Materials’ properties and the compatibility with different V-PAMs manufacturing.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5130",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Smart Cities Technologies",title:"Smart Cities Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"What are smart cities? What are their purposes? What are the impacts resulting from their implementations? With these questions in mind, this book is compiled with the primary concern of answering readers with different profiles; from those interested in acquiring basic knowledge about the various topics surrounding the subject related to smart cities, to those who are more motivated by knowing the technical elements and the technological apparatus involving this theme. This book audience is multidisciplinary, as it will be confirmed by the various chapters addressed here. It explores different knowledge areas, such as electric power systems, signal processing, telecommunications, electronics, systems optimization, computational intelligence, real-time systems, renewable energy systems, and information systems.",isbn:"978-953-51-2808-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2807-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4141-9",doi:"10.5772/61375",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"smart-cities-technologies",numberOfPages:246,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"39376967bc5a9d3db5382e31bc1e434c",bookSignature:"Ivan Nunes Da Silva and Rogerio Andrade Flauzino",publishedDate:"December 7th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5130.jpg",numberOfDownloads:22910,numberOfWosCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:33,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:70,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 1st 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 22nd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 18th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 18th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 17th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"104472",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan Nunes",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",slug:"ivan-nunes-da-silva",fullName:"Ivan Nunes Da Silva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104472/images/5047_n.jpg",biography:"Ivan Nunes da Silva was born in São José do Rio Preto, Brazil, in 1967. He graduated in computer science and electrical engineering from the Federal University of Uberlândia, Brazil, in 1991 and 1992, respectively. He received both his MSc and PhD degrees in electrical engineering from the University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil, in 1995 and 1997, respectively. Currently, he is an associate professor at the University of São Paulo (USP). His research interests are within the fields of power system and computational intelligence. He is also an associate editor of the International Journal on Power System Optimization and editor-in-chief of the Journal of Control, Automation and Electrical Systems. He has published more than 400 papers in congress proceedings, international journals, and book chapters.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"178727",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Rogério Andrade",middleName:null,surname:"Flauzino",slug:"rogerio-andrade-flauzino",fullName:"Rogério Andrade Flauzino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178727/images/system/178727.jfif",biography:"Rogério Andrade Flauzino was born in Franca, Brazil, in 1978. He graduated in electrical engineering and also received his MSc degree in electrical engineering from the São Paulo State University (UNESP), Brazil, in 2001 and 2004, respectively. He received his PhD degree in electrical engineering from the University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil, in 2007. Currently, he is an associate professor at the University of São Paulo. His research interests include artificial neural networks, computational intelligence, fuzzy inference systems, and power systems.",institutionString:"University of Sao Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"762",title:"Wireless Communication System",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-engineering-wireless-communication-system"}],chapters:[{id:"52312",title:"The Importance of Internet of Things Security for Smart Cities",doi:"10.5772/65206",slug:"the-importance-of-internet-of-things-security-for-smart-cities",totalDownloads:2774,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to provide an extensive overview of security-related problems in the context of smart cities. The impressive heterogeneity, ubiquity, miniaturization, autonomous and unpredictable behaviour of objects interconnected in Internet of Things, the real data deluges generated by them and, on the other side, the new hacking methods based on sensors and short-range communication technologies transform smart cities in complex environments in which the already-existing security analyses are not useful anymore. Specific security vulnerabilities, threats and solutions are approached from different areas of the smart cities’ infrastructure. As urban management should pay close attention to security and privacy protection, network protocols, identity management, standardization, trusted architecture, etc., this chapter will serve them as a start point for better decisions in security design and management.",signatures:"Mircea Georgescu and Daniela Popescul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52312",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52312",authors:[{id:"186206",title:"Prof.",name:"Mircea",surname:"Georgescu",slug:"mircea-georgescu",fullName:"Mircea Georgescu"},{id:"186983",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Popescul",slug:"daniela-popescul",fullName:"Daniela Popescul"}],corrections:null},{id:"52030",title:"Photonics for Smart Cities",doi:"10.5772/64731",slug:"photonics-for-smart-cities",totalDownloads:2011,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We review the current applications of photonic technologies to Smart Cities. Inspired by the future needs of Smart Cities, we then propose potential applications of advanced photonic technologies. We find that photonics already has a major impact on Smart Cities, in terms of smart lighting, sensing, and communication technologies. We further find that advanced photonic technologies could lead to vastly improved infrastructure, such as smart water‐supply systems. We conclude by proposing directions for future research that will have the greatest impact on realizing Smart City initiatives.",signatures:"Joseph S.T. Smalley, Felipe Vallini, Abdelkrim El Amili and Yeshaiahu\nFainman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52030",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52030",authors:[{id:"186245",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Smalley",slug:"joseph-smalley",fullName:"Joseph Smalley"},{id:"186924",title:"Dr.",name:"Felipe",surname:"Vallini",slug:"felipe-vallini",fullName:"Felipe Vallini"},{id:"186925",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelkrim",surname:"El Amili",slug:"abdelkrim-el-amili",fullName:"Abdelkrim El Amili"},{id:"186928",title:"Prof.",name:"Yeshaiahu",surname:"Fainman",slug:"yeshaiahu-fainman",fullName:"Yeshaiahu Fainman"}],corrections:null},{id:"52348",title:"Computational Tools for Data Processing in Smart Cities",doi:"10.5772/65208",slug:"computational-tools-for-data-processing-in-smart-cities",totalDownloads:1642,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Smart Grids provide many benefits for society. Reliability, observability across the energy distribution system and the exchange of information between devices are just some of the features that make Smart Grids so attractive. One of the main products of a Smart Grid is to data. The amount of data available nowadays increases fast and carries several kinds of information. Smart metres allow engineers to perform multiple measurements and analyse such data. For example, information about consumption, power quality and digital protection, among others, can be extracted. However, the main challenge in extracting information from data arises from the data quality. In fact, many sectors of the society can benefit from such data. Hence, this information needs to be properly stored and readily available. In this chapter, we will address the main concepts involving Technology Information, Data Mining, Big Data and clustering for deploying information on Smart Grids.",signatures:"Danilo Hernane Spatti and Luisa Helena Bartocci Liboni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52348",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52348",authors:[{id:"178726",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",surname:"Spatti",slug:"danilo-spatti",fullName:"Danilo Spatti"},{id:"194538",title:"Dr.",name:"Luisa",surname:"Liboni",slug:"luisa-liboni",fullName:"Luisa Liboni"}],corrections:null},{id:"52010",title:"The Role of Communication Technologies in Building Future Smart Cities",doi:"10.5772/64732",slug:"the-role-of-communication-technologies-in-building-future-smart-cities",totalDownloads:3059,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The world population is continuously growing and reached a significant evolution of the society, where the number of people living in cities surpassed the number of people in rural areas. This puts national and local governments under pressure because the limited resources, such as water, electricity, and transports, must thus be optimized to cover the needs of the citizens. Therefore, different tools, from sensors to processes, service, and artificial intelligence, are used to coordinate the usage of infrastructures and assets of the cities to build the so called smart cities. Different definitions and theoretical models of smart cities are given in literature. However, smart city can usually be modelled by a layered architecture, where communication and networking layer plays a central role. In fact, smart city applications lay on collecting field data from different infrastructures and assets, processing these data, taking some intelligent control actions, and sharing information in a secure way. Thus, a two way reliable communications layer is the basis of smart cities. This chapter introduces the basic concepts of this field and focuses on the role of communication technologies in smart cities. Potential technologies for smart cities are discussed, especially the recent wireless technologies adapted to smart city requirements.",signatures:"Abdelfatteh Haidine, Sanae El Hassani, Abdelhak Aqqal and Asmaa\nEl Hannani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52010",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52010",authors:[{id:"187242",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelfatteh",surname:"Haidine",slug:"abdelfatteh-haidine",fullName:"Abdelfatteh Haidine"}],corrections:null},{id:"52550",title:"Learnings from Pilot Implementation of Smart City by a Brazilian Energy Utility",doi:"10.5772/65396",slug:"learnings-from-pilot-implementation-of-smart-city-by-a-brazilian-energy-utility",totalDownloads:2079,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter describes the experience acquired during the implementation of a smart grid pilot project in a Brazilian utility. Learnings in the area of smart metering, telecommunication, information systems and project management are presented. A special focus on Brazilian specificities is given as well as on the management of innovative projects.",signatures:"Daniel Picchi, Mateus Lourenço, Alexandre da Silva, Daniel\nNascimento, Eric Saldanha, Inácio Dantas and José Resende",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52550",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52550",authors:[{id:"179445",title:"Mr.",name:"Mateus",surname:"Lourenco",slug:"mateus-lourenco",fullName:"Mateus Lourenco"},{id:"184069",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Picchi",slug:"daniel-picchi",fullName:"Daniel Picchi"},{id:"184146",title:"Mr.