- | \n\t0.17–10.7 μg/dm3\n\t | \n\t[57] | \n
Atrazine | \n\t- | \n\t0.35–1.47 μg/dm3\n\t | \n|||||
Isoproturon | \n\t- | \n\t0.11–2,83 μg/dm3\n\t | \n|||||
9 | \n\t17 β-Estradiol | \n\tWastewaters | \n\tSPE (C18) | \n\tYES | \n\t- | \n\t8.1 ng/dm3\n\t | \n\t[66] | \n
Estradiol | \n\t- | \n\t11.5 ng/dm3\n\t | \n|||||
p-Nonylphenol | \n\t- | \n\t55 ng/dm3\n\t | \n
Concentrations of selected EDCs determined in environmental samples using biological and instrumental methods.
Detection, identification, and quantitative determination of EDC-like chemicals are currently achieved mostly with chromatographic techniques. Prior to chromatographic separation and detection (mostly with mass spectrometry or time of flight detection), complex and time- and labor-consuming sample treatment are necessary as presented in Figure 8 (as exmple on the basis of data revision [67,68]).
The schematic presentation of selected estrogen determination in sewage samples with LC-MS.
Pre-treatment
Water and sewage samples collected for determination of endocrine disrupting compounds contain other various impurities. At this moment of sample treatment, the majority of samples is subjected to filtration to remove solid impurities. Pre-existing coagulation facilitates the filtration. Then the sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, methanol, or formaldehyde can be added to the samples to obtain the appropriate pH. The addition of one of these compounds also prevents the degradation of the assayed analytes. Samples are stored in darkness and low temperature, usually <4oC, in bottles made of amber glass to avoid photodegradation of analytes [69, 70].
The usual method of trace organic pollutants extraction is solid-phase extraction (SPE). The first step is filling the column-conditioning of the sorbent. After conditioning, the column is percolated with test sample. The target analytes and other compounds absorb in the sorbent. The next step is the elution of interfering compounds from the column. At the end, the target compounds are eluted with proper solvent mixtures. Solid phase extraction can be either: on-line where the extraction is directly integrated into the system of the quantitative analysis; or it may be off-line where the extraction column is not connected in any way with the gas or liquid chromatograph. In on-line SPE, full automation of the process occurs and the method is characterized with ease of application of samples and a large throughput. However, despite the higher costs off-line SPE, it is often used because when combined with GC, water must be removed totally prior to eluting analytes [70].
When choosing the appropriate sorbent for the SPE column, one has to take into account the chemical and physical properties of assayed compounds. One of the most frequently used cartridge packing is Oasis HLB. It allows to obtain high recovery of both the acidic, basic, and neutral compounds. Recovery exceeds 70%. This sorbent can be used for the large range of pH of the samples, ranging from 2–7. Lichrolut ENV+ cartridges are used when the sample has a low pH and contains polar organic compounds or when sample contains neutral drugs and its pH is neutral. Columns packed with C-18 are suitable for non-polar or moderately polar compounds. The extraction process must then be optimized: sample volume, the volume of sorbent cartridge, percolation rate, type of eluent and its volume. The elution solvent is selected depending on the properties of the compounds eluted and its elution strength.
A less frequently used method is the Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME). It depends on the distribution of the analyzed chemical compounds between the sample and the sorbent. This method is fast, moderately new, and an easy method of extraction. SPME coupled with GC content allows the study of semivolatile, volatile, and non-polar analytes. More difficult is the combination of this technique with liquid chromatography. Non-volatile compounds are not totally desorbed during the thermal desorption. SPME has many advantages thus it is more attractive than the SPE method, but has a more restricted choice of sorbent and too little sorption capacity. Therefore, the parameters of this technique are still optimized for wider application and greater sensitivity. Samples after SPE or SPME are concentrated using evaporation under a gentle nitrogen stream [70].
Another common method of extraction is liquid-liquid extraction (LLE). LLE relies on shaking the sample with an organic solvent for a specified period of time. One can perform this operation several times. The organic phase is separated from the water, and mixture of all the extracts is obtained. The resulting solution is dried, for example, using anhydrous sodium sulfite. When the sample volume is sufficiently small, determination of analytes can be started [71].
Liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometer is the most widely used analytical technique because it allows ion fragmentation that is needed for accurate and precise determination of the analytes. LC-MS/MS determines the compounds that have identical molecular weight but disparate product ions. Using MS/MS increases the selectivity and sensitivity of the method. Atmospheric pressure chemical and electrospray ionization (APCI and ESI) are modes of ionization interfaces that are the most widely used with LC-MS/MS. Low or medium polar compounds are determined by APCI, and the analysis of polar analytes is conducted using ESI. The main use of liquid chromatography is to determine non-volatile, polar, or degradable under high temperature substances. For example, beta-blockers and antibiotics can by analyzed using only LC-MS/MS [70].
One of the biggest difficulties with LC-MS/MS is interference in the matrix effects. This effect causes the strengthening or suppression of the analyte signal, thus producing erroneous results. When contaminated environmental samples are analyzed, for example wastewater, it is necessary to perform efficient clean up of samples. The process of optimizing the analytical methods, such as of liquid chromatography, involves making a series of studies to determine the parameters that give the best results for all determined substances. MS parameters are also optimized for each analyte by conducting the flow injection analysis (FIA). To obtain credible results, it is needed to optimize the separation of compounds by liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry parameters.
In case of GC-MS analysis, the matrix effects occur less frequently than during the analysis of LC-MS/MS. The disadvantage is that it is a more time-consuming technique and requires complex preparation of the sample in case of derivatization step.
As a result of derivatization of polar components, their analogs are less polar and more thermostable. It increases the sensitivity of analysis but also increases the loss of sample by performing additional operations. A negative aspect of derivatization is the use of carcinogenic and toxic reagents. Derivatization reaction should allow the detection of analytes that have polar functional groups. It is effective when the reaction occurs in a given time with 90% efficiency.
