\r\n\tThe planning and technology of the tunnel and underground structures is an important issue for building of the structure. Depending on the particulars of each project location and the construction time available, the adopted construction methods have an important influence on the success of the project. Traditional and novel methods are underlined with the focus on reliable and cost effective technology. \r\n\tOnce built, the tunnel needs to guarantee comfort to the users and reduce the risks of accident. The equipment is important to obtain adequate visibility and reduced concentration of contaminants. For these purposes, an adequate lighting system and ventilation system are necessary. Ventilation is also crucial in the case of emergency conditions, as it used to control fire development and smoke propagation. Operational and safety systems are to be analysed to fulfill the all the operational and emergency needs. The book investigates the relevant topics in these regards as the crucial point of tunnel exploitation. \r\n\tThe aim of the book in focused also on the aspect of the optimised maintenance strategy of tunnels that bases on a systematic condition assessment through the investigations. Operation and maintenance works in tunnels have an adverse effect on the traffic, hence it is essential to plan operation and maintenance works rationally and effectively as the maintenance have to minimise the impact on the daily traffic and to ensure cost effectiveness at all times.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f640f0187c5c2db846fc350f222cb6a0",bookSignature:"Prof. Peter Vidmar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8538.jpg",keywords:"Planning of tunnels, Development of tunnel, Geomechanics, Investigation, Tunnel construction, Process monitoring, Tunnel installations, Technologies, Tunnel safety, Maintenance, Underground pipelines, Cables",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 20th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 7th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 7th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"69701",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Vidmar",slug:"peter-vidmar",fullName:"Peter Vidmar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69701/images/system/69701.jpeg",biography:"Peter Vidmar holds a PhD in Maritime and Transport science at Faculty of maritime studies and transportation, University of Ljubljana and a M. 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1. Introduction
1.1 What is spontaneous recovery?
Spontaneous recovery from aphasia implies that impaired language functions improve without speech therapy interventions [1]. Several previous studies have investigated the duration for and degree of spontaneous recovery from aphasia. Culton evaluated the progress of improvement in language functions over a 2-month period four times at 2-week intervals using eight types of language tasks, such as naming and writing, in 11 patients with acute aphasia 2–4 weeks after the onset and in patients with chronic aphasia 11–48 months after the onset. Language therapy was not performed during the assessment period in both the groups. It has been reported that the acute aphasia group showed a more marked improvement. Particularly, the largest differences in the results of the language tasks were observed between the first and the second sessions, which indicated that the degree of improvement was most pronounced about 1 month following the onset of aphasia. It was also reported that improvements continued up to approximately 3 months after the onset [1]. Hartman (1981) evaluated language functions at the first visit and 30 days after the onset using the Porch Index of Communicative Ability (PICA) in 44 patients with acute aphasia within 2 weeks after the onset. Comparison was made between the early group, which consisted of 20 patients who were administered the PICA within 6 days after the onset, and the late group, which consisted of 24 patients who were administered the PICA 7–14 days after the onset. Speech therapy was not administered in either of the two groups. As 42 of 44 patients showed improvements, it was reported that spontaneous recovery was achieved within 1 month. In particular, the early group showed more improvement in scores, showing most pronounced spontaneous recovery within 1–2 weeks. Moreover, given that the results of the final PICA were positively correlated with those of the initial PICA, it was argued that the degree of spontaneous recovery might be proportional to the severity of aphasia at the time of the onset [2]. Lomas & Kertesz evaluated language functions within 30 days and 3 months after the aphasia onset using the Western Aphasia Battery (WAB) in 31 patients with poststroke aphasia. Based on the initial WAB results, the patients were divided into the following four groups: the non-fluent/poor comprehension group, non-fluent/good comprehension group, fluent/poor comprehension group, and fluent/good the comprehension group. The two good comprehension groups exhibited improvements in general language functions, whereas the two poor comprehension groups displayed great improvements in comprehension and repetition [3]. Maeshima et al. evaluated language functions 1, 3, and 6 months after the aphasia onset using the Standard Language Test of Aphasia (SLTA) in 30 patients with poststroke aphasia who had not received speech therapy. Regardless of the age and gender, the SLTA scores improved 3 months after the onset in 18 patients; particularly marked improvements were noted in patients with moderate/mild aphasia. The SLTA scores improved 6 months after the onset in 14 patients irrespective of the severity. In terms of language tasks, such as writing, speech, and comprehension, improvements were observed in all tasks within 6 months. However, differences in the degree of improvement depending on the type and severity of aphasia were reported. Additionally, they reported that some patients were still followed 9–12 months later and that improvements were noted even in patients with severe aphasia [4]. Lendrem & Lincoln used PICA to evaluate 52 patients with poststroke aphasia who did not receive speech therapy 4, 10, 22, and 34 weeks after the onset. They reported that improvements in language functions continued until 34 weeks with the most pronounced improvement at 4–10 weeks. In particular, the results of the first PICA were correlated with the language functions after 6 months, suggesting that the degree of improvement is proportional to the severity of aphasia at the onset [5]. Sarno and Levita evaluated language functions using the Functional Communication Profile (FCP) in 28 patients with severe poststroke aphasia who did not receive speech therapy within 2 days, at 3 and 6 months after the onset. They reported that, as some subjects passed away, the number of the subjects decreased to 18 after 3 months and 14 after 6 months, and the improvements in the FCP were more pronounced at 3 months than 6 months after the onset [6].
Based on these reports, it is clear that spontaneous recovery from aphasia is possible in some cases. Age and gender do not seem to greatly affect the recovery. Although the degree of recovery differs depending on the severity of aphasia and language functions, improvements may be most pronounced 1–3 months after the onset and continue for 3–6 months or more.
1.2 Mechanism involved in recovery of the central nervous system
The recovery process of the central nervous system for a few weeks after the onset is believed to involve reduction of brain edema, necrotic tissue absorption, hematoma absorption, and formation of collateral circulation. Although recovery of the central nervous system is limited after a long duration since the onset, language functions may continue to improve gradually.
Regarding the correlation between the recovery of language functions and the central nervous system recovery, Saur et al. conducted a study using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). They reported the following processes in acute-phase middle cerebral artery (MCA) infarction: First, the activation of the remaining language-associated brain area is reduced, then activation occurs in the brain area related to language function improvement as well as in the surrounding area and the contralateral hemisphere, and finally normal activation ensues. Therefore, the reorganization of the central nervous system progresses in a stepwise manner [7].