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"Da Silva",slug:"alexandre-da-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Da Silva"},{id:"184147",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Nascimento",slug:"daniel-nascimento",fullName:"Daniel Nascimento"},{id:"184148",title:"Dr.",name:"José",surname:"Resende",slug:"jose-resende",fullName:"José Resende"},{id:"185166",title:"Mr.",name:"Inácio",surname:"Dantas",slug:"inacio-dantas",fullName:"Inácio Dantas"},{id:"185167",title:"Mr.",name:"Eric",surname:"Saldanha",slug:"eric-saldanha",fullName:"Eric Saldanha"}],corrections:null},{id:"52862",title:"Smart Brain Interaction Systems for Office Access and Control in Smart City Context",doi:"10.5772/65902",slug:"smart-brain-interaction-systems-for-office-access-and-control-in-smart-city-context",totalDownloads:1790,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the past decade, the term “smart cities” has been worldwide priority for city planning by governments. Planning smart cities implies identifying key drivers for transforming into more convenient, comfortable, and safer life. This requires equipping the cities with appropriate smart technologies and infrastructure. Smart infrastructure is a key component in planning smart cities: smart places, transportation, health and education systems. Smart offices present the concept of workplaces that respond to user’s needs and allow less commitment to routine tasks. Smart offices solutions enable employees to change status of the surrounding environment upon the change of user’s preferences using the changes in the user’s biometrics measures. Meanwhile, smart office access and control through brain signals is quite recent concept. Hence, smart offices provide access and services availability at each moment using smart personal identification (PI) interfaces that responds only to the personal thoughts/preferences issued by the office employee not any other person. Hence, authentication and control systems could benefit from the biometrics. Yet these systems are facing efficiency and accessibility challenges in terms of unimodality. This chapter addresses those problems and proposes a prototype for multimodal biometric person identification control system for smart office access and control as a solution.",signatures:"Ghada Al-Hudhud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52862",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52862",authors:[{id:"186404",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghada",surname:"Al-Hudhud",slug:"ghada-al-hudhud",fullName:"Ghada Al-Hudhud"}],corrections:null},{id:"52277",title:"Control Strategies for Smart Charging and Discharging of Plug- In Electric Vehicles",doi:"10.5772/65213",slug:"control-strategies-for-smart-charging-and-discharging-of-plug-in-electric-vehicles",totalDownloads:2264,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter aims to provide an overview of the plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) charging and discharging strategies in the electric power system and the smart cities, as well as an application benefiting both consumers and power utility. The electric vehicle technology will be introduced. Then, the main impacts, benefits and challenges related to this technology will be discussed. Following, the role of the vehicles in smart cities will be presented. Next, the major methods and strategies for charging and discharging of plug-in electric vehicles available in the literature will be described. Finally, a new strategy for the intelligent charging and discharging of electric vehicles will be presented, which aims to benefit the consumer and the power utility.",signatures:"John Jefferson Antunes Saldanha, Eduardo Machado dos Santos,\nAna Paula Carboni de Mello and Daniel Pinheiro Bernardon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52277",authors:[{id:"180154",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Bernardon",slug:"daniel-bernardon",fullName:"Daniel Bernardon"},{id:"181139",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana",surname:"Mello",slug:"ana-mello",fullName:"Ana Mello"},{id:"187028",title:"Ms.",name:"John",surname:"Saldanha",slug:"john-saldanha",fullName:"John Saldanha"},{id:"187029",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Santos",slug:"eduardo-santos",fullName:"Eduardo Santos"}],corrections:null},{id:"52361",title:"Aging and Degradation Behavior Elucidated by Viscoelasticity Aiming Protection of Smart City Facilities",doi:"10.5772/65214",slug:"aging-and-degradation-behavior-elucidated-by-viscoelasticity-aiming-protection-of-smart-city-facilit",totalDownloads:1443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polymer coatings play a crucially important role in protecting smart city facilities against the harsh factors of outdoor environments. Recent increased awareness of eco‐friendliness has led to the use of waterborne organic coatings. Research into the bulk material properties of these coatings is necessary in order to understand their degradation process in the field. The present work focuses attention on a unique rheological property, which has both elastic and viscous characteristics, as a means of assessing the stability of the coating. The viscoelastic property determines whether it presents solid‐like or liquid‐like response from the comparison of relative strengths of the relaxation time (τ) and operating time (t). In the process of degradation, both the storage (E′) and loss modulus (E″), which represent the elastic and viscous components, respectively, decrease accordingly, reflecting the deterioration of coating. The majority of the water molecules absorbed in a coating are strongly bound to the polymer network through hydrogen bonds with polar functional groups, which destroys intermolecular bonding between macromolecules and reduces the bulk materials’ ability to diffuse stress concentrations and thereby lowers a coating’s overall strength.",signatures:"Yukitoshi Takeshita, Takashi Miwa, Azusa Ishii and Takashi Sawada",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52361",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52361",authors:[{id:"186962",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yukitoshi",surname:"Takeshita",slug:"yukitoshi-takeshita",fullName:"Yukitoshi Takeshita"},{id:"191927",title:"MSc.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Miwa",slug:"takashi-miwa",fullName:"Takashi Miwa"},{id:"191928",title:"MSc.",name:"Azusa",surname:"Ishii",slug:"azusa-ishii",fullName:"Azusa Ishii"},{id:"191929",title:"MSc.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Sawada",slug:"takashi-sawada",fullName:"Takashi Sawada"}],corrections:null},{id:"52669",title:"Wind Farm Connected to a Distribution Network",doi:"10.5772/65670",slug:"wind-farm-connected-to-a-distribution-network",totalDownloads:2004,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter presents power flow study for distribution network connected to wind farm based on induction generators (IG). It provides an overview of wind energy conversion systems (WECS) and their related technologies. The details of turbine components, system configurations, and control schemes are analyzed. Wind farm–distribution network systems are developed by MATLAB/SIMULINK to perform different tests under various operation conditions. The impact of wind speed fluctuation on power flow, grid voltage dynamic stability, and frequency responses are also investigated. The proposed simulator is applied to a 3 MW wind farm, and then the efficacy of the proposed simulator has been validated.",signatures:"Benchagra Mohamed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52669",authors:[{id:"185990",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Benchagra",slug:"mohamed-benchagra",fullName:"Mohamed Benchagra"}],corrections:null},{id:"53213",title:"Emerging Technologies for Renewable Energy Systems",doi:"10.5772/65207",slug:"emerging-technologies-for-renewable-energy-systems",totalDownloads:2046,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Considering all aspects involving smart grid deployment, several subjects extrapolate the electrical sector. In the Brazilian scenario, it can be clear that power companies cannot support, by themselves, all steps for establishing renewable energy sources in smart grid systems. The technology demands are greater than what the electric sector can deliver. Such discussions about regulations of renewable energy sources are largely discussed in the society. The search for deploying eolic and solar generation with big energy farms are opposite to the smart grid and smart city renewable energy concept, which require decentralized actions. This chapter will show the concepts of eolic and solar energy sources specifically in the context of Smart Grids.",signatures:"Danilo Hernane Spatti and Luisa Helena Bartocci Liboni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53213",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53213",authors:[{id:"178726",title:"Dr.",name:"Danilo",surname:"Spatti",slug:"danilo-spatti",fullName:"Danilo Spatti"},{id:"194538",title:"Dr.",name:"Luisa",surname:"Liboni",slug:"luisa-liboni",fullName:"Luisa Liboni"}],corrections:null},{id:"52303",title:"Sensing Human Activity for Smart Cities’ Mobility Management",doi:"10.5772/65252",slug:"sensing-human-activity-for-smart-cities-mobility-management",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Knowledge about human mobility patterns is the key element towards efficient mobility management. Traditionally, these data are collected by paper/phone household surveys or travel diaries and serve as input for transportation planning models. In this chapter, we report on current state-of-the-art techniques for sensing human activity and report on their applicability for smart city mobility management purposes. We particularly focus on the use of location-enabled devices and their potential towards replacing traditional data collection approaches. Furthermore, to illustrate applicability of smartphones as ubiquitous sensing devices we report on the use of Routecoach application that was used for mobility data collection in the city of Leuven, Belgium. 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Robotics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104373",slug:"a-review-on-vacuum-powered-fluidic-actuators-in-soft-robotics",body:'In the recent past, Pneumatic Artificial Muscles (PAMs) have assumed a key role in the implementation of movement in soft robots. The strong research attention is due to their interesting mechanical characteristics for soft actuation (i.e., robustness, high pulling force, high-power to mass ratio, and high energy efficiency), compared to other mechanisms exploiting different actuation sources (i.e., electric motor or tendon driven [1, 2], piezoelectric actuators [3], dielectric elastomer actuators [4, 5], shape memory alloys [6, 7] or polymers [8], and ionic polymer-metal composite actuators [9], etc.). Many researchers and engineers have explored quite a few design principles for PAMs, and a wide range of robotic applications was introduced (i.e., industrial robots [10, 11], wearable [12, 13, 14], or medical devices [15, 16, 17], etc.) where some of the challenges that rigid-bodied robots cannot overcome were addressed [18, 19, 20, 21].
