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\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
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Substance abuse is “persistent or sporadic drug use inconsistent with or unrelated to acceptable medical practice” [1]. Substance abuse among the youngsters and adolescents is the rising social problem all over world [2].
Alcohol addiction is the leading problem for death and disability all over the world.it is observed that 75 million people are alcohol addicts and 3 million are opioid abusers in India [3]. Due to tobacco addiction nearly 13,000 deaths per day occurs all over It has been predicted by the According to World Health Organization (WHO) that tobacco consumption will lead more than 500 million mortality people by 2030 and it will be the commonest cause of death [4, 5]. Many studies has shown that smokers became habituated at adolescent period. It is unfortunate that consumption of alcohol is getting social acceptance and has become status symbol.
All hard drugs like opioids and other became the easily available which is the important cause of substance abuse in adolescents. Alcohol and opioid addiction is common in children. According to National institute on drug abuse (NIDA), in adolescence marijuana use consumption is common. Many studies had shown that common age group of substance abuse ranges from 12 to 20 years [6].
The United Nations has designed 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets. They expected that by 2030 all states will succeed to achieve all goals. From above all Sustainable Development Goals, important Goal-3 having Target-5 stresses on Strengthening the prevention of substance abuse and its proper treatment especially of narcotic drug and alcohol abuse. Many researches has confirmed that antisocial activities in childhood leads to alcohol abuse in adolescent. Adolescents is the most important stage of human life but unfortunately this group is most misunderstood and neglected by the society [7].
Substance addiction (drug addiction) and Non-substance addiction (behavioral addiction) are two different disorders. Substance addiction or drug addiction is a neuropsychiatric disorder categorized by a periodic craving for the consumption drug despite of having knowledge about harmful effects. Non substance abuse includes pathological food obsession, internet craving, and mobile phone compulsion [8].
Men are always under stress and for relief of it used many parameters one of it is drug abuse. This problem has risen at all levels in the society in various forms. Drug trafficking is one of the most profitable trades along with petroleum and weapons trade. Every country has and is facing this problem in its own way. Newer forms of drug abuse patterns like solvents are on the rise probably due to strict regulations on other recognized forms of abuse.
Street children in India constitute a group of marginalized population in most urban centers of the country. They constitute children living in streets permanently, who are detached from their families and live on the streets temporarily, children who belong to poor families and spend most of their time on the streets, children living with their families on the streets etc [9].
These children have to put up with a variety of physical and mental abuse and hence are a concern for a wide range of social issues. Poly substance abuse is common among these children and often solvents are the first psychoactive substance they attempt to try. Not much is known as to why children adopt such abusive behavior. Solvents are freely available in the market without any regulations in India. Though a lot of global awareness is reached about this form of abuse it is yet to be recognized by the political circle in the country [10].
We have been facing a shocking rise of substance abuse among the youngsters. Recent times have witnessed a steady increase in drug abuse among younger population, with more children starting substance use from an early age. Further, the delinquent is seen across all socioeconomic groups, from cities to small towns and rural areas, with new and multiple substance use also being recognized [11, 12].
Speedy industrial development with changing lifestyles have left the youth harassed for their survival; compelling many to seek defense in the dark world of substance abuse. India too, is fronting a similar condition that has been paying attention of policy makers and researchers [13, 14, 15].
Not only the child, but the family and society as a whole are likely to be disturbed as a result of early onset substance use. Thus, this matter is of nationwide interest and significance. This phase of life is characterized by growth and maturation of brain and body, which potentially affects responses to drugs and treatment [16, 17, 18, 19].
World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that globally 25 to 90% of children and adolescents have consumed at least one substance of abuse [1, 19, 20]. In India approximately 5500 children and adolescents start using tobacco products daily, some as young as 10 years old. A large number of them have used tobacco prior to the age of 18 years [21, 22, 23].
Dependence is defined by World Health Organization and American Psychiatric Association, as a syndrome of physiological, behavioral and cognitive phenomena, which lead to loss of control over use. DSM-5, cancels the term ‘dependence ‘and substitutes it with ‘use disorder’. [24].