Heiss et al., using positron emission tomography, investigated language functions 2 and 8 weeks after the onset in 23 patients with poststroke aphasia. In the group including patients with frontal lobe lesions and in that including patients with subcortical lesions, the right inferior frontal gyrus and the right superior temporal gyrus (STG) were activated at 2 weeks, and the left STG was activated at 8 weeks, showing considerable improvements in the language functions. Among patients with temporal lobe lesions, the left Broca’s area and the supplementary motor area were activated at 2 weeks, and the bilateral precentral gyri and the right STG were activated at 8 weeks. However, the left STG did not activate, and improvements in the language functions were negligible. They reported that the recovery of language functions is preceded by compensation in the right hemisphere and that the preservation of the left STG is crucial for the reorganization of the neural network [8].
Mimura et al. performed single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) to investigate the relationship between cerebral blood flow and language functions in patients with aphasia caused by left MCA lesions within 1 year and 7 years after the onset. They argued that increased blood flow in the left hemisphere was correlated with changes in language functions at 3–9 months and that functional recovery of the left hemisphere was essential for the improvement in language functions within 1 year. Changes in language functions after 7 years were correlated with increases in blood flow in the right hemisphere (especially in the frontal lobe and the thalamus). Functional compensation by the contralateral hemisphere may be involved in the long-term recovery of language functions [9].
These previous reports suggest that the mechanism of recovery involved in central nervous system reorganization may differ depending on the time from the onset. The mechanism for central nervous system recovery may possibly involve the recovery of damaged functional areas, reorganization of neurons in the remaining areas, or compensation by the contralateral hemisphere.
Pani et al. investigated the correlation between the right hemisphere and language functions in patients with chronic aphasia. They reported that fluency of speech was highly correlated with the volume of the middle temporal gyrus, precentral gyrus, and inferior frontal gyrus in the right hemisphere, as well as the volume of the fibers connecting the right and left supplementary motor areas. This may reflect a predisposition toward compensatory functions of the contralateral hemisphere [10].
2. Improvement in language functions
2.1 Factors related to improvement in language functions
2.1.1 Age
Many reports state that young people are more likely to show greater improvement in language functions than old people [11, 12, 13, 14]. The underlying factor for this difference is believed to be the difference in the plasticity of the brain associated with age. Previous studies using fMRI revealed that the left inferior frontal gyrus was activated in young subjects during verbal fluency tasks. Conversely, old subjects showed activation of the right inferior/middle frontal gyrus and poorer scores. These findings imply age-dependent differences in brain physiology and functions [15].
However, many reports conclude that there are no age-dependent differences in terms of improvement in language functions [1, 5, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24]. Therefore, no consensus has been reached on this matter. It is unlikely that language functions are related exclusively to age; hence, other factors, such as etiological causes (post-traumatic aphasia is prevalent in young people) and types of aphasia (Broca’s aphasia is prevalent in young people), may also be related to language functions. Therefore, age-dependent differences may not have been apparent in studies that controlled these conditions. While age is an important factor for improving language functions, one must pay attention to the interpretation of correlation.
2.1.2 Gender
There are gender differences in terms of recovery from aphasia, and some reports showed that women were more inclined to recover than men [25, 26]. These differences may be attributed to the gender differences in the functional composition of the brain. Kansaku & Kitazawa conducted a study using fMRI and reported apparent gender-based differences in the activity of the anterior and posterior speech areas in vocabulary and story comprehension tasks, respectively [27]. Likewise, Shaywitz et al. also conducted a study using fMRI in which activation was found to be biased in the left inferior frontal gyrus in men in phonologic tasks, whereas broad areas including bilateral inferior frontal gyrus were found to be activated in women [28]. These reports indicate that gender plays a role in activating the brain areas with respect to language function. However, many reports argued that gender was not a factor for improving language functions [14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 29]. Therefore, no definite correlation between gender and improvement in language functions has been established. Besides, other factors may also be related to gender. For instance, women are more susceptible than men to subarachnoid hemorrhage, which is an etiological factor conducive to improvement in language functions.
2.1.3 Causative diseases
Improvements in language functions are greater in patients with traumatic injury and in patients with brain hemorrhage than those in patients with brain infarction, respectively [29, 30]. This is attributable to differences in the extent of damage to the parenchyma in the cortical/subcortical tissue in the brain. Compared with brain infarction cases, brain hemorrhage cases achieve greater improvements through the absorption of hematoma and reduction of edema. However, severe aphasia may persist following traumatic injury and brain hemorrhage. Accordingly, prognoses may differ depending on the severity of brain damage. In addition, because of the differences in indications for thrombolysis or thrombectomy, it is difficult to predict the recovery of language function based on etiology alone today.
2.1.4 Dominant hand
The dominant hand is closely related to the language-dominant hemisphere, and 96%, 85%, and 73% of right-handed, ambidextrous, and left-handed people, respectively, have the left hemisphere predominantly controlling language functions [31]. The incidence of aphasia caused by damage to the right hemisphere in non-right-handed people is believed to be 20–40% [32, 33]. As with right-handed people, most non-right-handed people develop aphasia triggered by damage to the left hemisphere. It has been reported that left-handed people develop aphasia more often than right-handed people [34, 35]. Smith reported that there were few left handers in patients with residual aphasia in the chronic phase [36].
These reports suggest that left-handed people are more susceptible to aphasia, but they tend to experience quick and larger improvements in language functions. The following are considered to be factors for good prognosis in left-handed patients with aphasia: A larger brain area responsible for language functions is conducive to restoring any remaining functions, and the presence of areas controlling language functions in both the hemispheres facilitates the activation of compensatory functions in the intact hemisphere [37, 38]. Meanwhile, some reports documented that left-handed patients with aphasia caused by damage to the left hemisphere had poor prognosis [39, 40]. Accordingly, there may be individual differences in the hemispheric dominance of language functions in non-right-handed people.
Among right-handed patients, some may have potential predispositions for left-handedness, such as a history of forced adjustment and familial factors. Information needs to be collected thoroughly in this regard.
2.1.5 Severity of aphasia at the onset
Many reports stated that the severity of aphasia at the onset affects prognosis [5, 11, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 29, 41, 42]. All these reports argued that the language functions improve slowly and quickly in patients with severe and mild aphasia at the onset, respectively. As some reports indicate that the severity of aphasia is proportional to the severity of stroke, there is a possibility that the severity of brain damage also determines the severity and prognosis of aphasia.
