\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6240",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Adaptive Robust Control Systems",title:"Adaptive Robust Control Systems",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book focuses on the applications of robust and adaptive control approaches to practical systems. \nThe proposed control systems hold two important features: \n(1) The system is robust with the variation in plant parameters and disturbances\n(2) The system adapts to parametric uncertainties even in the unknown plant structure by self-training and self-estimating the unknown factors.\nThe various kinds of robust adaptive controls represented in this book are composed of sliding mode control, model-reference adaptive control, gain-scheduling, H-infinity, model-predictive control, fuzzy logic, neural networks, machine learning, and so on. The control objects are very abundant, from cranes, aircrafts, and wind turbines to automobile, medical and sport machines, combustion engines, and electrical machines.",isbn:"978-953-51-3797-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3796-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4070-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68813",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"adaptive-robust-control-systems",numberOfPages:362,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"19601f78e28ac1956912e5eeb6b834ac",bookSignature:"Le Anh Tuan",publishedDate:"March 7th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6240.jpg",numberOfDownloads:21740,numberOfWosCitations:11,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:33,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 18th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 9th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 5th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 3rd 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"180551",title:"Prof.",name:"Anh Tuan",middleName:null,surname:"Le",slug:"anh-tuan-le",fullName:"Anh Tuan Le",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180551/images/6926_n.png",biography:"Le Anh Tuan received his BE and ME degrees in Mechanical Engineering and Marine Machinery from the Vietnam Maritime University in 2003 and 2007, respectively. He received his PhD degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Kyung Hee University, South Korea, in 2012. He was a research fellow at the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore; a visiting scholar at the University of Birmingham, UK; and an endeavor research fellow at the University of Technology Sydney, Australia. He is a contract research professor at the Center of Wind Energy System, Kunsan National University, \nKorea, since 2016. He is currently an associate professor at the Department of Automotive Engineering of the Vietnam Maritime University. His research interests are nonlinear robust adaptive control, dynamics, vibration, and control of industrial machines.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Viet Nam Maritime University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"115",title:"Control Engineering",slug:"engineering-control-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"57419",title:"Robust Adaptive Controls of a Vehicle Seat Suspension System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71422",slug:"robust-adaptive-controls-of-a-vehicle-seat-suspension-system",totalDownloads:1357,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This work proposes two novel adaptive fuzzy controllers and applies them to vibration control of a vehicle seat suspension system subjected to severe road profiles. The first adaptive controller is designed by considering prescribed performance of the sliding surface and combined with adaptation laws so that robust stability is guaranteed in the presence of external disturbances. As for the second adaptive controller, both the H-infinity controller and sliding mode controller are combined using inversely fuzzified values of the fuzzy model. In order to evaluate control performances of the proposed two adaptive controllers, a semi-active vehicle suspension system installed with a magneto-rheological (MR) damper is adopted. After determining control gains, two controllers are applied to the system and vibration control performances such as displacement at the driver’s position are evaluated and presented in time domain. In this work, to demonstrate the control robustness two severe road profiles of regular bump and random step wave are imposed as external disturbances. It is shown that both adaptive controllers can enhance ride comfort of the driver by reducing the displacement and acceleration at the seat position. This excellent performance is achieved from each benefit of each adaptive controller; accurate tracking performance of the first controller and fast convergence time of the second controller.",signatures:"Do Xuan Phu, Ta Duc Huy and Seung Bok Choi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57419",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57419",authors:[{id:"58128",title:"Prof.",name:"Seung-Bok",surname:"Choi",slug:"seung-bok-choi",fullName:"Seung-Bok Choi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57990",title:"Adaptive Robust Guidance Scheme Based on the Sliding Mode Control in an Aircraft Pursuit-Evasion Problem",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72177",slug:"adaptive-robust-guidance-scheme-based-on-the-sliding-mode-control-in-an-aircraft-pursuit-evasion-pro",totalDownloads:1093,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a robust guidance scheme utilizing a line-of-sight (LOS) observation is presented. Initial relative speed and distance, and error boundaries of them are estimated in accordance with the interceptor-target relative motion kinematics. A robust guidance scheme based on the sliding mode control (SMC) is developed, which requires the boundaries of the target maneuver, and inevitably has jitter phenomenon. For solving above-mentioned problems, an estimation to the target acceleration’s boundary is developed for enhancing robustness of the guidance scheme and the Lyapunov stabilization is analyzed. The proposed robust guidance scheme’s brief characteristic is to reduce the effect of relative speed and distance, to reduce the effect of target maneuverability on the guidance precision, and to strengthen the influence of line-of-sight angular velocity. The proposed scheme’s performances are validated by the simulations of different target maneuvers under two worst-case conditions.",signatures:"Jian Chen, Yongjun Zheng, Yuan Ren, Yuan Tian, Chen Bai, Zhang\nRen, Guangqi Wang, Nannan Du and Yu Tan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57990",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57990",authors:[{id:"210867",title:"Prof.",name:"Jian",surname:"Chen",slug:"jian-chen",fullName:"Jian Chen"},{id:"210868",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuan",surname:"Tian",slug:"yuan-tian",fullName:"Yuan Tian"},{id:"210869",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhang",surname:"Ren",slug:"zhang-ren",fullName:"Zhang Ren"},{id:"219540",title:"Dr.",name:"Chen",surname:"Bai",slug:"chen-bai",fullName:"Chen Bai"}],corrections:null},{id:"58006",title:"High-Gain Observer–Based Sliding Mode Control of Multimotor Drive Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71656",slug:"high-gain-observer-based-sliding-mode-control-of-multimotor-drive-systems",totalDownloads:993,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multimotor drive systems have been widely used in many modern industries. It is a nonlinear, multi-input, multi-output (MIMO) and strong-coupling complicated system, including the effect of friction, elastic, and backlash. The control law for this drive system much depends on the determining of the tension. However, it is hard to obtain this tension in practice by using a load cell or a pressure meter due to the accuracy of sensors or external disturbance. In order to solve this problem, a high-gain observer is proposed to estimate the state variables in this drive system, such as speeds and tension. An emerging proposed technique in the control law is the use of high-gain observers together with adaptive sliding mode control scheme to obtain a separation principle for the stabilization of whole system. The theory analysis and simulation results point out the good effectiveness of the proposed output feedback for the drive system.",signatures:"Pham Tam Thanh, Dao Phuong Nam, Tran Xuan Tinh and Luong\nCong Nho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58006",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58006",authors:[{id:"210304",title:"Dr.",name:"Pham",surname:"Tam Thanh",slug:"pham-tam-thanh",fullName:"Pham Tam Thanh"},{id:"210746",title:"Dr.",name:"Dao",surname:"Phuong Nam",slug:"dao-phuong-nam",fullName:"Dao Phuong Nam"},{id:"227510",title:"Prof.",name:"Cong Nho",surname:"Luong",slug:"cong-nho-luong",fullName:"Cong Nho Luong"}],corrections:null},{id:"56926",title:"Stator-Flux-Oriented Sliding Mode Control for Doubly Fed Induction Generator",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70714",slug:"stator-flux-oriented-sliding-mode-control-for-doubly-fed-induction-generator",totalDownloads:1299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) is the most implemented electric machine in wind energy conversion systems (WECSs) due to reduced size converter, active and reactive power control, and economic factors. However, the power electronic stage needs an accurate controller that allows to follow the stator power regulation despite the presence of disturbances. On the other hand, sliding-mode control (SMC) offers a fast-dynamic response and provides insensitivity to matched and bounded disturbance/uncertainties, and its natural discontinuous control signals can be used for direct switching of power electronic devices. Switching frequency must be maintained inside acceptable values to avoid exceeding the maximum admissible switching frequency of semiconductors. The contribution of this chapter is a stator-flux–oriented SMC with a hysteresis band that limits the switching frequency of power electronic devices to a set value. Furthermore, the proposed SMCs ensure robustness against bounded low-voltage grid faults. Unlike other nonmodulated techniques like direct torque control (DTC), there is no necessity of modifying the controller structure for withstanding low-depth voltage dips. The controller injects negative sequence voltage/currents to compensate the unbalanced conditions. The advantages of the proposed SMC control are validated via simulations.",signatures:"Ivan Villanueva, Antonio Rosales, Pedro Ponce and Arturo Molina",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56926",authors:[{id:"181149",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Ponce",slug:"pedro-ponce",fullName:"Pedro Ponce"},{id:"181151",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Molina",slug:"arturo-molina",fullName:"Arturo Molina"},{id:"210747",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Rosales",slug:"antonio-rosales",fullName:"Antonio Rosales"},{id:"210875",title:"Mr.",name:"Iván",surname:"Villanueva",slug:"ivan-villanueva",fullName:"Iván Villanueva"}],corrections:null},{id:"57213",title:"Robust Adaptive Output Tracking for Quadrotor Helicopters",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70723",slug:"robust-adaptive-output-tracking-for-quadrotor-helicopters",totalDownloads:1349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Quadrotor helicopters are drawing considerable attention both for their mobility and their potential to perform multiple tasks in complete autonomy. Moreover, the numerous limitations characterizing these aircraft, such as their underactuation, make quadrotors ideal testbeds for innovative theoretical approaches to the problem of controlling autonomous mechanical systems. In this chapter, we propose a robust model reference adaptive control architecture and design an autopilot for quadrotors, which guarantees satisfactory output tracking despite uncertainties in the vehicle’s mass, matrix of inertia, and location of the center of mass. The feasibility of our results is supported by a detailed analysis of the quadrotor’s equations of motion. Specifically, considering the vehicle’s equations of motion as a time-varying nonlinear dynamical system and avoiding the common assumption that the vehicle’s Euler angles are small at all times, we prove that the proposed autopilot guarantees satisfactory output tracking and verifies sufficient conditions for a weak form of controllability of the closed-loop system known as strong accessibility. A numerical example illustrates the applicability of the theoretical results presented and clearly shows how the proposed autopilot outperforms in strong wind conditions autopilots designed using a commonly employed proportional-derivative control law and a conventional model reference adaptive control law.",signatures:"Keyvan Mohammadi and Andrea L’Afflitto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57213",authors:[{id:"209389",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",surname:"L'Afflitto",slug:"andrea-l'afflitto",fullName:"Andrea L'Afflitto"},{id:"209390",title:"Mr.",name:"Keyvan",surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"keyvan-mohammadi",fullName:"Keyvan Mohammadi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57334",title:"Attitude Control of a Quadcopter Using Adaptive Control Technique",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71382",slug:"attitude-control-of-a-quadcopter-using-adaptive-control-technique",totalDownloads:2008,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents an adaptive control technique to stabilize the attitude dynamics of unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) type quadrotor in the presence of disturbances and/or uncertainties in the parameters due to changes in the payload, nonlinear actuators, and change in environmental conditions. To address the above problem, MRAC (model reference adaptive control) strategy is used. In this schema, a cost function is defined as a function of the error between the output of the system and a desired response from a reference model. Based on this error, the controller parameters are updated. To guarantee the global asymptotic stability of the system, Lyapunov’s theory is applied. Simulation results using MATLAB-Simulink platform are presented to demonstrate the convergence of the controller parameters.",signatures:"Ramiro Ibarra Pérez, Gerardo Romero Galvan, Aldo Jonathan\nMuñoz Vázquez, Silvia Florida Melo and David Lara Alabazares",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57334",authors:[{id:"219756",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ramiro",surname:"Ibarra",slug:"ramiro-ibarra",fullName:"Ramiro Ibarra"},{id:"220729",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",surname:"Romero",slug:"gerardo-romero",fullName:"Gerardo Romero"},{id:"220790",title:"Dr.",name:"Aldo Jonathan",surname:"Muñoz",slug:"aldo-jonathan-munoz",fullName:"Aldo Jonathan Muñoz"},{id:"221012",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Lara",slug:"david-lara",fullName:"David Lara"},{id:"221991",title:"MSc.