Clinical and pathological staging, AJCC 2009
\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"14 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately thirty scientific publications in the field of statistics, inclusive education, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health. Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6926",title:"Biological Anthropology",subtitle:"Applications and Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbb192dffd37a257febf4acfde73bb8",slug:"biological-anthropology-applications-and-case-studies",bookSignature:"Alessio Vovlas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"21334",title:"Cutaneous Metastases from Malignant Melanoma: Clinical Features and New Therapeutic Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/19228",slug:"cutaneous-metastases-from-malignant-melanoma-clinical-features-and-new-therapeutic-perspectives",body:'In this chapter, cutaneous metastases from malignant melanoma will be analyzed from a clinical and a prognostic point of view.
This non rare condition is often distressing for the patient, as cutaneous lesions increase progressively in number and size and are frequently worsened by ulceration, bleeding and pain.
After a general introduction about the incidence of cutaneous involvement in melanoma natural history, clinical classification of skin metastases will be provided. Then, the impact of cutaneous localizations on prognosis will be evaluated. In the last paragraph, the different therapeutic options for the management of patients with loco-regional or diffused cutaneous metastases will be reviewed.
Skin metastases from solid tumor are not rare. They affect an estimated percentage of patients ranging from 0.7 to 9% in several literature series (Spencer & Helm 1987, Lookingbill, Spangler & Helm 1993, Schwartz 1995, Hu et al. 2008), in the late phases of disease progression or, in more than 7% of patients, as first sign of disseminated disease (Lookingbill, Spangler & Helm 1993, Rosen 1980). Breast cancer is the most commonly involved tumor, accounting for more than 60% of cases of cutaneous spread, followed by colon carcinoma (Krathen, Orengo & Rosen 2003). Moreover, cutaneous metastatic disease is commonly seen with cancer of the lung, kidney and ovary and with sarcoma, lymphoma or leukemia.
As expected, tumor types are differently distributed among the two genders: lung, colon and head and neck tumours together with melanoma account for the majority of skin metastases in males; whereas, breast cancer is the most common neoplasm related to the development of cutaneous secondary lesions in females (Hu et al 2008).
Focusing on melanoma, skin metastases represent a relatively frequent event in the natural history of the disease and can develop in early as well as in late stage of disease. Cutaneous or subcutaneous lesions arise in 10-17% of patients affected by melanoma and almost the 50% of patients with metastatic disease develops skin involvement (Lookingbill, Spangler & Helm 1993, Schwartz 1995, Krathen, Orengo & Rosen 2003).
No specific clinical or histological characteristics were found in patients with cutaneous metastases from melanoma if compared to those with visceral localizations (Savoia et al 2009). However, known risk factors related to prognosis impact on the metastatic melanoma potential.
On the basis of the distance from the primary melanoma, skin metastases are described as local recurrences, in transit disease or distant metastases.
True local recurrences are defined as the reappearance of melanoma in -or contiguous with- an excision scar or a graft and bearing an in situ component (Olsen et al 1970; Brown & Zitelli 1995). The prognosis of local recurrence defined strictly in this way is much better than that associated with in transit disease and 5-year survival rate is related only to the thickness of the primary melanoma. These recurrences are in fact considered as a result of a uncompleted resection of primary melanoma, and are for this reason becoming rare.
In-transit disease (satellitosis) indicates cutaneous or subcutaneous disease between the primary site and the regional lymph nodes. Satellite nodules and in-transit disease are associated with worse prognosis (super imposable to a melanoma with nodal metastases; stage III disease), and the distance of cutaneous deposits from the primary site has no prognostic significance (Balch et al 2009).
Distant cutaneous metastases are defined as tumour lesions that grow in any skin site over the regional lymph nodes. The presence of any distant metastases delineates a stage IV disease, even if patients with sole distant skin metastases (and normal serum LDH levels) have a relatively better prognosis if compared with those of other metastatic patients (Balch et al 2009). Obviously, distant skin melanoma localization can appear together with or in absence of other visceral metastases. Stage and prognosis vary according to AJCC classification as shown in table 1 (Balch et al 2009).
Clinical Staging | Pathological Staging | ||||||
0 | Tis | N0 | M0 | 0 | Tis | N0 | M0 |
IA | T1a | N0 | M0 | IA | T1a | N0 | M0 |
IB | T1b | N0 | M0 | IB | T1b | N0 | M0 |
T2a | N0 | M0 | T2a | N0 | M0 | ||
IIA | T2b | N0 | M0 | IIA | T2b | N0 | M0 |
T3a | N0 | M0 | T3a | N0 | M0 | ||
IIB | T3b | N0 | M0 | IIB | T3b | N0 | M0 |
T4a | N0 | M0 | T4a | N0 | M0 | ||
IIC | T4b | N0 | M0 | IIC | T4b | N0 | M0 |
III | any T | N 1-3 | M0 | IIIA | T1-T4a | N1a/2a | M0 |
IIIB | T1-T4b | N1a/2a | M0 | ||||
T1-T4a | N1b/2b | M0 | |||||
T1-T4a/b | N2c | M0 | |||||
IIIC | T1-T4b | N1b/2b/2c | M0 | ||||
any T | N3 | M0 | |||||
IV | any T | any N | M 1 | IV | any T | any N | M 1 |
Clinical and pathological staging, AJCC 2009
Skin metastases from melanoma can arise as single or multiple nodules. The most common presentations of cutaneous metastatic disease are brown to black or skin colored papules and nodules, sometimes ulcerated. In the majority of these cases cutaneous metastases were correctly identified by the clinician before the pathologic diagnosis was given; dermoscopy could help in diagnosis, even if skin melanoma metastases have often aspects that are indistinguishable from the characteristic pattern of blue nevi (Carlos-Ortega, de Oca-Monroy & Isyta-Morales 2008). Epidermotropic melanoma metastases are histopatologically characterized by aggregates of atypical melanocytes within the dermis with thinning of the epidermis. Usually there is no lateral extension of atypical melanocytes within the epidermis beyond the concentration of the metastases on the dermis. Metastases differs from primary melanoma by the absence of inflammatory infiltrate and junctional activity, even if a prominent lymphocytic infiltrated can be sometimes observed. In few cases metastatic cells are small and nevoid, with few or any mitoses and differentiation from compound nevi is difficult (Elder E et al, 2005. Tumours and Cysts in dermis and Subcutis, in
Less frequently, a wide morphological spectrum of lesions has been described, including erythematous patches or plaques, inflammatory erysipela-like lesions, diffuse sclerodermiform lesions with indurations of the skin (‘‘en cuirasse’’ metastatic carcinoma), telangiectatic papulovesicles, purpuric plaques mimicking vasculitis, and alopecia aerate-like scalp lesions (Saeed, Keehn & Morgan 2004, Sariya et al 2007). In these cases, clinical diagnosis could be more challenging and metastases can be suspicious for benign entities (Figure 1).
Clinical features of local recurrences that are defined as the reappearance of melanoma in or contiguous with an excision scar or graft and bearing an
Moreover, there are also rare cases of so-called zosteriform metastases, with vesicobullous herpetiform lesions or papules and nodules distributed along one or more dermatomes. A previous Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV) infection or widespread lymphatic obstruction by tumor cells can justify the zosteriform pattern (Figure 2).
Zosteriform metastases among thoracic dermatomes.
However, zosteriform metastases, as well as the rare skin metastases occurring on skin graft donor site, could be explained as a Koebner phenomenon (Savoia et al 2009, Marenco et al 2009).
From a clinical point of view, if bleeding and super-infection are not present, superficial skin metastases are usually asymptomatic, even if patients frequently report localized pain and paresthesiae anticipating the onset of clinically evident cutaneous lesions; these symptoms are related to oedema and mechanical stress on the near tissues and usually disappear in a few days. On the other hand, when subcutaneous lesions grow deep infiltrating muscles or nerves become very painful. The management of pain in these cases could be difficult and requires a multidisciplinary approach.
As mentioned earlier, bleeding and super-infections are the most frequent complications of skin metastases and can significantly impact on the patient\'s quality of life (Kaheler, Egeberts & Hauschild 2010). These complications can also compromise general conditions. Massive bleeding from cutaneous metastases could become life threatening; sepsis related to the bacterial dissemination of infected metastases represents an uncommon but not rare event, that lead to septic shock and death (Figure 3).
Infected diffuse metastases from malignant melanoma
Cutaneous secondary lesions can occur on all anatomic sites, with skin metastases from other solid tumours more frequently found on the head, neck, anterior chest and abdomen, whereas lower extremities are rarely involved (Schwartz, 1995). Conversely
In more than half of the cases, skin represents the first site of metastatic involvement after the primary melanoma diagnosis. In about one third of cases, patients develop skin involvement after evidences of regional lymph nodal metastatic disease.
The finding of concomitant distant cutaneous, visceral and nodal metastases account for more than 10% of cases, whereas skin involvement after visceral dissemination is rare, and occurs only in about the 3% of patients (Savoia et al 2009).
Cutaneous metastases are loco regional in nearly 80% of cases, whereas distant metastases were documented in the remaining 20% of patients. A different pattern of cutaneous metastases was related to the time of onset: when cutaneous metastases arise as the first site of relapse, there is a significant higher percentage of locoregional localizations, whereas distant skin involvement was more frequently observed after visceral involvement. No significant differences were found between patients with regional and those with distant metastases regarding to the known risk factors, such as Breslow thickness, Clark level, histotype of the primary melanoma and ulceration (Savoia et al 2009).