Meanwhile, Lazar et al. reported that many patients with severe aphasia could still improve and that there were considerable variations in the degree of improvement in language functions and severity of aphasia 90 days after the onset. Therefore, they concluded that estimating prognosis based on the initial severity alone may be difficult [18]. Mohr et al. investigated language functions in three patients with global aphasia for 5 years and reported that improvements were observed in all the functions, except naming [43]. All reports indicated that language functions may improve even in patients with severe aphasia at the onset. They also suggested that the period required for improvement may differ depending on the patient.
2.1.6 Types of aphasia at the onset
While some reports state that types of aphasia affect the improvement in language functions, others indicated that there is no relationship between them [24]. Kertesz and McCabe reported that Broca’s aphasia showed the largest improvement, followed by conduction aphasia. They stated that amnestic aphasia did not achieve large improvements because it was mild at the onset. Regarding long-term prognosis, patients with global aphasia showed poor prognosis, whereas patients with Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasias exhibited moderately poor prognosis. Complete recovery was achieved in many patients with amnesic aphasia, conduction aphasia, and transcortical aphasia [29]. Demeurisse et al. investigated prognosis 6 months after aphasia onset in patients with three different types of aphasia: global, Broca’s, and Wernicke’s. They reported that patients in the global aphasia group exhibited poorer improvements than those in the other two aphasia groups [41]. Bakheit et al. classified 75 patients with aphasia into the following groups based on the WAB classification: Broca’s, Wernicke’s, global, amnesic, and conduction aphasia, and administered the WAB at the onset and 4, 8, 12, and 24 weeks after the onset. Consequently, the Broca’s aphasia group showed greater improvements than all the other groups, with the greatest improvement from the time of onset to 4 weeks after the onset [44]. Kertetsz reported that the rate of recovery differed depending on the type of aphasia, and patients with Broca’s aphasia achieved the greatest improvement [19]. All these studies commonly reported that patients with Broca’s aphasia had good prognoses, whereas patients with global aphasia showed poor prognoses. However, it should be noted that although patients with amnesic and conduction aphasias who had good WAB scores at the time of admission appeared to achieve less improvements due to a ceiling effect, their final scores tended to be higher than those of patients with Broca’s aphasia who were known to show better improvements.
In a review, Watila and Balarabe cited the location and size of lesions, types of aphasia, and severity as the most critical factors for determining the recovery from aphasia. They concluded that, as all these factors are related each other, it would be difficult to investigate the independent factors [20]. The type of aphasia is somewhat consistent with the severity (e.g., amnestic aphasia is mild and global aphasia is severe). The location of lesions for non-fluent aphasia is different from that for fluent aphasia (anterior or posterior to the boundary of the central sulcus). Therefore, differences in aphasia types may be a factor encompassing these differences.
2.1.7 Location and size of lesions
Watila & Balarabe [20] and Plowman et al. [21] cited the location and size of lesions as factors contributing to the improvement in language functions in patients with poststroke aphasia. Maeshima et al. [45] investigated hemorrhage volume and language functions in 92 patients with putaminal hemorrhage. Consequently, they discovered that repetition difficulty was developed when the hemorrhage volume exceeded 20 mL, and non-fluent aphasia occurred when it exceeded 40 mL. The aforementioned causes of aphasia affect prognosis. However, prognosis may also differ depending on the location and size of lesions in the cortex or subcortex.
Regarding the location of lesions, Marchina et al. emphasized the importance of the arcuate fasciculus, stating that the degree of damage to the arcuate fasciculus is correlated with the improvement in spontaneous speech and naming [46]. The size of lesions represents the degree of damage to the area responsible for controlling language functions itself in the cortex. In the subcortex, improvements in language functions may be poor, despite the lesions being small, when the arcuate fasciculus is damaged.
As discussed above, many studies investigated factors contributing to the recovery of language functions, and all the cited factors were observed to interact and intertwine with each other. Because conditions were not controlled in previous studies, it is not easy to compare each of the factors; thus, no definite theory has been formulated. As most previous studies included patients who underwent speech therapy, it was difficult to clarify whether this was also related to spontaneous recovery.
2.2 Effects of speech and language therapy interventions
One of the effects of speech and language therapy interventions is the improvement in language functions, which is better than the improvement achieved by spontaneous recovery. Nowadays, because speech therapy is provided worldwide to such patients, it is difficult to clearly distinguish between speech therapy-induced recovery and spontaneous recovery. To assess the efficacy of speech and language therapy, previous studies comparing trained and non-trained cases serve as good references.
There are few negative reports on the effectiveness of speech and language therapy. Lincoln et al. investigated changes in language functions in the speech therapy group and the no-therapy group 22 and 34 weeks after the onset. The results showed that language functions improved in both the groups and that no significant differences were observed in the degree of recovery between the two groups [47]. Levita compared improvements in language functions between the group that received speech therapy for 8 weeks and the no-therapy group in patients with aphasia 4–12 weeks after the onset. No differences were found between the two groups [48].
Many reports support the efficacy of speech and language therapy. Wertz et al. compared improvements in language functions in the following three groups: a group of patients who received speech therapy by speech therapists from the onset to week 12 and did not receive any therapy from week 12 to 24; a group of patients who received language practice by volunteers until week 12 and did not receive any practice from week 12 to 24; and a group of patients who did not receive any therapy until week 12 and received speech therapy by speech therapists from week 12 to 24. The results showed that, as of week 12, significant differences were observed between the groups that received language therapy by speech therapists until week 12 and the group that did not receive any language therapy until week 12 and that no significant differences were observed among all the groups at 24 weeks. They concluded that language therapy by speech therapists promotes improvements at the onset, and delayed interventions are still conducive to improvements [49].
Basso et al. investigated the factors affecting the improvement in the four language functions of speech, comprehension, reading, and writing, in the speech therapy group, which consisted of 162 patients who underwent speech therapy and the no-treatment group, which consisted of 119 patients who did not. In this study, although the duration from the onset to language function evaluation varied greatly, they compared the results of the language function evaluation for the first time and after 6 months, and reported that the implementation of language therapy was a factor responsible for improvements in all the language functions [24].
Maeshima et al. examined the language functions (writing, speech, and comprehension) in the speech therapy group, which consisted of 18 patients who received language therapy and the no-treatment group, which consisted of 18 patients who did not. They compared scores for each function and also compared the comprehensive language function scores calculated by summing each function scores between the two groups, 1, 3, and 6 months after the onset. No significant differences were observed in the language functions at 1 and 6 months after the onset between the two groups. However, many patients in the speech therapy group showed significant improvements at 3 months after the onset (Figure 1). Based on language function, many patients in the speech therapy group improved with regard to speech and writing at 3 months after the onset (Figure 2). These results indicate that improvements beyond spontaneous recovery may be achieved at an early stage following speech therapy interventions. In particular, it is easier to obtain the effects on the expressive aspect of language functions [50].