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Florida",slug:"silvia-florida",fullName:"Silvia Florida"}],corrections:null},{id:"58282",title:"Matlab-Simulink-Based Compound Model Reference Adaptive Control for DC Motor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71758",slug:"matlab-simulink-based-compound-model-reference-adaptive-control-for-dc-motor",totalDownloads:2214,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objective of this chapter is to develop a compound Model Reference Adaptive Control (MRAC) of the dc motor by using the Matlab/Simulink software. The purpose of the chapter is to serve as a tutorial for the students or researchers in the field correlating step by step the presented theory with the Matlab/Simulink programming environment. The supraunitary relative degree model reference adaptive control is proposed as a solution to the parameters variation of the electric drives. The numerical simulation results confirm the robustness of the proposed solution at unmodelled dynamics or parameter variation of the process. The conventional control of the dc drive based on the cascaded loops is also treated in this chapter.",signatures:"Marian Găiceanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58282",authors:[{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu"}],corrections:null},{id:"57843",title:"Model Reference Adaptive Control of Quadrotor UAVs: A Neural Network Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71487",slug:"model-reference-adaptive-control-of-quadrotor-uavs-a-neural-network-perspective",totalDownloads:1414,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adaptive models and online learning are two equivalent topics under different umbrellas of research – control systems and machine learning. This chapter will tackle one such application of a neural network-based model reference adaptive controller on a quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicle while stating the general principles behind each design decision so the knowledge can be generalized to other practical applications. The application-oriented presentation of this chapter will run parallel to most research and development processes in the field, where the physical system or a simulator is usually available and a simple control system (such as PID) has already been implemented as a baseline. The black-box nature of a neural network can truly be leveraged to improve performance after reading this chapter. Several practical considerations when approaching such a problem have been discussed together with their general and implemented solutions. The simulation results for the problem have been presented to demonstrate the success of this control strategy.",signatures:"Nikhil Angad Bakshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57843",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57843",authors:[{id:"209863",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikhil Angad",surname:"Bakshi",slug:"nikhil-angad-bakshi",fullName:"Nikhil Angad Bakshi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57323",title:"Adaptive Nonlinear Regulation Control of Thermoacoustic Oscillations in Rijke-Type Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70683",slug:"adaptive-nonlinear-regulation-control-of-thermoacoustic-oscillations-in-rijke-type-systems",totalDownloads:1294,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adaptive nonlinear control of self-excited oscillations in Rijke-type thermoacoustic systems is considered. To demonstrate the methodology, a well-accepted thermoacoustic dynamic model is introduced, which includes arrays of sensors and monopole-like actuators. To facilitate the derivation of the adaptive control law, the dynamic model is recast as a set of nonlinear ordinary differential equations, which are amenable to control design. The control-oriented nonlinear model includes unknown, unmeasurable, nonvanishing disturbances in addition to parametric uncertainty in both the thermoacoustic dynamic model and the actuator dynamic model. To compensate for the unmodeled disturbances in the dynamic model, a robust nonlinear feedback term is included in the control law. One of the primary challenges in the control design is the presence of input-multiplicative parametric uncertainty in the dynamic model for the control actuator. This challenge is mitigated through innovative algebraic manipulation in the regulation error system derivation along with a Lyapunov-based adaptive control law. To address practical implementation considerations, where sensor measurements of the complete state are not available for feedback, a detailed analysis is provided to demonstrate that system observability can be ensured through judicious placement of pressure (and/or velocity) sensors. Based on this observability condition, a sliding-mode observer design is presented, which is shown to estimate the unmeasurable states using only the available sensor measurements. A detailed Lyapunov-based stability analysis is provided to prove that the proposed closed-loop active thermoacoustic control system achieves asymptotic (zero steady-state error) regulation of multiple thermoacoustic modes in the presence of the aforementioned model uncertainty. Numerical Monte Carlo-type simulation results are also provided, which demonstrate the performance of the proposed closed-loop control system under various sets of operating conditions.",signatures:"William MacKunis, Mahmut Reyhanoglu and Krishna Bhavithavya\nKidambi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57323",authors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"},{id:"196268",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"MacKunis",slug:"william-mackunis",fullName:"William MacKunis"},{id:"196423",title:"Mr.",name:"Krishna Bhavithavya",surname:"Kidambi",slug:"krishna-bhavithavya-kidambi",fullName:"Krishna Bhavithavya Kidambi"},{id:"206617",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Rubio Hervas",slug:"jaime-rubio-hervas",fullName:"Jaime Rubio Hervas"}],corrections:null},{id:"58151",title:"Adaptive Gain Robust Control Strategies for Uncertain Dynamical Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71733",slug:"adaptive-gain-robust-control-strategies-for-uncertain-dynamical-systems",totalDownloads:1029,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, adaptive gain robust control strategies for uncertain dynamical systems are presented. Firstly, synthesis of centralized adaptive gain robust controllers for a class of uncertain linear systems is shown. The design problem of the centralized controller is reduced to the constrained convex optimization problem, and allowable perturbation regions of unknown parameters are discussed. Next, the result for the centralized robust controller is extended to uncertain large-scale interconnected systems, that is, an LMI-based design approach for decentralized adaptive gain robust controllers is suggested.",signatures:"Shunya Nagai, Hidetoshi Oya, Tsuyoshi Matsuki and Yoshikatsu\nHoshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58151",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58151",authors:[{id:"213615",title:"Prof.",name:"Hidetoshi",surname:"Oya",slug:"hidetoshi-oya",fullName:"Hidetoshi Oya"},{id:"213724",title:"MSc.",name:"Shunya",surname:"Nagai",slug:"shunya-nagai",fullName:"Shunya Nagai"}],corrections:null},{id:"57600",title:"Robust Control Applications to a Wind Turbine-Simulated System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71526",slug:"robust-control-applications-to-a-wind-turbine-simulated-system",totalDownloads:1211,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wind turbine plants are complex dynamic and uncertain processes driven by stochastic inputs and disturbances, as well as different loads represented by gyroscopic, centrifugal and gravitational forces. Moreover, as their aerodynamic models are nonlinear, both modelling and control become challenging problems. On one hand, high-fidelity simulators should contain different parameters and variables in order to accurately describe the main dynamic system behaviour. Therefore, the development of modelling and control for wind turbine systems should consider these complexity aspects. On the other hand, these control solutions have to include the main wind turbine dynamic characteristics without becoming too complicated. The main point of this chapter is thus to provide two practical examples of development of robust control strategies when applied to a simulated wind turbine plant. Experiments with the wind turbine simulator represent the instruments for assessing the main aspects of the developed control methodologies.",signatures:"Silvio Simani and Paolo Castaldi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57600",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57600",authors:[{id:"209626",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvio",surname:"Simani",slug:"silvio-simani",fullName:"Silvio Simani"},{id:"209627",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Castaldi",slug:"paolo-castaldi",fullName:"Paolo Castaldi"}],corrections:null},{id:"57640",title:"Adaptive Robust Control of Biomass Fuel Co-Combustion Process",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71576",slug:"adaptive-robust-control-of-biomass-fuel-co-combustion-process",totalDownloads:1158,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The share of biomass in energy production is constantly growing. This is caused by environmental and industry standards and EU guidelines. Biomass is used in the process of co-firing in large power plants and industrial installations. In the existing power stations, biomass is milled and burned simultaneously with coal. However, low-emission combustion techniques, including biomass co-combustion, have some negative side effects that can be split into two categories. The direct effects influence the process control stability, whereas the indirect ones on combustion installations via increased corrosion or boiler slagging. The effects can be minimised using additional information about the process. The proper combustion diagnosis as well as an appropriate, robust control system ought to be applied. The chapter is devoted to the analysis of modern, robust control techniques for complex power engineering applications.",signatures:"Konrad Gromaszek and Andrzej Kotyra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57640",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57640",authors:[{id:"24059",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Konrad",surname:"Gromaszek",slug:"konrad-gromaszek",fullName:"Konrad Gromaszek"},{id:"210627",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrzej",surname:"Kotyra",slug:"andrzej-kotyra",fullName:"Andrzej Kotyra"}],corrections:null},{id:"57494",title:"A CMAC-Based Systematic Design Approach of an Adaptive Embedded Control Force Loading System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71420",slug:"a-cmac-based-systematic-design-approach-of-an-adaptive-embedded-control-force-loading-system",totalDownloads:889,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, an adaptive embedded control system is developed to measure yield strength of the material plate with an applied load. A systematic approach is proposed to handle special requirements of embedded control systems which are different from computer-based control systems as there are much less computational power and hardware resources available. Efficient control algorithm has to be designed to remove CPU burden so that the microcontroller has enough power available. A three-step approach is proposed to address the embedded control issue: Firstly, the mathematical description of the whole system is studied using both theoretical and experimental methods. A mathematical model is derived from the physical models of each component used, and an experiment is retrieved by employing Levy’s method and least square estimation to identify specific parameters of the system model. Secondly, an adaptive feedforward plus feedback controller is designed and simulated as a preparation for the embedded system implementation. The Cerebellar Model Articulation Controller (CMAC) is chosen as the feedforward part, and a PD controller is used as the feedback part to train the CMAC. Finally, the proposed algorithm is applied to the embedded system, and