From the material point of view, PAMs are generally built from soft materials that can undergo large deformation under external forces. Softness may result from their intrinsic characteristics (i.e., chemistry) or because of a specific design of their structure [22], or both.
In the design phase, the mechanical performance of PAMs (i.e., deformation ratio and blocking force) can be tuned by optimizing some geometrical parameters to achieve specific morphologies. In particular, a tradeoff between deformability and stiffness should be met, depending on the desired mechanical performances. In the literature, different design principles have been used. As most of such designs show, radial strain is an important parameter given its main influence on the linear deformation ratio of the soft actuator.
Most soft pneumatic actuators operating with positive pressure (also called inflatable fluidic actuators) involve—(i) a section of the actuator that expands with pressure; or (ii) strain limiting components that guide the elastic expansion in the desired direction [23].
In the former case, topological and/or morphological approaches are undertaken to produce radial expansion/contraction by employing specific geometries, such as zigzag patterned pleats or convolutions. For instance, the Peano fluidic actuator consists of a set of tubes arranged side-by-side [24]. At null pressure (atmospheric pressure), the actuator remains completely flat. Once positive pressure is applied, each cylindrical tube is inflated, leading to a vertical contraction. Another example is to exploit a bellow that can reduce radial strain, and enlarge longitudinal strain. This design principle is quite useful since biaxial deformability (contraction and elongation) is enabled upon positive pressure and vacuum [25, 26]. In the latter case (ii) multi-material-based approaches were addressed, such as in McKibben actuators or pleated PAMs (PPAMs). A McKibben actuator generally consists of a cylindrical flexible rubber and/or silicone bladder, sheathed with an inextensible fiber network intersected at a certain angle [27, 28]. Different kinematic trajectories are enabled according to the intersection angle (e.g., extension at the intersection angle of more than 54.7 deg., otherwise contraction) [29, 30]. On the other hand, a PPAM generally consists of a membrane having many pleats, with high tensile stiffness (i.e., woven polyester cloth or Kevlar fabric) [31, 32]. This allows the actuators to contract with dramatic increases in diameter when positive pressure is applied. The pleats are arranged along the longitudinal direction, and as the skin begins to swell, the overall structure undergoes a radial shortening and expansion [33].
As mentioned above, desired mechanical performance for inflatable fluidic actuators can be achieved by adopting proper design principles. Nevertheless, the mechanisms exploiting volumetric expansion are commonly vulnerable, depending on material failures (i.e., delamination, fracture), resulting in degradation of the actuator, and poor reliability. Moreover, given the needed volumetric expansion and omnidirectional deformation, they are more likely to be applied where large spaces are available [23], Vacuum-powered pneumatic artificial muscles (or V-PAMs) represent a promising opportunity in soft actuation and solve some of the issues encountered by inflatable fluidic actuators. They rely on decreasing the volume with vacuum and, generally, they do not expand radially during movement. Rather, they can perform linear movements with a relatively low input vacuum pressure (within few hundred kPa) and avoid a stress concentration that could possibly incur along the overall structure at both local and global levels [34, 35]. These characteristics are pursued to achieve high reliability, and ensure a high bandwidth, allowing to saturate at the desired state with a fast response.
As with inflatable fluidic actuators, the constituting materials strongly influence performance, particularly the deformation ratio. Indeed, due to the incompressibility of the materials, the ratio of bulk modulus (K) to shear modulus (G) is extremely large or becomes almost infinite in case Poisson’s ratio is close to 0.5 [36]. Thus, only a slight shortening is achievable until internal walls contact, and collapse, and linear deformation hardly occurs, as shown in Figure 1. Moreover, the overall deformations generally include undesired kinematic trajectories (i.e., torsion or bending) due to structural instability (i.e., column squirm and/or buckling). For these reasons, V-PAMs need to be rigorously designed by taking into account geometry and/or morphology, structural stability for imposed deformation and/or load, etc.
Left, basic operating principles of pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs). Right, a classification of vacuum-powered PAMs (V-PAMs) based on the different design approaches: morphological design [
Various design principles can be found for V-PAMs in the literature, however (to the authors’ knowledge), there are still no comprehensive articles on such an emerging topic, including design, fabrication, and materials. In this work, an overview of the developments of vacuum-powered actuators is provided and they are classified as based on morphological design, origami architecture, and structural instability. The fabrication protocols and soft materials involved are addressed, and their advantages and limitations are discussed and compared.
Soft pneumatic actuators can benefit from designs having zigzag patterns since they enable shear deformation, by enlarging deformations while avoiding structural instability. Typical designs consist of multiple convolutions or corrugations in series along the vertical or horizontal direction of the actuator. In this section, an overview of different types of morphological designs, including actuators with convoluted (or corrugated) skin and pleated skin, is provided by highlighting their pros and cons.
Convolution and/or corrugation in skin design includes a crumpled thin membrane. A bellow represents a unique structure made of multiple convolutions periodically arranged along the vertical direction of the structure, as shown in Figure 2a. In principle, its mechanical performance can be determined by geometrical parameters (i.e., number of convolutions, mean diameter, total length, etc.). The deformation can be defined as either positive or negative when subjected to extension or compression. In accordance with EJMA1 standard, the axial stiffness per convolution can be written as [41, 42]:
V-PAMs with morphological design. (a–c) schematic diagrams that show design parameters for a bellow actuator skin. (d) the 3D-printed linear soft vacuum actuator (L-SOVA). Reproduced with permission [
where
Given Hooke’s law (
where
Moreover, from Eqs. (1)–(3), it is worth mentioning that the axial stiffness of the bellow is strongly influenced by the skin thickness (
Based on such theoretical background, several examples can be found in the literature. Digumarti et al. presented a Hyper-Elastic Bellow (HEB) actuator capable of a euglenoid motion, where both axial and radial strains are enlarged [26]. The bellow, having a half angle of 38.66° with a total length of 50 mm and an outer diameter of 45 mm, was fabricated by using a soft elastomer (Dragon Skin™ 10 SLOW, Smooth-On). The HEB was capable of 40% contraction upon a small vacuum pressure of 8 kPa. More recently, by exploiting additive manufacturing, Tawk et al. presented a 3D-printed Linear Soft Vacuum Actuator (L-SOVA), capable of 51% contraction with a payload of 27.66 N. Another example is to exploit the integration of rigid parts (rings), periodically spaced along the actuator length. This way, Felt et al. showed that a bellow type PAM, made of a tubular thin membrane, can lift a high payload of 21.35 N at −5.52 kPa [47]. Such investigation on V-PAMs has demonstrated that this kind of actuation can enable a high contraction ratio and blocking force, opening the way to new PAM concepts. In refs. [38, 48], our group exploited rigid rings to improve axial stiffness and combined them with open-cell foam modules to build an Ultralight Hybrid PAM (UH-PAM) made of open-cell foam and elastomeric bellow skin (see Figure 2e). In this study, we investigated an optimal geometry of the skin and emphasized that even with a light weight of 20 g promising mechanical characteristics can be achieved. Due to the open-cell foam and rigid rings interfaced at each convolution, the axial stiffness of UH-PAM was enhanced, resulting in a high payload of 3 kgf and a high contraction ratio of 52%.