Research on substance abuse among children and adolescents presents its own distinctive challenges. But the main question is that why the Indian society is facing such a quandary where more of the teenagers and youths are indulging in immoral and unproductive activities like substance abuse. The present study has the aim of analyzing the biosocial profile and pattern of substance abusers. The study is indicative for the need of fostering a supportive environment comprising of both parents and teachers so that adolescents can adopt and sustain with the right choices for a healthy life.
To assess the pattern and prevalence of substance abuse among Children in slum areas of Ahmednagar.
To find out demographic profile of children using substances for abuse.
To find out association of family history, peer pressure, educational status of family and children associated with substance use among children.
It’s a descriptive cross sectional study done in collaboration with NGO (Balbhavan Project) working in slum areas of Ahmednagar. They were evaluated according to pre designed questionnaire in given time frame with the help of NGO (Balbhavan project) working in that area. All the children satisfying the following inclusion and exclusion criteria were enrolled in the study.
Children with age group 18 years or less of either sex were included in study.
Children who were willing to participate in research work.
Patients/Parent/relative/NGO who were ready to give informed consent.
Informed written consent was taken from the child or adolescent and the parent or NGO staff counselor (as a surrogate guardian, in case the parents are not available).
Children with age group below 5 and above 18 years of either sex were not included.
A child who was Unable to provide information was not included in the study.
For this research project we have chosen the most active non-governmental agency (NGO) of Ahmednagar, Maharashtra.This NGO named Snehalaya is working for the overall growth of children living in slum areas. They are also actively working on hot issue of substance abuse among these children. NGO has established nice rapport with children and also have data of the substance abuse among children. They also have information about the substance abuse and treatment of each child abuser. With help Snehalaya, we collected information related to our research project.
Considering the time frame of the research, study was carried out with the help of NGO working in slum areas of Ahmednagar and children fulfilling the inclusion and exclusion criteria which were mentioned above. It was estimated that the total sample size will be about 246 children who are using substances. (Calculated by open Epi Software).
The abusers are taking all kinds of substances commonly tobacco consumption, Bidi/Cigarette smoking, pan masala, gutkha, ganja, bhang, alcohol, LSD, Cocaine and Opium etc.
We have labeled child as substance abuser who have fulfilled following criteria.
1-taking one or more above mentioned substances and consuming it since last 1 year,
2-using it at least once in a week or many times in last months.
Collected informations was tabulated and evaluated using suitable statistical tests as and when required. The information so collected was analyzed by using SPSS software. Chi-square test was used as per the requirement.
To know the present scenario of substance abuse, we conducted a descriptive cross sectional study, among 246 children of slum areas of Ahmednagar under the guidance of Snehalay balbhavan project. The result obtained at the end of the study was quit shocking. It was found that in slum areas 87% children were drug abusers, among which 83% were boys and 17% were girls. A high correlation of substance abuse was found with increasing age consisting of 6.1% drug abuser of age group 5–8 years, 15% drug abuser of age group 9–12 years and 78.9% drug abuser of age group 13–18 years. Most abused substance among them was Tobacco, Alcohol, Inhalants, Sedative and opium. When we inquired about the educational status of parents, it was found that 84.6% of mothers were illiterate and 60.2% of fathers were illiterate. A special emphasis was laid on education of children among which 52% were school going and remaining were engaged in unskilled labor like rag picking, hotel worker, street vending, dhabha and other work. About 77.6% of these children got addicted due to their friends and 17.3% from their family. At the end of our study only 46.3% of them were willing to quit. 50.9% of children were craving for the substances and 38.8% of children got addicted due to peer pressure (Tables 1–5 and Figures 1 and 2).
Sr. No. | Variable | Groups | No. of participants (N = 246) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Sex | Male | 191 | 77.6 |
Female | 55 | 22.4 | ||
2 | Age | 5–8 years | 15 | 6.1 |
9–12 years | 37 | 15.0 | ||
13–18 years | 194 | 78.9 | ||
3 | Living arrangement | Home (With family) | 191 | 77.6 |
(with friends/ distant relatives) | 55 | 22.4 | ||
4 | Mothers literacy | Literate | 38 | 15.4 |
Illiterate | 208 | 84.6 | ||
5 | Fathers literacy | Literate | 98 | 39.8 |
Illiterate | 148 | 60.2 | ||
6 | Drug abuse by mother | Yes | 197 | 80.1 |
No | 49 | 19.9 | ||
7 | Drug abuse by father | Yes | 207 | 84.1 |
No | 39 | 15.9 | ||
8 | Work | Student | 128 | 52.0 |
Rag picker/ Kabadi | 29 | 11.8 | ||
Street level vending | 9 | 3.7 | ||
Dhaba/ Restaurant/ Waiter | 5 | 2.0 | ||
Unskilled worker/ Labourer | 13 | 5.3 | ||
Do not work | 30 | 12.1 | ||
Others | 32 | 13.0 |
Demographic profile of participants.