experiments are conducted to verify both the identified model and designed controller.",signatures:"Jian Chen, Peng Li, Gangbing Song, Shubo Wang, Zichao Zhang,\nGuangqi Wang, Yu Tan and Yongjun Zheng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57494",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57494",authors:[{id:"210867",title:"Prof.",name:"Jian",surname:"Chen",slug:"jian-chen",fullName:"Jian Chen"},{id:"219541",title:"Dr.",name:"Peng",surname:"Li",slug:"peng-li",fullName:"Peng Li"},{id:"219542",title:"Prof.",name:"Gangbing",surname:"Song",slug:"gangbing-song",fullName:"Gangbing Song"}],corrections:null},{id:"58441",title:"Multi-Loop Integral Control-Based Heart Rate Regulation for Fast Tracking and Faulty-Tolerant Control Performance in Treadmill Exercises",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71855",slug:"multi-loop-integral-control-based-heart-rate-regulation-for-fast-tracking-and-faulty-tolerant-contro",totalDownloads:963,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In order to offer a reliable, fast, and offset-free tracking performance for the regulation of heart rate (HR) during treadmill exercise, a two-input single-output (2ISO) control system by simultaneously manipulating both treadmill speed and gradient is proposed. The decentralized integral controllability (DIC) analysis is extended to nonlinear and non-square processes especially for a 2ISO process, namely multi-loop integral controllability (MIC). The proposed multi-loop integral control-based HR regulation by manipulating treadmill speed and gradient is then validated through a comparative treadmill experiment that compares the system performance of the proposed 2ISO MIC control loop with that of single-input single-output (SISO) loops, speed/gradient-to-HR. The experimental validation presents that by simultaneously using two control inputs, the automated system can achieve the fastest HR tracking performance and stay close to the reference HR during steady state, while comparing with two SISO structures, and offer the fault-tolerant ability if the gains of the two multi-loop integral controllers are well tuned. It has a vital implication for the applications of exercise rehabilitation and fitness in relation to the automated control system.",signatures:"Yi Zhang, Kairui Guo, Qin Yang, Pang Winnie, Kai Cao, Qi Wang,\nAndrey Savkin, Branko Celler, Hung Nguyen, Peng Xu, Limei Xu,\nDezhong Yao and Steven Su",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58441",authors:[{id:"169908",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",surname:"V. Savkin",slug:"andrey-v.-savkin",fullName:"Andrey V. Savkin"},{id:"198713",title:"Prof.",name:"Steven",surname:"Su",slug:"steven-su",fullName:"Steven Su"},{id:"210783",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi",surname:"Zhang",slug:"yi-zhang",fullName:"Yi Zhang"},{id:"210795",title:"Prof.",name:"Branko",surname:"Celler",slug:"branko-celler",fullName:"Branko Celler"},{id:"210796",title:"Prof.",name:"Hung",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"hung-nguyen",fullName:"Hung Nguyen"},{id:"219903",title:"Ms.",name:"Winnie",surname:"Pang",slug:"winnie-pang",fullName:"Winnie Pang"},{id:"219904",title:"Ms.",name:"Qin",surname:"Yang",slug:"qin-yang",fullName:"Qin Yang"},{id:"219905",title:"Mr.",name:"Kairui",surname:"Guo",slug:"kairui-guo",fullName:"Kairui Guo"}],corrections:null},{id:"57398",title:"Robust Control of Crane with Perturbations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71383",slug:"robust-control-of-crane-with-perturbations",totalDownloads:1072,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the presence of persistent perturbations in both unactuated and actuated dynamics of crane systems, an observer-based robust control method is proposed, which achieves the objective of trolley positioning and cargo swing suppression. By dealing with the unactuated and unknown perturbation as an augmented state variable, the system dynamics are transformed into a quasi-chain-of-integrators form based on which a reduced-order augmented-state observer is established to recover the perturbations appearing in the unactuated dynamics. A novel sliding manifold is constructed to improve the robust performance of the control system, and a linear control law is presented to make the state variables stay on the manifold in the presence of perturbations in unactuated dynamics. A Lyapunov function candidate is constructed, and the entire closed-loop system is proved rigorously to be exponentially stable at the equilibrium point. The effectiveness and robustness of the proposed observer-based robust controller are verified by numerical simulation results.",signatures:"Yiming Wu, He Chen and Tong Yang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57398",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57398",authors:[{id:"215164",title:"Dr.",name:"Yiming",surname:"Wu",slug:"yiming-wu",fullName:"Yiming Wu"},{id:"215516",title:"Dr.",name:"He",surname:"Chen",slug:"he-chen",fullName:"He Chen"},{id:"220192",title:"Dr.",name:"Tong",surname:"Yang",slug:"tong-yang",fullName:"Tong Yang"}],corrections:null},{id:"57675",title:"Nonlinear Control of Flexible Two-Dimensional Overhead Cranes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71657",slug:"nonlinear-control-of-flexible-two-dimensional-overhead-cranes",totalDownloads:1164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Considering gantry cable as an elastic string having a distributed mass, we constitute a dynamic model for coupled flexural overhead cranes by using the extended Hamilton principle. Two kinds of nonlinear controllers are proposed based on the Lyapunov stability and its improved version entitled barrier Lyapunov candidate to maintain payload motion in a certain defined range. With such a continuously distributed model, the finite difference method is utilized to numerically simulate the control system. The results show that the controllers work well and the crane system is stabilized.",signatures:"Tung Lam Nguyen and Minh Duc Duong",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57675",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57675",authors:[{id:"221357",title:"Dr.",name:"Tung Lam",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tung-lam-nguyen",fullName:"Tung Lam Nguyen"},{id:"222092",title:"Dr.",name:"Minh Duc",surname:"Duong",slug:"minh-duc-duong",fullName:"Minh Duc Duong"}],corrections:null},{id:"58407",title:"Robust Adaptive Control of 3D Overhead Crane System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72768",slug:"robust-adaptive-control-of-3d-overhead-crane-system",totalDownloads:1234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter an adaptive anti-sway controller for uncertain overhead cranes is proposed. The system model including the system uncertainties and disturbances is introduced firstly. Next, the adaptive controller which can guarantee tracking the desired position of the trolley as well as the anti-sway of the load cable is established. In this chapter, the system is proven to be input-to-state stable (ISS) which is supported by Lyapunov technique. The proposed algorithm is verified by using Matlab/Simulink simulation tool. The simulation results shown that the presented controller gives the good performances (i.e., fast transient response, position tracking, and low swing angle) when there exist system parameters variation as well as input disturbances.",signatures:"Nga Thi-Thuy Vu, Pham Tam Thanh, Pham Xuan Duong and\nNguyen Doan Phuoc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58407",authors:[{id:"228837",title:"Dr.",name:"Nga Thi-Thuy",surname:"Vu",slug:"nga-thi-thuy-vu",fullName:"Nga Thi-Thuy Vu"},{id:"228839",title:"Dr.",name:"Thanh",surname:"Pham",slug:"thanh-pham",fullName:"Thanh Pham"},{id:"228840",title:"Prof.",name:"Phuoc",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"phuoc-nguyen",fullName:"Phuoc Nguyen"},{id:"236448",title:"Dr.",name:"Pham",surname:"Xuan Duong",slug:"pham-xuan-duong",fullName:"Pham Xuan Duong"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10972",title:"Control Systems in Engineering and Optimization Techniques",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f92f65447d0f90b67465865d41a61cd1",slug:"control-systems-in-engineering-and-optimization-techniques",bookSignature:"P. 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Although much knowledge has been acquired regarding the prevention, diagnosis, implications, and management of GDM, the exact mechanisms of its genesis are still under investigation. This book provides a comprehensive overview of recent advances in gestational diabetes mellitus. It includes three major sections directing the reader’s attention to the etiology, management, and consequences of the disorder.",isbn:"978-1-83969-819-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-818-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-820-0",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94687",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"gestational-diabetes-mellitus-new-developments",numberOfPages:164,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"df4ea168770f9a62d90a92429dc237b7",bookSignature:"Miroslav Radenković",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10717.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:1099,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 20th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 15th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 13th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 31st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Full-time professor of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology, and Toxicology, former Chairman of Department of Pharmacology, Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, and former Member of the Ethics Committee at the Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"45327",title:"Prof.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Radenkovic",slug:"miroslav-radenkovic",fullName:"Miroslav Radenkovic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45327/images/system/45327.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Radenković, MD, graduated from the Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade (FMUB), Serbia, in 1995, where he also obtained an MS in Pharmacology, board certification in Clinical Pharmacology, a Ph.D. in Medical Sciences, and sub-specialization in Pharmacotherapy in 1999, 2000, 2004, and 2016, respectively. He has worked in the Department of Pharmacology at FMUB since 1996. Dr. Radenković also obtained an MS in Bioethics from Clarkson University, NYC, USA, in 2021. He has participated in several scientific projects supported by the Ministry of Science, Serbia; the Austrian Science Fund; and the NIH Fogarty International Center Project, USA. 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Periodontal care should be directed towards eliminating the bacterial infection and preventing reinfection. This involves creating an environment which encourages self-cleansing and is less conducive to harboring pathogenic bacteria. Appropriate therapy for each individual depends on the type, severity and morphology created by the specific disease, along with cooperation from the patient. Regardless, elimination of as many plaque-retentive areas should always be the primary objective of a treatment. Large number of teeth are extracted to eliminate periodontal defects (that act as bacterial reservoirs) that can be corrected by simple tooth eruption [1].
Although orthodontic treatment may not be considered preventive or corrective of periodontitis, it is one of the solutions to reduce the local factors. Patients with predisposing periodontal health tend to experience movement in teeth, as there will be comparatively lesser periodontal support. Commonly occurring movements of teeth include migration of teeth, intrusion, extrusion and flaring of teeth. In such cases, orthodontic treatment helps in eliminating the malposition of teeth but also aids in long term maintenance [2].
When moving teeth orthodontically, the entire periodontal attachment apparatus, including the osseous structure, the PDL, and the soft tissue components, move with the tooth. Even though the connective tissue attachment level remains unchanged along the root surface there are considerable morphological alterations to crestal bone with tooth uprighting [3]. Hence we can say that orthodontic treatment is almost always an interdisciplinary approach, where the health of the periodontium plays a vital role throughout the treatment. Certain techniques can be adjunctive to the Orthodontic treatment which will be discussed further in this chapter.
They can majorly be classified, based on the extent and involvement, as, minimal, moderate and severe involvement. The procedures are discussed in the following.
Also known as circumferential supracrestal fiberotomy (CSF), it is one of the common procedures conducted to enhance retention after fixed orthodontic therapy. The procedure involves detachment of the supracrestal fibers to increase the retention of a re-established tooth position. Tooth repositioning (for e.g.: rotation) is tough in maintenance. To accommodate the new tooth position after orthodontic therapy, reorganization of the PDL fibers take place. This rearrangement of fibers, especially the Sharpe’s fibers, take place even after 6 months, due to which the retention period is always advised for a minimum of 12 months [4].
Literature suggests that the maximum amount of relapse takes place during the first 5 hours post the removal of the appliance. Hence it is ideal for fiberotomy to be done at the end of the finishing phase of orthodontic therapy. This minimizes the relapse that usually occurs due to the elastic supracrestal gingival fibers [3].