In literature there can be found many applications of GC-MS for the analysis of drugs, PAHs, PCBs, and other pollutants in water and wastewater samples [70].
In Table 7, there are presented examples of determining the EDCs in environmental samples, mainly in samples of river, drinking, surface, and sewage water. They are also determined in samples of food, air, in the tissues of the Chinese sturgeon, in house dust, and in human serum.
It can be stated that LC-MS/MS and GC-MS are the most often used techniques in determining EDCs. Other methods such as high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence or diode array detector are less frequently used in the analysis of EDCs. The best results are given by the combination of LC-MS/MS with GC-MS.
On the basis of data collected in Table 1, it can be concluded that people and other living organisms are exposed to EDCs throughout their entire life. Even low concentrations levels of EDCs can have a significant impact on animal and human health and the existence/health state of entire populations. Many people do not realize that even these small amounts can be significantly harmful after long exposure. The concentration of some compounds from the EDC groups has decreased because their application was banned. Unfortunately, they have long half-lives, so trace amounts are present in the samples assayed decades after the release of specific chemicals.
Determination of EDCs poses many challenges and problems. Newer and more accurate analytical methods are required and need to be used by the scientific community. There are more and more articles/books about detection of EDCs in environmental samples and their harmfulness. Application of EDC should be reduced as far as possible because contamination of these compounds poses a huge risk to the environment.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
1 | \n\t\tTestosterone | \n\t\tHuman serum | \n\t\tLLE (diethyl ether) | \n\t\tHPLC-MS/MS | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t0.1 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[72] | \n\t
17-hydroxyprogesterone | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t0.1 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Cortisone and estradiol | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t0.1–50.0 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Androstenedione | \n\t\t- | \n\t\t0.1 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
2 | \n\t\tDEET | \n\t\tRiver water | \n\t\tSPE | \n\t\tLC-MS/MS | \n\t\t11.6 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t1.49–29.9 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[73] | \n\t
2,4-dichlorobenzoic acid | \n\t\t2.3 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t3.24–9.35 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Erythromycin | \n\t\t13 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t3.08–134.5 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
3 | \n\t\tBisphenol A | \n\t\tDrinking and surface water | \n\t\t\n\t\t | Carbon nanotube-tyrosinase based amperometric enzymatic biosensors | \n\t\t0.02 µM | \n\t\t0.5 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[74] | \n\t
5 \n\t\t | \n\t\tBisphenol A | \n\t\tNatural water | \n\t\tLiChrolut RP-18 SPE | \n\t\tLC–ESI-MS | \n\t\t6.3 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<LOD–0,007 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[75] | \n\t
Estrone | \n\t\t2.5 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<LOD–0,022 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Desethylatrazine | \n\t\tLiChrolut RP-18 SPE | \n\t\tLC–APCI-MS | \n\t\t1.61 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.002–0.003 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||
Diuron | \n\t\t10.95 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.004 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
6 \n\t\t | \n\t\tEstriol | \n\t\tSurface, drinking, and waste waters | \n\t\tpH adjustment to 2 followed by SPE (HLB) | \n\t\tLC-MS/MS | \n\t\t5.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t8.9–25.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[69] | \n\t
17α-ethynylestradiol | \n\t\t1.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t1.3 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Estrone | \n\t\t1.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t1.7–36.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Testosterone | \n\t\t1.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t1.1 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
DEET | \n\t\t1.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t2.0–69 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t | ||||
7 | \n\t\tPolyfluorinated alkyls | \n\t\tAir samples | \n\t\t\n\t\t | GC-MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 64–546 pg/m3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[76] | \n\t
8 | \n\t\t12 perfluorinated surfactants | \n\t\tSurface and drinking water | \n\t\tSPE | \n\t\tHPLC-MS/MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 2–4385 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[77] | \n\t
10 | \n\t\tEstrone | \n\t\tRiver water | \n\t\tSPE (HLB) Cartridge (polymer of N-vinylpyrrolidone and divinylbenzene) | \n\t\tHPLC-DAD GC-MS | \n\t\t44.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<LOD–112.9 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[78] | \n\t
Ethynylestradiol | \n\t\t18.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<LOD–101.9 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Daidzein | \n\t\t10.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<LOD–888.4 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
4-nonylphenol | \n\t\t7.0 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<LOD | \n\t|||||
12 | \n\t\tEstriol | \n\t\tWastewater from a swine farm | \n\t\tSPE (N-vinylacetamide), pH adjusted to 3 | \n\t\tLC-MS/MS LC-MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 5200–5400 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[79] | \n\t
Estrone | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 2200–3000 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
17α-ethinylestradiol | \n\t\t0.12 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.5–1000 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Estriol | \n\t\t0.006 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.35 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Bisphenol A | \n\t\t0.02 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.47–0,54 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
17α-ethinylestradiol | \n\t\t0.1 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t3.57 ng/cm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
13 | \n\t\tHexachlorobenzene (HCB) | \n\t\tLiver, muscle, heart, gonad, stomach, intestines, adipose, gill, pancreas, kidney, gallbladder, and roe from 13 female Chinese sturgeons | \n\t\tSoxhlet extraction (dichloromethane and methanol mixture solution) | \n\t\tGC-MS | \n\t\t0.07 ng/g | \n\t\t1.6–525.0 ng/g | \n\t\t[80] | \n\t
1,1,1-trichloro-2,2-bis( | \n\t\t0.2 ng/g | \n\t\t<LOQ–480 ng/g | \n\t|||||
14 | \n\t\tEstrone | \n\t\tWastewater | \n\t\tSPE (Oasis) | \n\t\tGC-MS | \n\t\t5.6 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t21–128.5 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[81] | \n\t
17β-estradiol | \n\t\t11.2 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t10.9–224 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Bisphenol-A | \n\t\t17.4 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t15–890 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
4-tert-Octylphenol | \n\t\t8.5 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t29–710 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