Age Groups | Drug Abuse (%) | No Drug abuse (%) | Total | Chi-Square Value | P Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
5–8 years | 6 (2.8) | 9 (28.1) | 15 (6.1) | 41.517 | 0.000 |
9–12 years | 27 (12.6) | 10 (31.2) | 37 (15.0) | ||
13–18 years | 181 (84.6) | 13 (40.6) | 194 (78.9) | ||
Total | 214 (100.0) | 32 (100.0) | 246 (100.0) |
Association between age and drug abuse.
As p < 0.05, there is significant association between age and drug abuse. Children in the age of 13–18 years are more likely to get involved in drug abuse.
Drug abuse by mother | Drug Abuse by children (%) | No Drug abuse by children (%) | Total | Chi-Square Value | P Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes | 178 (90.4) | 19 (9.6) | 197 (100.0) | 9.887 | 0.004 |
No | 36 (73.5) | 13 (26.5) | 49 (100.0) | ||
Total | 214 (87.0) | 32 (13.0) | 246 (100.0) |
Association between mothers involved in drug abuse and drug abuse by the children.
As p < 0.05, there is significant association between mother involved in drug abuse and drug abuse by the children. If the mother is using drugs, there are 90.4% chances of children getting involved in drug abuse.
Drug abuse by father | Drug Abuse by children (%) | No Drug abuse by children (%) | Total | Chi-Square Value | P Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes | 188 (90.8) | 19 (9.2) | 207 (100.0) | 16.920 | 0.000 |
No | 26 (66.7) | 13 (33.3) | 39 (100.0) | ||
Total | 214 (87.0) | 32 (13.0) | 246 (100.0) |
Association between fathers involved in drug abuse and drug abuse by the children.
As p < 0.05, there is significant association between father involved in drug abuse and drug abuse by the children. If the father is using drugs, there are 90.8% chances of children getting involved in drug abuse.
Sr. No. | Variable | Groups | No. of participants (N = 246) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Substance abuse (N = 246) | Tobacco | 140 | 56.9 |
Alcohol | 41 | 16.7 | ||
Inhalant | 23 | 9.3 | ||
Sedative | 6 | 2.4 | ||
Opium | 4 | 1.6 | ||
No Substance abuse | 32 | 13.0 | ||
2 | Want to quit the habit (N = 214) | Yes | 99 | 46.3 |
No | 115 | 53.7 | ||
3 | Procurement of the drug (N = 214) | Friends | 166 | 77.6 |
Family | 37 | 17.3 | ||
Itself | 11 | 5.1 | ||
4 | Difficulty in quitting (N = 214) | Craving | 109 | 50.9 |
Peer pressure | 83 | 38.8 | ||
Easily available | 17 | 7.9 | ||
Withdrawal symptoms | 5 | 2.4 |
Drug abuse & related parameters.
Sex distribution among abusers.
Age and sex distribution of abusers.
Substance abuse refers to the harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substance including alcohol and illicit drugs. The present study reveals the prevalence of substance abuse among children to be 87%, which is higher than that reported by Lisa Sarangi et al. [2] where the prevalence was 43.4%.Jasani PK et al.in his study covered 600 adolescents and he found that substance abusers children were 30.17% [25]. Another study conducted at Andhra Pradesh by Benegal et al. Prashant et al. [11] revealed that about 32.7% children were abusers. Many research studies have found that, in India 50% children up to grade nine experiences the substance at least once [26, 27].
This research study revealed the major basic reason behind such high consumption of substance abuse is poverty, easy availability of substances and peer pressure. Jasani PK et al. found that most common cause of substance abuse was peer pressure, then experiencing thrill in life and academic stress [25]. Our results coincides with Benegal et al. Prashant et al. [11], in their study, they revealed most common reason was peer pressure (52.9%) then for pleasure (21.1%).But according to Jain et al. curiosity (68%)was the main reason for start of substance abuse [22], the reason behind it may be due to different culture and economic status. Another study by Barua et al. shown that academic stress comforting outcome and only for enjoyment were the common causes of consumption of alcohol [23].