Figure 1.
Many patients in the speech therapy group showed significant improvements of language at 3 months after the onset.
Figure 2.
Many patients in the speech therapy group improved with regard to speech and writing at 3 months after the onset.
These reports suggest that early administration of speech therapy facilitates the recovery process beyond spontaneous recovery. The intervention effects may include improvements not only in passive language functions but also in active language functions that cannot be easily facilitated by daily voice–language communication.
In a literature review, Cicerone et al. stated that there was evidence supporting the efficacy of speech and language therapy for aphasia [51]. Conversely, while acknowledging the effectiveness of speech and language therapy, Mimura et al. argued in a review that scientific evidence was still insufficient because of the lack of evaluation of practice content’s individuality and the effects in the no practice group [52]. In a Cochrane review, Brady et al. similarly stated that there was evidence supporting the effectiveness of speech therapy in improving functional communication, reading, writing, and expressive language, suggesting the efficacy of frequent and long-term speech therapy. However, they also argued that evidence was still insufficient because of small sample sizes and disunified practice methods [53]. Pickersgill and Lincoln (1983) asserted that although speech therapy interventions were expected to lead to early recovery, they would not expand the degree of final recovery. They appealed the early intervention effects of speech therapy, while simultaneously casting doubts regarding the argument that the interventions would also promote long-term recovery [23].
2.3 Significance of speech therapy interventions
As mentioned above, speech therapy interventions for aphasia improve language functions more than those by spontaneous recovery. Another significant effect is that these interventions help patients acquire communication techniques utilizing the remaining functions, thereby improving their quality of life.
Speech therapy approaches for aphasia are as follows: the therapeutic approach for functional deficits, the compensatory approach for disabilities, and the environment improvement approach for social disadvantages.
Examples of therapeutic approaches include Shuell’s stimulus-facilitation approach [54], deblocking method [55], functional reorganization method [56], cognitive neuropsychological approach [57], semantic therapy [58], and melodic intonation therapy (MIT) [59]. They are considered effective for improving aphasia itself.
Meanwhile, examples of compensatory approaches for disabilities include acquisition practices for compensatory means, such as gesture practice, drawing practice, and practice for using other strategies, as well as practices for using compensatory means, such as the use of promoting aphasics’ communicative effectiveness (PACE) and augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). In group therapy, patients with aphasia practice communicating effectively with other patients using available language and nonlanguage means [60, 61]. For patients with aphasia having communication difficulty at the onset, speech and language therapists must establish means of communication at early stages [62, 63].
Moreover, in addition to communication difficulty, patients with aphasia have various secondary problems in their daily lives, including difficulties in social connection, such as using financial institutions, public offices, public transportation systems, and commuting to the hospital. They also face problems, such as restrictions, in going to places for communicating with others and participating in leisure activities [64]. Simmons-Mackie et al. argued that encouraging the acquisition of communication partners promotes social participation among patients with aphasia and improves their communication skills. To resolve social and psychological issues among patients with aphasia, it is essential to promote family counseling and interactions with communication partners [65].
For rehabilitating patients with aphasia, it is desirable to appropriately approach the factors hindering communication and provide rehabilitation with a focus on life in the future.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"aphasia, spontaneous recovery, recovery process, speech language therapy, rehabilitation",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79101.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79101.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79101",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79101",totalDownloads:176,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:47,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"August 31st 2021",dateReviewed:"September 29th 2021",datePrePublished:"October 23rd 2021",datePublished:"June 1st 2022",dateFinished:"October 23rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The recovery of aphasia occurs immediately after the onset of the disease and lasts for several months or more. The speed and degree of improvement in aphasia vary depending on the time since onset, severity of aphasia, and each language modalities. It is assumed that there is a difference in the mechanism of aphasia recovery. The recovery process of the central nervous system observed in the first few days to weeks after the onset of aphasia is thought to involve the disappearance of cerebral edema, the absorption of necrotic tissue, angiogenesis, the development of the collateral circulation, and the resolution of hematomas, leading to the repair of damaged tissue. In the chronic phase, 1) recovery of damaged functional areas, 2) reconstruction of functions in the residual areas, and 3) compensatory functions by the contralateral hemisphere or activation of the contralateral cortex are assumed. In recent years, there have been many reports supporting the effectiveness of speech and language therapy interventions. Speech and language therapy should not only promote improvement of aphasia, but also take a comprehensive approach to improve the QOL of aphasia patients, such as acquisition of compensatory means of communication and family guidance.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79101",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79101",book:{id:"10889",slug:"aphasia-compendium"},signatures:"Chiaki Yamaji and Shinichiro Maeshima",authors:[{id:"302759",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinichiro",middleName:null,surname:"Maeshima",fullName:"Shinichiro Maeshima",slug:"shinichiro-maeshima",email:"shinichiromaeshima@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302759/images/system/302759.jpg",institution:null},{id:"426693",title:"Ms.",name:"Chiaki",middleName:null,surname:"Yamaji",fullName:"Chiaki Yamaji",slug:"chiaki-yamaji",email:"yamaji-c@fujita-hu.ac.jp",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Kinjo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1 What is spontaneous recovery?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2 Mechanism involved in recovery of the central nervous system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"2. Improvement in language functions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.1 Factors related to improvement in language functions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.1 Age",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.2 Gender",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.3 Causative diseases",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.4 Dominant hand",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.1.5 Severity of aphasia at the onset",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.1.6 Types of aphasia at the onset",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.1.7 Location and size of lesions",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.2 Effects of speech and language therapy interventions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"2.3 Significance of speech therapy interventions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Culton GL. Spontaneous recovery from Aphasia. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research. 1969;12(4).825-832'},{id:"B2",body:'Hartman J. 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Treatment efficacy of social communication skills training after traumatic brain injury: A randomized treatment and deferred treatment controlled trial. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2007;88(12):1561-1573'},{id:"B62",body:'Herrmann M, Reichle T, Lucius-Hoene G, Wallesch CW, Johannsen-Horbach H. Nonverbal communication as a compensative strategy for severely nonfluent aphasics? A quantitative approach. Brain and Language. 1988;33(1):41-54'},{id:"B63",body:'Helm-Estabrooks N, Fitzpatrick PM, Barresi B. Visual action therapy for global aphasia. The Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders. 1982;47(4):385-389'},{id:"B64",body:'Dorze GL, Brassard C. A description of the consequences of aphasia on aphasic persons and their relatives and friends, based on the WHO model of chronic diseases. Aphasiology. 1995;9(3):239-255'},{id:"B65",body:'Simmons-Mackie N, Raymer A, Cherney LR. Communication partner training in Aphasia: An updated systematic review. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 2016;97(12):2202-2221'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Chiaki Yamaji",address:"yamaji-c@fujita-hu.ac.jp",affiliation:'
Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Kinjo University, Hakusan, Japan
Graduate School of Rehabilitation, Kinjo University, Hakusan, Japan
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1. Introduction
In order to provide high data transmission rates, the bandwidth of mobile communication systems is increasing. In fourth generation (4G) long term evolution (LTE), the maximum transmission bandwidth for one component carrier is 20 MHz [1]. In fifth generation (5G) new radio (NR), the frequency bands are divided into two parts: frequency range 1 (FR1) below 6 GHz and frequency range 2 (FR2) above 24.25 GHz. The maximum transmission bandwidth for one component carrier is 100 MHz and 400 MHz in FR1 and FR2 respectively [2]. The increasing system bandwidth brings new problems to the design of the transmitter and the receiver. In this chapter of the book, we focus on the cyclic redundancy check (CRC) implementation in 5G NR.