15 | \n\t\tSulfadiazine | \n\t\tWaste water | \n\t\tSPE (Oasis HLB) | \n\t\tHPLC-MS/MS | \n\t\t1 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t6–50 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[82] | \n\t
Estriol | \n\t\t5 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t4648–22633 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
17α- Ethynylestradiol | \n\t\t10 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<487 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Ethinylestradiol | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 5.7–30.8 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
16 | \n\t\tAtrazine | \n\t\tWastewater | \n\t\tSPE (Oasis HLB) | \n\t\tLC-MS/MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 1118 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[83] | \n\t
17 \n\t\t | \n\t\tTestosterone | \n\t\tDrinking water | \n\t\tSPE (HLB) | \n\t\tLC-MS-ESI | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 0.116–0.214 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[84] | \n\t
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 7–20 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
17α-ethynylestradiol | \n\t\tThe CLLE extracts derivatization | \n\t\tGC-MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 0.073–0.831 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||
Progesterone | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 0.11–0.199 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Sulfamethoxazole | \n\t\t1.8 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<410 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
18 | \n\t\t4-Nonylphenol | \n\t\tWastewater | \n\t\tSPE (C18) | \n\t\tHPLC-DAD HPLC-FLD GC-MS | \n\t\t0.09 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t3.39–169 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[85] | \n\t
19 | \n\t\t4-nonylphenol | \n\t\tSurface water | \n\t\tLLE (CH2Cl2) | \n\t\tHPLC-FLD | \n\t\t0.075 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t0.08–0.39 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[86] | \n\t
4- | \n\t\t0.05 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t<0.16 µg/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
20 \n\t\t | \n\t\t4-nonylphenol | \n\t\tIndoor air | \n\t\t\n\t\t | GC-MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 21–420 ng/m3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[87] | \n\t
Diethyl phthalatec | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 130–4300 ng/m3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Di-n-butyl phthalated | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 52–1100 ng/m3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 77–1000 ng/m3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Diisobuhtyl phthalate | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 11–990 ng/m3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Methyl paraben | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 2.9–21 ng/m3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
4-nonylphenol | \n\t\tHousehold dust | \n\t\tSoxhlet extraction (6% diethyl ether in hexane) | \n\t\tGC-MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 2.58–8.68 µg/g | \n\t||
Nonylphenol monoethoxylate | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 3.36–15.6 µg/g | \n\t|||||
Benzyl butyl phthalate | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 3.87–1310 µg/g | \n\t|||||
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 166.7–7700 µg/g | \n\t|||||
Metyl paraben | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 0.978–8.24 µg/g | \n\t|||||
Benzo[a]pyrene | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 0.712–18.1 µg/g | \n\t|||||
21 | \n\t\t17β-estradiol | \n\t\tSurface water, sewage sludge, and sediments. | \n\t\tSPE (C18) | \n\t\tHPLC-UV | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 1–35 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[88] | \n\t
Ethinyl estradiol | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 0.001–2 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
22 | \n\t\tDEET | \n\t\tSurface and groundwater | \n\t\tSPE (Oasis HLB) | \n\t\tLC-MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 2.3–3.3 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[89] | \n\t
4- | \n\t\tWastewater | \n\t\tSPE (C18) | \n\t\tGC-MS | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 85 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t\t[90] | \n\t|
4-nonylphenol | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 329 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Bisphenol A | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 457 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
Estrone | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 63 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t|||||
17α-ethynylestradiol | \n\t\t\n\t\t | 48 ng/dm3\n\t\t | \n\t
Concentrations of selected EDCs determined in environmental samples using instrumental methods.
The poor state of knowledge about the mechanisms of action and effects of EDC chemicals has forced the interdisciplinary scientific teams to intensify their work in the subject. Nowadays, many institutes are carrying out research focused on exploring the properties and metabolic pathways of EDCs and their mixtures in the environment. Good knowledge about the environmental fate, endocrine potential, and distant toxic effects of ecoestrogens will allow to estimate the levels of the pollution and minimal exposure on certain compounds. Moreover, this knowledge can be applied for upgrading the common tools used to detect and perform quantitative determination of EDCs, and can be the basis for the development of new techniques that will provide information about the composition of the sample and about its endocrine potential [94,95].
The discovery of micropollutants occurring in the environment resulted in new methodologies being put into the analytical practice. These methodologies are developed in two different directions. The first is based on methodological solutions designed to detect, identify, and determine xenobiotics that occur in various environmental samples. For this purpose, instrumental methods such as gas and liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry detection are usually used. These techniques provide reliable information about the presence, quantity, and influence of EDCs.
The second approach is to put into the analytical practice new bioanalytical methodologies. These methodologies allow estimation of the sample endocrine potential, but they do not provide information on which of the sample ingredient is responsible for causing the toxic effect. The results of the analysis of this biological response are valuable source of information for chemists and ecotoxicologists. These results can be the basis for estimating the endocrine potential of the environment exhibited by certain species. Moreover, bioanalytical techniques may be supplementary to the techniques of quantitative and qualitative determination of endocrine disrupting chemicals. It is not possible to estimate the environmental risk of EDC presence based only on the information about the sample composition. It is necessary to determine both the magnitude and how in particular the endocrine homeostasis may be impacted by xenobiotics. These tasks can be realized only by using a well-chosen bioassays battery. In the recent years there has been a significant increase in the importance of the biological methodologies in environmental research because of their numerous advantages. It is reflected in the research literature and in the increase in the number of scientific publications on this subject.