A frenectomy is a procedure that removes the frenum (a small muscular attachment that connects two pieces of oral tissue) (Figures 1 and 2). Labial frenum is present apical, between the two central incisors. Most commonly, the maxillary labial frenum tends to be more muscular causing midline diastema. In such cases apart from orthodontic therapy, adjuvant frenectomy procedure aids in space closure ensuring lesser chances of relapse. Usually the surgical removal of frenum is done after orthodontic treatment is complete or during the finishing phase of active orthodontic treatment [5].
High labial frenum (pre-operative).
Post-operative picture of Frenectomy.
Gingivectomy is a dental procedure, where a part of the gingiva is surgically removed (Figures 3 and 4). It is an essential and adjunctive procedure to orthodontic therapy. Gingivoplasty, on the other hand, is the reshaping of the gingiva to re-create physiologic contours with the purpose of recontouring the gingiva in the absence of pockets. Gingivectomy and gingivoplasty procedures are commonly performed together [6]. They are usually done for improving esthetics and for enhancing the prognosis of the teeth. Gingivectomy is needed in areas of space closure, where the tissue bunching also called clefts are surgically removed. It has also been documented that, performing CSF during a forced eruption of a tooth prevents displacement of gingiva more coronally [7, 8]. This will reduce the requirement for gingival recontouring after the completion of tooth movement.
Uneven gingival margins (pre–operative).
Post-operative picture gingivectomy done to correct the uneven margins.
Gingival hyperpigmentation is presented as a diffuse, deep purplish, discoloration or irregularly shaped brown, light brown or black patches, striae or strands seen in the attached gingiva. This may be a genetic trait in some populations and is more appropriately termed as a physiologic or racial gingival pigmentation. This is common in occurrence and is immensely disturbing to the esthetics, especially while smiling [7, 8].
Gingival hyperpigmentation may be caused by exogenous and endogenous factors. Exogenous factors include contact with heavy metals and smoking. Endogenous factors include endocrine and genetic disorders. Clinical hyperpigmentation of the gingiva does not necessarily present as a medical problem. Gingival depigmentation is a periodontal procedure, to restore a more natural color of the mucosa [8].
The aim of regenerative therapy is the restoration of lost tissue in its form and function. GTR is a surgical procedure that uses barrier membranes to direct the growth of new bone and gingival tissue to sites with insufficient volume or dimension of bone and gingiva for proper function, esthetics and prosthetic rehabilitation [9]. GTR is used as an adjunct to orthodontics to re-establish new periodontal attachment and to improve the pre-orthodontic conditions for moving the teeth into infrabony defects or for guiding vertical movements of teeth with reduced bone support [10].
Gingival curettage is a surgical procedure designed to remove the infected/affected soft tissue lining of the periodontal pocket with a curet, leaving only a gingival connective tissue lining (Figures 5 and 6). The purpose of curettage is to eliminate or reduce the depth of the periodontal pocket by promoting the shrinkage of gingiva and enhancing new connective tissue attachment [11].
In cases of the presence of mild to moderate pockets, gingival curettage can be done to improve gingival attachments.
In cases where aggressive treatment is contraindicated, it can be performed to reduce the gingival inflammation.
In cases of recurrent inflammation, gingival curettage can be done to maintain gingival health.
Pre-operative picture, presence of deep pockets.
Post-operative–full mouth curettage done.
In many cases, it may be possible to correct bony pockets by correcting the tooth position and allowing reestablishment of the periodontal apparatus with the help of orthodontics [12]. A combination of orthodontics and periodontal therapy may help to improve the periodontal status and maintenance of oral health for a patient [13].
Crown lengthening is usually done to correct a gummy smile or fix a clinically short crown height for a tooth that requires bonding or banding.
When malalignment is responsible for a gummy smile, a gingival surgery is not the first treatment of choice, the teeth, then must be moved to a more esthetic and functional position, and the smile is corrected by an orthodontic leveling of the gingival margins.
It’s important for the periodontist and orthodontist to identify the cases in which the teeth can be treated by gingival surgery and the ones in which orthodontics can benefit [12, 13, 14].
A gummy smile, may occur due to 3 reasons, the first being a maxillary excess, which is usually treated with a combination of orthodontics and surgery [14], secondly, a short anatomic lip and thirdly, the excessive eruption of maxillary teeth with delayed apical migration over the maxillary anterior can cause a gummy smile.
For gingivectomy or crown lengthening the sulcular depth is 3-4 mm when it should be only 1 mm, it may not migrate easily towards the CEJ, hence it has to be corrected [15].
Gingival margin discrepancy can be assessed by 4 parameters
Relation between the gingival margin of the maxillary central incisor and the patients lip line
Evaluate the labial sulcular depth
Evaluate the relation between the shortest central incisor and the adjacent lateral incisor.
Assess the incisal edges for abrasion
In some cases, the molars may have a short crown height and the placement of an orthodontic band can lead to attachment loss due to the encroachment of the biologic width. To prevent these problems, a crown lengthening procedure should be considered prior to the placement of orthodontic bands used for anchorage.
To achieve the appropriate crown to root ratio for orthodontic bonding, one may need to do a crown lengthening procedure [16] as this is a crucial step and can aid in a more specific outcome in treatment planning.
Gingival recession is not due to Orthodontics, it may be a multifactorial issue (Figures 7 and 8) [17]. There are many ways to cover a recession, and various grafting techniques are available [18]. Conventionally, gingival and pedicle grafts were used for root coverage previously, but presently connective tissue grafts are the treatment of choice to cover root exposures [19]. The advantages are, greater root coverage, superior esthetics and the ease and patient comfort.
Pre–operative: gingival recession in relation to 31.
Post-operative: root coverage done in relation to 31.
Usually, the grafting is conducted after the completion of orthodontic treatment, however in many circumstances, due to inadequate gingiva and detrimental recession, the procedure may be done before or during Orthodontic treatment. This is usually case specific.
The factors to be considered before deciding for intervention.
Esthetics.
Sensitivity.
Depth of root erosion.
Patients concerns regarding the treatment.
Any gingival restorations.
Corticotomy – it is a minor surgical procedure defined as osteotomy of cortical bone (Figure 9) [20]. Since the primary resistance to tooth movement is encountered in the cortical layer, corticotomy procedure makes it possible to move teeth faster without undesirable side effects [21].
Corticotomy done in the lower anterior region to induce the AOO phenomenon.
How can corticotomy be used along with Orthodontics?
Exposure of impacted teeth by corticotomy assissted orthodontics
Intrusion of overerupted molars by corticotomy.
Rapid retraction of severely proclined incisors with spacing
Closure of fistula by bony transport and corticotomy assissted expansion.
In cases with significant arch-length discrepancies.
In cases with transversely constricted maxilla.
To enhance molar distalization.
Corticotomy and compression osteogenesis in the posterior maxilla for treating severe anterior openbite
Suya suggested that most surgical and orthodontic procedures be performed in the first 3-4 months after corticotomy, before fusion of tooth bone units [22].
It is critical to begin the orthodontic movement immediately after the surgery, before bony healing occurs. Since it takes around 4 hours for the release of cAMP and as well as for bone remodeling to start; it will be better for us to activate the orthodontic phase of treatment immediately after the corticotomy procedure [23].
Frost coined the term, ‘Regional Accelerated Phenomenon’ (RAP), where he noticed that surgical healing occurred mainly at the surgical site due to the reorganization of cells and accelerated bone turnover rate.
The technique developed by the Wilckos, called the Wilckodontics system or Accelerated Osteogenic Orthodontics (AOO), is similar to single tooth corticotomy, except that it is extended to all the teeth to be moved during orthodontic treatment (Figure 1). This usually aids with correction of severe malocclusions and crowding.
Pre-orthodontic Osseous surgeries.
Osseous craters - these do not repair or improve with orthodontic treatment hence they should be treated before any orthodontics is initiated [23]. They are inter proximal two walled defects which may be maintainable non-surgically, however if correction or intervention is required then it can be managed with shaping the defect and reducing the pocket depth. The need for surgery is based on many factors like patient compliance, location of the defect, resistance to treatment by the periodontium [24].
3 walled defects- these usually require auto generous bone grafts or allografts with resorbable membranes [25]. If the results of periodontal therapy are stable post 3-6 months after, then orthodontic treatment maybe considered.
Types of bone grafts used.
Autografts
Allografts
Xenografts
Alloplastic
Non bone grafts
Bone grafting is very commonly done at many stages for cleft patients as an adjunct to the orthodontic treatment planning [26]. It has even been found that the canines organically are guided into the graft site also [27]. Hence grafting has been very essential part of orthodontics especially for cleft palate patients [28, 29].
Also it aids during cortication procedures. Many times to aid in tooth movements and to prevent the onset of any Osseous defects cortication is carried with a bone graft and the results are usually sound periodontium and excellent tooth movements. In many cases it also allows regeneration and restoration of the periodontium. With the help of a graft many difficult tooth movements can be continued in an otherwise compromised periodontium [30].
The patients who seek orthodontic treatment beyond the age of 18 are categorized as: (a) young adults (typically younger than 35 years, often in their 20s) who have not received any comprehensive orthodontic treatment in their teens and (b) an older group, typically in their 40s or 50s, who need orthodontics as a corrective measure for an interdisciplinary approach [13].
The first group often seek treatment to improve their quality of life. Their expectations are more and they seek the best possible outcome. While the latter need treatment, to improve and maintain their current oral health, not necessarily seeking treatment to achieve an esthetic outcome, hence correction and control of disease progression becomes the primary goal in this group of patients.
In adults, Adjunctive orthodontic treatment is, tooth movements that are planned and achieved to facilitate other dental procedures necessary to control disease, restore function, and/or enhance appearance. The primary goal is to make it easier or more effective to replace missing or damaged teeth and to control periodontal problems. The treatment duration tends to be a few months, rarely more than a year, and long-term retention often is supplied by the restorations. The treatment duration tends to be a few months, rarely more than a year, and long-term retention is provided with restorations.
Orthodontic therapy can provide various benefits to the periodontal patient as discussed here [11]:
The malaligned maxillary or mandibular anterior teeth pose a challenge in maintaining a good oral hygiene.
Patients with fractured maxillary anteriors can benefit with orthodontic treatment, where extrusion of the tooth can improve the crown and root ratio, as well as improve the quality of restoration provided to the tooth.
Vertical repositioning of teeth by orthodontic forces can improve certain types of osseous defects in periodontal patients, minimizing or eliminating the need for resective osseous surgery.
Orthodontic treatment can improve the esthetic relationship of gingival margin levels.
Orthodontic treatment can help in improving the adjacent teeth position before the restorative phase.
According to the literature, there are three risk groups in a population for progression of periodontal bone loss: (a) those with rapid progression (about 10%), (b) those with moderate progression (the majority, about 80%), and (c) those with no progression (about 10%) [13, 30].