Furthermore, a bellow textile muscle (similar to the Peano fluidic muscle), made of fabric and multiple round discs along its edges and center, was developed to enlarge the deformation ratio [49]. Due to such inflatable and flexible material, the bellow’s textile muscle can be displaced to extremely flat (i.e., high contraction ratio of 89%) with a high payload of 32 N at −5 kPa. Recently, Yang et al. extended this work and presented a high-displacement PAM, converting the horizontal motion of the bellow actuator to a vertical motion, based on the contraction when subjected to positive air pressure [45]. Given that the contraction ratio of the bellow is strongly influenced by its thickness, exploiting textile for the skin enables to deform it to a completely flat configuration, upon vacuum pressure. On the other hand, the thin-walled structure could suffer from a lack of axial stiffness. Thus, the bellow structure does not sustain its own weight, which implies that the actuator cannot be set along the horizontal direction (e.g., beam orientation), and it should be placed along the gravity direction. Hence, for vacuum-powered bellow actuators, both enhancing the axial stiffness, and reducing the total weight remain open challenges.
A typical pleated airtight membrane creates chambers enabling a linear motion upon vacuum pressure, due to a similar morphological feature of the Robotic Muscle ACtuator (also called ROMAC muscle) [40], as shown in Figure 2f and g. While to the authors’ knowledge no vacuum-powered PAMs exploiting this principle can be found in the literature up to date, presumably mechanical benefits would be significant rather than contractile actuators operated by only positive pressure. Indeed, the created folds distributed along the circumference of the structure allow biaxial deformations. They can be depressurized until the internal walls touch. In principle, the compressibility of the air chamber enables radial contraction, resulting in elongation of the structure upon the vacuum pressure. On the other hand, the air chambers enable the overall structure to exhibit extension upon positive pressure due to significant radial expansion. Such biaxial deformability, mainly due to the deformation in the radial direction, could play a key role in keeping the volume constant during inflation/deflation (i.e., the muscular hydrostat principle [50]), and in enlarging a linear displacement, rather than uniaxial deformation that many PAMs have accomplished so far. Moreover, the tension force that the pleated PAM can produce is adjustable. From a theoretical point of view, the tension force (
where
Origami is a unique technique inspired by Japanese paper folding, which can be created by folding thin sheets along the predefined creases [52, 53, 54]. There are three identical crease patterns in the origami, which are the Yoshimura pattern, Miura-ori pattern, and Kresling (diagonal) pattern [55]. Depending on delivering motion, active or passive origami can be defined – the active origami exhibits movements through the embedded mechanism and/or structure itself. However, passive origami exhibits the motions derived from other actuation sources. Moreover, either supporting motions (i.e., structural stiffness enhancement) or achieving programmable motions can be achieved [56].
As regards the active origami, the deformability is commonly given by a function of a geometrical length (
Origami-inspired design approaches. (a) 2D crease pattern of the 4 x 6 Yoshimura-Ori (DoFs = 26, m = 4, n = 6). (b) an equilateral triangular shaped Origami-based vacuum PAM (OV-PAM) capable of contraction ratio up to 90% and blocking force up to 400 N. Reproduced with permission [
where
In the following, an overview of origami-inspired pneumatic actuators made of different crease patterns is provided, and their design principles allowing for linear motions upon vacuum pressure are introduced.
The Yoshimura pattern, enabling foldable and deployable 3D structure, was introduced in 1955 by a Japanese scientist who first observed a buckling at thin-walled cylinders upon axial compression [53]. The Yoshimura pattern consists of identical isosceles triangles symmetrically connected in each row [56]. This way, it generates a purely translational motion element with high axial stiffness. Due to these characteristics, the Yoshimura pattern can be exploited as, both, a passive origami to reinforce movements [61], and an active origami capable of axial movement [62].
Based on the Yoshimura patterns, Martienz et al. presented novel design principles for actuators to respond to pressurization with a wide range of motions (i.e., bending, extension, contraction, twisting, etc.) [62]. A bellow morphology made of 10 creases enabled high deformability, up to 361% at 17 kPa, and the lifting of high payloads, that is, 1 kgf being 120 times its own weight (8.3 g). This method (i.e., casting of elastomer and paper coating) is versatile and it allowed fabricating an active 3D origami structure capable of movements in different directions. Moreover, to achieve both linear movements and high actuation force upon vacuum pressure, Zaghloul et al. presented Origami-inspired Semi-soft Pneumatic Actuators (OSPAs) based on the accordion and Yoshimura patterns [63]. For the OSPA with the accordion patterns, a high contraction ratio of 36% and blocking force of 124 N were achieved at a vacuum pressure of −80 kPa. Unlike the conventional Yoshimura pattern, a new design principle was introduced by modifying the Yoshimura pattern [43]. The cross section has a unique configuration as an equilateral triangle, as shown in Figure 3b. These morphological features allowed not only the thin film to be folded in an even and ordered manner, but also the actuator to produce a large contraction ratio of up to 99.7%, with a high blocking force of 40 kgf at a vacuum pressure of 60 kPa.
In summary, the Yoshimura patterns enable active 3D origami actuators capable of high deformability and blocking force. These mechanical features are certainly useful to achieve highly versatile and robust soft machines. Moreover, also sensory integration has been investigated. Indeed, Shen et al. embedded optical sensing solution into the origami-inspired PAM (so-called Soft Origami Optical-Sensing Actuators (SOSAs)) and presented a hybrid underwater 3-DoFs manipulator [59].
The Miura-Ori pattern, introduced by Japanese Kogyo Miura, represents a folding technique consisting of congruent parallelograms forming a zigzag configuration in two directions [64, 65] (Figure 3c). The Miura folding enables high stiffness, compressibility, and extensibility [66]. Its geometry plays a key role in the mechanical properties of the folded metamaterial, exhibiting a negative Poisson’s ratio between the two planar degrees of freedom [67]. Due to such extraordinary mechanical characteristics, this folding pattern was employed for the packaging and deployment of large membranes in space, such as foldable maps or solar panel deployment [68, 69]. From the architecture point of view, two different approaches are available to achieve desired linear deformations—1) a single planar Miura-Ori sheet mainly due to in-plane kinematics; or 2) a 3D folding structure (i.e., bellow) mainly due to out-of-plane kinematics.
As regards in-plane kinematics, Li et al. presented a surface (2D) skeleton made of a standard Miura-Ori pattern and demonstrated its high compressibility of up to 92% upon vacuum pressure [57], as shown in Figure 3d. Moreover, by exploiting asymmetrical out-of-plane motions, a 2D Miura-Ori skeleton was capable of complex motions combining both torsion and contraction. For the 3D folding structures, Reid et al. explored the bistability of the bellow pattern with the Miura-Ori folds and presented a promising technique, enabling arbitrarily complicated bellows with finely tuned fold parameters [70]. To achieve a compressible 3D structure, each bend should be paired, and thus the number of bends was even. Another example is the monothetic foldable part composed of two Miura-Ori units combined up and down. Yu et al. introduced pneumatic foldable actuators (PFAs) capable of biaxial movements upon vacuum and positive pressures [66]. This way, the compression of up to 43% was achieved at −10 kPa. However, the extensibility was limited down to 19% at 10 kPa. It is noted that the movements were mainly dependent on the length change by the folding of the actuator at low vacuum pressure, rather than the volumetric changes by positive pressure.