In 5G NR, there are many physical channels defined in the downlink and the uplink [3]. The downlink physical channels consist of the physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH), the physical downlink control channel (PDCCH), the physical broadcast channel (PBCH), etc. The uplink physical channels consist of physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH), the physical uplink control channel (PUCCH), the physical random access channel (PRACH), etc. The PDSCH and the PDSCH are mainly used to transmit data. The usage scenarios of 5G NR consist of enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), massive machine-type communications (mMTC) and ultra-reliable and low latency communications (URLLC) [4, 5]. The usage scenario of the eMBB requires high data transmission rates. As a consequence, we focus on the PDSCH and the PUSCH in this chapter.
The medium access control (MAC) layer organizes the data into the transport block and transmits it to the physical layer. In 5G NR, the maximum transport block size is 1,277,992 [6]. The processing of the transport block is shown in Figure 1 [7]. If the transport block size is larger than 3824, a 16-bit CRC is added at the end of the transport block. Otherwise, a 24-bit CRC is added at the end of the transport block. The transport block is divided into multiple equal size code blocks when the transport block size exceeds a threshold. For quasi-cyclic low-density parity-check code (QC-LDPC) base graph 1, the threshold is equal to 8448. For QC-LDPC base graph 2, the threshold is equal to 3840. In 5G NR, the maximum code block size number is 8448. An additional 24-bit CRC is added at the end of each code block when there is a segmentation. Due to the difference in the size of the transport block and the code block, the CRC processing scheme suitable for the transport block and that suitable for the code block are different.
Figure 1.
The transport block and the code block.
The rest of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 describes the system model of the transport block and the code block in 5G NR. Section 3 gives two properties of the CRC. Section 4 presents the overview of the CRC implementation. Finally, Section 5 gives the conclusion.
2. System model
Let a=a0a1…aL−1aLaL+1…aL+N−1 be the transport block including the transport block level CRC, where L is the transport block size and N is the transport block level CRC size. Note that p=aLaL+1…aL+N−1 is the transport block level CRC. If L is smaller than or equal to 3824, then N is equal to 16 and p is generated by the following cyclic generator polynomial:
g16x=x16+x12+x5+1E1
If L is larger than 3824, then N is equal to 24 and p is generated by the following cyclic generator polynomial:
When L+N is larger than M, the transport block including the transport block level CRC is segmented into multiple code blocks. Let R be code rate of the initial transmission indicated by the modulation and coding scheme (MCS) index. If L>292 and R>0.67 or L>3824 and R>0.25, then QC-LDPC base graph 1 is used and M is equal to 8448. Otherwise, QC-LDPC base graph 2 is used and M is equal to 3840.
When there is no segmentation, the number of code blocks C is equal to 1. When there is a segmentation, the number of code blocks C is equal to
C=L+N/M−24E3
In the following sections, we mainly consider the case that there is a segmentation. Let ci=c0ic1i…cK−1i be the ith code block, where K is the code block size and is equal to
K=L+N/C+24E4
Note that the procedure of the transport block size determination guarantees that L+N is divisible by C. cK−24icK−23i…cK−1i is the code block level CRC, which is generated by the cyclic generator polynomial
g24Bx=x24+x23+x6+x5+x+1E5
cji is equal to
cji=aiK−24+jE6
where 0≤j≤K−25. In the following, the processing of the transport block includes: QC-LPDC encoding, rate matching, bit interleaving and code block concatenation. The encoded transport block is transmitted over the air after the symbol level processing.
At the receiver side, the following steps are carried out for the transport block: code block segmentation, bit de-interleaving, de-rate matching, QC-LPDC decoding, code block concatenation. We need to check whether each code block and the transport block are correctly received. Let di=d0id1i…dK−1i be the ith received code block after the hard decision and e=e0e1…eL+N−1 be the received transport block after the hard decision. ej is equal to
ej=duvE7
wherev=j/K−24, u=modjK−24 and 0≤j≤L+N−1. The undetected error probability is required to be less than 10−6 in 5G NR [8, 9]. Since the parity check capacity of QC-LDPC codes alone cannot meet the undetected error probability requirement of 5G NR [8, 9], we need to use the CRC check to determine whether di and e are correctly received.
3. Properties of the CRC
In this section, we give two properties of the CRC. These properties are useful in the CRC implementation. Before giving these properties, we define some variables. Let Ax and Bx be the polynomials. Let gx be the cyclic generator polynomial. CRCgxAx is defined as the remainder when Ax is divided by gx. The two properties are listed as follows.
Property 1.
CRCgxAxBx=CRCgxCRCgxAxCRCgxBxE8
Property 1 implies that CRCgxAxBx can be obtained by computing the CRC of Ax and Bx independently.
Property 2.
CRCgxAx+Bx=CRCgxAx+CRCgxBx.E9
Property 2 implies that CRCgxAx+Bx can be obtained by computing the CRC of Ax and Bx independently.
The proof of the property 1 and the property 2 can be found in Refs. [10, 11]. It is omitted for brevity. gx in the expression of CRCgxAx is clear from the context. As a consequence, gx in the expression of CRCgxAx is omitted in the following.
4. Overview of the CRC implementation
In this section, we give an overview of the CRC implementation. In the following, the received transport block after the hard decision e is used as an example. The implementation is easily generalized to other cases.
4.1 CRC implementation by direct calculation
In this scheme, the CRC of e is directly calculated by the division of polynomial using modulo-2 arithmetic.