Patients who have had a history with periodontal disease and bone loss, present with no contraindication to receiving orthodontic treatment if the disease has been treated and maintained adequately since. The Periodontist usually guides the Orthodontist in this regard as progression of an untreated periodontal breakdown must be anticipated, however, the patient’s periodontal condition must receive attention during planning and execution of orthodontic treatment [30].
Hemiseptal defects are one-or two-wall osseous defects that are often seen around mesially tipped teeth or supra-erupted teeth. Usually, these defects can be eliminated with orthodontic treatment [30, 31].
Some patients have a discrepancy between both the marginal ridges and the bone levels but these discrepancies may not be of equal magnitude; orthodontic leveling of the bone in this case may not be able to level the marginal ridges. In these patients the crowns of the teeth should not be used as a guide for completing orthodontic therapy. The bone should be leveled, and any remaining discrepancies between the marginal ridges should be equilibrated. In case of a tooth that is tipped, uprighting it will level the defect [31].
If there is supraeruption, then, intrusion and leveling the tooth, can help in leveling the osseous defect. It is important that any periodontal inflammation be controlled before the start of orthodontic therapy. After the completion of orthodontic treatment, these teeth should be stabilized for at least 6 months and reassessed periodontally.
The location of the bands and brackets on the teeth is a primary determinant of outcome after orthodontic treatment has been planned. In a periodontally healthy individual, the anatomy of the crowns of the teeth determines the position of the brackets. Incisal edges and marginal ridges form a guide to position the anterior brackets and posterior bands or brackets. If the incisal edges and marginal ridges are at the correct level, the cementoenamel junction (CEJ) will also be at the same level. This relationship creates a flat, bony contour between the teeth [13, 32].
In situations where the patient has an underlying periodontal problems and significant alveolar bone loss around certain teeth, using the anatomy of the crown to determine bracket placement is not appropriate. In vital teeth, the equilibration should be performed gradually to allow the pulp to form secondary dentin and insulate the tooth during the equilibration process [32].
The main goal of equilibration and favorable bracket placement is to provide a constructive bony level as well as a more favorable crown-to-root ratio. In some of these patients, the initially apparent periodontal defects may not need periodontal surgery after orthodontic therapy.
Furcation is the place where the roots of teeth separate. Furcation defect is bone loss, commonly due to a result of periodontal disease affecting the base of the root trunk of a tooth. These furcation defects can be classified as: Class I, Class II and Class III (mild, moderate and severe respectively) [11]. Furcation lesions require special consideration because they are difficult to maintain and can worsen during orthodontic therapy. These patients ideally should be on a 2 to 3 month recall schedule. Detailed instrumentation of the furcation can help minimize further periodontal breakdown.
The treatment modalities in a furcation defect usually involve hemisection (mostly in class III defects). After hemisection, and completion of endodontic and periodontal surgery, can the tooth serve as an abutment. Some molars with class III furcation defects, may have short roots, advanced bone loss, fused roots, or other conditions that contraindicate hemisection. In these patients, extraction and replacement with an implant is advisable [33] at any point irrespective, to the orthodontic treatment.
When roots of the posterior teeth are in proximity, periodontal health and restorative options are limited. With the help of orthodontics, these roots can be separated allowing bone to form, which widen the embrasures, provide additional bone support, and make oral hygiene more accessible. The movements should be planned prior to bonding, so they can progress with the initial arch wires. The movements can be monitored with radiographs. A movement of 2-3 mm is usually sufficient for favorable bone response. The oral hygiene maintenance should be good. Occasional occlusal adjustments may be required in the process [31, 33].
Trauma to the upper anterior is the most common occurrence in children and adolescents. This trauma can be (a) fracture of the crown or (b) fracture of crown and root. If the fracture is restricted to the crown, then endodontics and restorative procedures will be sufficient to manage. If the fracture extends into the biological width, then any restoration will cause irritation and inflammation to the marginal gingiva. Alternatively, extrusion of the tooth followed by restoration may be possible depending on the amount of tooth structure [34]. If the fracture extends to the root, then, depending on the level of involvement the tooth may have to be extracted. There are six criterias used to determine the direction of treatment to choose:
Root length: The ideal crown to root ratio should be 1:1 after extrusion of the tooth. In order to maintain the biological width of 2.5 mm, 4 mm should be extruded, this will provide 1.5 mm margin in crown preparation. The root length is evaluated using periapical radiographs. If this ratio is less than 1:1, the tooth will be unstable within the bone, hence extraction will be mandated.
Root form: Both the external and internal root form should be considered. The external root form should be broad and non-tapering rather than thin and tapering. This root form avoids easy fracture and unaesthetic appearance at the cervical margins after restoration. Internally, the root canal should be one-third of the root form in order to avoid root fracture.
Level of fracture: If the fracture level is 2-3 mm apical to the alveolar bone, the ideal treatment of choice will be extraction.
Age of the patient: If it is a young patient, forced eruption followed by the crown placement will be the ideal choice of treatment. If it is an aged patient with a crown on an adjacent tooth, it will be better to extract and replace the teeth.
Esthetics: If the patient has a high lip line, gingival exposure on smile will be increased. Hence, preservation of natural teeth will be better than artificial restoration of teeth.
Prognosis: Endodontically, if there are vertical fractures of the root, it should be extracted. Periodontally, if there is an osseous defect, then the tooth can be extracted [13, 32, 34].
If all the above criteria are favorable, forced eruption of teeth can be considered. It can be carried out with orthodontic brackets or with composite extension with elastics. If the tooth movement is faster, the bone will not follow the root, hence circumferential fibrotomy would be necessary. If the tooth movement is slow, the bone follows the root and crown lengthening procedure may be required for the restorative phase.
After the forced extrusion, teeth must be stabilized to prevent re-intrusion, which may occur due to the orientation of the oblique fibers, which will allow intrusion with any compressive force, until 6 months post treatment [33].
Usually during forced eruption, the clinical crown length may be shortened. This is because the gingiva follows the direction of eruption of the teeth. If there is a mismatch in the bone levels with the adjacent teeth, flap elevation and bone recontouring followed by gingivectomy can be considered. If the mismatch is limited only to the gingival heights then gingivectomy is sufficient [32, 34].
Post gingival surgery, embrasures due to the difference in the widths of root and crown may be seen. These can be corrected either by re- contouring the teeth or by reshaping the crowns during space closure. The latter is preferred because it improves the overall shape of the final crown [35].
In certain cases, moderate to severe periodontally compromised teeth may be used for anchorage. Even though the tooth is compromised, with sufficient bone it may be used for anchorage. Flap surgery and root debridement can improve the quality of this anchorage unit and post orthodontics, these can be maintained as are or extracted and replaced [36].
The gingival margins of the anterior teeth play an important role in esthetics. The four factors that need to be considered for good esthetics are: (a) The height of the gingival margins of upper central incisors should be equal, (b) Gingival margin of lateral incisor should be coronal to the central incisor, (c) The gingival contour should follow the shape of CEJs in the anterior region, (d) Gingival papilla should occupy half the distance from the highest point of gingival contour to the incisal edge; the remaining half should be tooth contact [37].
The cause of the marginal discrepancies should be appropriately diagnosed and treated by either orthodontics or gingival surgery.
Four steps that can be considered for planning the treatment are: [36, 37]
Lip line: When the patient smiles, if the gingival discrepancy is not visible, it can be left untreated. If it is visible, then step two should be evaluated.
Labial sulcular depth: in the presence of an uneven gingival margin, if the labial sulcular depth is greater than 1 mm, then gingivectomy is possible. If the labial sulcular depth is less than 1 mm, then step three should be evaluated.
Relationship to the adjacent incisors: If the Central incisor is longer than the adjacent lateral incisor, orthodontic extrusion of this incisor will allow the gingival margins to move apically. The extruded tooth will have to be leveled with the adjacent teeth. If the Central incisor is shorter than the adjacent lateral incisor, then step four should be evaluated.
Abrasion: The incisal edges should be checked in the occlusal view. If this is thicker than the adjacent central incisor, then extrusion has taken place. Then the treatment of choice would be intrusion of the affected central incisors which will move the gingival margin apically. Followed by restoration of incisal edges. This step should be completed 6 months prior to the appliance removal as the periodontal fibers need time for re-orientation.
When the patient reports with an abraded anterior, it can be managed either by orthodontic extrusion and restoration of the anterior tooth or by orthodontic intrusion of the adjacent anterior teeth followed by restoration of incisal edges. The extrusion option is not preferred as it may alter the crown: root ratio (1:1). It is advisable to intrude the anteriors. Extrusion of posterior teeth is not possible due to the occlusal forces. Once the intrusion has been achieved it is followed by a retention phase for 6 months after which restorations on the incisal edges can reestablish the ideal crown height [38].
The gingival embrasures can be deficit or open due to several reasons such as: (1) root position, (2) underlying bone loss, and (3) shape of the crown. If the problem is due to divergent roots, then orthodontic correction with modification of bracket position is an option. Once the root position is corrected, changes in the incisal contact can be modified. If the open gingival embrasure is due to other reasons, intrusion of the teeth would be ideal. Orthodontic intrusion will lead to compression of spaces which will in turn lead to an occlusal push of interdental gingiva, thus achieving the ideal ratio of 1:1, embrasure to tooth contact [34].
Adjunctive orthodontic treatment for patients with periodontal disease has some unique effects. Orthodontic treatment should only be done on a clinically sound periodontium. It is essential for dentists to have adequate knowledge on perio-ortho interrelationship. Maintaining a good oral hygiene and receiving regular basic periodontal care is of outmost importance to achieve a more effective orthodontic treatment. A better outcome can be achieved along with good maintenance, through a close collaboration between the orthodontist and the periodontist.
We would like to acknowledge the contribution of Dr. Kavarathapu Avinash, Periodontist and Implantologist, and Dr. Joseph Abraham, Orthodontist for generously sharing their clinical case photographs for our chapter.
Last but not the least, we would like to thank our parents and families, our teachers and mentors for their never-ending support and guidance.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Living on the lunar surface will undoubtedly be a psycho-physical, technological and economical challenge. The main source of protection and support for astronauts will be their habitat. Its construction and design has to offer a counter measure against every stressor exposed onto the crew. While a habitat may be perceived as something static and frozen in the cold of lunar vacuum, it will in fact, in itself become the place of an active battlefield—the battle between radiation and matter, where the health and well-being of the people inside is at stake.