It is noteworthy that in patients with distant metastases, primary melanomas arose predominantly at trunk and back, whereas patients with cutaneous loco-regional spreading were affected mainly by primary located at leg and foot. As we know, loco-regional metastases develop as a result of tumour cell embolization in the dermal lymphatic vessels between the primary tumour site and the draining regional lymph node basin; lymphatic stasis to lower limbs consequent to nodal dissection represents an additional risk factor for cutaneous locoregional dissemination.
In contrast, the correlation between disseminated skin lesions and primary melanoma located to the trunk could be explained by the fact that the lymph drainage of this region is not strictly dependent on a single station, but it could be resulted from more than one lymphatic basin, together with a possible role of haematogenous spreading.
Disease free survival evaluated from the first melanoma diagnosis varies in relation to the first site of metastatization. In our experience, loco regional cutaneous relapses develop early, but show a very late progression to visceral disease. On the contrary, patients with disseminated skin lesions as first site of relapse had a longer disease free interval from the first diagnosis but a shorter time to progression to visceral metastases (Savoia et al 2009).
The choice of the modality of treatment for cutaneous melanoma metastases depends on several factors, including location and number of lesions, presence of systemic involvement, age and general health conditions of patients. Moreover, the prognostic differences between patients with loco-regional and distant skin metastases justify different approaches in their clinical management.
Important therapeutic options including surgery, isolated limb perfusion, local or systemic chemo- and immuno-therapy and radiotherapy are discussed in detail below.
Surgery is the gold standard and represents the most effective treatment for limited in-transit disease, when technically feasible. It is an adequate treatment when the lesions are relatively small and clustered in a reasonable circumscribed area. Primary melanoma should be excised widely with a 1-2 cm margin depending on Breslow thickness, whereas wide surgical margins are unnecessary for the treatment of cutaneous metastases. Usually, metastases are clearly demarcated from the surrounding normal dermis and overlying epidermis and the better approach is the complete macroscopical excision of the lesion. When microscopical involvement of margins is documented, reintervention is not mandatory (Hoekstra, 2008).
If technically possible, direct wound closure is to prefer; the second choice is represented by skin graft, because plastic surgical reconstruction can affect the lymphatic drainage pattern.
Palliative treatment should be considered when results in the control of local complications (e.g. bleeding) and/or in a consistent quality of life improvement.
Amputation should be only considered as palliation for imminent exsanguinating haemorrhage or fungation unacceptable for the patient.
Isolated limb perfusion (ILP) -firstly described by Creech and Krementz in 1958- can deliver high doses of cytotoxic agents to a limb, minimizing systemic toxicity. The dose received regionally can be up to tenfold higher than the systemic mean tolerated dose. Isolated limb perfusion is widely indicated for patients with advanced or recurrent in-transit disease, showing a complete response rate around the 50% in the majority of the published series, with an overall response rate up to 80% (Lens & Dawes 2003, Rossi et al 2010). On the contrary, the role of isolated limb perfusion as adjuvant therapy is still debated (Hoeckstra 2008). The tumour response after perfusion is the only demonstrated prognostic factor affecting local control of the disease and overall survival (Rossi et al 2010).
The usual agent employed is melphalan, with or without tumour necrosis factor (TNF); TNF increases response rate thanks to its selective disruption of the tumour microvasculate, with a consequent ischemic damage of melanoma cells, even if seems not to influence the long term local control (Di Filippo et al 2006). Dacarbazine is less effective when administered regionally; other combinations of cytostatics (dactinomycin, nitrogen mustard, vindesine, thio-TEPA) have also been proposed but the published series are too small to give absolute conclusions (Daryanani et al 2000, de Wilt et al 2000, Hoeckstra 2008). Hyperthermia, with temperature between 39 to 41 act sinergically with high dose chemotherapy, even if can exacerbate loco regional toxicity (Hoeckstra 2008).
General anesthesia is required. However, age does not represent a contraindication to ILP. Systemic side effects, due to drug releasing into the systemic circulation are rare and mainly represented by nausea, vomiting and mild bone marrow suppression. Local toxic reactions are more frequently described and ranges from mild erythema to deep tissue inflammation; nearly 25% of patients develop neuropathy or pain, whereas chronic edema is usually related to lymphoadenenctomy (Bonifati et al 2000, Rossi et al 2002).
Recently, electrochemotherapy (ECT) has been proposed as a new treatment modality for skin metastases of different malignancy, including melanoma. ECT enhances membrane permeability by electric pulses thus permitting a major drug delivery in neoplastic cells and a better cytotoxic effect.
Bleomycin and cisplatin are the drugs more frequently used in ECT with an increased efficacy up to 8.000-fold for bleomicyn, and up to 80-fold for cisplatin (Gaudy et al 2006).
The ECT technique requires only a regional anesthesia or mild general sedation with a lower duration if compared to isolated limb perfusion. With respect to ILP, ECT shows a minimal systemic toxicity; treatment is generally well tolerated; side effects were mainly represented by erythema and edema at the site of treated lesions, superficial erosions, scars and permanent marks from the electrodes (Quaglino et al 2008). Thus ECT can be performed also in patients with major co morbidities.
The first large study about effectiveness of ECT in melanoma treatment, was the multi center European Standard Operating Procedure of Eettrochemoterapy (ESOPE), based on the new CliniporatorTM Elettric Pulse Generator; this study enrolled twenty melanoma patients, with an overall response rate of more than 20% (Marty et al 2008). Several papers recently published confirm these encouraging results of ECT in the control of skin metastases (Campana et al 2009, Moller et al 2009). In our experience, the global response rate was of 79.4, with a percentage of complete remissions of 23.2%(Quaglino et al 2008); complete response was defined in accordance World Health Organiziation (WHO) guidelines as the total clinical disappearance of the tumor (WHO. From
The lesion size was the most predictive parameter for response; response rate for larger lesions was significantly lower. Moreover, a second limit is represented by the possible relapse of new lesions on untreated areas: ECT represent in fact a local treatment. However, it is possible to repeat ECT, both on new metastases in untreated areas and on already treated lesions with a previous partial remission or no changes. In our experience, new responses were obtained in about 60% of retreated lesions.
Appropriate dressing should be performed with the aim to control ulceration of cutaneous tumours, local infectious complications and to ensure an acceptable quality of life.
The effectiveness of radiotherapy in the treatment of melanoma metastases is still debated. A poor response was historically observed on in vitro cultures from melanoma cells treated with external-beam radiation (Barranco, Romsdahl & Humphrey 1971). So, radiotherapy was mainly used as palliation when disease was too extensive for surgery and other modalities of treatment were inadvisable or ineffective in stage III and IV melanoma patients. However, a retrospective review (Fenig et al 2009) showed a 52% response rate in stage IV patients who received radiotherapy with palliative intent and others studies (Sause et al 1991; Seegenschmeid et al 1999) demonstrated an overall response rate ranging from 60 to 79% for stage III disease. Moreover, disease-free and overall survival seems to be significant longer in patients who received radiotherapy (Olivier et al, 2007).
Usually, chemotherapy plays a role in the treatment of stage IV melanoma patients with visceral metastases. Regarding cutaneous metastases, chemotherapy can be used in patients with wide spread skin lesions not eligible for local treatments, with or without a concomitant visceral involvement.
Chemotherapy could be used also in stage III, when other loco-regional treatments have failed or are technically not feasable (e.g. cutaneous lesions diffused at trunk or back).
The global response rate is less than 25% for single agent treatment. The gold standard is still represented by Dacarbazine; new molecules as Temozolomide and Fotemustine showed a super imposable disease-free and overall survival, with major toxicity (Middelton et al, 2000). Combination regimens or chemo-immunotherapy give higher response rate but also more severe side effects. However, response to chemo-immunoterapy is not related to statistically significant benefit in term of overall survival when compared with a single-agent treatment.
Recently, Ipilimumab, a human anti-CTLA4 monoclonal antibody showed objective responses or disease stabilization in patients with advanced melanoma (O\'Day et al, 2010). No data about the effectiveness of Ipilimumab in the treatment of cutaneous metastases are available, even if several studies are ongoing.
The response rate for in transit metastases treated with dacarbazine is 15-20%; the majority of the responses are partial with a median response duration less than 6 months. Chemoimunotherapy showed also no survival benefit (Hoekstra 2008).
Finally, the clinical efficacy of RAF inhibitors in BRAF mutated melanoma patients are under evaluation after some encouraging preliminary report; a phase I study on patients with both disseminated cutaneous and visceral metastases reported an 81% of clinical responses in patients treated with selective BRAF inhibitor, with a median time to progression of 6-9 months (Flaherty, 2010).
Patients with small (<2 cm) and superficial lesions who are not suitable for isolated limb perfusion, ECT or other conventional modalities of treatment can be considered for carbon dioxide (CO2) laser ablation. This therapy is minimally invasive: only local anesthesia is required and the resultant defect does not require surgical closure but can be covered with a dressing until secondary healing (Lingam & McKay, 1996; Gibson, Byrne & Mc Kay, 2004). So, can be considered a minimally invasive and effective method of palliation; the role as first line treatment is still debated, in fact the technique can be used to treat only visible and superficial lesions, while deep subcutaneous metastases, large volume lesions and microscopic disease can not be treated with laser ablation (Gimbel, Delman & Zager, 2008).
This technique uses temperatures from -50 C to -60 C (with nitrogen spray) to obtain direct tissue destruction. The heat transfer results in vascular stasis, ice crystal and disruption of cell membranes, Ph changes, hypertonic damage and thermal shock that lead to tissue damage and necrosis. Low temperature causes the development of a bulla and a secondary healing with a scar. After the introduction of laser ablation and ECT, cryosurgery is less frequently used in the treatment of cutaneous metastases from melanoma (Hoekstra, 2008).