In this chapter the information about some of the estrogenic compounds, their environmental fate, and biological influence can be found. Special attention was given paid to the review of the analytical approaches used at the stage of detection and determination of EDCs in the environmental samples. Also a brief characterization of both the cellular and non-cellular bioassays is presented, as well as the information regarding the changes occurring in the bioindicators as results of being exposed to a specific ecotoxins.
The work has been co-financed by the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education grant no. IP2011 028071.
Megadiverse countries constitute exceptional areas on Earth where most of the planetary biodiversity is present. The complexity of these areas is huge, but in most of the cases, two major points are key: (1) the geographical location, and (2) the abiotic and biotic elements present. Mexico is one of the top five megadiverse countries in the world and its macrodiversity and endemism are well represented by amphibians, mammals, plants, and reptiles [1]. However, the knowledge of microscopic organisms such as archaea, bacteria, protozoa, microscopic algae, and microscopic fungi, that inhabit aquatic, atmospheric, marine, and soil ecosystems is neither poorly known, studied nor understood.
The vision of this chapter is to contribute to the knowledge, research, and study of microscopic life in different Mexican ecosystems, as they are often ignored or poorly mentioned in federal texts or even in biotic inventories. Our examples are some members of the class actinobacteria [2], and we aim to demonstrate why it is so important to study these bacteria in such detail to fully explore and untap the unknown actinobacterial diversity with potential in biology. Using a dynamic isolation strategy on air, soil, and marine sediments and sponges collected from yet unexplored sites of the Mexican territory, we have been able to cultivate novel actinobacteria. Our findings showed that expertise, patience, and talent of the techniques applied are keys in the hunt for new potential microbes.
The isolation of microorganisms, including actinobacteria, is not new but a dynamic strategy that is continuously changing, and the developed to date is a powerful tool. For more than two centuries, researchers from Japan, the UK, and USA have shown that beneficial microorganisms isolated from the soil are important to Biology. In recent years the isolation of the first genus of actinobacteria from the marine origin [3] and novel marine species [4] have shown the importance of exploring the marine environment. Extreme or unexplored sites have also shown the isolation of actinobacteria including putative novel actinobacteria [5].
Our research studying actinobacteria started in 1999 [6, 7], but until 2009 we properly started the exploration of the Mexican (marine) ecosystems [8] as an independent group. We followed bioprospecting, diversity, and systematic approach but designing a selective isolation strategy was the first step for a complete full project or protocol [9].
Actinobacteria is a complex group of bacteria, they present forms such as rods or bacilli, many differentiate in vegetative mycelium, aerial hyphae, and chain of spores, and in a few genera fragmentation of the hyphae is present. In general, the Gram reaction is positive and the content of guanine plus cytosine is above 69%mol. The morphological characteristics within the class showed how complex this group is. Actinobacteria are considered saprophytes or beneficial microbes, but a small number of species have been shown to be either pathogenic [10] or opportunistic [11]. This microbial group has been isolated or cultivated using classical methods from almost every sample taken on Earth and they are always detected when using molecular methods to study this group in a given environmental sample.
Actinobacteria also have the innate ability to produce secondary metabolites with biological activity, to date, this class encompasses 80% of the microbes that produce the antibacterial compounds used in medicine. Complete Genome Sequencing of some genera of actinobacteria such as
The more we study and discover actinobacteria the more important they become in pass, present, and future assignments. Microorganisms and microbial biomass, including actinobacteria, represent the major resource for biotechnology and biological areas. We should continue exploring their role in nature in order to understand their biology, ecology, and bioprospecting potential [13, 14, 15, 16].
The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into six specific layers with completely different characteristics: (1) Troposphere, (2) Stratosphere, (3) Mesosphere, (4) Thermosphere, (5) Ionosphere, and (6) Exosphere. It has been established that the atmosphere plays an important role to transport microorganisms, place to place, continent to continent. The latter has been established using scientific tools in the last 200 years and in the last 15 years, NASA has monitored mineral dust particles from the Sahara desert with a robust precision using spaceborne satellites. These Saharan dust plumes contain microorganisms and enter mainland Mexico by the Yucatan Peninsula [17].
The atmosphere is a hostile environment for microorganisms though there are a significant number of them in the troposphere, with air as their main dispersion pathway. The abundance, diversity, survival, and transport of microorganisms, as passive drivers, and how they get stressed severely by the conditions presented in the atmosphere have fully been reported [18]. Most of the microorganisms in the atmosphere are present as spores, while others have adapted to resist desiccation or high/low temperatures [19]. Recent reports have also shown that some microorganisms (i.e., by using specific proteins) can act as ice nucleating particles [20] and that they may play an important role in cloud formation [21]. In general, bacteria (including actinobacteria) present in the atmosphere are attached to suspended particles [17], and their concentration change notably during the dry or wet seasons of each year [22].
As part of the African Dust and Biomass Burning Over Yucatan (ADABBOY) Project [23] in the city of Merida (N 21°02´75.4´´ W 89°65´44.8´´) a selective isolation strategy was carried out in order to cultivate/recovered putative actinobacteria in May 2017. Air samples were impacted using a Quick Take 30 Sample Pump® and a BioStage® SKC (Figure 1) in Petri dishes prepared with a slightly modified Glucose Yeast Malt extract agar (GYM medium; Appendix A; Medium 65: DSMZ; www.dsmz.de) supplemented with Rifampicin (5 μg/mL; Sigma-Aldrich, USA) and Nystatin (50 μg/mL; MICOSTATIN® Bristol Myers Squibb, Mexico).
The device used for the air particles.