The Kresling pattern consists of a series of parallel diagonal creases defined by triangular facets [71, 72] (see Figure 3e). Such triangulated cylinder pattern enables bistable movements (i.e., contraction and elongation) facilitated by the buckling of the thin wall [73] while ensuring the fully foldable structure. However, this approach could suffer from mechanical failures (i.e., unbalanced deployment), resulting in coupled longitudinal and rotational motions. In principle, the work (
Due to bistability, the actuators are generally capable of axial deformations together with coupled rotational motions
In origami-skeleton structures, zigzag patterned structure is exploited, as a skeleton made of minimally extensible materials, such as air-tight fabrics and polyethylene [57, 77]. In principle, these compressible skeletons incorporate collapsible structures inspired by origami and/or mechanical springs. Hence, although the skin enveloping the skeletal structure has no morphological features (i.e., bellow or pleated skin), the linear movement is mainly due to the compressible skeletons. More in detail, the vacuum pressure enables the volume inside the film pouch to be evacuated, and it induces a controlled collapse in the direction guided by the skeletal structure [78]. With these findings in mind, Li et al. introduced design principles that enable linear movements and presented Fluid-driven Origami-inspired Artificial Muscles (FOAMs) by exploiting symmetrical zigzag geometry [57]. They investigated the mechanical performance of the FOAMs based on different design parameters and concluded that the maximum contraction ratio can be achieved by exploiting thin zigzag skeletons. Indeed, for the nylon fabric pouches with 0.34 mm thickness, the actuator has shown 50% linear contraction with a blocking force of 201 N. In the case of a thinner film made of polyester material (0.038 mm, with a skeleton thickness of 0.254 mm), an ultralight FOAM (2.6 g) was capable of a blocking force of up to 3 kgf, as shown in Figure 3g. Based on these design principles, Oguntosin et al. developed artificial muscles completely made of soft silicone rubber without any rigid parts [79]. A maximum contractile strain of 67% was achieved upon null load and a vacuum pressure of 34.5 kPa.
Another approach consists in exploiting a mechanical compression spring. Kulasekera et al. presented a Low-Profile Vacuum Actuator (LPVAc) by low-profile spring encased within a polyethylene film pouch that contracts longitudinally when vacuum pressure is applied [80]. This study highlighted that actuation was strongly dependent on the mechanical characteristics of the low-profile spring, and a high force-to-weight ratio was achieved. Indeed, the LPVAc was only 14 g, yet a high contractile strain of 65% and blocking force of 2.2 kgf (that corresponds to 160 times its own weight) were achieved. The same research group extended further this work. An airtight pouch made of a TPU (thermoplastic polyurethane) coated fabric was interfaced with a helical spring skeleton. Hence, the overall weight was reduced down to 2 g, and a high-force-weight ratio (230) was obtained [81]. More recently, they proposed a Thin-walled Vacuum Actuator (ThinVAc) and developed a multi-filament actuator, allowing simple scaling of actuation force while retaining the ability to actuator during deformation [78]. Finally, the weight of the ThinVac was only 1 g and capable of 60% linear contraction and blocking force of 5.2 N upon null load. Thus, an extremely high force-to-weight ratio of 477 was achieved.
The research on these skin-skeleton designs, demonstrating that low weight and large force-to-weight ratio are achievable, led several researchers to develop them further for wearable applications. In particular, in the rehabilitation field of infants (of six months or younger), Mendoza et al. optimized the zigzag patterned skeleton. They presented a Low-Profile Vacuum-Powered Artificial Muscle (LP-VPAM) capable of a 61% linear contraction ratio, with a lifting force of 26.4 N at a low vacuum pressure of 40 kPa [77]. Similarly, the LPVAc has shown strong potential for exploiting them in Sit-To-Stand (STS) motion assistance [80, 82].
Mechanical instabilities in soft PAMs and V-PAMs induce a column squirm (also called buckling), which are considered as mechanical failures in rigid body structures, and result in sudden and significant geometric changes [48, 83, 84, 85]. However, in soft robotics structural instabilities can be fruitfully exploited, and this approach shows promising results enabling new functionalities [84, 86]. Indeed, it has been reported that a reversible buckling in assemblies of elastomeric beams or films can be exploited at a variety of soft robots’ applications, for example, stretchable soft electronics [87, 88], tunable metamaterials [89, 90, 91], or actuators [92]. More importantly, it is remarkable that a structure buckling allows instantaneously trigger large changes in internal pressure, deformation, shape, and exerted force [93].
In this view, it has been shown how a vacuum-driven actuator exploiting a structural instability can achieve an axial deformation due to reversible and cooperative buckling of the beams, enabling an anisotropic change in the shape of the structure [92]. More in detail, such Vacuum-Actuated Muscle-inspired Pneumatic structure (VAMP) was capable of a large longitudinal contraction (up to 40%) with a smaller horizontal deformation (5%), as shown in Figure 4a. Yang et al. expanded this work to develop a Shear Vacuum Actuated Machine (Shear-VAM) capable of a linear motion that works by converting the vacuum pressure, applied perpendicularly to its inextensible lateral surfaces, to a force parallel to them
(a) and (b) working principles of vacuum-powered Pneumatic Artificial Muscle (VAMP) exploiting a structural instability [
Another example is to exploit the characteristics of foams and elastomers. Roberston et al. presented a Vacuum-powered Soft Pneumatic Actuator (V-SPA) and developed 3-DoFs robotic platform [94]. A particular geometry (see Figure 4c) that allows inward compression and buckling of the side walls were employed to avoid possible interferences that could limit the actuator’s strokes. For a single module, the V-SPA was capable of generating a blocking force of 0.92 N upon vacuum pressure of 35 kPa [34].
The manufacturing process is an essential, yet delicate, step in the implementation of soft pneumatic actuators. However, from the manufacturing point of view, there are no significant differences among vacuum-powered or inflatable fluidic actuators.
Depending on the design principles, there are several approaches to fabricate V-PAMs, and an adequate fabrication protocol should ensure high reproducibility and repeatability. Due to the rapid development in additive manufacturing, modern techniques (e.g., stereolithography or multi-material 3D printing, etc.) are currently available, which enable the direct fabrication of the actuators with a good trade-off between material consumption and cost-effectiveness. Moreover, such additive manufacturing techniques are also widely used to fabricate molds and active elements typical of the hybrid manufacturing approach.
In this section, the fabrication approaches that are commonly used for implementing V-PAMs are overviewed (with mention to the employed materials), including molding manufacturing, additive manufacturing, and hybrid techniques. Their advantages and limitations are discussed and compared.
Molding manufacturing is defined as the process of shaping a liquid or a raw material using a rigid container called mold or matrix, which has a negative geometry of the desired shape. Due to the advent of 3D printing, laser cutting, and CNC milling, fabricating the mold has become affordable and relatively fast. Here, depending on the complexity of the object, different molding approaches need to be considered (i.e., casting, blow molding, injection molding, etc.), while only a few of them have been widely addressed to produce soft actuators. In literature, it is frequent to find examples of inflatable fluidic actuators [95, 96, 97, 98] and vacuum-powered actuators [44, 92, 99] mainly built
A correct design and construction of the mold is the first step to succeed in this process. A good practice is to design the mold to be reusable while simplifying the demolding phase and avoiding material waste due to sacrificial molds. This way the risk of damaging the samples during extraction is minimized. To this aim, materials used for the mold should be investigated, taking into account their compatibility with casting materials, and curing parameters. Given that soft actuators are generally built from silicon-rubber or urethane-based silicon, then Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), PolyTetraFluoroEthylene (PTFE), PolyAmide (PA), and Chlorinated PolyEthylene (CPE) are good candidates for the molds. Alternatively, PolyLActide (PLA) could be used, while curing elastomers can be completed only at room temperature due to its thermomechanical characteristics (e.g., glass transition temperature Tg).