The intralesional injection of bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) was the first immunotherapy used in the local treatment of cutaneous metastases from melanoma. This procedure was accompanied by sever complications such as ulceration, skin necrosis, and superinfection without significative improvement of lesions treated (Tan & Ho, 1993). Other drugs such as IL-2, INF alpha and dinitrochlorobenzene, with or without sistemic dacarbazine, were more recently used as intralesional therapy (Radny et al, 2003; Strobbe et al, 1997); results are still debating and further investigations are necessary. Encouraging results regarding high-dose intratumoral IL-2 administration in melanoma patients with cutaneous secondarities has been reported (Weide et al, 2010): a complete local response was described in more than 60% of melanoma patients and seemed to be associated with an increased responses to subsequent chemotherapies. Recently, phase I studies confirmed the safety and an enhanced immune response for intralesional injection of Allovectin in metastatic melanoma patients. Unfortunately, phase II studies showed a complete response in only the 3.1% of treated patients, with an overall response rate of 11.8% and a median time-to-progression of 1.6 months (Beidikan et al, 2010).
Rose bengal has been proposed as a possible intralesional treatment, with an objective response rate ranging from 27 to 69%, related to the dose of injection (Thompson, Hersey & Wachter, 2008). Sistemic toxicity is low, even if phototoxic reactions have been described.
An interesting therapeutic option is represented by topical imiquimod. It enhances the immune system activity leading to an induction of melanoma-specific cytotoxic T-cells by cross presentation of melanoma antigen by dendritic cells. Partial remission of locoregional cutaneous metastases treated with imiquimod was demonstrated (Wolf, Richtig, Kopera & Kerl H, 2004).
Skin metastases from melanoma are a frequent finding in the natural history of the disease with various clinical, morphological and histopathologic backgrounds. The presence of progressively increasing metastases is often distressing for the patient, and ulceration, bleeding and super-infections can negatively impact on the life-quality. To date, many treatments are available for the clinical management of these lesions. Thus, clinicians should be informed about the prognostic implications and the therapeutic options in order to choose the best cost-effectiveness treatment modality.
Undoubtedly, plastics play a major role in our everyday life, since plastic parts are used in numerous applications, such as packaging (for instance, food containers), automotive industry, electric and electronic equipment (EEE), etc., due to their unique properties [1]. Some of their most important characteristics that necessitate their use in these applications are lightness, ease of processing, resistance to corrosion, transparency, and others. Nevertheless, their wide use in various applications in combination with the short life span of many plastic products leads to large amounts of end-of-life plastics. Taking all these into account, along with plastic nonbiodegradability, research has focused on exploring environmentally friendly approaches for their safe disposal [2]. Plastic handling involves collection, treatment, and afterward recycling. Unfortunately, finding environmentally friendly approaches for their disposal is no mean feat (Figure 1); due to the variation in types of plastics, which are often of unknown composition, the existence of polymer blends, or composites, multilayer structures with other materials apart from polymers, as well as the wide range of additives (such as UV and thermal stabilizers, antistatic agents, (brominated) flame retardants, colorants, plasticizers, etc.) they may contain [3, 4].
Difficulties encountered during end-of-life plastic handling.
The disposal of post-consumer plastics occurs via landfilling, primary recycling, energy recovery, mechanical recycling, and chemical recycling [2]. Although landfilling is an undesirable, non-recycling method, since it results in serious environmental problems, such as soil and groundwater contamination, until now large amounts of end-of-life plastics still end up in landfilling [5, 6]. With a view to eliminating plastic landfilling, research has focused on recycling methods (Figure 2) that can be applied, which are primary recycling, recycling without quality losses, energy recovery-quaternary, mechanical or secondary recycling-downcycling into lower qualities and chemical or tertiary recycling-recovery of chemical constituents [7]:
In primary recycling (re-extrusion), the plastic scrap is reinserted in the heating cycle of the processing line in order to increase the production [8]. It remains a very popular method, because of its simplicity and low cost. However, it can be applied only in case of clean, uncontaminated single-type waste [2].
Mechanical recycling involves reprocessing and modification of plastic waste using mechanical-physical means with the aim of forming similar, plastic products, at nearly the same or lower performance level when compared with the original products [6]. Since mechanical recycling can be used only in case of homogeneous plastics, heterogeneous plastics require sorting and separation before their recycling. In mechanical recycling, the presence of brominated flame retardant (BFR) incorporated in plastics must be identified before its application, in order to avoid the possible formation of toxic substances, such as polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PBDD/Fs) [9, 10]. Its main drawback is the fact that product’s properties are deteriorated during every cycle [2]; and it should be underlined that each polymer can endure only a limited number of reprocessing cycles [11]. An additional challenge is the existence of mixed plastic waste (polymer blends), since different polymer types have different melting points and processing temperatures. In such cases, the processing temperature is usually set to the highest melting component. Nevertheless, this may result in overheating and possible degradation of the lower melting components and so, in reduced final properties [12].
In chemical or feedstock recycling, plastic wastes are converted into lower-molecular-weight products, such as: fuels, monomers, or secondary valuable products that can be used as feedstock for refineries. Conversion takes place through chemical reactions in the presence of solvents and reagents [10]. It is an environmentally friendly method, since, as mentioned previously, it results in the formation of valuable products or monomers [9].
During energy recovery, plastics are incinerated in a boiler or in other industrial equipment, taking advantage of their high energy value; for energy production in the form of heat and electricity. Nevertheless, if incomplete incineration takes place, then toxic substances, such as dioxins, furans, and others, may be formed and released into the atmosphere, resulting in environmental issues [2, 8, 9, 10].
Recycling methods for post-consumer plastics.
In conclusion, during chemical recycling, plastics are converted into smaller molecules (mainly liquids and gases), which can be used for the production of new, valuable products; and that is why it is considered as an environmentally friendly and economically feasible technique. Furthermore, chemical recycling seems to be more advantageous than the other existing methods; taking into account, for instance, the fact that during chemical recycling, both heterogeneous and contaminated polymers can be treated, only with a limited pretreatment. Moreover, the energy consumption of the process is very low, if compared with that of mechanical recycling or energy recovery [6].
Chemical recycling comprises two processes: solvolysis and thermolysis. During solvolysis, polymers are dissolved in a solvent and treated with or without catalysts and initiators.
Chemical recycling routes.
Generally, it should be underlined that pyrolysis can be considered as one of the best options for plastics recycling, since its advantages are aplenty. Specifically, pyrolysis enables material and energy recovery from polymer waste, as a very small amount of the energy content of waste is consumed for its conversion into valuable hydrocarbons. Furthermore, pyrolysis products are valuable, since they can be used as fuels or chemical feedstock. Last but not least, in case that flame retardants are present in plastic waste, via pyrolysis the formation of toxic substances may be restricted, due to the fact that it takes place in the absence of oxygen [17]. Of course, catalyst’s presence, as mentioned previously, plays a vital role. Apart from catalysts, various other parameters, including temperature, heating rate, residence time, operating pressure, etc., can strongly affect the quality and distribution of pyrolysis products [6].
As mentioned previously, many obstacles can be found during the end-of-life plastic recycling. In this unit there are presented in detail three case studies, including: polymeric blends (difficulties due to the coexistence of mixed plastic wastes), plastics originating in multilayer packaging (challenging because of the coexistence of different materials, such as plastics, paper, and metals), and brominated flame-retarded plastics from WEEE (possible formation of undesirable, toxic substances due to the BFR’s presence), along with suggestions on how to overcome these difficulties.
Polymer blends are mixtures of two or more polymers in concentration greater than 2%wt. The blends can be miscible or immiscible, a parameter that depends on the thermodynamics of the system and molecular structure, weight, and polymer concentration. More information on the complicated thermodynamics that govern polymer blend miscibility can be found in the Polymer Blends Handbook [18, 19]. Miscible polymer blends are also known as homogeneous blends and are monophasic while immiscible blends with morphologies that differ such as, spheres, cylinders, fibers, or sheets (Figure 4) [12].
(a) and (b) are a visual representation of the differences between miscible and immiscible Polymer Blends. Images (c), (d), and (e) show the spherical, fibrous, and cylindrical morphologies of immiscible Polymer Blends, respectively. Image inspired by Ragaert et al. [
Subject to polymer compatibility, polymer blends can exhibit synergistic, antagonistic, or additive behavior. A common method used to assuage the immiscibility of polymers blends is the inclusion of compatibilizers—a polymeric surface tension reduction agent that promotes interfacial adherence—in the blend. The three most common types of compatibilizers are reactive functionalized polymers, nonreactive polymers containing polar groups, and block or graft polymers [12, 19, 20].
The difficulty during polymer blend recycling lies in the different properties presented by its component parts such as melting points and processing temperatures between polymers [12]. Most recycling efforts are concentrated on the procedure of pyrolysis to extract energy through the oils, wax, char, and gasses produced. Furthermore, research in recent years has focused on the use of various, different catalysts in order to lower the energy consumption of the whole process and increase the exploitable yield. Along with those some novel methods of polymer blend recycling will be explored.
Polymer composites are made up of two or more elements resulting in a multiphase, multicomponent system that exhibits superior properties compared with the constituent materials due to a synergistic effect. It comprises two parts:
A polymeric matrix that can be either thermoplastic polymers such as polypropylene (PP), polycarbonate (PC), acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) or thermoset polymers such as epoxy, vinyl ester, and polyester.
A reinforcing filler such as glass, carbon, and aramid [21].