This chapter discusses the utilization of regolith in habitats. Regolith is a local source available in abundance on the lunar surface, which can be relatively easily accessed and collected. Its utilization enables a more sustainable exploration and future settlement. It also reduces the cost of a mission dramatically. However, regolith is a complex material with unique properties that result from space weathering (temperature extremes under vacuum, radiation exposure, micrometeoroid impacts), and the techniques of its utilization and associated technologies are under development and improvement across the global space community. To complicate things further, there is a limited amount of returned lunar samples. In order to satisfy the needs in experimentation, testing and prototyping with regolith, diverse simulants are used. Simulants are specifically designed to resemble the lunar soil in its chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties. Depending on the application, some simulants are perfect replacements of regolith for research and development activities.
The main case under consideration here is regolith for radiation protection of humans. When radiation interacts with matter, it deposits a part of its energy in the target material, produces fragments of nuclei and other secondary emissions. It is important to know how effective regolith is in terms of radiation absorption or attenuation on the one hand, and what kind of secondary particles it will produce on the other. The fact that the radiation environment on the Moon is a diverse mix of particles with different energies and charges makes it complicated to optimize the utilization of regolith for dose reduction. The notion of doses is used to estimate exposure and associated risks. It is always advised to keep the risks and doses to the absolute minimum that is technologically achievable and ethically acceptable. When seeking to reduce doses in space radiation protection, we consider both the doses from primary particles and secondary emissions. In both cases regolith will act as a passive shield, and its constituent molecules will interact with radiations in their unique ways which depend on the mutual chemistry of the projectile-target pair, charge and energy of the incident particle.
As regolith will be the main construction material, it will largely define the thermo-mechanical properties of the habitat wall. It is important to look at the different protective properties in parallel and not dissociate their studies too much. For example, density is crucial for both radiation protection and thermal insulation. A holistic approach to habitat building is discussed here, while keeping the main focus on radioprotection.
The rest of the chapter will introduce lunar habitats, regolith and radiation as the main actors of the cosmic battle. Then, it will outline the problem statement underlining the particular challenges associated with habitat construction on the Moon, regolith utilization, and radiation protection. To fight the problems, the existing armor will be presented. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) technologies, regolith simulants, and radioprotection techniques will be outlined and discussed. Any good soldier is always on the lookout for more troubles and better solutions. In the context of the cosmic battle it means to be on the lookout for improving ISRU technologies, bettering regolith simulants, and investigating the use and properties of new materials that can either be brought from Earth or made in-situ. A generic conclusion summarizes the main points regarding regolith utilization in habitat construction, mainly from the point of view of radiation protection of astronauts.
Continuous human presence and surface exploration of the Moon sets an overarching requirement on the lunar habitat that it must sustain human life for several long-term missions and withstand a harsh environment. In other words, the habitat becomes a fortress under a continuous and variable siege of the cosmic and solar radiation, extreme temperatures, and micrometeoroid bombings.
On top of robustness, the habitat must present a comfortable alternative to living on Earth. Working on the Moon for extended periods of time will be extremely challenging, stressful and may even become alienating and daunting. The least that can be done to counteract the psychological burden and physical exhaustion is that the well-being and comfort of astronauts becomes another top-level requirement in habitat construction.
Since the very first steps on the Moon, humanity has been envisioning a long-term presence or even a permanent settlement there. In the most recent years, the global space community focuses primarily on the cislunar space the access to which will enable frequent missions to the surface, ultimately making preparations for the Moon Village [1]. The global exploration roadmap suggests that such efforts should be made in a sustainable way [2]. This leads to the choice of using local materials in habitat construction, and in fact, maximizing their utilization both in hardware and life support.
The most straightforward way to use regolith is to cover a primary structure with it. The primary structure may be brought from Earth, e.g. inflatable or origami-inspired unfolding structure, a metallic cylinder, or even a repurposed part of a spacecraft. Figure 1 illustrates an artistic view of what such regolith-covered habitats and storage facilities could look like. The authors interpret the image as a capture of the evolution in maturity of ISRU-technology on the Moon. It could be argued that the very first habitats will resemble the one encircled and marked by letter A (in red) since regolith seems to be either loosely piled on top of the structure or compressed and reinforced with dense tiles, which could be produced either through sintering or 3D-printing. Such an approach is feasible at the early stages of exploration. Increasing in complexity, the habitat/storage unit of type B seems to be entirely produced by additive manufacturing. The dark color could be an indicator of another material present in the mixture, e.g. a binder. The surface seems to be rough, possibly owning to the chosen 3D-printing technique which had not yet been thoroughly explored in lunar conditions. Habitat C seems to use more regolith in the material mixture, and it is also produced by additive manufacturing. The triangular and conical shapes observed on the outer layer (both in types B and C) can present a significant advantage in thermal properties of the wall due to partial shadowing—this could help withstand the harsh temperature of the lunar day, which reaches up to 120°C at the equator where the solar heat flux reaches 1300 W/m2. Finally, the image depicts how the multilayer technology can be utilized with regolith, as the underlying shelter is being covered with another layer of regolith-rich material, seemingly by 3D-printing.
Solar sintered moonbase, credit: RegoLight Consortium, visualization: LIQUIFER Systems Group.
Another straightforward way to benefit from regolith protection is to seek shelter underground. Lava tubes have long been studied as an alternative to living on the Moon, e.g. [3, 4, 5]. They extend meters underground and offer a natural protection from radiation and micrometeoroids. Most commonly, it is considered that a habitable structure would either be inflated or mounted inside a lava tube. Although it may seem rather convenient and even poetic for the first settlements on the Moon to use the equivalent of caves on Earth, and despite the fact that lava tubes can provide substantial radiation protection (see Section 3.3), this solution has some important limitations which will be outlined in Section 2.1. A surface habitat is considered as the main option for living on the Moon in this chapter.
Committing to a sustainable long-term exploration implies one key material choice—regolith. Abundant on the surface, it will serve as the main force to fight back the cosmic oppressors on the Moon. Regolith, or the lunar soil, will make up the bulk of habitat walls and thus, will act as a shield against incoming radiation particles, heat, and meteoroid projectiles.
Regolith is a complex material. It consists of a mixture of crystalline rock fragments, minerals, breccias, agglutinates, and glasses [6]. Chemical composition of the lunar soil has been thoroughly studied. For radiation protection, it is the most important property as the mutual chemistry of the radiation-matter pair will define the nature of their interactions, and the results in secondary emissions and doses. Two types of regolith are distinguished: mare and highlands, and both are mixes of metallic oxides, dominated by silicon dioxide up to 42–45% in weight [7]. The composition then varies slightly, namely highlands regolith contains more aluminum oxide than the mare type (approximately 25% and 13% respectively [7]). Mare regions contain high levels of titanium dioxide—between 2% and 10% versus the average of 0.5% in highlands soils [7]. It is approximated that the top 30 cm consist of the lunar dust—particles smaller than 100 μm in size with the bulk density of 1.5 g/cm3 [8]. These loose grains are accessible for collection and utilization in habitat construction. On the Moon, this will make up the majority of ISRU activities.
Currently, the global space sector is investing into its capacity-building related to ISRU technologies [9]. Regolith utilization ranges in ideas from piling-up to sintering, binding with adhesives and 3D-printing. In order to investigate the properties and behavior of raw materials as well as processed products (e.g. regolith bricks), numerical simulations and experiments are carried out. Simulations mainly concern the thermo-mechanical behavior of bulky solids, e.g. how regolith flows and what thermal insulation properties it has. Experiments are usually set up to verify predictions and observe behavior. Humanity currently possesses 382 kg (Apollo program) [10] and 321 g (Luna missions) [8] of lunar regolith from sample return missions, which manifest the greatness of the pioneering efforts in space exploration beyond the Low Earth Orbit (LEO). However, these resources cannot nearly satisfy the global scientific interest and technological demonstration needs in preparation of a lunar outpost. The solution is to simulate the material using its earthly counterparts.
Regolith simulants are like siblings—arguably originating from similar material but having different characteristics. This is due to the fact that simulants are often made to serve different scientific and technical purposes. Literature classifies simulants according to their most prominent properties [11, 12, 13]. As such, some are best at simulating mechanical behavior of the lunar soil, and others are almost the exact copies in chemical composition as the returned samples. Continuing the sibling analogy, the differences among regolith simulants may be compared to the different talents that siblings have, which often result from parental investment and resource allocation to activities that nourish those talents.
The first step in working with regolith consists in choosing the appropriate regolith simulant. The main objectives of a habitat are to sustain human life and well-being. Protection from radiation becomes the key player in early habitat planning and regolith simulant considerations as it is one of the main oppressors in the lunar environment. Like under any attack, the forces of resistance must be pulled together. In radioprotective terms, passive shielding is a technique of protection when a material stands in-between a radiation source and the target. The forces of resistance are then the material’s nature, or its chemical composition, and areal density. The choice of a passive shield will be based on the most probable radiation-matter interactions, and material optimization will seek to reduce the negative effects of radiation exposure on human health. The interactions between radiation particles and materials produce a diverse variety of results, ranging from energy deposition to nuclear fragmentation and DNA break-down, to mention some. The uniqueness of each interaction originates from the incoming particle’s energy, charge and mass. Therefore, the specific radiation environment on the Moon presents a particular challenge to be considered in habitat construction.
There are two distinct families of radiation particles: primary and secondary. Primary particles originate from the Sun, our galaxy and distant galaxies [14]. They are high-energy charged particles, mostly protons that move at speeds close to that of light. The diverse mix of ionizing radiation in space, ranging from X-rays to heavy ions with energies up to TeV makes it an extremely challenging environment for radiation protection of humans [14]. When primaries interact with matter, such as the lunar surface, a habitat, or Earth’s atmosphere, secondary emissions are produced. The nature and properties of secondary particles depend on the type of interaction that occurred. On the Moon, we can distinguish two branches of secondary emissions: the ones that will occur in the habitat and the lunar neutron albedo.
Collectively, the particles that make up cosmic radiation are called Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR). They are baryons (mainly hydrogen protons (83%) and alpha particles, as well as helium (14%) and heavy (1%) nuclei [14]) and electrons that travel in space and are present everywhere. A substantial part of GCR seems to originate from supernova remnants [15, 16] and GCR are believed to be accelerated from outside the Solar System by neutron stars, black holes and supernovae shocks [17]. The mechanism guiding particle acceleration was first proposed by Fermi who explained the energy transfer from magnetized clouds to individual particles [18]. The Fermi I mechanism, also called the diffusive shock acceleration, applied to a strong shock such as from a supernova explosion predicts a power law particle spectrum which has been observed [18].
The magnitude of the GCR spectrum as observed on Earth, and in the rest of the Solar System is correlated with the solar cycle. When the Sun is most active, the enhanced solar magnetic field causes GCR particles to lose some of their energy, and the lower energy particles are affected the most. As such, the fluence of particles of a few GeV/u drops by up to 20% [14]. GCR models account for this relationship with help of the solar modulation parameter [19, 20]. Such models reconstruct the flux of particles mainly from observations, and the most widely used model is the Badhwar-O’Neill (BON) [21]—BON2014 model. Recently, an improved version has been released, BON2020 which reduces model errors largely owning to revised methods of using the solar modulation potential and calibrating free parameters in the local interstellar spectrum for all GCR ions [22].