Plates were incubated in two different laboratories and conditions. The first laboratory was in the city of Merida at the Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán, using an aerobic incubator set at 25°C and the plates were incubated for 24 hours. For the second procedure, the plates were transported to a laboratory in Mexico City where the incubation time continued aerobically at 30°C (IncuMax IC-320, Amerex USA) for 8 weeks with eye observation each week. One microorganism with the production of aerial hyphae, a gray mass of spores, and a very deep purple diffusible pigment (Figure 2) was selected from the isolation plates for further studies.
Morphology and purple diffusible pigment of an airborne streptomycete.
The selected isolate was coded C6-CCA-May-1. After a purification process using GYM medium and two different techniques (cross streak and serial dilutions), bacterial biomass and spores of the strain were ultra-preserved in 20% glycerol. Morphological characterization was carried out using a GYM medium (Figure 3) and a Gram staining procedure (Figure 4) was carried out following well-known universal protocols.
Aerial hyphae and spore mass of isolate C6-CCA-May-1.
Gram staining of the airborne streptomycete.
Molecular identification of strain C6-CCA-May-1 was carried out following protocols previously published [8, 24]. First, the DNA of strain C6-CCA-May-1 was extracted and used as a template for PCR amplification using the 16S rRNA gene (Appendix B). The sequence of the 16S rRNA gene PCR product confirmed that strain C6-CCA-May-1 belongs to the genus
Hit taxon name | Hit strain name | Accesion | Similarity | Hit taxonomy | Completeness (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
NBRC 133559T | AB18350 | 99.51 | Bacteria;Actinobacteria;Actinobacteria_c;Streptomycetales;Streptomycetaceae;Streptomyces | 99.6 | |
NBRC 13404T | AB18381 | 98.88 | 99.9 | ||
KNN 35.1bT | LT621750 | 98.77 | 95.5 | ||
NBRC 13000T | AB184249 | 98.66 | 99.9 | ||
NBRC 15423T | AB184670 | 98.66 | 99.0 |
List of hits from the EZbiocloud 16S database.
A Bayesian phylogenetic tree was constructed in order to establish the taxonomic position of
Phylogenetic tree of the 16S rRNA gene of the airborne streptomycete.
Streptomycetes are an ecologically important group capable of producing diverse bioactive compounds. However, their taxonomy and diversity in air samples remain unknown. For almost two centuries the genus
Seventy percent of our planet is covered by the ocean but from one marine research project, there are 10 of terrestrial origin. Little is still known about marine biodiversity (including microorganisms) though their potential is extraordinary and needs to be fully studied and exploited. Mexico is surrounded by the Pacific Ocean, the Sea of Cortez (
In the present project, a total collection of 34 marine sediments or sponges were collected at RANP during two expeditions (December 2017 and January 2018). A selective isolation strategy using 11 of the marine sediments and two different media was developed following a previously reported study [24]. In order to isolate marine obligate and nonobligate actinobacteria, 1 g of wet sediments was transferred to tubes containing 9 mL of saline solution (0.9%; NaCl; Sigma-Aldrich, Mexico), four dilutions were prepared (10−1 to 10−4) and 100 μL (Gilson, France) of each dilution were spread onto marine GYM medium and 1:10 marine GYM medium (Appendix A); both media supplemented with Rifampicin [15, 25 and 50 μg/mL] and Nystatin (100 μg/mL). Plates were then aerobically incubated at 30°C (IncuMax IC-320, Amerex USA) for up to 16 weeks. Starting at week eight, the isolation plates were checked by eye looking for actinobacterial colonies. Once putative colonies were noticed each was then streaked in new GYM plates without antibiotics or antifungal compounds until an axenic culture was obtained. The conditions of incubation were as mentioned above. Because of the pressure set in the isolation strategy, not many microbes were able to grow but actinobacteria were successfully cultivated.
A preliminary test to quickly select marine obligate actinobacteria was carried out using marine GYM medium (Figure 6A and C) and GYM medium (Figure 6B and D). A positive result was considered when nonmicrobial biomass was observed growing on the surface of GYM medium after 4 weeks of incubation (Figure 6B). The ones that presented growth only in the marine GYM medium were considered those marine obligate actinobacteria (Figure 6A). It should be pointed out, however, that we were also able to isolate nonobligate actinobacteria that showed the typical characteristics of members of the family Micromonosporaceae [32] (Figure 6C and D). Up to date there is only one genus that is considered halophile within the Phylum Actinobacteria, and this is
Screening of obligate and nonobligate marine actinobacteria.
The molecular identification using the 16S rRNA gene of obligate and nonobligate marine actinobacteria confirmed that they belong to the genera
Code of microorganism | Identity (%) | Hit taxonomy | Accesion |
---|---|---|---|
C114 col. 1 | 99 | GD145235.1 | |
C60 b bca col. 1 | 100 | MH299440.1 | |
C60a col. 3 | 100 | KX394599.1 | |
C60 col. 4 | 99 | KX394598.1 | |
C72 col. 2 | 100 | AG506245.1 | |
C134 col. 4 | 99 | CF133005.1 |
Taxonomic identification of some of the obligate and nonobligate marine actinobacteria from RANP.
To isolate obligate and nonobligate marine actinobacteria from the sponge samples, five different species of
Strategy to isolate actinobacteria from six marine sponges.
Starting at week eight, the isolation plates were checked by eye looking for actinobacterial colonies (Figure 8). Once putative colonies were selected they were streaked in new GYM plates until axenic culture were obtained. The conditions of incubation were the same as mentioned before.
Morphology of the marine obligate actinobacteria.
The preliminary test to select marine obligate actinobacteria was carried out as mentioned previously. Obligate marine actinobacteria (Figure 9A) were isolated from
Morphology of obligate and nonobligate marine actinobacteria.