One way that polymer blend can be recycled is by acting as the matrix for secondary elements creating composite materials. In this way it is possible to unite the two components in a form that reinforces the secondary materials and reuses the polymer blends. This method can be adapted to use natural fillers or fibers as the reinforcing fillers. Those can be added along with a coupling agent to optimize the interaction of the fillers with the matrix further and have the positive side effect of making the whole process environmentally friendly. It is important, however, that these fillers have the capacity to be chemically treated.
In a research conducted by Choudory et al., [22], Low-density polyethylene (LDPE)/Linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) blend extracted from milk pouches was used as a matrix for coir fibers. The result was composites with properties only slightly lacking from the virgin material ones. In case a maleated styrene pretreatment was applied, the mechanical properties and thermooxidative stability were drastically increased [23].
In another research conducted by Lou et al., [24], PET/PP blend and bamboo charcoal were used to create extruded or injection-molded composite materials. A great increase in mechanical properties was observed in the injection-molded composites, which maintained their mechanical properties even after three rounds of processing. The percentage of total mass of PET in the blend plays a particularly significant role in the product’s final behavior [23].
Pyrolysis is a promising choice as regards the recycling of polymer blends. With pyrolysis, high levels of conversion of the polymer blend into oil and gas with high calorific values can be attained. These can be used afterward to either fuel the process, or they can be utilized elsewhere [25]. This can be an invaluable asset to the petrochemical industry and a green way for the recycling of plastic waste [26].
Another advantage of pyrolysis is that a sorting process is not needed in contrast to other recycling methods that are extremely susceptible to contamination. This can of course save money and time when recycling polymer blends. Lastly, with the use of the pyrolysis procedure, waste management becomes easier as it is a cheap and environmentally friendly method. In the meanwhile, it allows for minimization of landfill capacity—a serious contemporary difficulty [5]. As the combination of polymers that make up polymer blends is wide, with every blend presenting different properties and pyrolysis behavior, it would be impractical to analyze each one of them. Instead, this chapter will focus on the pyrolysis route taken for the most common polymer blends by examining the research conducted by scientists in the field.
In general, the pyrolysis process can be either thermal or catalytic. In practice, however, the latter is widely preferred by the industry as it demands lower operating temperatures—and thus cost is minimized—that produce a more satisfactory yield of pyrolytic oils, if the correct catalyst has been elected [5].
In a study conducted by Vasile et al., [26], a blend with a composition similar to that originating in municipal waste—24%wt high-density polyethylene (HDPE), 39%wt LDPE, 21.5%wt isotactic polypropylene (IPP), 10%wt PS, 4%wt ABS, and 1.5%wt PET—was investigated. The blend underwent the process of catalytic pyrolysis two separate times each with a different catalyst—HZSM-5 in the first batch and PZSM-5 zeolite catalyst in the second batch, in order to find which catalyst led to better results. It was concluded that the PZSM zeolitic catalyst was characterized by higher selectivity and stability. The optimal temperature for the pyrolysis was found to be 450–480°C, and the gas produced increased sixfold in comparison to the non-catalytic process. Furthermore, the liquid products were found to contain high concentrations of aromatic hydrocarbons. As such, both the liquid and the gas phase can be utilized by the petrochemical industry. Lastly, the pyrolysis oil could be useful as petrochemical feedstock [26].
A novel research conducted by Bober et al. [27] proposed a way to produce hydrogen gas from the catalytic pyrolysis of different consistency HDPE/ poly(methyl methacrylate) PMMA polymer blends. After trial and error, the optimal temperature for maximum hydrogen production was found to be 815°C, a temperature where the catalyst used, Ni/Co, operated the best for hydrogen production. It was also found that, the higher the HDPE content in the blend, the bigger the hydrogen output. In contrast, when PMMA was the dominant polymer in the blend, CO was produced at a greater rate than the previous procedure. The research team proposed that the best ratio for HDPE/PMMA in the blend is 4:1 [27].
It must also be noted that concerning the production of hydrogen from pyrolysis of polymer blends, a popular option is the co-pyrolysis of the polymer blends with biomass [28].
A largely untapped potential of Polymer Blends is their recycling as feedstock for the chemical industry. A study presented by Plastics Europe [29], displays that only 2–3% of the collected plastic waste in Europe is utilized as feedstock (Figure 5).
The fate of the European collected plastic waste. Image inspired by Donaj et al. [
A possible procedure for the creation of feedstock from pyrolysis of Polymer Blends on the group of polyolefins was suggested by Donaj et al., [30]. For the purposes of the process, the researchers used a blend of polyolefins—46% LDPE, 30% HDPE, 24% PP- taken from MSW/plastic waste. The collected material was firstly reduced in size to about 3 mm pieces and then pyrolysis ensued under temperatures of 600–700°C in a fluidized bed reactor and with the use of steam and a catalyst if that was deemed feasible as the latter materials increase the yield of olefines. To optimize the procedure, Ziegler-Natta catalyst was used.
The research noted that after the procedure’s conclusion, plastic pyrolysis had directly yielded 15–30% gaseous olefins that can then be channeled directly into a polymerization plant. The residue produced consists of a naphtha-like consistency. To be used, this residue must undergo reformation via petrochemical technologies to be upgraded into olefins. Also, as in the previous cases of pyrolysis, the products of the process can be used to fuel the procedure itself. However, work still needs to be done on this field as the process described is not as cost-effective as desired [30].
A last noteworthy method for the utilization of immiscible Polymer Blends is their direct melting processing into fibers with good mechanical properties proposed by Shi et al. [31]. The blend used in this research was PS/PP while fibers were chosen due to two distinct reasons: (a) The fiber spinning technique is known to endow improved properties to polymer blends. (b) Fibers from polymer blends may display new properties in comparison to pure polymers. This method is widely cost-effective for preparing strong fibers for the industry, and it is expected to see great development in the coming years [31].
In this age of climate change and overall pollution, it has been the priority of policymakers to ensure the viable and sustainable future of human development. An example of this is the EU with the European Plastic Strategy dictating that all packaging used should be reusable or recyclable by 2030 [32].
A prime example of the challenges the industry faces to reach this standard is Tetra Pak, a multilayer packaging used mostly in the food, medicine, chemical, and commodities industry. Tetra Pak most usually consists of three elements: paper cardboard, aluminum, and LDPE.
As stated by the Tetra Pak company, its composition is as follows: (a) 71% paperboard, (b) 24% plastics, and (c) 5% aluminum foil (Figures 6 and 7).
Raw materials used to produce Tetra Pak. Image inspired by the Tetra Pak site information.
The layers of Tetra Pak. Image inspired by Georgiopoulou et al. [
These three make up the six layers that combined make Tetra Pak. Each layer has a particular use elaborated on below:
However, this is not an absolute rule. For example, certain products with a short shelf life have no need for the protection given by the aluminum layer. On the other hand, when the aforementioned shelf life needs to be extended, the LDPE layers can be substituted by PP providing a chance for further heat treatment of the product. HDPE, PET, and PA are also possible options for replacing the LDPE layers. Lastly, polyurethanes and EMAA are often utilized as adhesives between layers [34] while the Tetra Pak carton may also contain various chemical additives such as plasticizers, stabilizers, lubricants, fillers, foaming agents, colorants, flame retardants, and antistatic agents [35].
As Tetra Pak cartons are composed of mainly paper, the removal and recycling of the carboard layer are of much significance. As such there are two main processing routes: recycling without hydropulping and recycling with hydropulping. The initial procedure processes the cartons as a whole, while the latter uses the technique of hydropulping to first separate the cellulosic fibers from the Al-LDPE laminate.
The main aim of those following this route is energy recovery or downcycling. Energy recovery is attained in combination with solid municipal waste through means of pyrolysis, gasification, or incineration. However, this method comes with many downsides. Paper—the main ingredient of Tetra Pak cartons—has a low heat combustion (16 MJ/Kg), high moisture content, and a significantly high ash value. This makes the entire process inefficient, and thus it is in general not widely used [34].
Before proceeding with the options in this category, it would be useful to briefly go over the hydropulping process. When the soon-to-be recycled material first arrives into the recycle unit, the hydropulper breaks apart the paper with rotating blades that use high pressure water and a slurry of fibers is produced. Further processing ensues in centrifugal cleaners that remove heavy materials such as sand, adhesives, staples, etc. [36]. The end result of this procedure is a pulp of cellulosic fibers and can be used as a substitute for wood pulp, in the production of brown paper and pulp board [37]. What remains after the process is the external LDPE layer and the Al-LDPE laminates. However, residual cellulosic fibers can account for up to 5% of the finished products (Figure 8).
The main recycling routes.
The appeal of this method lies in its simplicity and cost-effectiveness. The pyrolysis procedure has two steps: (a) the degradation of paper (200–400°C) and (b) the devolatilization of LDPE (420–515°C) [38, 39, 40]. It should be noted that the temperature plays an important role in the composition of the final products. For example, the production of char is minimized with higher temperatures, and the opposite is true for wax.
The solid products that follow the process are aluminum, char caused by paper degradation, wax from LDPE degradation and tar. A great deal of gaseous products are also formed that mainly consist of CO2, CO, H2, CH4, C2–6 hydrocarbons, and volatile matter. Lastly, there is an aqueous phase consisting of water and phenols.
Many uses have been proposed for those pyrolytic products. The produced gases could be used to sustain the pyrolysis procedure itself or used elsewhere entirely, the char and tar can be exploited as a solid and oil fuel, respectively, while char can also act as a primal resource for the production of carbon-based materials. Lastly, the wax and aqueous phase can readily be utilized as a raw material for the chemical industry [39, 40].