The Sun continuously emits particles which make up the solar wind. These are mostly low-energy protons and electrons which are stopped by thin shielding and are thus normally not considered a threat to human space exploration [14]. However during the periods of high activity, the Sun’s ejected protons can be accelerated by the chock of a coronal mass ejection or during a solar flare to very high energies. When the energies and flux of the accelerated particles reach high values and extend over a certain period of time, they are registered as Solar Particle Events (SPEs).
SPEs contain mostly protons; include helium ions as well as some highly charged and energetic (HZE) ions. The flux of protons above 30 MeV can exceed 1010 cm−2 in several hours or days and particles above 50 MeV can penetrate spacesuits and spacecraft [14].
Although SPEs are related to the solar activity and cycle, their appearance remains rather unpredictable [23, 24, 25], especially far into the future as exploration-type missions are typically planned. SPEs differ in the prevalent proton energies and particle flux. Some SPEs have been observed and recorded, and data from those events are typically used for radiation protection in space. In 2018, NASA published a report [23] recommending to use the October 1989 series of events as a reference design case for missions beyond LEO, based on SPE storm shelter requirements provided in [26].
When primary radiation enters a habitat wall, it reacts with the target molecules and produces secondary emissions. Depending on the nature and energy of the primary-target pair of agents, the produced results will differ from knocked-off electrons to nuclear spallation and formation of ions, neutrons, pions, muons, etc. The most commonly present secondary particles in metallic space vehicles and habitats will be protons of slightly reduced yet still very high energies (when compared to primary protons), neutrons, helium nuclei [27], X and
Interactions between the primary particles and the lunar soil cause the formation of lunar radiation albedo. It consists mainly of neutrons that are formed from the constant GCR bombardment of regolith and which shoot upwards from the surface. It has been estimated that the neutron albedo can contribute up to 20% of the effective dose on the Moon [17]. Therefore, any human activity on the surface has to take the lunar neutron albedo into account.
Four main groups of engineering problems have to be considered in habitat construction on the Moon: robustness, feasibility, sustainability and human factors.
Robustness is concerned with the habitat’s resistance to structural, thermal and vibro-acoustic loads, meteoroid shocks, and radiation protection. As any house, a habitat has to bear all the loads, some of them present continuously such as the static structural loads, and others appearing occasionally as for example the vibrations from a nearby launch. Meteoroid population around the Moon follows a power law size distribution with small impactors dominating the representation. Traveling at speeds of 3–70 km/s [29], most micrometeoroids are 30–150 μm in size [30]. It has been found that micrometeoroids generally leave impacts of the same order of magnitude as their own sizes [31]. The accumulation of impact craters over time will result in a local density change of the outer shell of the habitat which may affect the mechanical resistance, thermal insulation and radiation protection effectiveness of the structure. Areal density is the most important feature in radioprotective effectiveness of a chosen material. Since all of the main structural stressors will affect the different protective properties of the structure to a greater or lesser extent, they should be considered in parallel when sizing the habitat.
Feasibility considers the technological readiness of the techniques implied in construction as well as cost and power effectiveness of the proposed methods. The mean Technological Readiness Level (TRL) of ISRU technologies reported in the 2021
Sustainability guides the choice of materials, technologies and techniques in order to ensure a power budget-effective and scalable development and operations of the systems. Maximizing the utilization of local resources is key in achieving sustainable development on the Moon. Regolith will be the main material not only to build but also to operate and maintain facilities. For radiation protection, the degradation of the protective shell over time has to be considered and supported with timely counter-measures. The most important aspect to consider is maintaining the areal density in habitat walls over the years, possibly decades, of exploration.
Human factors regroup such aspects as the crew’s mobility, well-being and safety. Surface exploration and accessibility as well as emergency shelters and escape routes have to be considered. Mundane questions such as storage become strategic engineering decisions as storing certain products can locally enhance radiation protection. The choice of the main carrying materials will be mainly guided by their mechanical properties; however the esthetic appreciation is an important factor in habitat design and should not be neglected as supplementary materials will also affect the radioprotective properties of the habitat. An important element among human factors is the visual reference system. Windows are essential in ordinary life, and observations demonstrate how the presence of windows improves human well-being [33, 34]. The fact that astronauts spend a lot of their free time in the Cupola of the International Space Station (ISS) is a clear manifest to that [35]. From a structural point of view, windows are essentially holes that, strictly engineeringly speaking, the structure would be better off without. A window stimulates local concentration of stresses which typically lead to the need of reinforcement. Radiation on the Moon adds another layer to the question of windows: what materials should be used, and how they will affect the radioprotective effectiveness of the habitat.
When the case of lunar lava tubes is considered against the main engineering problems, they evidently score high on feasibility since little preparation is required to use them. However, feasibility is complicated by the need to provide all life support and infrastructure under the ground, possibly extending many meters for ensuring safety. The main consideration regarding robustness is the potential danger of a tube falling in on itself—either upon a meteoroid impact or vibrational excitation (e.g. from a nearby landing/launch). The main show-stopper for lava tubes utilization is surface access and human factors. Humanity seeks to explore the Moon; therefore long surface expeditions are desired. With lava tubes as habitats, astronauts will have to spend a significant amount of time and energy climbing out of their homes onto the surface. For longer expeditions, a surface solar storm shelter must be envisioned to provide immediate protection. In this case, double infrastructure is required, both underground and on the surface, which will largely increase mission’s costs and complexity. Most importantly, the psycho-physical effects of living underground on the Moon with no visual reference system, access to natural light or a view of the Earth must be considered. A French “Deep Time” 2021 study [36] has investigated the effects of living in similar conditions on Earth for 40 days; however the lunar case is distinct and more complex due to high levels of stress and alienation which are a part of astronaut life in space.
Most of the engineering problems can be partially answered with regolith utilization. Nevertheless, some additional materials seem inevitable and even desirable—to compensate for certain peculiar behaviors of regolith, thus optimizing material choices for habitat construction.
The lunar soil has been unprotected and constantly bombarded by meteoroids and radiation for several billion years. Such space weathering effects led the material to be crushed and mixed. Particles range in size from a few μm up to a couple of 100 μm, and differ largely in shapes. A distinct property of regolith grains is their extreme adherence and sharpness. These characteristics make regolith uniquely difficult to operate in an effective and safe way. Grains interlock among each other and stick to materials that they come in contact with. They are extremely light, as the average density of a grain is about 3.0 g/cm3 and most particles measure only a few μm.
A particularly peculiar behavior of regolith on the lunar surface is levitation. Previously considered as the result of meteoritic impacts, particle levitation has recently been tied to the charge buildup from exposure to protons [8]. The difference in charge from the side exposed directly to the solar wind and the side away from the Sun causes charged regolith particles to levitate in attempt to cross the line of difference. This line is the place of the switch between the lunar day and night.
In the context of lunar settlement or long-duration missions, astronauts will experience continuous low dose exposure. This type of exposure is higher than that on Earth, which is protected by its magnetosphere and atmosphere, yet it is significantly lower than the single doses delivered as part of radiotherapy. However, some of the radiobiological effects and mechanisms are the same in both cases. Historically, the space sector has been borrowing the findings from radio therapeutic treatments and radiobiology to calculate mission health risks. But space radiation poses important scientific questions about the effects of low doses on cellular and organ levels which can be useful in radio diagnostics and the case of repeated doses.
The so-called absorbed dose, often simply called
To determine whether a mission is acceptable in terms of radiation exposure, national space agencies set certain exposure limits. As such, there is a short-term limit on 30 day exposure and a career limit, which varies slightly from one agency to another and is also defined by gender in some cases. The former is set by NASA to 250 mSv [37] and the latter averages at 1 Sv across agencies [38]. There is also a specific limit on the exposure to blood-forming organs (BFO). The limit for short-term non-cancer effects is 250 mGy-Eq [37]. Radiation protection solutions must respect these limits and even go above and beyond in looking for dose reduction methods. That is the existing working principle in the context of lunar exploration and settlement, and the global space community is currently putting efforts together to establish specific exploration-type mission limits for joint space activities [38].
ISRU technologies on the Moon will cover a vast number of activities ranging from collection, storage, manipulation, recycling, treatment, and post-processing. Regarding habitat construction, it should be noted that first, the construction area needs to be cleared, leveled and compacted to control the spread of lunar dust. Then, such an area can be used for building a habitat.
Currently, the global space community investigates sintering, molding, brick-making, and 3D-printing with regolith. The techniques require different types of expertise, machinery, level of automation/human presence, power, and supplementary materials. The readiness levels of the technologies varies drastically as some techniques have been investigated for a number of decades while other started to gain a significant level of industrial and engineering interest in more recent years. As such, the idea of piling up loose regolith dates back to the Apollo era, cement and concrete production has been investigated since the 1980s [32], and additive manufacturing has been attracting a lot of attention in the last tens of years.
Typically simulants are made by crushing down terrestrial rocks of basaltic origins that largely resemble the chemical composition of the rock component of the lunar soil. The mixture can be improved by adding any particular minerals or glasses, as was done for the very first lunar regolith simulant JSC [13] when knowledge about lunar soils advanced thanks to sample return.
Including both mare and highlands types, there are a few tens of simulants that are being produced and used across academia and industry. These simulants respond to different engineering and scientific needs, and are used in technological demonstrations and experiments. In a user guide [11], NASA suggests that particle composition, size distribution, shape distribution and bulk density are the most important properties in a regolith simulant. Indeed, these factors will largely define the thermo-mechanical and chemical properties of the raw material and also outline how it will interact with its environment (e.g. static charge) and other materials (e.g. abrasive nature of the material). For radiation protection purposes, chemical composition and areal density are key factors that will define the effectiveness of regolith shielding. Radiation cross-sections are calculated from molecular formulas and are used to predict the interactions between the incoming radiation and matter. Areal density in g/cm2, measures how much passive shielding is present in the way of the incident particles. Simply put, in dense materials where molecules sit closely together, there is a higher chance for an incoming primary particle to interact either with the nucleus or the electrons of the molecules. Bulk density in g/cm3, defines whether and how much the simulant needs to be compressed in order to reach the areal density required for radiation protection.