This study also revealed that the most common substance being abused is the widely available Tobacco (56.9%) which is supporting, the findings of Dhirendra N. Sinha et al. [28]. Our findings are similar with Jasani PK et al., it showed most common substance is tobacco 25.83%, followed by liquor (2.17%), opioid/afin (1%) bhang (0.67%) [25].
Bihar based study by Sinha et al. showed that smoking is commonest substance abuse (19.4%)in school going children [14]. Kaur et al. from North India revealed 39.2% substance abusers consumes tobacco [15]. Another study from Uttar Pradesh by Dube and Handa et al. stated that alcohol is consumed by 22.8% abusers [16]. Similar findings 18.55% abusers are taking alcohol are also reported by Thacore [17], Shukla et al. described that 38.3% is substance abuse prevalence in the rural population in Uttar Pradesh [18]. Jena et al. also reported 28.8% rural people of Bihar consumes alcohol/drug [19]. Study conducted in most sensitive state, Punjab by Varma et al. revealed that 45.9% alcohol taking habit in urban population and 28.1% in rural population [20, 21].
It was found that in slum areas 87% children were drug abusers, among which 83% were boys and 17% were girls Prevalence of tobacco use was higher among boys than girls. Many research studies have found that, in India 50% children up to grade nine experiences the substance at least once [26, 27, 29]. Study by Majra et al. found that tobacco consumption is more among males (42.1%) as compared to females (17.0%) [13]. As boys are involved more in outdoor activities and are subjected to substance abuse. Adolescents reported using tobacco in multiple forms, chewing tobacco being the most popular.
A WHO study group on youth and drugs indicated that most of the experimentation and initiation of dependence producing drugs takes place during adolescence [30]. Though they had some knowledge about the harmful effects of substances, this was not sufficient to motivate them to quit, in our study only 46.3% were willing to quit. Craving (50.9%) was the most common cause to abstain substance abuse.
11 DSM-5 criteria implementation in clinics research purpose is easier than 11 DSM-IV criteria because one disorder is involved instead of two hierarchical disorders. A checklist helps for covering all criteria [31].
The study has emphasized the escalating incidence of substance abuse among slum children in Ahmednagar, pressing need of initiating programs for prevention and treatment in slum areas. The subject needs to be dealt in a comprehensive manner. There is need for availability of specialized treatment services for children who are using substances. These facilities should be available in government hospitals. The settings in which the facilities are delivered should be child sensitive and safe. Treatment programs must attempt to include the family in treatment and address the family issues as a part of the remedy. Rehabilitation of children should focus on skill building and vocational training. Substance abuse by children has detrimental impact on their physical, psychological, social and mental well-being hence needs immediate intervention. Rehabilitation of children abusing illicit substances is the necessity of the hour.
Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Dr. Girish Kulkarni (Founder of Snehalaya) and Dr. Hanif for their great support. I am also thankful to all my students for their active participation in the project-Chhajed Neel A., Mehta Rahul J., Arve Rutvik N., Upadhyay Prabhakar I., Mustafa Saad.
The author declares no conflict of interest in the present study.
Not applicable.
Taken from institutional ethical committee.