A novel approach has been taken by researchers in Mexico and Spain who have used the char and the aluminum from the pyrolysis to have them act as absorbents of mercury in aqueous solutions. By means of trial and error and using thermodynamical analyses, they did conclude that char obtained from pyrolysis at 600°C at a 3 h procedure demonstrated the most promising mercury adsorption capacity at 21.0 mg/g. The field of char absorbents is still expanding with hopes of Tetra Pak pyrolysis chars acting as major absorbents for industry in the future [41].
The basic principle of this approach is the immersion of the Al-PE laminate in a carefully selected solvent and under specific temperature conditions with the aim of the dissolution of the LDPE in the solvent. What follows is the removal by means of filtration of additives and impurities. Lastly an antisolvent is added, and as a result precipitation of the dissolved polymer follows. To maximize LDPE and pure aluminum recovery, the SDP process is repeated three times.
The LDPE produced is of quality that matches that of the virgin product while the aluminum collected is also of high purity. Along with the hydropulping process, this is a very promising option for Tetra Pak recycling. However, the procedure is not without drawbacks: firstly, because of the cost-effective energy consumption needed to separate the solvent-antisolvent mixture and secondly, due to its high environmental impact. The economic viability of this technique rests upon whether the solvent-antisolvent mixture can be separated cheaply (Figure 9) [33].
The SDP process. Image inspired by Georgiopoulou et al. [
This technique has been developed by researchers in China and focuses on the separation of LDPE and aluminum by means of a separation reagent, mostly aqueous solutions of organic acids or even mixtures of acids. The procedure works by breaking the mechanical bonds holding the laminate together and as such allows for recovery of the products.
The yield of the process is highly dependent on the conditions of the reaction. In the process some of the aluminum is dissolved by the acid—which is also consumed—and thus losses are to be expected. However, this depends on many factors such as acid used, temperature, etc. Product purity is also correlated with those factors.
After trial and error, it has been found that methanoic acid is the best separation reagent for Tetra Pak. Lastly, there seems to be a high correlation between the separation rate, the temperature the reaction is taking place at, and the concentration of the reagent. More specifically, reaction time decreases with the rise of reagent concentration and temperature (Figure 10) [37].
The acid-based delamination process. Image inspired by Zhang Ji-fei et al. [
Thanks to the high heating value of the Al-LDPE laminate (40 MJ/Kg), it can be used as a sufficient fuel source. This has taken precedent especially in Europe. Although the laminate can be used directly after the hydropulping process, it is most usually used in conjunction with other fuel sources. This recycling route can be considered environmentally friendly as the LDPE of Tetra Pak burns cleanly without producing fumes containing elements such as sulfur, nitrogen, or halogens.
Also, the Al2O3 produced during pyrolysis, by the reaction between Al and moisture in high heat conditions, is in big part exploited by the cement industry, which uses it as a desired component of cement production [36]. Lastly there is the choice of forming finished products directly by using the laminates in roof tile production, injection and rotational molding, and PE-Al agglomeration and pulverization [42, 43].
In these times that society demands a more environmental way of thinking from the industry, recycling of multilayer packaging becomes a priority for many scientists. They have developed a plethora of ways to recycle such packaging, from using it as a fuel to using its pyrolysis products as a mercury absorbent. It is most likely that this field will keep on expanding with ever more innovative and cost-effective ways to fully exploit, reuse, and transform the Tetra Pak multilayer packaging as human development is going into the future.
The rapid technological advances along with people’s need for better living conditions resulted in a global rise in the consumption of EEE over the last years and so in huge amounts of WEEE [44]. Plastics in WEEE account for ~30% of WEEE and in most cases contain BFR that necessitates careful handling [9], since BFR’s presence in plastics leads to the formation of various, toxic brominated substances in the liquid fraction obtained after pyrolysis, inhibiting its further use. In such cases a pretreatment step before or during the recycling is necessary in order to receive bromine-free products. So, due to the fact that
One very common pretreatment method for the removal of BFR applied before pyrolysis is
Apart from the typical soxhlet extraction, many advanced solvent extraction techniques have been explored over the years, including supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE), and microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). These techniques require less time and volumes of solvents than those during soxhlet extraction [47]. Vilaplana et al. applied MAE for the removal of TBBPA and decabromodiphenyl ether (Deca-BDE) from virgin high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) and standard samples from real WEEE. They found that complete extraction of TBBPA took place when they used a combination of polar/nonpolar solvent system (isopropanol/n-hexane) and high extraction temperatures (130°C). On the other hand, in case of Deca-BDE, there were obtained lower extraction yields due to its high molecular weight and its nonpolar nature [47].
In another study [48], UAE and MAE were investigated for the recovery of TBBPA from real WEEE samples that consisted of ABS, polypropylene (PP), polycarbonate (PC), and blends of ABS/PC. From the results obtained it was proved that MAE was more efficient in extracting TBBPA than UAE, especially in case of ABS polymers. The optimal solvent media was isopropanol: n-hexane (1:1), which is a binary mixture of a polar –nonpolar solvent, whereas pure isopropanol, as a solvent, could not result in complete extraction of TBBPA [48].
As mentioned previously, SFE has also attracted a lot of attention as regards the degradation of brominated flame-retarded plastics from WEEE, because of the supercritical fluids’ unique properties, such as high density, low viscosity, varied permittivity related to pressure, and high mass transfer, as well as the fact that their viscosity, density, and diffusion coefficient are very sensitive to changes in temperature and pressure. Supercritical fluids appear at temperature and pressure higher than their critical state. Supercritical CO2 is the most widely used fluid in SFE, since it presents remarkable advantages, including: low critical point, low cost, ease of availability, non-toxicity, recyclability, and simplicity as regards its operation. Water is also, a cheap, nontoxic, and easily available fluid, but it has a relatively high supercritical point [49].
Onwudili and Williams [50] studied supercritical water (T > 374°C and P > 22.1 MPa) due to the fact that it presents different characteristics in comparison with organic solvents. They focused on ABS and HIPS, since they are some of the most representative brominated plastics in WEEE and degraded them in supercritical water (up to 450°C and 31 MPa) in a batch reactor. Furthermore, they investigated the effect of alkaline additives, NaOH and Ca(OH)2, by treating the plastics both in the absence and in the presence of them. They noticed that oils, which were the main reaction products, had almost zero bromine and antimony content in the presence of NaOH additive [50]. In another work, [51] there was used subcritical water for the debromination of printed circuit boards (PCB) that contained BFR in a high-pressure batch reactor. They applied three different temperatures, 225, 250, and 275°C, and noticed that debromination increased with increase in temperature. After the debromination of the samples, they applied recycling methods, such as pyrolysis.
Apart from water, organic solvents such as acetone, methanol, and ethanol can also be used as supercritical fluids in chemical recycling of plastics from WEEE [52]. For instance, Wang and Zhang [52] used various supercritical fluids: acetone, methanol, isopropanol, and water with a view to studying the degradation of waste computer housing plastics that contained BFR. They came to the conclusion that supercritical fluid process was efficient for the debromination and decomposition of brominated flame-retarded plastics enabling the recycling of bromine-free oil. As for solvent’s efficiency in debromination, the order was the following: water > methanol > isopropanol > acetone.
It should be highlighted here that although SFE technology is considered as a green choice for resource recovery, it has some important drawbacks as well. One of the main obstacles in such technology is the fact that only equipment able to withstand high pressures and temperatures and very resistant to corrosion can be used. These demands, however, increase the cost a lot, and along with the large amount of energy that is required, prevent its industrial implementation [49].
To avoid the latter difficulties, there are other approaches that can be applied in case of flame-retarded plastics. One such approach is that of
As described above, during co-pyrolysis, the end-of-life brominated plastics along with other (plastic) waste are pyrolyzed together and result in bromine reduction in the derived pyrolysis oil, without any kind of pretreatment before the pyrolysis process. Another idea, in order to reduce bromine while avoiding the extra pretreatment step, is that of the
During
In another study [59], there was investigated activated Al2O3 for catalytic pyrolysis of waste PCB examining three different temperatures: 400, 500, and 600°C, as well as different ratios of PCB: Al2O3. They noticed that higher temperatures improved the oil production; and the optimal results as regards the production of light oil and the debromination were obtained at 600°C. The catalyst’s presence increased the formation of light hydrocarbons and in the meantime the debromination. Wu et al. [60] carried out catalytic pyrolysis of brominated HIPS that also contained Sb2O3, in the presence of red mud, limestone, and natural zeolite, with a view to eliminating bromine and antimony from the pyrolysis oil. They found that in their presence, the total amount of bromine (and antimony) in the oil was reduced. Nevertheless, red mud was the most efficient catalyst in reducing bromine, since Fe2O3 present in red mud reacted with HBr that was formed during the degradation of the BFR and hindered the formation of the volatile SbBr3; in the meanwhile, its zeolite property catalytically destroyed the organobromine compounds [60].
Co-pyrolysis can also take place in the presence of catalysts, known as
An example that belongs in the first category is [63], in which they examined a small-scale two-stage pyrolysis and catalytic reforming of brominated flame-retarded HIPS at 500°C using four zeolites: natural zeolite (NZ), iron oxide–loaded natural zeolite (Fe-NZ), HY zeolite (YZ), and iron oxide–loaded HY zeolite (Fe-YZ). They observed that the bromine content in the oil was reduced in the presence of catalysts; however, Fe-NZ and Fe-YZ showed better debromination results, due to the reactions between the iron oxide that was loaded and the derived HBr. Compared with Fe-YZ, Fe-NZ did not greatly change the pyrolysis products and so preserved the valuable single-ring aromatic compounds. As a result, Fe-NZ was more effective and feasible for the feedstock recycling of brominated HIPS via the pyrolysis process.