We isolated marine obligate actinobacteria that were preliminarily assigned to the genus
The microbial communities of marine obligate and nonobligate actinobacteria associated with marine sediments remain poorly characterized [34] and we must continue searching for these gifted microorganisms [35]. Culture-dependent methods captured approximately 3% of the total count of the microbes and in some reports around 39 genera have been only detected in culture. The latter shows the importance to carry out/improve, innovative and original selective isolation techniques since these may be more effective than previously recognized.
Soil is one of the most complex ecosystems on Earth and its amount of organic matter, mineral composition, and diversity of microorganisms will determine its ecology. There are different kinds of soils but in general, those with less anthropogenic impact will be richer in microorganisms. Mexico encompasses 26 types of soil out of the 32 recognized in the world [36, 37] and this is due to several causes, namely: (1) the complexity of the topography originated from the volcanic activity in the Cenozoic Era, (2) the wide altitudinal gradient (from 0 to 5, 600 m.a.s.l.), (3) by the five main climates present according to the Köppen classification [38], (4) the enormous diversity of landscapes present and, finally (5) the different kind of rocks that the Mexican territory enclose. It is well recognized that actinobacteria are abundant in soils and that they play an important role in the degradation and recycling of organic matter. Soil microorganisms have a remarkable ability to produce compounds with biological activity such as antibiotics, and historically this has been exemplified by streptomycin which is produced by a streptomycete named
Mexico encompasses nearly 4, 000 insular regions of outstanding natural beauty, their biodiversity is remarked by high number of endemism (plants and animals) and most of these regions are federal protected. Revillagigedo Archipelago National Park (RANP) [39] encompasses four tropical volcanic Islands: (1) Socorro, (2) Clarion, (3) San Benedicto, and (4) Roca Partida. The RANP is considered as one of the best-preserved areas in the world.
In the present project, soil samples were collected at five different sites of Socorro Island (SI) (Figure 10) in 2016 and 2017, respectively (Table 3). A selective isolation strategy using five soil samples and three different media was developed in order to isolate actinobacteria. One gram of each soil was transferred to tubes containing 9 mL of saline solution (0.9%; NaCl; Sigma-Aldrich, Mexico). Modified Pikovskaya agar (Appendix A), GYM without antibiotics or antifungal compounds, and marine GYM supplemented with Rifampicin [5 μg/mL] and Nystatin (100 μg/mL) were used as isolation media. The dilutions used for modified Pikovskaya and marine GYM were 10−1 to 10−4 and for GYM 10−6 to 10−8. One hundred microliters (Gilson, France) of each dilution were spread in the media and then aerobically incubated at 30°C (IncuMax IC-320, Amerex USA) for up to 4 weeks.
Sites of sampling in Socorro Island.
Code of sampling site | Name of sampling site | Meter of above sea level (masl) | Date of sampling | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
S1 | Camping place | South of Socorro Island | 450 | 25 | December 2016 |
S2 | Cave | 550 | 28 | ||
S3 | North camping place | North of Socorro Island | 941 | 30 | |
S4 | Everman volcano | South East of Everman volcano | 850 | 3 | January 2017 |
S5 | Parrot camping place | 600 |
General information of the sampling sites.
The isolation plates were checked by eye looking for actinobacteria and selected colonies were streaked in new GYM media plates until axenic cultures were obtained (Figure 11). The conditions of incubation were the same as mentioned above. The cultivable actinobacteria diversity was remarkable but only 215 isolates were selected from the isolation plates. Eighty-six isolates presented morphological differentiation based on aerial hyphae and spore mass so that they were considered as streptomycetes (Figure 12).
Isolation plate (a), selected actinobacteria (b), and axenic culture (c).
Morphological diversity of actinobacteria from Socorro Island soils.
Molecular identification using the 16S rRNA gene of 10 selected strains morphologically resembling streptomycetes confirmed that they indeed belong to this extensive and important genus (Table 4). The phylogenetic tree constructed using five of sequences of the selected strains showed that they are different amongst them and from those more related
Code of microorganism | Hit taxonomy | Identity (%) |
---|---|---|
C1-S1-1 | 99 | |
C10-S2-14 | ||
C67-S2-1 | ||
C43-S3-1 | ||
C43-S3-2 | ||
C58-S5-2 | ||
C59-S5-1 | ||
C59-S5-2 | ||
C27-S4-3 | ||
C57-S5-1 |
Preliminary identification of selected streptomycetes from the different sites.
Phylogenetic tree of the 16S rRNA gene selected streptomycetes isolates.
Soil actinobacteria, particularly
More than two centuries of work to isolate actinobacteria from natural resources have ended in major discoveries, academic contributions, and important recognitions. Novel actinobacteria represent the entree of new natural compounds of significant importance. For more than 15 years our research group has developed and applied selective isolation strategies exploring distinct natural unexplored sites or less studied ecological niches in Mexico. To avoid the isolation of the “same bugs,” it is needed to use different selective isolation strategies, pre-treatments of the environmental sample, supplementation of the media with a specific concentration of antibiotics and antifungal compounds while carefully selecting the target organisms.
The results presented in this chapter support the proposal that the isolation of microorganisms is not “
Actinobacteria is one most of the diverse and complex groups of bacteria and produces more than 80% of the antibiotics used in medicine today. Their ability to produce novel natural compounds, such as antibiotics and novel cancer compounds is widely recognized. According to the World Health Organization (WHO) there is an urgent need to discover novel antibiotics for priority pathogenic bacteria and emerging pathogenic organisms [43] and the first step to respond and to contribute with this global initiative is to isolate novel actinobacteria. To our knowledge, our reports here are one of the few research projects in our country that are dedicated to study the ecological role and the genetic potential of novel actinobacteria from unexplored sites or less studied ecological niches in Mexico.