Figure 2 illustrates an example. The dividend is equal to x5+x4+x+1 and the divisor is equal to x2+x+1. The division of polynomial begins by putting x5+x4+x3 below x5+x4. Subtracting and bringing down the next term give us the intermediate variable x3+x. This process is repeated until the degree of the intermediate variable is less than 2. Finally, we obtain that the quotient is equal to x3+x+1 and the remainder is equal to x. That is,
Figure 2.
The division of polynomial using modulo-2 arithmetic.
CRCx5+x4+x+1=xE10
The division of polynomial using modulo-2 arithmetic is a computationally intensive operation. In the worst case, it requires a shift operation and an XOR logic operation for each bit of e. As a consequence, this scheme is rarely used in actual systems. In order to solve the problem of the direct calculation, many schemes have been proposed in the literatures.
For example, the CRC implementation for gx=x5+x3+x+1 is shown in Figure 3 [12, 13]. The parallelism of this CRC implementation is 1 and thus one bit is processed on every clock cycle. Multiple bits can be processed on every clock cycle to speed the CRC calculation. For example, another CRC implementation for gx=x5+x3+x+1 is shown in Figure 4 [14, 15]. The parallelism of this CRC implementation is 3 and thus three bits are processed on every clock cycle. From Figures 3 and 4, it is clear that parallelism comes at the expense of the increased circuit complexity.
Figure 3.
CRC implementation for gx=x5+x3+x+1.
Figure 4.
CRC implementation for gx=x5+x3+x+1.
4.2 CRC implementation by parallel processing
In this scheme,e is segmented into multiple blocks and the CRC of each block is obtained by parallel processing. e is segmented into multiple blocks [16]:
e0,e1,…,eM−1E11
The size of eM−1 is n and the size of ej is m, where 0≤j≤M−2. Note that L+N is equal to n+mM−1. As a consequence, e can be expressed as
The above expression explains how CRCe is obtained. The detail is shown in Figure 5. CRCxm,CRCx2m,…,CRCxM−2m and CRCxn do not depend on the transport block size and can be precomputed. Since n is in the range 0m−1, variables that need to be precomputed include
Figure 5.
CRC implementation by parallel processing.
CRCx1,CRCx2,…,CRCxm−1,CRCxm,CRCx2m,…,CRCxM−2mE13
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is m+M−3.
It is clear that the memory that needs to store the variables increases with the transport block size. To reduce the memory, CRCxαm can be recursively calculated by using CRCxm [17]. That is, CRCxαm is recursively obtained by the following expression
CRCxαm=CRCCRCxα−1mCRCxmE14
In this way, the variables that need to be precomputed include
CRCx1,CRCx2,…,CRCxm−1,CRCxmE15
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is m.
4.3 CRC implementation by serial processing
In this scheme, e is segmented into multiple blocks and the CRC of each block is obtained by serial processing. e is segmented into multiple blocks [18]:
e0,e1,…,eM−1E16
The size of eM−1 is n and the size of ej is m, where 0≤j≤M−2. Note that L+N is equal to n+mM−1. e can be expressed as
where e=M−1/P. The above expression explains how CRCe is calculated. The detail is shown in Figure 6. CRCxm,CRCx2m,…,CRCxp−1m and CRCxn do not depend on the transport block size and can be precomputed. Since n is in the range 0m−1, variables that need to be precomputed include
Figure 6.
CRC implementation by serial processing.
CRCx1,CRCx2,…,CRCxm−1,CRCxm,CRCx2m,…,CRCxp−1mE19
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is m+p−2.
It is clear that the memory that needs to store the variables increases with the transport block size. To reduce the memory, CRCxαmcan be recursively calculated by using CRCxm [17]. That is, CRCxαm is recursively obtained by the following expression
CRCxαm=CRCCRCxα−1mCRCxmE20
In this way, the variables that need to be precomputed include
CRCx1,CRCx2,…,CRCxm−1,CRCxmE21
As a consequence, the number of variables that needs to be precomputed is m.
4.4 The Sarwate algorithm
Sarwate proposes an algorithm based on the lookup table [19]. The detail and the proof of the algorithm can be found in [19]. The Sarwate algorithm is shown in Figure 7 [20]. The Sarwate algorithm uses a single table of 256 32-bit elements and reads the bits byte by byte. Modern processors usually access 32 bits or 64 bits at a time. As a consequence, the Sarwate algorithm is not efficient. Some schemes have been proposed in the literatures to solve this problem.
Figure 7.
The Sarwate algorithm.
4.5 The slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms
Kounavis and Berry propose the slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms based on the lookup table [20]. The detail and the proof of the algorithms can be found in [20]. The slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms are shown in Figures 8 and 9 respectively [20]. The slicing-by-4 algorithm uses four tables of 256 32-bit elements and reads 32 bits at a time. The slicing-by-8 algorithm uses eight tables of 256 32-bit elements and reads 64 bits at a time. The performance of the slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms is improved compared to the Sarwate algorithm.
Figure 8.
The slicing-by-4 algorithm.
Figure 9.
The slicing-by-8 algorithm.