Areeprasert and Khaobang [64] studied pyrolysis and catalytic reforming of a polymer blend (ABS/PC) and PCB, at 500°C, using some conventional catalysts: Y-zeolite (YZ), ZSM-5, iron oxide–loaded Y-zeolite (Fe/YZ), and iron oxide–loaded ZSM-5 (Fe/ZSM-5), as well as some alternative, green catalysts: biochar (BC), electronic waste char (EWC), iron oxide–loaded biochar (Fe/BC), and iron oxide–loaded electronic waste char (Fe/EWC). They found that all catalysts increased the single-ring hydrocarbon products of the liquid fraction. As for the debromination, it was noticed that in case of ABS/PC, the most effective catalyst was Fe/BC, whereas in case of PCB, it was Fe/EWC. Also, they concluded that the green-renewable catalysts could be a promising choice for removing bromine from the liquid fraction [64]. Ma et al. [65] investigated pyrolysis-catalytic upgrading of brominated flame-retarded ABS. The process took place in a two-stage fixed bed reactor; and the second stage included the catalytic upgrading of the vapor intermediates that were obtained from pyrolysis (first stage). The examined catalysts were: HZSM-5 and Fe/ZSM-5. Both catalysts had high catalytic cracking activities that led to an increased yield of oil and to a reduction of the bromine in the liquid fraction.
This chapter briefly presents all methods that are used nowadays for plastic recycling, including primary recycling, energy recovery, mechanical recycling, and chemical recycling. The advantages and disadvantages of each method are discussed. Emphasis though is given on chemical recycling and mainly, pyrolysis, due to its many benefits, which are fully described. Furthermore, three case studies that involve some difficulties in plastic recycling are thoroughly investigated. The first one includes the case of polymeric blends, where the coexistence of different plastic materials makes their recycling more difficult. The second one is focused on the recycling of plastics that come from multilayer packaging. The main obstacle in this case lies in the fact that multilayer packaging comprises various, different materials, such as paper and metals, apart from the plastics, so extra attention is required for their separation and recycling. The last case study that is presented here is that of brominated flame-retarded plastics from WEEE, since in such cases direct recycling is not that easy due to the formation of undesirable brominated compounds and more often than not a pretreatment step prior to their recycling is necessary. Taking into account the mentioned difficulties, the aim of this chapter is to present and analyze various recent literature data along with suggestions on how to overcome the mentioned problems.
The research work was supported by the Hellenic Foundation for Research and Innovation (HFRI) under the HFRI PhD Fellowship grant (Fellowship Number: 853).
All publications on this website are published under the Open Access model, without any subscription, registration, or access fees required from the user or his/her institution. In accordance with the Budapest Open Access Initiative's (BOAI) definition of Open Access, users are allowed to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, and link to the full text versions of all Chapters. To read more about our Open Access Statement click here.
\n\nFor Editorial Policies for journals please consult individual journal pages.
',metaTitle:"Editorial policies",metaDescription:"Editorial policies",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/editorial-policies",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\\n\\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\\n\\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\\n\\n\\n\\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\\n\\n\\n\\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\\n\\n\\n\\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\\n\\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\\n\\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\\n\\n\\n\\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\\n\\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\\n\\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\\n\\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\\n\\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\\n\\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\\n\\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\\n\\n\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
\n\n\n\nWith the purpose of protecting our Authors' copyright and the transparent reuse of Open Access content, IntechOpen has developed an Attribution Policy for works published under Creative Commons licenses.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
\n\nIn line with publication ethics practices recommended by COPE, ICMJE, and other similar organizations, IntechOpen's contributing Authors, Academic Editors, and Peer Reviewers are required to declare fully all possible conflicts of interest.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, the following requirements must be met:
\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\n\n\nTo identify instances of fraud and misconduct during the publishing process, IntechOpen implements a robust policy governing such occurrences. In line with our general commitment to openness, and in order to maintain the highest scientific standards, we are committed to transparency about our editorial policy regarding retractions and corrections.
\n\n\n\nWhen faced with potential misconduct, IntechOpen accepts its responsibility to maintain the integrity of the academic record. For particularly complex cases, IntechOpen might ask for the assistance of formal industry bodies or seek advice from an appropriate team of advisors.
\n\nIntechOpen's advisors are professionals and scholars with broad knowledge and understanding of different aspects of the scientific publishing process: editorial, authorship, and reviewing roles; publication ethics, copyright, and general legal issues; as well as bibliographic and technical standards.
\n\nIn order to provide us with unbiased insights, without compromising the privacy of third parties, IntechOpen presents problematic cases to its advisors in an anonymized format.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes books in the English language. If you are interested in the translation of Book Chapters, please check IntechOpen's Translation Policy.
\n\n\n\nIn line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, you can access a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
\n\n\n\nAt IntechOpen we realize that exceptional circumstances can occur, resulting in a request for a refund. We will honor all justified requests in the specific instances outlined in our Refund Policy.
\n\n\n\nAll chapters will be published via IntechOpen's 'Online First' service meaning chapters will be published individually, immediately after review and before the entire book is ready for publication, allowing content to be shared, searched and cited straightaway, thereby generating early stage interest and momentum for your research
\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
\n\nYou are invited to download, use, reproduce, make derivative works of, display, distribute and cite the Online First works. You can find "How to Cite and Reference" by following the link at the end of each online book chapter. Please be aware that it is possible that further editing and changes might be made before the final release of the book.
\n\nIf there are supplemental materials to the chapter, these will be published at the time the final book is published online.
\n\nReaders and Authors can notify us if they find any errors in the works published under Online First. All major errors will be accompanied by a separate correction notice, erratum or corrigendum (Retraction and Correction Policy.)
\n\nIntechOpen books are available online by accessing all published content on a chapter level.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
\n\n\n\n\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6669},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5955},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2458},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12710},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1016},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17715}],offset:12,limit:12,total:134176},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"16,18,12"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11254",title:"Optical Coherence Tomography",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a958c09ceaab1fc44c1dd0a817f48c92",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11254.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11730",title:"Midwifery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"95389fcd878d0e929234c441744ba398",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11730.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11697",title:"Scoliosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fa052443744b8f6ba5a87091e373bafe",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11697.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11699",title:"Neonatal Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e52adaee8e54f51c2ba4972daeb410f7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11699.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11843",title:"Abortion Access",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e07ed1706ed2bf6ad56aa7399d9edf1a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11843.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11850",title:"Systemic Sclerosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df3f380c5949c8d8c977631cac330f67",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11850.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11818",title:"Uveitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f8c178e6f45ba7b500281005b5d5b67a",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11818.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11871",title:"Aortic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6559d38b53bc671745ac8bf9ef2bd1f7",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11871.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11027",title:"Basics of Hypoglycemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"98ebc1e36d02be82c204b8fd5d24f97a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alok Raghav",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11027.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"334465",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Raghav",slug:"alok-raghav",fullName:"Alok Raghav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12095",title:"Radiation Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a4c8ee34ddd31ad65f143459a8f5300b",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12095.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12114",title:"Bone Fractures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"78d9847691b6f1a8454480e7c0dbaef4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12114.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"12096",title:"Circulating Tumor Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"824168857ea9e8dea5642432ac344704",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12096.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:120},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:227},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4430},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11043",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Treatments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7baf1c70b11d41400bb9302ae9411ca4",slug:"endometriosis-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-treatments",bookSignature:"Giovana Ap. Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11043.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"185930",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Giovana",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"giovana-goncalves",fullName:"Giovana Gonçalves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10536",title:"Campylobacter",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c4b132b741dd0a2ed539b824ab63965f",slug:"campylobacter",bookSignature:"Guillermo Tellez-Isaias and Saeed El-Ashram",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10798",title:"Starch",subtitle:"Evolution and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f197f6062c1574a9a90e50a369271bcf",slug:"starch-evolution-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11083",title:"Hazardous Waste Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d553bd4f6f1c4b115ca69bd19faac7dc",slug:"hazardous-waste-management",bookSignature:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar, Kavitha Sankarapandian and Yukesh Kannah Ravi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11083.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh Banu",middleName:null,surname:"Jeyakumar",slug:"rajesh-banu-jeyakumar",fullName:"Rajesh Banu Jeyakumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology of Machine Elements",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c4ca4c4692ca8d4fa749b4ae81ec1fa",slug:"tribology-of-machine-elements-fundamentals-and-applications",bookSignature:"Giuseppe Pintaude, Tiago Cousseau and Anna Rudawska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"18347",title:"Prof.