The second step is to pour the elastomers into the mold and to determine an adequate curing process with specific temperatures and timing. As shown in Figure 5a, based on the mold filling methodology, either casting (where the liquid material is driven by gravity in the mold cavities), or injection molding (where the material is forced into the mold by pressurization) can be used. Once the mold is filled, it must be placed in a vacuum chamber to remove air bubbles that would instead remain trapped in the cured material affecting the final mechanical characteristics of the same.
Different fabrication techniques. (a) shows different filling methodologies - Injection and casting molding, respectively. The hybrid fabrication processes combining two or more techniques - (b) encasing the foam core with the elastomer and smoothly merging each module by interfacing paper dividers. Reproduced with permission [
The last step is to extract the cured parts without any damage. Where proper mold design is insufficient to ensure a correct extraction, synthetic lubricants (e.g., Teflon coating) can help to avoid failures (e.g., delamination at boned layers). Finally, once all components are ready, the actuators are assembled in the desired configuration by using uncured materials or silicone adhesives.
With the aforementioned procedures in molding fabrication, Balak et al. developed a vacuum-powered omnidirectional soft robotic actuator (OSRA) [99]. A two-step molding process was employed. The core structure and cavities of the OSRA were first obtained by using three mold parts. Once the first part was cured, the actuator was completed by putting the cured part into a second mold to make the base seal. Similarly, in ref. [44], the authors employed the molding fabrication technique and could obtain a vacuum soft pneumatic twisting actuator (V-SPTA). First, the body and bottom parts of the V-SPTA were made by casting and, in a second step, attached through a silicone adhesive layer. The same two-step procedure was applied to fabricate the buckling actuators shown in refs. [44, 58, 79, 92, 99]. However, the silicone curing was performed in a controlled environment at 60°C for 10 minutes, reducing the fabrication time. Finally, Oguntosin and Akindele [79] show a remarkable example of a soft vacuum actuator fabricated entirely from silicon rubber. The approach followed the molding method, but unlike the previous examples [44, 79, 99], two different elastomeric materials were smoothly interfaced in one final structure.
Additive manufacturing (AM), also known as three-dimensional (3D) printing, encompasses several emerging techniques based on the same principle: starting from a 3D model, replicate the structure by sequentially adding layers of material until model completeness. In literature, different fabrication protocols have been investigated to obtain soft actuators operated by either positive [100, 101, 102, 103, 104] or negative pressure [37, 105, 106].
Table A2 (in the Appendix) summarizes different AM processes defined by ISO/ASTM 52900:2021. Of these, only Vat PhotoPolymerization (VPP), Material EXtrusion (MEX), and Material Jetting (MJT) have been widely used in the production of soft actuators [107]. In particular, Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) is the most widely used MEX technology in soft robotics. In this process, a continuous filament of thermoplastic material is melted and extruded through a nozzle to form the horizontal
layers of the 3D structure [108, 109]. Using the same principle, in Direct Ink Writing (DIW), a liquid-phase ink is arranged along the horizontal path, defining the 3D structures layer by layer [110].
On the VPP side, Digital Light Processing (DLP) and Stereolithography (SLA) are commonly subjected. Both use photopolymer resin, differing curing methods [109, 111]. The DLP printer uses a digital light projector screen that flashes an image of the layer that defines the surface to be cured. In contrast, the SLA employs a laser to draw and cure the layer following the surface pattern. Unlike FFF, parts obtained with DLP and SLA need adequate post-processing to achieve optimal material properties. First, all components should be gently removed. Then, the excess resin is removed by using ethanol (bio) or isopropyl alcohol, preferably with ultrasound or under agitation. Once the supports are removed, the last step requires a post-curing step under high-power UV for a few minutes at about 65°C.
Finally, among MJT processes, PolyJet is the typical approach used. PolyJet relies on a sequential deposition of material droplets like an inkjet printer. First, photopolymer droplets are accumulated to form the layer, then instantaneous exposure to UV light cures the layer before a new one is deposited [112]. Stano et al. recently classified the AD approaches employed to fabricate soft robots in rapid mold manufacturing, hybrid, and total additive manufacturing [107].
In rapid mold manufacturing, the AM limits the production of the mold. The material used in this process does not define the properties of the actuator, which instead are linked to the casted material in a second phase, usually silicone or elastomer. The FFF is the standard technique used in this approach, and ABS and PLA filaments are the typical materials used. The resolution of the 3D printer plays an essential role in the presence of small details. Hence, even though there can be inherent shortcomings (e.g., the high cost of the printing system, the post-processing steps), professional 3D printers are preferred due to the higher resolution along the z-axis. Indeed, DLP or SLA techniques have been used, to implement complex structures that need to be fabricated with high precision.
Furthermore, the hybrid approach combines AM technologies with traditional manufacturing approaches. Unlike in molding, the elements printed with this approach are embedded in the final object and influence the kinematics of the actuators.
Total Additive Manufacturing (TAM) has attracted much interest in fabricating soft actuators. In this approach, only AD techniques are exploited. Depending on the actuator’s complexity, the TAM could follow either a modular or monolithic approach. For the former, all “modules” are printed separately and assembled into the final configuration only in a second step, whereas the latter involves TAM to obtain the actuator by a single printing cycle. Combined with multi-material 3D printing, monolithic TAM allows printing actuators made of two or more materials in a single cycle. The same approach permits embedding sensing elements in actuators, enhancing the mechanical synergy between sensing and movements. In parallel to selecting adequate printing methods among MEX, VPP, and MJT, the material properties need to be considered to accomplish desired mechanical performance. Otherwise, custom-made printers could be developed. Indeed, Byrne et al. proposed a custom setup to exploit the advantages of multi-material 3D printing [113]. Combining fused deposition modeling and a paste extrusion printer, they fabricated soft actuators capable of contracting, bending, or twisting in a single printing run. Similarly, by exploiting a commercial multi-material 3D printer (Ultimaker S3), Stano et al. presented a monolithic bending PneuNets made of TPU 80A and TPU 95A [114].
More recently, the TAM approach has been successfully applied to fabricate vacuum-driven actuators by using fused filament fabrication. In ref. [106], Tawk et al. proposed a bioinspired 3D printable Soft Vacuum Actuators (SOVAs). They showed the versatility functionalities of the AM fabrication by demonstrating various robotic applications (i.e., locomotion robots, grippers, and artificial muscles), by applying both monolithic and modular approaches. Similarly, they presented a Linear Soft Vacuum Actuator (LSOVA) fabricated in a single step using an open-source 3D printer and a commercial TPU filament NinjaFlex (NinjaTek, USA) [37], as shown in Figure 2d. While SOVA and L-SOVA are bellow-like and linear vacuum actuators, respectively, the solution proposed by Zhang et al. in [58] is a fully 3-D printed origami-inspired VPAM. Same as molding manufacturing, this demonstrates the versatility of the AM approach, which makes it suitable for different designs.
In summary, the success rate in fabrications exploiting AM is mainly dependent on determining adequate printing parameters. Indeed, an error that could occur at the beginning phase of printing significantly affects the entire process, resulting in printing failures. In particular, for FFF, the bed temperature should be identified to ensure proper layer adhesion without overheating the first layer. At the same time, the size of the first layer should be chosen to accomplish the best quality and airtightness. Avoiding high or low retraction values may help prevent under-extrusion or printed residue. Extrusion temperature, printing speed, and cooling speed deeply affect layer bonding, thus the quality and integrity of the printed part. Finally, an infill density related to the overall structure stiffness enables determining the strength of actuators.