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Sharma"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74297",title:"Optimization, Validation and Standardization of ELISA",slug:"optimization-validation-and-standardization-of-elisa",totalDownloads:1712,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is a commonly used analytical immunochemistry assay based on the specific bond between the antigen and the antibody. The application of this test has significantly changed the practice of medical laboratories in which it is used for detection and quantification of molecules such as hormones, peptides, antibodies, and proteins. Various technical variants of this test can detect antigen (native or foreign) or antibody, determine the intensity of the immune response whether pathological or not; the type of induced immune response as well as the innate immunity potential; and much more. These capabilities, as well as the high sensitivity and robustness of the test and a small price, make it possible to quickly and reliably diagnose diseases in most laboratories. Besides, ELISA is a test that is also used in veterinary medicine, toxicology, allergology, food industry, etc. Despite the fact that it has existed for almost 50 years, different ELISA tests with different technical solutions are still being developed, which improves and expands the application of the this exceptional test. The aim of this chapter is to empower the rider to optimize, standardize and validate an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.",book:{id:"9850",slug:"norovirus",title:"Norovirus",fullTitle:"Norovirus"},signatures:"Rajna Minic and Irena Zivkovic",authors:[{id:"325806",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Zivkovic",slug:"irena-zivkovic",fullName:"Irena Zivkovic"},{id:"325839",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajna",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"rajna-minic",fullName:"Rajna Minic"}]},{id:"56750",title:"Laboratory Approach to Anemia",slug:"laboratory-approach-to-anemia",totalDownloads:6181,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Anemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and can be defined as a decreased quantity of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The epidemiological studies suggested that one-third of the world’s population is affected with anemia. Anemia is not a disease, but it is instead the sign of an underlying basic pathological process. However, the sign may function as a compass in the search for the cause. Therefore, the prediagnosis revealed by thorough investigation of this sign should be supported by laboratory parameters according to the underlying pathological process. We expect that this review will provide guidance to clinicians with findings and laboratory tests that can be followed from the initial stage in the anemia search.",book:{id:"5942",slug:"current-topics-in-anemia",title:"Current Topics in Anemia",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Anemia"},signatures:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez and Abdullah Tuli",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"209103",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"33133",title:"Waist Circumference in Children and Adolescents from Different Ethnicities",slug:"waist-circumference-in-children-and-adolescents-from-different-ethnicities",totalDownloads:8e3,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"642",slug:"childhood-obesity",title:"Childhood Obesity",fullTitle:"Childhood Obesity"},signatures:"Peter Schwandt and Gerda-Maria Haas",authors:[{id:"29867",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Schwandt",slug:"peter-schwandt",fullName:"Peter Schwandt"}]},{id:"54411",title:"Isolation and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Animals, Humans, and Environment",slug:"isolation-and-characterization-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-from-animals-humans-and-environment",totalDownloads:6141,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Working on a diverse species of bacteria that have hundreds of pathotypes representing hundreds of strains and many closely related family members is a challenge. Appropriate research design is required not only to achieve valid desired outcome but also to minimize the use of resources, including time to outcome and intervention. This chapter outlines basics of Escherichia coli isolation and characterization strategies that can assist in research designing that matches the set objectives. Types of samples to be collected, collection and storage strategies, and processing of samples are described. Different approaches to isolation, confirmation and concentration of various E. coli strains are summarized in this chapter. Characterization and typing of E. coli isolates by biochemical, serological, and molecular methods have been explained so that an appropriate choice is made to suite a specific E. coli strain/pathotype. Some clues on sample and isolate preservation for future use are outlined, and general precautions regarding E. coli handling are also presented to the researcher to avoid improper planning and execution of E. coli-related research. Given different options, the best E. coli research design, however, should try as much as possible to shorten the length of time to outcomes.",book:{id:"5493",slug:"-i-escherichia-coli-i-recent-advances-on-physiology-pathogenesis-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Escherichia coli",fullTitle:"Escherichia coli - Recent Advances on Physiology, Pathogenesis and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Athumani Msalale