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Pintaude",slug:"giuseppe-pintaude",fullName:"Giuseppe Pintaude"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10856",title:"Crude Oil",subtitle:"New Technologies and Recent Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8d0a7ca35b3de95b295dc4eab39a087e",slug:"crude-oil-new-technologies-and-recent-approaches",bookSignature:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf and Mohamed Hasan El-Keshawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"102626",title:"Prof.",name:"Manar",middleName:null,surname:"Elsayed Abdel-Raouf",slug:"manar-elsayed-abdel-raouf",fullName:"Manar Elsayed Abdel-Raouf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9625",title:"Spinocerebellar Ataxia",subtitle:"Concepts, Particularities and Generalities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"365a7025fd46eb45de2549bdd9d50b98",slug:"spinocerebellar-ataxia-concepts-particularities-and-generalities",bookSignature:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9625.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"221787",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Bozzetto Ambrosi",slug:"patricia-bozzetto-ambrosi",fullName:"Patricia Bozzetto Ambrosi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10905",title:"Plant Defense Mechanisms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84ad5b27dde5f01dc76087d0fd6fa834",slug:"plant-defense-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Josphert Ngui Kimatu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10905.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"224171",title:"Prof.",name:"Josphert N.",middleName:null,surname:"Kimatu",slug:"josphert-n.-kimatu",fullName:"Josphert N. Kimatu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10686",title:"Natural Gas",subtitle:"New Perspectives and Future Developments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581763788a6a59e653a9d1d9b5a42d79",slug:"natural-gas-new-perspectives-and-future-developments",bookSignature:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"2416",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Takht Ravanchi",slug:"maryam-takht-ravanchi",fullName:"Maryam Takht Ravanchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10988",title:"Railway Transport Planning and Manageme",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5cb54cc53caedad9ec78372563c82e2c",slug:"railway-transport-planning-and-management",bookSignature:"Stefano de Luca, Roberta Di Pace and Chiara Fiori",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10988.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 28th 2022",editors:[{id:"271061",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"de Luca",slug:"stefano-de-luca",fullName:"Stefano de Luca"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"29",title:"Agronomy",slug:"agronomy",parent:{id:"5",title:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences"},numberOfBooks:54,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1493,numberOfWosCitations:1638,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1235,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2706,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"29",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9670",title:"Current Trends in Wheat Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"89d795987f1747a76eee532700d2093d",slug:"current-trends-in-wheat-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9670.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10896",title:"Integrative Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"47659401ffe512c28313440110c0a903",slug:"integrative-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Min Huang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10896.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"189829",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",slug:"min-huang",fullName:"Min Huang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11571",title:"Cereal Grains",subtitle:"Volume 2",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c4003ff225208126f1e2386eefa4d5a",slug:"cereal-grains-volume-2",bookSignature:"Aakash Kumar Goyal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11571.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"97604",title:"Dr.",name:"Aakash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Goyal",slug:"aakash-k.-goyal",fullName:"Aakash K. Goyal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10499",title:"Next-Generation Greenhouses for Food Security",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"456f82c97eafad5734cd36c48e167781",slug:"next-generation-greenhouses-for-food-security",bookSignature:"Redmond R. Shamshiri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10499.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203413",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond R.",middleName:null,surname:"Shamshiri",slug:"redmond-r.-shamshiri",fullName:"Redmond R. Shamshiri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9643",title:"Agrometeorology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"492510d45d202e73a8a7d6eb6cc60be8",slug:"agrometeorology",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9643.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315343",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman",middleName:null,surname:"Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-ur-Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10134",title:"Organic Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a9866f9df52191cc505b27fb2abdc687",slug:"organic-agriculture",bookSignature:"Shaon Kumar Das",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10134.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182210",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaon Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"shaon-kumar-das",fullName:"Shaon Kumar Das"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9712",title:"Genetic Transformation in Crops",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c111fe32d4d7e3988e4ef2fd6775a265",slug:"genetic-transformation-in-crops",bookSignature:"Kin-Ying To",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9712.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"310646",title:"Dr.",name:"Kin-Ying",middleName:null,surname:"To",slug:"kin-ying-to",fullName:"Kin-Ying To"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8153",title:"Agronomy",subtitle:"Climate Change & Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c01368bbeacbbedeb3681ea0c037dbe",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",bookSignature:"Amanullah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8153.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178825",title:"Dr.",name:"Dr.",middleName:null,surname:"Amanullah",slug:"dr.-amanullah",fullName:"Dr. Amanullah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:54,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"40178",doi:"10.5772/52583",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23030,totalCrossrefCites:81,totalDimensionsCites:146,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"33765",doi:"10.5772/37578",title:"Nutrient Solutions for Hydroponic Systems",slug:"nutrient-solutions-for-hydroponic-systems",totalDownloads:71704,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:66,abstract:null,book:{id:"1781",slug:"hydroponics-a-standard-methodology-for-plant-biological-researches",title:"Hydroponics",fullTitle:"Hydroponics - A Standard Methodology for Plant Biological Researches"},signatures:"Libia I. Trejo-Téllez and Fernando C. Gómez-Merino",authors:[{id:"113365",title:"Dr.",name:"Libia I.",middleName:null,surname:"Trejo-Téllez",slug:"libia-i.-trejo-tellez",fullName:"Libia I. Trejo-Téllez"},{id:"113414",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Merino",slug:"fernando-c.-gomez-merino",fullName:"Fernando C. Gómez-Merino"}]},{id:"45745",doi:"10.5772/56824",title:"Current Advances on Genetic Resistance to Rice Blast Disease",slug:"current-advances-on-genetic-resistance-to-rice-blast-disease",totalDownloads:4528,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:58,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Xueyan Wang, Seonghee Lee, Jichun Wang, Jianbing Ma, Tracy\nBianco and Yulin Jia",authors:[{id:"168971",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulin",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",slug:"yulin-jia",fullName:"Yulin Jia"}]},{id:"68945",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88434",title:"Effect of Abiotic Stress on Crops",slug:"effect-of-abiotic-stress-on-crops",totalDownloads:1494,totalCrossrefCites:28,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"Crop yield is mainly influenced by climatic factors, agronomic factors, pests and nutrient availability in the soil. Stress is any adverse environmental condition that hampers proper growth of plant. Abiotic stress creates adverse effect on multiple procedures of morphology, biochemistry and physiology that are directly connected with growth and yield of plant. Abiotic stress are quantitative trait hence genes linked to these traits can be identified and used to select desirable alleles responsible for tolerance in plant. Plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular and physiological modifications to react to and adapt to abiotic stress. Crop productivity is significantly affected by drought, salinity and cold. Abiotic stress reduce water availability to plant roots by increasing water soluble salts in soil and plants suffer from increased osmotic pressure outside the root. Physiological changes include lowering of leaf osmotic potential, water potential and relative water content, creation of nutritional imbalance, enhancing relative stress injury or one or more combination of these factors. Morphological and biochemical changes include changes in root and shoot length, number of leaves, secondary metabolite (glycine betaine, proline, MDA, abscisic acid) accumulation in plant, source and sink ratio. Proposed chapter will concentrate on enhancing plant response to abiotic stress and contemporary breeding application to increasing stress tolerance.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Summy Yadav, Payal Modi, Akanksha Dave, Akdasbanu Vijapura, Disha Patel and Mohini Patel",authors:[{id:"186963",title:"Dr.",name:"Summy",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"summy-yadav",fullName:"Summy Yadav"},{id:"308004",title:"Ms.",name:"Payal",middleName:null,surname:"Modi",slug:"payal-modi",fullName:"Payal Modi"},{id:"308005",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Dave",slug:"akanksha-dave",fullName:"Akanksha Dave"},{id:"308006",title:"Ms.",name:"Akdasbanu",middleName:null,surname:"Vijapara",slug:"akdasbanu-vijapara",fullName:"Akdasbanu Vijapara"},{id:"308007",title:"Ms.",name:"Disha",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"disha-patel",fullName:"Disha Patel"},{id:"308008",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"mohini-patel",fullName:"Mohini Patel"}]},{id:"45540",doi:"10.5772/56621",title:"Genes and QTLs for Rice Grain Quality Improvement",slug:"genes-and-qtls-for-rice-grain-quality-improvement",totalDownloads:3737,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Jinsong Bao",authors:[{id:"52135",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinsong",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",slug:"jinsong-bao",fullName:"Jinsong Bao"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4044,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:40,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"40178",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23030,totalCrossrefCites:81,totalDimensionsCites:146,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"60074",title:"Pollen Germination in vitro",slug:"pollen-germination-in-vitro",totalDownloads:2759,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pollen germination in vitro is a reliable method to test the pollen viability. It also addresses many basic questions in sexual reproduction and particularly useful in wide hybridization. Many pollen germination medium ranging from simple sugars to complex one having vitamins, growth regulators, etc. in addition to various minerals have been standardized to germinate pollen artificially. The different media, successful pollen germination methods, procedures from pollen germination studies with wheat, rye, brinjal, pigeonpea and its wild relatives are discussed.",book:{id:"6659",slug:"pollination-in-plants",title:"Pollination in Plants",fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants"},signatures:"Jayaprakash P",authors:[{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P"}]},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2297,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. Besides field conditions, tomatoes are grown in controlled environments which range from hydroponics and simple high tunnel structures to highly automated screen houses in advanced countries. However, the yield and quality of the fruits are highly influenced by the environment. This results in unpredictable performances in different growing environments in terms of quality, a phenomenon known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction which confounds selection efficiency. Various approaches are employed by plant breeders to evaluate and address the challenges posed