Hybrid manufacturing combines two or more fabrication techniques. Typically, a tradeoff between 3D printing and other fabrication processes, such as molding manufacturing, is addressed. Qi et al. encapsulated 3D-printed elements made of custom material into a silicone structure obtained through mold fabrication [115]. Similarly, in ref. [116], a soft actuator with stiffness and shape modulation was obtained by embedding a 3D-printed Conductive PolyLactic Acid (CPLA) layer in a soft pneumatic actuator made of silicone. Robertson et al. in refs. [94, 117] fabricated a V-PAMs without employing molding and additive manufacturing, as shown in Figure 5b. First, by using a laser cutting machine, the foam chambers and rigid layers were cut. Then, by gluing them, the core structure of the actuator was assembled, manually coated, and sealed by using Elastosil M4601. Figure 5c shows the hybrid fabrication process proposed by the authors in order to develop the UH-PAM [48] (described in Section 2.1.1). Unlike previous examples, after patterning by laser cutting, the open-cell foams (Polyurethane) were integrated with Plexiglass©rigid rings, and with a silicone (Dragon Skin™ 30) skin having a bellow structure, previously molded by casting. Another example belongs to a completely hybrid concept compromising rigid and soft materials [78, 81]. In the V-PAM fabrication, a helical spring core was combined with a pouch, manually assembled from polyethylene (PE) film or TPU fabric. These studies show that hybrid manufacturing has a strong potential, to break down the barrier between rigid and soft materials and to allow them interfacing.
Despite the promising mechanical performance that the hybrid approach delivers to the soft actuators, it suffers from a decreased process controllability since a higher number of separate, and usually manual, fabrication steps are needed, resulting in reduced repeatability and reproducibility. For example, in refs. [78, 81], the repeatability, thus the homogeneity of two different actuators, cannot be ensured since both depend on the manual skills of the operator. Similarly, in ref. [94, 117] using a manual deposition of the core, the homogeneity of the silicone layer could be unevenly distributed.
In addition to exploring fabrication protocols, selecting adequate soft materials is a key enabler for soft robot bodies. Although the meaning of the term “soft” has been contentious, in literature soft robots are defined as systems composed of materials with Young’s modulus ranging from 10 kPa to 1 GPa, similar to soft biological materials (i.e., skin or muscle tissue) [118]. In this view, V-PAMs can consist of a wide range of materials (i.e., polymer, rubber-like silicone) that exhibit hyperelastic behavior with a large deformation ratio, or inextensible thin layered materials (i.e., paper, fabric) that could belong to both soft and rigid materials. In this section, some highlights to address an adequate selection of the materials are provided, referring to the main material candidates that are interesting for the fabrication of V-PAMs.
Given that soft materials strongly influence the actuator mechanical properties as well as its kinematic behavior, selecting adequate materials is mainly driven by the predicted deformations (and stresses) that are required along the overall structure. To this aim, for the linear motion, implicit (i.e., Finite element method (FEM)) or explicit numerical approaches (e.g., Euler beam theorem based) were employed to predict desired kinematic trajectories versus input vacuum pressure [119, 120, 121, 122]. Moreover, for a V-PAM to achieve high compliance, in addition to the skin material intrinsic compliance, air impermeability is necessary. From the material point of view, elastomeric polymers or silicones can withstand large deformations, in some cases like EcoFlex™ 00-30 up to 900%, without undergoing permanent plastic deformation. Moreover, both air impermeability and compliance can be obtained by exploiting compositions and depositions [123, 124].
As representative solutions, silicones and urethane-based rubbers can be used to realize V-PAMs where molding fabrication is employed. For those hyperelastic constitutive materials, two components (i.e., elastomers, catalyst, or hardener) are mixed at precise mixing ratios (typically 1:1) before degassing and curing. From the mechanical point of view, different elongation at break and Young’s modulus can be achievable, depending on materials. For example, platinum-catalyzed silicones (EcoFlex™, DragonSkin™, etc.) are commercially available and exhibit elongation at break ranging from 800% to 1,000% and Young’s modulus ranging from few hundreds kPa to 50 MPa; whereas the mechanical characteristics of Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS, Sylgard184) can be tuned by using different elastomer/cross-linking agent ratio (e.g., 10:1, 20:1, 30:1).
As regards additive manufacturing, filaments of TPU, such as NinjaFlex® TPU or Ultimaker TPU, are the most used to fabricate soft actuators (including both inflatable fluidic actuators and V-PAMs) by the TAM approach. In general, TPU filaments are characterized by hardness in the 75–90 Shore A range, with an elongation at the break that could reach almost 700%. Alternatively, the Thermoplastic Polyether-Polyurethane elastomer, such as the Recreus FilaFlex, shows a similar characteristic, offering elongation at break up to 950% and hardness in the range 60–95 shore A.
Table 1 provides a brief overview of some of the most common materials used in the fabrication of V-PAMs. In terms of elongation at break, both silicone and filaments offer good performance, showing values that can range from 100% up to a maximum of 1000%. On the contrary, from the point of view of Young’s modulus, the V-PAM obtained with silicone shows values 10 times lower than the counterpart obtained with the TAM approach. This means that for the same structure, actuators obtained by casting are always softer than those obtained by 3D printing, which resulting more rigid require, an higher actuation power to achieve the same behavior. On the other hand, higher stiffness can lead to solutions that can support a higher payload. For this reason, the choice of material is a compromise between performance, feasibility of the concept and operating conditions. The latter point in particular makes it difficult to define a priori which material is best based on the design used alone, making careful analysis necessary in the design phase.
Young’s module [MPa] | Shore hardness [A] | Elongation at break [%] | Manufacturing | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Molding | Additive | Hybrid | ||||
Silicones | ||||||
Ecoflex ™ 00-10 | 0.55 | 10 | 800 | • | • | |
Ecoflex ™ 00-20 | 0.55 | 20 | 845 | • | • | |
Ecoflex ™ 00-30 | 0.69 | 30 | 900 | • | • | |
DragonSkin™ 10, | 0.151 | 10 | 1,000 | • | • | |
DragonSkin™ 20, | 0.338 | 20 | 620 | • | • | |
DragonSkin™ 30, | 0.593 | 30 | 364 | • | • | |
Sylgard 184 (10:1) | 1.32 | 43 | 100 | • | • | |
Elastosil® M4601 | 0.262 | 28 | 700 | • | • | |
Filament (TAM) | ||||||
Ultimaker TPU | 26 | 95 | 580 | • | • | |
NinjaFlex© TPU | 12 | 85 | 660 | • | • | |
Chinchilla™ TPE | 34 | 75 | 600 | • | • | |
FilaFlex 60A (TPU) | 26 | 63 | 950 | • | • | |
FilaFlex 82A (TPU) | 22 | 82 | 650 | • | • | |
FilaFlex 70A (TPU) | 32 | 70 | 900 | • | • | |
Filament (molds) | ||||||
Ultimaker ABS | 1.618 | 76 | 90–105 | • | • | |
Ultimaker CPE+ | 1.128 | 75 | 90–110 | • | • | |
Ultimaker PLA | 2.346 | 83 | 55–65 | • | • | |
PolyLite™ ABS | 2.174 | — | 101 | • | • | |
PolyLite™ PLA | 2.636 | — | 63 | • | • |
Materials’ properties and the compatibility with different V-PAMs manufacturing.
This review introduces the promising potential of V-PAMs for implementing complex soft machines achieving robustness and fail-safe operation. In contrast to the inflatable fluidic actuators, given that vacuum pressure induces a volumetric contraction, the linear deformation is strongly influenced by the contraction in the radial direction. Thus, their structures and geometries can avoid stiffening and/or an increase in stress during movement, at the same time ensuring a good level of compactness and robustness. In particular, due to their reliability [37, 92, 106], the V-PAMs proposed to show a lifespan that varies from a minimum of 21,500 cycles of LSOVAs up to more than 1,000,000 cycles of VAMPs. Furthermore, being based on volumetric contraction, V-PAMs results suitable for operating in both large and limited spaces, oppositely to PAMs, which exploiting a volumetric expansion cannot properly work in confined environments.
Nevertheless, there are still several open challenges to be addressed. Indeed, new trade-offs among design principles and desired mechanical performance need to be found to enable energy efficiency in actuators with high power-to-weight ratio. Also, scalability remains barely impossible, mainly due to the square-cube law.