Our research was supported by Instituto Politécnico Nacional (IPN)—Secretaría de Investigación y Posgrado (SIP), Grants SIP 20170432, 20170434, 20170410, 20181167, 20181528, 20181803, 20196605, 20196630, 20196649, 20201026, 20201893, 20202083, 20210987, 20211209, and 20211740. L.C.-C. was supported by a Ph.D. Scholarship from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT, Mexico) no. 270230 and Beca de Estímulo Institucional de Formación de Investigadores Program (BEIFI-IPN). ETQ, CJHG and JCCD acknowledge Comisión de Operación y Fomento de Actividades Académicas del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (COFAA), Estímulo al Desempeño de los Investigadores (EDI) and Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI-CONACYT) fellowships. A.A-V ackcnowledges a Mexican Postdoctoral Scholarship Program 3 and 4, Program 4, 2020–2021 and Program 1 and 2, Program 2, 2021–2022 (CONACyT, Mexico).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Glucose Yeast Malt Extract Agar -GYM medium- (DSM medium 65) | |
---|---|
Dextrose (Bacto™, BD) | 4 g |
Yeast extract (Bacto™, BD) | 4 g |
Malt extract (Bacto™, BD) | 10 g |
Calcium carbonate (SIGMA-ALDRICH) | 2 g |
Agar (Bacto™, BD) | 12 g |
Distilled water | 1000 mL |
pH 7.2 |
Marine media was prepared by replacing distilled water with artificial seawater (Ocean™). 1:10 marine GYM medium was prepared using an aliquot of marine GYM. All the media was sterilized at 121°C, 1.5 Lb. for 15 min.
Reagents | Volume |
---|---|
10× DNA polymerase buffer [50 mM stock solution] (Bioline, USA) | 5 μL |
MgCl2 [50 mM] (Bioline, USA) | 1.5 μL |
dNTPs [10 mM stock mixture] (Bioline, USA) | 1.25 μL |
Primer 27f [20 μM stock solution] (Invitrogen) | 0.5 μL |
Primer 1525r [20 μM stock solution] (Invitrogen) | 0.5 μL |
DNA [100 ng/μL] | 1 μL |
Taq polymerase [5 U] (Bioline, USA) | 1 Unit |
Ultra-pure Milli-Q water | Up to 50 μL |
Amplification was achieved using a Techno 512 gradient PCR machine.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
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\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Studies will be useful which are clearly based on any montmorillonite structure to describe environmental effects.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"46032",title:"Soil Contamination, Risk Assessment and Remediation",slug:"soil-contamination-risk-assessment-and-remediation",totalDownloads:14030,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:62,abstract:null,book:{id:"3854",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-soil-contamination",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination"},signatures:"Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf, Mohd. 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It often results in high productivity and requires large capital investments, low operating costs, and good safety conditions. The main topics that will be discussed in this chapter will include an introduction into the general features of open pit mining, ore body characteristics and configurations, stripping ratios and stripping overburden methods, mine elements and parameters, open pit operation cycle, pit slope angle, stability of mine slopes, types of highwall failures, mine closure and reclamation, and different variants of surface mining methods including opencast mining, mountainous mining, and artisan mining.",book:{id:"8620",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",title:"Mining Techniques",fullTitle:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Awwad H. Altiti, Rami O. Alrawashdeh and Hani M. 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The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"65070",title:"Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties",slug:"biochar-a-sustainable-approach-for-improving-plant-growth-and-soil-properties",totalDownloads:6979,totalCrossrefCites:61,totalDimensionsCites:101,abstract:"Soil is the most important source and an abode for many nutrients and microflora. Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"39170",title:"Study of Impacts of Global Warming on Climate Change: Rise in Sea Level and Disaster Frequency",slug:"study-of-impacts-of-global-warming-on-climate-change-rise-in-sea-level-and-disaster-frequency",totalDownloads:6708,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"2206",slug:"global-warming-impacts-and-future-perspective",title:"Global Warming",fullTitle:"Global Warming - Impacts and Future Perspective"},signatures:"Bharat Raj Singh and Onkar Singh",authors:[{id:"26093",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bharat-raj-singh",fullName:"Bharat Raj Singh"},{id:"118426",title:"Prof.",name:"Onkar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"onkar-singh",fullName:"Onkar Singh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"10",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82490",title:"Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Soil and Crop Management",slug:"precision-agriculture-for-sustainable-soil-and-crop-management",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101759",abstract:"Precision agriculture (PA) transforms traditional practices into a new world of production of agriculture. It uses a range of technologies or diagnostic tools such as global navigation satellite system (GNSS), geographic information systems (GIS), yield monitors, near-infrared reflectance sensing, and remote sensing in collecting and analyzing the in-field spatial variability data, thereby enabling farmers to monitor and make site-specific management decisions for soils and crops. PA technology enables visualization of spatial and temporal variations of production resources and supports spatially varying treatments using variable rate application technologies installed on farm agricultural field machinery. The demand for PA is driven by recognition within-field variability and opportunities for treating areas within a field or production unit differently. PA can be applied to multiple cultural practices including tillage, precision seeding, variable rate fertilizer application, precision irrigation and selective pesticide application; and facilitates other management decisions making, for example, site-specific deep tillage to remove soil compaction. PA technology ensures optimal use of production inputs and contributes to a significant increase in farm profitability. By reducing crop production inputs and managing farmland in an environmentally sensible manner, PA technology plays a vital role in sustainable soil and crop management in modern agriculture.",book:{id:"10952",title:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10952.