5. Conclusion
In 5G NR, the transport block consists of up to million bits and the code block consists of up to 8448 bits. Due to the difference in the size of the transport block and the code block, the scheme of the CRC processing suitable for the transport block and that suitable for the code block are different. This chapter gives an overview of the CRC implementation in 5G NR.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"5G, NR, CRC, transport block, code block",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71476.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71476.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71476",totalDownloads:826,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 26th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 17th 2020",datePrePublished:"March 17th 2020",datePublished:"August 18th 2021",dateFinished:"March 17th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In fifth generation (5G) new radio (NR), the medium access control (MAC) layer organizes the data into the transport block and transmits it to the physical layer. The transport block consists of up to million bits. When the transport block size exceeds a threshold, the transport block is divided into multiple equal size code blocks. The code block consists of up to 8448 bits. Both the transport block and the code block have a cyclic redundancy check (CRC) attached. Due to the difference in the size of the transport block and the code block, the CRC processing scheme suitable for the transport block and that suitable for the code block are different. This chapter gives an overview of the CRC implementation in 5G NR.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71476",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71476",signatures:"Hao Wu",book:{id:"9173",type:"book",title:"Moving Broadband Mobile Communications Forward",subtitle:"Intelligent Technologies for 5G and Beyond",fullTitle:"Moving Broadband Mobile Communications Forward - Intelligent Technologies for 5G and Beyond",slug:"moving-broadband-mobile-communications-forward-intelligent-technologies-for-5g-and-beyond",publishedDate:"August 18th 2021",bookSignature:"Abdelfatteh Haidine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9173.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83962-344-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-343-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-345-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"187242",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatteh",middleName:null,surname:"Haidine",slug:"abdelfatteh-haidine",fullName:"Abdelfatteh Haidine"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"312541",title:"Mr.",name:"Hao",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",fullName:"Hao Wu",slug:"hao-wu",email:"wu.hao19@zte.com.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. System model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Properties of the CRC",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Overview of the CRC implementation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 CRC implementation by direct calculation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 CRC implementation by parallel processing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 CRC implementation by serial processing",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 The Sarwate algorithm",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5 The slicing-by-4 and slicing-by-8 algorithms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Erik D, Stefan P, Johan S. 4G: LTE/LTE-advanced for Mobile Broadband. 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Elsevier; 2014'},{id:"B2",body:'Erik D, Stefan P, Johan S. 5G NR: The Next Generation Wireless Access Technology. London, UK: Elsevier; 2018'},{id:"B3",body:'3GPP TS 38.211, V15.3.0, NR; Physical channels and modulation (Release 15). 2018-09'},{id:"B4",body:'Hyoungju J, Sunho P, Jeongho Y, Younsun K, Juho L, Byonghyo S. Ultra-reliable and low-latency communications in 5G downlink: Physical layer aspects. IEEE Wireless Communications. 2018;25:124-130. DOI: 10.1109/MWC.2018.1700294'},{id:"B5",body:'Petar P, Kasper Floe T, Osvaldo S, Giuseppe D. 5G wireless network slicing for eMBB, URLLC, and mMTC: A communication-theoretic view. IEEE Access. 2018;6:55765-55779. DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2872781'},{id:"B6",body:'3GPP TS 38.214, V15.3.0, NR; physical layer procedures for data (Release 15). 2018-09'},{id:"B7",body:'3GPP TS 38.212, V15.3.0, NR; multiplexing and channel coding (Release 15). 2018-09'},{id:"B8",body:'R1-1713458. Qualcomm Incorporated, CRC attachment. 3GPP TSG RAN Meeting #90; August 21–25, 2017; Prague, Czechia'},{id:"B9",body:'Hao W. Hard decision of the zero a posteriori LLR in 5G NR. Internet Technology Letters. 2020;3:e146. DOI: 10.1002/itl2.146'},{id:"B10",body:'Yan S, Min SK. A table-based algorithm for pipelined CRC calculation. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC’10); 23-27 May 2010; Cape Town, South Africa: IEEE; 2010. pp. 1-5'},{id:"B11",body:'Hao W, Fang W, Yuqing Y. A distributed CRC early termination scheme for high throughput QC-LDPC codes. In: Proceedings of International Conference on Wireless Communications and Signal Processing (WCSP) (WCSP ’18); 18-20 October 2018; Hangzhou, China: IEEE; 2018. pp. 1-5'},{id:"B12",body:'TongBi P, Charles Z. High-speed parallel CRC circuits in VLSI. IEEE Transactions on Communications. 1992;40:653-657. DOI: 10.1109/26.141415'},{id:"B13",body:'Richard EB. Algebraic Codes for Data Transmission. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 2003'},{id:"B14",body:'Chao C, Keshab KP. High-speed parallel CRC implementation based on unfolding, pipelining, and retiming. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs. 2006;53:1017-1021. DOI: 10.1109/TCSII.2006.882213'},{id:"B15",body:'Keshab KP. VLSI Digital Signal Processing Systems: Design and Implementation. New York, USA: John Wiley & Sons; 1999'},{id:"B16",body:'Ji HM, Killian E. Fast parallel CRC algorithm and implementation on a configurable processor. In: Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Communications (ICC’02); 28 April-2 May 2002. New York, USA: IEEE; 2002. pp. 1813-1817'},{id:"B17",body:'Hyeji K, Injun C, Wooseok B, Jong-yeol L, Ji-Hoon K. Distributed CRC architecture for high-radix parallel turbo decoding in LTE-advanced systems. IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Express Briefs. 2015;62:906-910. DOI: 10.1109/TCSII.2015.2435131'},{id:"B18",body:'Hao W, Tao L, Jin X, Fang W. Parallel CRC architecture for broadband communication systems. Electronics Letters. 2017;53:1439-1441. DOI: 10.1049/el.2017.1029'},{id:"B19",body:'Sarwate DV. Computation of cyclic redundancy checks via table look-up. Communications of the ACM. 1988;31:1008-1014. DOI: 10.1145/63030.63037'},{id:"B20",body:'Michael EK, Frank LB. Novel table lookup-based algorithms for high-performance CRC generation. IEEE Transactions on Computers. 2008;57:1550-1560. DOI: 10.1109/TC.2008.85'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Hao Wu",address:"wu.hao19@zte.com.cn",affiliation:'
Department of Wireless Product Research and Design Institute, ZTE Corporation, China
State Key Laboratory of Mobile Network and Mobile Multimedia Technology, ZTE Corporation, China
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The social, environmental, and economical problems can be omitted by use of renewable energy sources, because these resources are considered as environment-friendly, having no or little emission of exhaust and poisonous gases like carbon dioxide, carbon monooxide, sulfur dioxide, etc. Renewable energy is going to be an important source for power generation in near future, because we can use these resources again and again to produce useful energy. Wind power generation is considered as having lowest water consumption, lowest relative greenhouse gas emission, and most favorable social impacts. It is considered as one of the most sustainable renewable energy sources, followed by hydropower, photovoltaic, and then geothermal. As these resources are considered as clean energy resources, they can be helpful for the mitigation of greenhouse effect and global warming effect. Local employment, better health, job opportunities, job creation, consumer choice, improvement of life standard, social bonds creation, income development, demographic impacts, social bonds creation, and community development can be achieved by the proper usage of renewable energy system. 