Given that upon vacuum pressure, the overall structure stiffness is mainly dependent on its bulk state, determining adequate materials is a key aspect to achieve the desired actuation force. Thus, exploiting different materials (multi-material) approaches that allow for enhancing the axial stiffness at a global level have been widely addressed [125, 126, 127, 128] by smoothly interfacing them with the structure. However, this approach could lead to an increase in the overall structure weight, as well as material failures (i.e., delamination). Thereby, there is the quest for new materials and/or investigation of novel design principles.
An interesting approach is to employ foam (like in the UH-PAM [38]) as a constituent material, or porous structures where the air-cells dimensions can be decided upon the desired stiffness. Notably, given the recent advances in foam-like sensing, (e.g., capacitive [129], inductive sensing [130], resistive sensing [131, 132], etc.), it can be construed that, in a near future, new designs should consider such transduction mechanisms embedded in V-PAMs. This approach seems promising to develop soft machines with embodied intelligence
Indeed, due to the rapid development in additive manufacturing, designing and fabricating 3D architectures made of metamaterials has been demonstrated [134, 135, 136, 137]. Hence, it can be expected for them to play a key role in the future development of soft actuation, allowing the soft machines to exhibit desired kinematic performance while reducing overall weight due to the tessellated topology and morphology. For this to happen, the quest is for materials that possess high extensibility (>500%), Young’s modulus in the range of tens of MPa, and high reliability and low hysteresis.
In conclusion, in any case, it will be important to address designs that exploit both positive and negative pressures, rather than choosing one of them. This way motions in different directions could be achieved with the same actuator, for example, elongation, contraction, bending, twisting, also inspiring from natural models. For example, this is the case of developing innovative continuum manipulators inspired from elephant trunks, like in the EU project PROBOSCIS [138], which aim is to develop “soft” yet “strong” perceptive soft machines.
This work has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No. 863212 (PROBOSCIS project).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Nomenclatures | Descriptions | Nomenclatures | Descriptions |
---|---|---|---|
D | Outer diameter | TPU | Thermoplastic polyurethane |
d | Inner diameter of the bellow | PDMS | Polydimethylsiloxane |
Dm | Mean diameter of the bellow | PE | Polyethene |
w | Convolution depth | AM | Additive Manufacturing |
Eb | Young’s modulus of the material used for the bellow | VPP | Vat Polymerization |
tp | Thickness of skin | MEX | Material Extrusion |
μ | Poisson’s ratio | MJT | Material Jetting |
n | Number of bellow plies (in case of multiple plies) | DLP | Digital Light Processing |
N | Number of convolutions | SLA | Stereolithography |
ABS | Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene | FFF | Fused Filament Fabrication |
PTFE | Polytetrafluoroethylene | DIW | Direct Ink Writing |
PA | Polyamide | TAM | Total additive manufacturing |
CPE | Chlorinated polyethylene | Tg | Glass transition temperature |
PLA | Polylactide |
Nomenclatures.
Process name | Operative principle |
---|---|
Binder Jetting (BJT) | A liquid bonding agent is selectively deposited to join powder materials |
Direct Energy Deposition (DED) | Focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they are being deposited |
Material Extrusion (MEX) | Material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice |
Material Jetting (MJT) | Droplets of feedstock material are selectively deposited |
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) | Thermal energy selectively fuses regions of a powder bed |
Sheet Lamination (SHL) | Sheets of material are bonded to form a part |
Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) | Liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively cured by light-activated polymerization |
Binder Jetting (BJT) | A liquid bonding agent is selectively deposited to join powder materials |
Direct Energy Deposition (DED) | Focused thermal energy is used to fuse materials by melting as they are being deposited |
Material Extrusion (MEX) | Material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle or orifice |
Material Jetting (MJT) | Droplets of feedstock material are selectively deposited |
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) | Thermal energy selectively fuses regions of a powder bed |
Sheet Lamination (SHL) | Sheets of material are bonded to form a part |
Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) | Liquid photopolymer in a vat is selectively cured by light-activated polymerization |
Different printing processes and their operation principles.
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\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Although POP can occur in younger women, it is commonly seen in aging population with a prevalence of 45–50%. Older terms describing pelvic organ prolapse (e.g., cystocele, urethrocele, rectocele) have been replaced because they do not provide complete information regarding the structures on the other side of the vaginal bulge, especially in women who have had previous pelvic organ prolapse surgery. Therefore, a thorough history and performing a careful physical examination with dignity and care, using some basic tools that aid in the accurate evaluation of anatomical and functional defects, should be conducted. A standardized assessment system has been used to document findings which should explain everything in understandable terms.",book:{id:"7957",slug:"lower-urinary-tract-dysfunction-from-evidence-to-clinical-practice",title:"Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction",fullTitle:"Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction - From Evidence to Clinical Practice"},signatures:"Priyanka Bhadana",authors:[{id:"287080",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Priyanka",middleName:null,surname:"Bhadana",slug:"priyanka-bhadana",fullName:"Priyanka Bhadana"}]},{id:"51296",title:"Peritoneal Dialysis Catheters",slug:"peritoneal-dialysis-catheters",totalDownloads:2396,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In peritoneal dialysis, a well-functioning catheter is of great importance because a dysfunctional catheter may be associated with exit-site infection, peritonitis, reduced efficiency of dialysis, and overall quality of treatment, representing one of the main barriers to optimal use of peritoneal dialysis. This chapter reviews the literature on indications and contraindications for peritoneal dialysis, peritoneal dialysis catheter design and materials, the techniques of insertion, complications, and method of removal of dialysis catheters.",book:{id:"5312",slug:"some-special-problems-in-peritoneal-dialysis",title:"Some Special Problems in Peritoneal Dialysis",fullTitle:"Some Special Problems in Peritoneal Dialysis"},signatures:"O. Obinwa, J. McLoughlin, D. Kavanagh and C. 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It is not only a serious medical condition but also an undeniable psychosocial problem creating embarrassment and negative self‐perception, and it has a severe impact on a patient's quality of life. Today, there are wide different treatment options in urinary incontinence from surgery to conservative modalities. Among these, conservative management approaches are recommended as the first‐line treatment to manage with urinary incontinence. The choice of the most suitable option to treat for urinary incontinence differs according to the underlying pathophysiological mechanism defining subtypes of urinary incontinence and severity of symptoms. In this chapter, we addressed the different components of physiotherapy management of urinary incontinence, including pelvic floor muscle training, electrical stimulation, biofeedback, vaginal cones, mechanical devices and magnetic stimulation. We concluded that the optimal physiotherapy care should be individualised to ensure applicability the clinic setting for each patient.",book:{id:"5352",slug:"synopsis-in-the-management-of-urinary-incontinence",title:"Synopsis in the Management of Urinary Incontinence",fullTitle:"Synopsis in the Management of Urinary Incontinence"},signatures:"Özlem Çinar Özdemir and Mahmut Surmeli",authors:[{id:"185712",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Özlem",middleName:null,surname:"Çinar Özdemir",slug:"ozlem-cinar-ozdemir",fullName:"Özlem Çinar Özdemir"},{id:"193852",title:"Mr.",name:"Mahmut",middleName:null,surname:"Surmeli",slug:"mahmut-surmeli",fullName:"Mahmut Surmeli"}]},{id:"43075",title:"Single-Needle Hemodialysis on Native Fistulae",slug:"single-needle-hemodialysis-on-native-fistulae",totalDownloads:4086,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3267",slug:"hemodialysis",title:"Hemodialysis",fullTitle:"Hemodialysis"},signatures:"Guy Rostoker",authors:[{id:"155148",title:"Dr.",name:"Guy",middleName:null,surname:"Rostoker",slug:"guy-rostoker",fullName:"Guy Rostoker"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"204",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:303,paginationItems:[{id:"280338",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Tsutsumi",slug:"yutaka-tsutsumi",fullName:"Yutaka Tsutsumi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280338/images/7961_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fujita Health University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. 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