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Rayhan Shaheb, Ayesha Sarker and Scott A. Shearer"},{id:"82272",title:"Landslide Movement Monitoring with InSAR Technologies",slug:"landslide-movement-monitoring-with-insar-technologies",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105058",abstract:"Synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) is a technology that has been widely used in many areas, such as topographic mapping, land and resource survey, geological exploration, disaster prevention and mitigation, volcanic and seismic monitor and so on. Landslide, as a representative geohazard, include a wide range of phenomena involving downhill ground movement. InSAR, a technology which can measure surface deformation at the millimeter level over serveral days or years, is suitable to detect landslides with chronical and widespread movements. In this chapter, we introduce main process methods of InSAR data, including Persistent Scatter Interferometry (PSInSAR) and Distributed Scatter Interferometry (DSInSAR). A study area, Daguan County Town, one of the most landslide-prone areas in China is induced to demonstrate the practicability of InSAR in detecting landslides. Combined InSAR results with geological, geotechnical and meterological data, the distribution of landslide in Daguan County in spatial and temporal dimensions would be displayed. We also coupling numerical modeling and InSAR for characterizing landslide movements under multiple loads. The numerical results revealed that body loads dominated the cumulative downhill movements by squeezing water and air from voids, and precipitation caused seasonal movements with the direction perpendicular to the slope surface.",book:{id:"10950",title:"Landslides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10950.jpg"},signatures:"Peifeng Ma, Yifei Cui, Weixi Wang, Hui Lin, Yuanzhi Zhang and Yi Zheng"},{id:"82823",title:"The Metropolitan Transformation of Ioannina City from 1940 to 2015",slug:"the-metropolitan-transformation-of-ioannina-city-from-1940-to-2015",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105884",abstract:"The chapter presents the urban and regional changes in the city of Ioannina, Greece. This city is located in the periphery of Epirus, which is in the western Balkans, Eastern Europe. The chapter examines, with the tools of aerial photos and QGIS software, the spatial transformation of Ioannina city from 1940 to 2015. Map science is a field through which the users could observe and compare maps from past to future. The plans and the planning were formed under the values, standards, and fundamentals of the mosaic of politics, good practices, urban rules, and citizen level. The urban space has already changed until nowadays. The chapter examines the reasons for urban politics and social–economic moments that became the epitome of these urban and regional changes. The results show the comparative spatial study from each historical period.",book:{id:"11488",title:"GIS and Spatial Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11488.jpg"},signatures:"Efthymios-Spyridon Georgiou"},{id:"83032",title:"Introductory Chapter: Solar Photovoltaic Energy",slug:"introductory-chapter-solar-photovoltaic-energy",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106259",abstract:null,book:{id:"9862",title:"Solar Radiation - Measurements, Modeling and Forecasting for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammadreza Aghaei, Amir Nedaei, Aref Eskandari and Jafar Milimonfared"},{id:"82963",title:"Evolution of Radio Source Components and the Quasar/Galaxy Unification Scheme",slug:"evolution-of-radio-source-components-and-the-quasar-galaxy-unification-scheme",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106244",abstract:"In this work, a theoretical model is developed for explanation of temporal evolution of extragalactic radio sources via beaming, orientation effects and asymmetries. Equation of the form D≈P±q1+z−m is used to account for the D ∼ P/z relation. Also, D≈D01+z−1+z1+z2 accounted properly for Ω0=1 cosmology than the Ω0=0 counterpart in linear size versus redshift of radio sources. Similarly, D=Dc1∓lnPPc1/2 model explained redshift-luminosity relationship of extragalactic radio sources. The results from the regression analyses are q = +0.003 (r = 0.04) for sources with z < 1 and q = −1.59 (r = −0.6) for all z≥1 sources. A critical linear size, Dc of 316kpc which matches the maximum theoretical linear size, Dmax of 0.15D0 at a critical redshift zc∼1 and a critical luminosity Pc=26.33WHz−1 are obtained. The indication of all these results is that the linear size of radio sources evolves up to a certain limit in D–P plane and thereafter decreases with increasing luminosity as predicted in this work.",book:{id:"11737",title:"Astronomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11737.jpg"},signatures:"Costecia Ifeoma Onah, Augustine A. Ubachukwu and Finbarr C. Odo"},{id:"82981",title:"Wood Quality and Pulping Process Efficiency of Elite Eucalyptus spp. Clones Field-Grown under Seasonal Drought Stress",slug:"wood-quality-and-pulping-process-efficiency-of-elite-eucalyptus-spp-clones-field-grown-under-seasona",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106341",abstract:"The objective of the present study is to evaluate the wood quality of five elite Eucalyptus spp. clones at 4 years of age from a clonal test installed in a region of seasonal drought stress in central-western Brazil focusing on pulp production. A total of 25 trees were systematically felled and disks and logs were obtained along the trunk. Wooden disks were used for density and fiber analyses and the logs were converted into chips for application in the pulping process. For the denser genotype, clone D (E. grandis x E. urophylla x Eucalyptus tereticornis), a thicker cell wall associated to thinner fibers results in a negative effect on the fiber quality. In contrast, clone B (Eucalyptus pellita x E. grandis), which has relatively inferior pulping performance, displayed the lowest wood density associated to wider lumen and fibers. The best growth performances in response to acclimatization and adaptation to the site strongly influences the pulp productivity, which is identified as the parameter of greatest variance between genotypes, and highlighting clone E (E. grandis x E. urophylla).",book:{id:"11840",title:"Arid Environment - Perspectives, Challenges and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11840.jpg"},signatures:"Deborah Rodrigues de Souza Santos, Camila Sarto, Rafael Fernandes dos Santos, Júlia Lôbo Ribeiro Anciotti Gil, Carlos de Melo e Silva-Neto, Regina Maria Gomes, Evandro Novaes, Carlos Roberto Sette-Junior, Mario Tomazello-Filho, Rafael Tassinari Resende and Matheus Peres Chagas"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:119},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. Vouros",slug:"deep-multiagent-reinforcement-learning-methods-addressing-the-scalability-challenge",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Multi-Agent Technologies and Machine Learning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11445.jpg",subseries:{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems"}}},{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. 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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. 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