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Therefore, the Madbi source rock can be considered as generative potentials of prospective source rock horizons in the Sayun-Masilah basin.",book:{id:"5811",slug:"recent-insights-in-petroleum-science-and-engineering",title:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering",fullTitle:"Recent Insights in Petroleum Science and Engineering"},signatures:"Nabil Mohammed Al-Areeq",authors:[{id:"198686",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:"Mohammed",surname:"Al-Areeq",slug:"nabil-al-areeq",fullName:"Nabil Al-Areeq"}]},{id:"70887",title:"Lithium Recovery from Brines Including Seawater, Salt Lake Brine, Underground Water and Geothermal Water",slug:"lithium-recovery-from-brines-including-seawater-salt-lake-brine-underground-water-and-geothermal-wat",totalDownloads:5084,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Demand to lithium rising swiftly as increasing due to its diverse applications such as rechargeable batteries, light aircraft alloys, air purification, medicine and nuclear fusion. Lithium demand is expected to triple by 2025 through the use of batteries, particularly electric vehicles. The lithium market is expected to grow from 184,000 TPA of lithium carbonate to 534,000 TPA by 2025. To ensure the growing consumption of lithium, it is necessary to increase the production of lithium from different resources. Natural lithium resources mainly associate within granite pegmatite type deposit (spodumene and petalite ores), salt lake brines, seawater and geothermal water. Among them, the reserves of lithium resource in salt lake brine, seawater and geothermal water are in 70–80% of the total, which are excellent raw materials for lithium extraction. Compared with the minerals, the extraction of lithium from water resources is promising because this aqueous lithium recovery is more abundant, more environmentally friendly and cost-effective.",book:{id:"8572",slug:"thermodynamics-and-energy-engineering",title:"Thermodynamics and Energy Engineering",fullTitle:"Thermodynamics and Energy Engineering"},signatures:"Samadiy Murodjon, Xiaoping Yu, Mingli Li, Ji Duo and Tianlong Deng",authors:null},{id:"42273",title:"Techno-Economic Analysis of Different Energy Storage Technologies",slug:"techno-economic-analysis-of-different-energy-storage-technologies",totalDownloads:8661,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"2154",slug:"energy-storage-technologies-and-applications",title:"Energy Storage",fullTitle:"Energy Storage - Technologies and Applications"},signatures:"Hussein Ibrahim and Adrian Ilinca",authors:[{id:"145865",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hussein-ibrahim",fullName:"Hussein Ibrahim"}]},{id:"11458",title:"Natural Gas : Physical Properties and Combustion Features",slug:"natural-gas-physical-properties-and-combustion-features",totalDownloads:32083,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:null,book:{id:"3584",slug:"natural-gas",title:"Natural Gas",fullTitle:"Natural Gas"},signatures:"Olivier Le Corre and Khaled Loubar",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"117",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"76952",title:"Smart Grid Modernization: Opportunities and Challenges",slug:"smart-grid-modernization-opportunities-and-challenges",totalDownloads:168,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97892",abstract:"Recently, there have been significant technological approaches for the bulk power grid. The customer demand is associated with conventional grid coupled large central generating stations through a high voltage transmission to a distribution system. Urban transmission systems are consistently progressing to meet the increasing needs for power and to replace old-pattern generation with native renewable generation and power provisions from outward green energy resources. Power grid is undergoing remarkable modernization towards advanced consistency, greater efficiency, and less cost by the incorporation of renewable energy and developed control technology. Quick developing nature of grid, consumer needs, and industrial invention situates substation modernization at the leading of grid transformation. Smart grid is essential to accomplish all the fastest technological reformations occurring in generation, transmission and distribution (T&D) of electric power, with growing application of sensors, computers and communications. In this study the recent trend and application of electric power grid is briefly enunciated.",book:{id:"10597",title:"Electric Grid Modernization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10597.jpg"},signatures:"Saumen Dhara, Alok Kumar Shrivastav and Pradip Kumar Sadhu"},{id:"76571",title:"xIoT-Based Converged 5G and ICT Infrastructure",slug:"xiot-based-converged-5g-and-ict-infrastructure",totalDownloads:143,totalDimensionsCites:2,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97605",abstract:"This chapter examines and explores the potential of how the capabilities of the emerging 5G cellular technologies can be integrated with a given mission-critical xIoT application (e., g., smart grid) to enable a truly converged xIoT-ICT infrastructure that would further enhance and enable the adequate support of the strict performance requirement of such an xIoT application. Since the smart grid believed to be one of the most necessitated IoT services. in this work, it has been nominated as a descriptive xIoT case. As the smart grid comprises an extensive collection of applications extended from mission-critical services which have rigorous necessities in terms of end-to-end (E2E) latency and reliability (e.g., real-time system protection and control utilizing PMU measurements) to those that require support of massive number of connected machine-to-machine (M2M) devices with relaxed latency and reliability requirements (e.g., smart meters). Based on time-to-market strategy, we identify and propose two different 5G-based business and architectural models that enable a truly converged power grid-ICT infrastructure, namely, near-term model and long-term model.",book:{id:"10597",title:"Electric Grid Modernization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10597.jpg"},signatures:"Ahmed Y. 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\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
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She has been a faculty member at the University of California, Riverside in the School of Education since 2016. Her research focuses on translational studies to explore the reward system in ASD, as well as how anxiety contributes to social challenges in ASD. She also investigates how behavioral interventions affect neural activity, behavior, and school performance in children with ASD. She is also involved in the diagnosis of children with ASD and is a licensed clinical psychologist in California. 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He graduated from the Physics Department of the University of Crete and continued his post-graduate studies at the University Paris 7-Denis Diderot (D.E.A. in Didactic of Physics), University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (D.E.A. in Science Education) and received his Ph.D. degree at the University Paris 5-René Descartes-Sorbonne (PhD in Science Education). His research interests include science education in early childhood, science teaching and learning, e-learning, the use of ICT in science education, games simulations, and mobile learning. 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She has run and participated in several funded and non-funded projects on the teaching of Science, Social Sciences, and ICT in education. She also has the experience of participating in five Erasmus+ projects.",institutionString:"University of Crete",institution:{name:"University of Crete",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"90",title:"Human Development",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/90.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"191040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tal",middleName:null,surname:"Dotan Ben-Soussan",slug:"tal-dotan-ben-soussan",fullName:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBf1QAG/Profile_Picture_2022-03-18T07:56:11.jpg",biography:"Tal Dotan Ben-Soussan, Ph.D., is the director of the Research Institute for Neuroscience, Education and Didactics (RINED) – Paoletti Foundation. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334239",title:"Prof.",name:"Leung",middleName:null,surname:"Wai Keung",slug:"leung-wai-keung",fullName:"Leung Wai Keung",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hong Kong",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",slug:"attilio-rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",slug:"yanfei-(jacob)-qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105008",signatures:"Hailian Shen",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105457",signatures:"Gilnei Bruno da Silva, Daiane Manica, Marcelo Moreno and Margarete Dulce Bagatini",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Purinergic System",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82096",title:"An Important Component of Tumor Progression: Fatty Acids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105087",signatures:"Jin Wang, Qifei Wang and Guangzhen Wu",slug:"an-important-component-of-tumor-progression-fatty-acids",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - 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