Lupindu",authors:[{id:"185959",title:"Dr.",name:"Athumani",middleName:"Msalale",surname:"Lupindu",slug:"athumani-lupindu",fullName:"Athumani Lupindu"}]},{id:"53085",title:"Malaria in Pregnancy",slug:"malaria-in-pregnancy",totalDownloads:3194,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Malaria infection during pregnancy is an important public health problem with substantial risks to both the mother and foetus. Pregnant women are the most vulnerable group of malaria‐associated morbidity and mortality. A pregnant woman has an increased risk (up to four times) of getting malaria and twice the chances of dying from malaria, compared to a non‐pregnant adult, becuase the immune system is partially suppressed during pregnancy. Malaria in pregnancy not only affects the mother but also has a dangerous sequel for the developing foetus, resulting in premature delivery or intrauterine growth retardation. Diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy remains a challenge due to the low parasite density and placental sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum. Thus, there is an urgent need for new diagnostic methods to detect malarial parasites in the pregnant women. Though antimalarial drugs are available, which can be safely given in the pregnancy, increasing drug resistance of malarial parasite may pose a big problem in the future. In this chapter, we review the burden of pregnancy‐associated malaria (PAM), its pathogenesis, diagnostic issues during pregnancy and recent guidelines for chemoprophylaxsis and treatment.",book:{id:"5270",slug:"current-topics-in-malaria",title:"Current Topics in Malaria",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Malaria"},signatures:"Kapil Goyal, Alka Sehgal, Chander S. Gautam and Rakesh Sehgal",authors:[{id:"181967",title:"Prof.",name:"Rakesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sehgal",slug:"rakesh-sehgal",fullName:"Rakesh Sehgal"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1046",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81939",title:"Translational Research on Chagas Disease: Focusing on Drug Combination and Repositioning",slug:"translational-research-on-chagas-disease-focusing-on-drug-combination-and-repositioning",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104231",abstract:"Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is a major neglected disease endemic to Latin America, associated to significant morbimortality comprising a remarkable socioeconomic problem mainly for low-income tropical populations. The present chapter focuses translational research on Chagas disease, approaching drug combinations and repositioning, particularly exploiting the parasite oxidative stress by prospecting prooxidant compounds combined with antagonists of antioxidant systems, for developing low-cost and safe therapies for this infection. The pertinent literature on protozoal parasitic diseases is reviewed as well as on repurposing disulfiram aiming the combination with the Chagas disease drug of choice benznidazole. Both disulfiram and its first derivative sodium diethyldithiocarbamate (DETC) are able not only to inhibit p-glycoprotein, possibly reverting resistance phenotypes, but also to reduce toxicity of numerous other drugs, heavy metals, etc. Therefore, this innovation, presently in clinical research, may furnish a novel therapeutic for T. cruzi infections overcoming the adverse effects and refractory cases that impair the effectiveness of Chagas disease treatment.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Marcos André Vannier-Santos, Ana Márcia Suarez-Fontes, Juliana Almeida-Silva, Alessandra Lifsitch Viçosa, Sandra Aurora Chavez Perez, Alejandro Marcel Hasslocher-Moreno, Gabriel Parreiras Estolano da Silveira, Luciana Fernandes Portela and Roberto Magalhães Saraiva"},{id:"81702",title:"The Saga of Selenium Treatment Investigation in Chagas Disease Cardiopathy: Translational Research in a Neglected Tropical Disease in Brazil",slug:"the-saga-of-selenium-treatment-investigation-in-chagas-disease-cardiopathy-translational-research-in",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103772",abstract:"This chapter describes the steps from basic research to the definition of a putative public health recommendation in the clinical protocols and therapeutic guidelines for selenium (Se) supplementation for patients with Chagas disease. From 1998 to 2018, we conducted a translational research project to test the concept that chronic Chagas disease cardiopathy (CCC) severity could be associated with low levels of blood selenium (Se), and if oral Se supplementation could help to sustain the asymptomatic cardiac stage and reduce disease severity. Pre-clinical studies in mice and a clinical trial conducted in the early asymptomatic cardiac stage of CCC patients (B stage) were performed, identified as “Selenium Treatment of Chagasic Cardiopathy (STCC)” trial. The roadmap of the selenium project was/is a real saga, with important obstacles that tested team resilience and revealed Brazilian conditions of science development. We discuss the main possible mechanisms involved in the physiopathology of CCC and the lessons learned in this process. In this chapter, we also organized the timeline of the translational project and described the crucial moments of the journey, as well as the next steps driving the research teams and their international and health industry connections.