by genotype by environment interaction. This chapter discusses various field and controlled environments for growing tomatoes and the effect of these environments on the performance of the crop. The various types of genotype × environment interactions and their effect of the tomato plant are discussed. Finally, efforts are made to suggest ways and methods of mitigating the confounding effects of genotype × environment interaction including statistical approaches.",book:{id:"6422",slug:"recent-advances-in-tomato-breeding-and-production",title:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production"},signatures:"Michael Kwabena Osei, Benjamin Annor, Joseph Adjebeng-\nDanquah, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"217531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michael Kwabena",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"},{id:"217760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Adjebeng-Danquah",slug:"joseph-adjebeng-danquah",fullName:"Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah"},{id:"217768",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Annor",slug:"benjamin-annor",fullName:"Benjamin Annor"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"248095",title:"Prof.",name:"Essie",middleName:null,surname:"Blay",slug:"essie-blay",fullName:"Essie Blay"},{id:"248096",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Adu-Dapaah",slug:"hans-adu-dapaah",fullName:"Hans Adu-Dapaah"}]},{id:"45153",title:"Irrigation of Sandy Soils, Basics and Scheduling",slug:"irrigation-of-sandy-soils-basics-and-scheduling",totalDownloads:5600,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"3357",slug:"crop-production",title:"Crop Production",fullTitle:"Crop Production"},signatures:"Mohamed S. Alhammadi and Ali M. Al-Shrouf",authors:[{id:"78245",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:"Salman",surname:"Alhammadi",slug:"mohamed-alhammadi",fullName:"Mohamed Alhammadi"},{id:"159904",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shrouf",slug:"ali-al-shrouf",fullName:"Ali Al-Shrouf"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"29",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81888",title:"Reducing Soil Compaction from Equipment to Enhance Agricultural Sustainability",slug:"reducing-soil-compaction-from-equipment-to-enhance-agricultural-sustainability",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104489",abstract:"The compaction of agricultural soils cannot be solved, only managed. As a compressible media, soil travel without causing some collapse of the existing structure is impossible. If left uncorrected, farmers can see up to a 50% reduction in yield from long-term compaction. This chapter will describe the effects of soil compaction on the environment, crop quality, and economic sustainability. The base causes will be examined, along with the engineering designs for vehicles that minimize the problem. The tracks versus tires debate will be thoroughly discussed, and the advantages and disadvantages of each system will be detailed. It will be shown that although tires represent the likely current best economic option for vehicle support, the potential of tracks to reduce compaction has been fully exploited. The advantages of four-wheel drive vehicles in reducing soil compaction will be shown, along with the mitigation potential of independently driven wheels and active soil interaction feedback loops. The design of crop production tillage equipment and tillage tool working points will be explored, along with the concept of critical tillage depth. Equipment for compaction relief will also be discussed, as will the sustainable agricultural protocols of cover crops, crop rotation, and controlled traffic farming.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Michael M. Boland, Young U. Choi, Daniel G. Foley, Matthew S. Gobel, Nathan C. Sprague, Santiago Guevara-Ocana, Yury A. Kuleshov and Robert M. Stwalley III"},{id:"81378",title:"Sustainability-Based Review of Irrigation Schemes Performance for Sustainable Crop Production in Nigeria",slug:"sustainability-based-review-of-irrigation-schemes-performance-for-sustainable-crop-production-in-nig",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103980",abstract:"Irrigated agriculture has been identified as an important practice to achieving food security and socio-economic development in the face of rapid population growth and climatic uncertainties. In northern Nigeria, irrigation has long been identified as the key to achieving the much-desired increase in food production to meet the ever-increasing population. However, the existing irrigation schemes encountered several challenges coming from different dimensions including economic, social, environmental, institutional and technological. To attain sustainable crop production, this paper attempts to uncover the underline challenges confronting irrigation schemes in northern Nigeria that cut across sustainability pillars. The findings revealed that irrigation schemes contributed immensely toward achieving food security and improving the wellbeing of rural dwellers. However, the huge investment in large- and medium-scale irrigation schemes have resulted in massive economic losses. This could be attributed to their under-utilization, poor management and abandonment although few ones are performing remarkably well. The study recommends the need to adopt new water allocation and application methods that can improve water use efficiency, users-managers join approach (participatory), effective and competent institutions which include improved monitoring, evaluation and surveillance systems, frequent policy review to suit the situation, law enforcement, and timely sensitization and awareness campaigns.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Nura Jafar Shanono, Nura Yahaya Usman, Mu’azu Dantala Zakari, Habibu Ismail, Shehu Idris Umar, Sunusi Abubakar Amin and Nuraddeen Mukhtar Nasidi"},{id:"81274",title:"Toward the Recent Advances in Nutrient Use Efficiency (NUE): Strategies to Improve Phosphorus Availability to Plants",slug:"toward-the-recent-advances-in-nutrient-use-efficiency-nue-strategies-to-improve-phosphorus-availabil",totalDownloads:43,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102595",abstract:"Achieving high nutrient use efficiency (NUE) and high crop productivity has become a challenge with increased global demand for food, depletion of natural resources, and deterioration of environmental conditions. Higher NUE by plants could reduce fertilizer input costs, decrease the rate of nutrient losses, and enhance crop yields. Nitrogen and Phosphorus are the most limiting nutrients for crop production in many of the world’s agricultural areas, and their efficient use is important for the economic sustainability of cropping systems. Furthermore, the dynamic nature of N and P in soil-plant systems creates a unique and challenging environment for its efficient management. Although numerous fertilizer recommendation methods have been proposed to improve NUE, technologies and innovative management practices are still lacking. Therefore, maximizing crop phosphorus (P) use efficiency (PUE) would be helpful in reducing the use of inorganic phosphorus fertilizers and their escape in the environment for sustainable agriculture. Improvement of PUE in cropping systems can be achieved through two main strategies: optimizing agronomic practice and breeding nutrient efficient crop cultivars that improves P-acquisition and -utilization efficiency. These strategies are needed for future food security and sustainable agriculture. The major revised points are the following: concept of NUE, application of nutrient stewardship, cereal-legume intercropping, regulating soil pH, etc., for enhancing phyto-availability of P and breeding P-efficient crop cultivars that can produce more biomass with lesser P costs and that acquire more P in P-stress condition. These approaches consider economic, social, and environmental dimensions essential to sustainable agricultural systems and afford a suitable context for specific NUE indicators.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Addisu Ebbisa"},{id:"81179",title:"Crop Diversification an Effective Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture Development",slug:"crop-diversification-an-effective-strategy-for-sustainable-agriculture-development",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102635",abstract:"Sustainable agricultural practices involve a variety of approaches. The most important approached for sustainable agriculture development is crop diversification. It allowing the farmers to employ biological cycles to minimize inputs, conserve the resource base, maximize yields and also reduce the risk due to ecological and environmental factors. It serves as an important opportunity to augment income and employment generation for rural communities. Crop diversification promotes the interaction of beneficial soil bacteria, interrupts the disease cycle, and reduces the quantity of weeds. Crop diversification boosts land-use efficiency and crop output by improving the physical and chemical qualities of soil. Crop diversification shows a lot of scope to alleviating the problems such as resurgence of insects-pests and weeds, soil degradation, environmental pollution, soil salinity, decline farm profit and climate change. Crop diversification through crop intensification system enhanced the net returns, B:C ratio, and overall system productivity of a farm. In order to achieve the benefits of crop diversification farmers are shifting from low value low yielding crops to high value high yielding crops. Thus, crop diversification has the sound capacity for achieving the goal of nutritional security, income growth, food security, employment generation and sustainable agriculture development.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Anamika Barman, Priyanka Saha, Shashank Patel and Anurag Bera"},{id:"80867",title:"Potential Applications of Rhizobacteria as Eco-Friendly Biological Control, Plant Growth Promotion and Soil Metal Bioremediation",slug:"potential-applications-of-rhizobacteria-as-eco-friendly-biological-control-plant-growth-promotion-an",totalDownloads:61,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102657",abstract:"Modern agriculture has an immense problem in the depletion of agricultural productivity owing to a variety of biotic and abiotic stresses. Agriculture’s sustainability and safety are dependent on ecologically friendly practices. Plant rhizobia have been proven to have an important role in disease control, as well as promoting plant growth, productivity, and biomass. Rhizobacteria are soil bacteria that live on the root surface and either directly or indirectly contribute to plant development. Rhizobia are used to induce mediated immune resistance through the manufacture of lytic enzymes, antibiotics, phytoalexins, phytohormone, metabolites. It supports the growth of plants through nitrogen fixation, nutrient enrichment, phosphate solubilization and phytohormone synthesis. In addition, it supports plants during different stresses such as temperature, osmotic, heavy metal and oxidative stress. Plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria have the ability to control heavy metal pollution of soils as well as enhancing plant growth in these soils. Efficient bioremediation is possible by using rhizobacterial inoculants, still, the distribution and functioning of microbes in the rhizosphere need to be fully explored. This review focuses on the effectiveness, biomonitoring processes and function in promoting plant development. Rhizobia application can be considered an alternative method for the improvement of biodiversity, agriculture, and the environment.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Nafeesa Farooq Khan, Aatifa Rasool, Sheikh Mansoor, Sana Saleem, Tawseef Rehman Baba, Sheikh Maurifatul Haq, Sheikh Aafreen Rehman, Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji and Simona Mariana Popescu"},{id:"80653",title:"Heavy Metal Contamination in Vegetables and Their Toxic Effects on Human Health",slug:"heavy-metal-contamination-in-vegetables-and-their-toxic-effects-on-human-health",totalDownloads:119,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102651",abstract:"Vegetables are a prevalent nutrition for people all over the world because they are high in important nutrients, antioxidants, and metabolites that function as buffers for acidic compounds created during digestion. Vegetables, on the other hand, absorbed both vital and poisonous substances through the soil. Possible human health concerns, including as cancer and renal damage, have been linked to the consumption of heavy metal-contaminated vegetables (HMs). Heavy metals like Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Cd, Pb, and Hg were found in high concentrations in popular vegetables such as Amaranthus tricolour L., Chenopodium album L., Spinacia oleracea, Coriandrum sativum, Solanum lycopersicum, and Solanum melongena. The toxicity, fortification, health hazard, and heavy metals sources grown in soil are detailed in this review study.",book:{id:"11357",title:"Sustainable Crop Production - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11357.jpg"},signatures:"Seema Manwani, Vanisree C.R., Vibha Jaiman, Kumud Kant Awasthi, Chandra Shekhar Yadav, Mahipal Singh Sankhla, Pritam P. Pandit and Garima Awasthi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"