Deviation, distance, time, counter measures, and materials are the only units to put forward at the front line against radiation. In a lunar habitat however, large-scale particle deviation is not a feasible option. Increasing the distance to radiation source in space is impossible as the primary particles are omnipresent in interstellar space, and reducing time exposure may be in conflict with the scientific and exploratory missions’ objectives. Although biological counter measures are currently being explored, this research is in its early stages and it is further challenged by individual responses to repeated exposures and hyper sensitivity to low doses. This leaves it to the strategic choice of passing shielding to protect astronauts from radiation. The best choice consists in the material that will absorb the maximum amount of primary radiation while producing the least amount of secondary emissions. The complexity and diversity of the space radiation environment makes this choice all the more difficult. However due to the large shipment costs to the Moon and the abundance of loose regolith on the surface, it becomes the main shielding material in a habitat.
As most units do, the radiation protection community has a guiding motto—a principle proposed by NASA—As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA). It pushes the community to engineer ways to bring down the organ and whole-body doses, ultimately aiming at lower health risks associated with exposure.
As outlined in previous sections, one possible way to maximize radiation protection on the Moon is to build a habitat underground. Studies [3, 39] suggest that several meters under the surface, GCR exposure levels become comparable to those on Earth—a few mSv/year. However due to the major drawbacks of using and living in lava tubes expressed in Section 2.1, this option is not considered for an early settlement here. However, lava tubes should be investigated further for the potential use as shelters from SPEs.
The best way to optimize passive shielding is to utilize the most effective molecules in terms of radiation protection. Extensive studies [23, 40, 41] show that low atomic mass materials act best as shielding against heavy ions and high-energy protons as they present more nuclei in the path of the incoming particles, thus maximizing the stopping power for the same shield thickness in mass per unit area, if compared to heavier atomic mass counterparts. The top sergeant in this respect is protium or hydrogen 1H because on top of its low atomic mass, it contains no neutrons and thus its utilization enables to bring down the secondary neutron production.
When the choice of chemistry of the main shielding is done or limited, the two cards left to play are areal density (of regolith in the lunar case) and the combination of supplementary materials which can be brought from Earth in moderate amounts, or possibly fabricated in-situ in the future. The term
Effective dose equivalent from GCR in CAF/180 days behind highlands regolith (HR) and multilayer shielding (HR—3 mm aluminum, Al—5 cm polyethylene, PE) as a function of regolith areal density. Based on results in [
To follow the ALARA principle implies to be on the lookout for material enhancements, new materials, and the evolution of ISRU technology. Starting with an evaluation of commonly used materials, it is wise to look into possible combinations of those with regolith. As such, a study of 59 space materials [40] concluded that polymers should be used instead of metals in space where possible. In parallel, polymer 3D printing and sintering techniques with regolith are being developed (e.g. [43, 44]).
Besides the development of new materials, the utilization of multilayered structures is being investigated. The use of multiple layers of different complementary materials is not a new concept is space, as it has been used since the very first days of exploration, in particular in Extravehicular Mobility Units (EMUs). However, the radioprotective properties of such commonplace materials as Kevlar in EMUs has only been investigated recently [45]. The ROSSINI study [45] performed accelerator-based tests of several multilayers with He, F, and C beams of 1000, 962–972, and 430 MeV/u respectively. Among other, it concluded that the addition of LiH to a Moon regolith simulant enhanced protection from radiation by up to 20%. However, any such study is limited to the particular energy and type of primary particles. Overall recommendations require further tests and consideration of secondary emissions—especially neutrons [45].
The unpredictability of solar behavior is being anticipated and compensated for with large margins for error, where no error is accepted. Models of GCR are being improved to provide more precise calculations of doses and associated risk estimations. New technologies, experiments, measurements, materials, and simulation models are being developed and tested. Observational missions, such as those to Lagrange points (e.g. ESA missions [46] and NASA’s DSCOVR mission [47]) are aimed at providing fast capabilities of forecasting and alerting. All these elements make an intellectual playground for radiation protection engineers and scientists—to make a safe ground for living on the Moon.
Guided by the best practices and prioritizing human comfort and well-being, the specialists on Earth will be making crucial choices for those who will go to the Moon. Under the assumption that habitats are to remain highly effective and functional for several astronaut generations to come, global and diversified efforts are required to design, qualify and supervise their construction. Habitat construction working groups are expected to incorporate wide research expertise, originating from fields such as radiobiology, medicine, aerospace engineering, mining, construction, architecture, material sciences, etc. In cooperation, such groups are better equipped to challenge the stressors of the lunar environment.
The authors would like to express gratitude for offered financial support and expertise that enabled the publishing of this chapter. Gratitude is extended to the European Space Agency, TRAD Tests & Radiations, Inserm the National Institute of Health and Medical Research, and the Department of Mechanics, Structures and Materials of ISAE-SUPAERO, l’Institut Supérieur de l’Aéronautique et de l’Espace. Specifically, the authors would like to thank Dr. Advenit Makaya from ESA and the experts from TRAD Tests & Radiations for their expertise and implication in the project called Protective Use of Regolith for Planetary and Lunar Exploration (PURPLE), which is the framework under which this chapter was developed. At ISAE-SUPAERO, the authors would like to thank V. Godivier and X. Foulquier.
carbon
electron volt
flourine
giga
gray-equivalent
hydrogen
helium
lithium hydride
milli
mega
Sievert
terra
atomic mass unit
X ray
gamma ray
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Catarina Guedes and F. Xavier Malcata",authors:[{id:"83136",title:"Prof.",name:"F. Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Malcata",slug:"f.-xavier-malcata",fullName:"F. 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Labella, C. Berbel, M. Manchado, D. Castro and J.J. Borrego",authors:[{id:"67855",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan J.",middleName:null,surname:"Borrego",slug:"juan-j.-borrego",fullName:"Juan J. 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This chapter will discuss an innovation in seaweed cultivation of the genus Eucheuma, which is the prime marine commodity in the tropical regions of the world. Research conducted during 2015-2017 and 2019 in Southeast Sulawesi Province, Indonesia, provided an overview of the use of floating cage that showed very significant growth results. The research result showed that the growth rates of Eucheuma denticulatum and Kappaphycus alvarezii in floating cage seemed faster and resulted in better thallus morphology. Daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii that were cultivated in floating cage was higher than daily production of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated on longline. Specific growth rate (SGR) of E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using floating cage method was also higher than E. denticulatum and K. alvarezii cultivated by using longline method. Moreover, the cultivation by using floating cages produces good growth rates with no effect of herbivore attacks.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Ma’ruf Kasim, Abdul Muis Balubi, Ahmad Mustafa, Rahman Nurdin, Rahmad Sofyan Patadjai and Wardha Jalil",authors:[{id:"309893",title:"Prof.",name:"Maruf",middleName:null,surname:"Kasim",slug:"maruf-kasim",fullName:"Maruf Kasim"},{id:"313040",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdul Muis",middleName:null,surname:"Balubi",slug:"abdul-muis-balubi",fullName:"Abdul Muis Balubi"},{id:"313041",title:"MSc.",name:"Wardha",middleName:null,surname:"Jalil",slug:"wardha-jalil",fullName:"Wardha Jalil"},{id:"313042",title:"MSc.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",slug:"ahmad-mustafa",fullName:"Ahmad Mustafa"},{id:"313043",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Nurdin",slug:"rahman-nurdin",fullName:"Rahman Nurdin"},{id:"313044",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahmat Sofyan",middleName:null,surname:"Patadjai",slug:"rahmat-sofyan-patadjai",fullName:"Rahmat Sofyan Patadjai"}]},{id:"62842",title:"Integrated Rice and Aquaculture Farming",slug:"integrated-rice-and-aquaculture-farming",totalDownloads:1919,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The burning problems like scarcity of food for ever-growing human population in the present world are addressed by adapting various methods for production of protein, carbohydrate, oils and other food materials. One of the methods to produce high amount of food is integrated farming including rice-aquaculture farming, which produces protein and carbohydrate as major components besides others. Rice-aquaculture farming produces grain (carbohydrate) and animal protein without affecting the quality and quantity of rice yield on the same piece of land and renders additional financial gain besides main crop (rice) like conventional monoculture. The aquatic species grown in the integrated culture are mainly distinct types of fishes, selected crustaceans and other selected species. Profitable rice-aquaculture integrated farming is popular in Asian countries than in Western countries. However, the integrated rice-aquaculture farming has its own limitations. The type of methods, culture species, influencing factors, and pros and cons of rice-aquaculture integrated farming are discussed in the present chapter.",book:{id:"7229",slug:"aquaculture-plants-and-invertebrates",title:"Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Aquaculture - Plants and Invertebrates"},signatures:"Pamuru Ramachandra Reddy and Battina Kishori",authors:[{id:"242524",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramachandra Reddy",middleName:null,surname:"Pamuru",slug:"ramachandra-reddy-pamuru",fullName:"Ramachandra Reddy Pamuru"},{id:"255022",title:"Dr.",name:"Kishori",middleName:null,surname:"Battina",slug:"kishori-battina",fullName:"Kishori Battina"}]},{id:"24074",title:"Embryonic and Larval Development of Freshwater Fish",slug:"embryonic-and-larval-development-of-freshwater-fish",totalDownloads:7466,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"612",slug:"recent-advances-in-fish-farms",title:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Fish Farms"},signatures:"Faruk Aral, Erdinç Şahınöz and Zafer Doğu",authors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"},{id:"29132",title:"Dr.",name:"Zafer",middleName:null,surname:"Dogu",slug:"zafer-dogu",fullName:"Zafer Dogu"},{id:"39952",title:"Dr.",name:"Erdinc",middleName:null,surname:"Sahinoz",slug:"erdinc-sahinoz",fullName:"Erdinc Sahinoz"}]},{id:"68966",title:"Novel Biofloc Technology (BFT) for Ammonia Assimilation and Reuse in Aquaculture In Situ",slug:"novel-biofloc-technology-bft-for-ammonia-assimilation-and-reuse-in-aquaculture-in-situ",totalDownloads:1951,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Ammonia is one of the most harmful risks for success of fish and shrimp culture. There is no effective solution for harmlessness of ammonia in traditional aquaculture operations except exchanging water, which would bring negative effects on environment, or fixing expensive equipment. Biofloc technology (BFT) that appeared in recent years supplies a novel solution for this issue without exchanging huge water and fixing equipment. This technology could assimilate ammonia almost in real time with many other supplemental benefits. Because of the very high nutritional value for fish and shrimp, bioflocs, the by-product of BFT, could also be reused as a complemented food in situ or a gradient for feedstuff to replace expensive fishmeal or be processed to pellet diet to feed fish and shrimp directly. However, some aspects with regard to the effective use of biofloc as a food source for fish and shrimp, such as high lipid content, productivity, and palatability, need to be further researched in detail.",book:{id:"8928",slug:"emerging-technologies-environment-and-research-for-sustainable-aquaculture",title:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture",fullTitle:"Emerging Technologies, Environment and Research for Sustainable Aquaculture"},signatures:"Hai-Hong Huang",authors:[{id:"305215",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"hai-hong-huang",fullName:"Hai-Hong Huang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"32",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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