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Tania C. de Araujo-Jorge, Anna Cristina C. Carvalho, Roberto R. Ferreira, Luciana R. Garzoni, Beatriz M.S. Gonzaga, Marcelo T. Holanda, Gilberto M. Sperandio da Silva, Maria da Gloria Bonecini-Almeida, Mauro F.F. Mediano, Roberto M. Saraiva and Alejandro M. Hasslocher-Moreno"},{id:"81938",title:"How Do Mouse Strains and Inoculation Routes Influence the Course of Experimental Trypanosoma cruzi Infection?",slug:"how-do-mouse-strains-and-inoculation-routes-influence-the-course-of-experimental-trypanosoma-cruzi-i",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104461",abstract:"Chagas’ disease outcomes depend on several factors including parasite and host genetics, immune response, and route of infection. In this study, we investigate the influence of inoculation route and host genetic background on the establishment and development of Chagas disease in mice, using an isolate of Trypanosoma cruzi SC2005 strain (TcII), which was obtained from an oral Chagas’ disease outbreak in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Comparative analysis of the immunopathological, histopathological, and hematological profiles of mice was performed demonstrating the influence of the route of infection in disease severity. In outbred mice, intraperitoneal (IP) infection led to higher infection and mortality rates and more severe parasitaemia, when compared with intragastric (IG) infection. Nevertheless, tissue colonization was similar, showing severe damage in the heart, with intense lymphocytic inflammatory infiltrates, regardless of the route of infection. On the other hand, in mice IG-infected, the host genetic background influences the start timing of immune response against Trypanosoma cruzi. The susceptible BALB/c inbred mouse strain presented an earlier development of a cytotoxic cellular profile, when compared with A mice. We hypothesize that the cytotoxic response mounted before the parasitaemia increase allowed for a milder manifestation of Chagas’ disease in intragastrically infected mice.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Flávia de Oliveira Cardoso, Carolina Salles Domingues, Tânia Zaverucha do Valle and Kátia da Silva Calabrese"},{id:"81814",title:"Evaluation of Molecular Variability of Isolates of Trypanosoma cruzi in the State of Rio de Janeiro-Brazil",slug:"evaluation-of-molecular-variability-of-isolates-of-trypanosoma-cruzi-in-the-state-of-rio-de-janeiro-",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104498",abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, presents considerable heterogeneity among populations of isolates within the sylvatic and domestic cycle. This study aims to evaluate the genetic diversity of 14 isolates collected from specimens of Triatoma vitticeps from Triunfo, Conceição de Macabu, and Santa Maria Madalena cities (Rio de Janeiro—Brazil). By using PCR based on the mini-exon gene, all isolates showed a profile characteristic of bands zymodeme III and with a lower intensity characteristic of TcII. To verify possible hybrids among the strains analyzed, the polymorphisms analysis of the MSH2 gene was performed. HhaI restriction enzyme digestion products resulted in characteristic TcII fragments only, demonstrating the absence of hybrids strains. In our attempt to characterize isolation in accordance with the reclassification of T. cruzi into six new groups called DTUs (“discrete typing unit”), we genotyped the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit two gene, ribosomal RNA gen (24Sα rDNA), and the spliced leader intergenic region (SL-IR). This procedure showed that TcII, TcIII, and TcIV are circulating in this area. This highlights the diversity of parasites infecting specimens of T. vitticeps, emphasizing the habit of wild type and complexity of the region epidemiological study that presents potential mixed populations.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Helena Keiko Toma, Luciana Reboredo de Oliveira da Silva, Teresa Cristina Monte Gonçalves, Renato da Silva Junior and Jacenir R. Santos-Mallet"},{id:"81252",title:"Modulation of Host Cell Apoptosis by Trypanosoma cruzi: Repercussions in the Development of Chronic Chagasic Cardiomyopathy",slug:"modulation-of-host-cell-apoptosis-by-trypanosoma-cruzi-repercussions-in-the-development-of-chronic-c",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103740",abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi is an intracellular parasite, which causes Chagas disease, affecting millions of people throughout the world. T. cruzi can invade several cell types, among which macrophages and cardiomyocytes stand out. Chagas disease goes through two stages: acute and chronic. If it becomes chronic, its most severe form is the chagasic chronic cardiomyopathy, which accounts for most of the fatalities due to this disease. For parasites to persist for long enough in cells, they should evade several host immune responses, one of these being apoptosis. Apoptosis is a type of programmed cell death described as a well-ordered and silent collection of steps that inevitably lead cells to a noninflammatory death. Cells respond to infection by initiating their own death to combat the infection. As a result, several intracellular microorganisms have developed different strategies to overcome host cell apoptosis and persist inside cells. It has been shown that T. cruzi has the ability to inhibit host cells apoptosis and can also induce apoptosis of cells that combat the parasite such as cytotoxic T cells. The aim of this chapter is to present up-to-date information about the molecules and mechanisms engaged by T. cruzi to achieve this goal and how the modulation of apoptosis by T. cruzi reflects in the development of chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Fiordaliso Carolina Román-Carraro, Diego Maurizio Coria-Paredes, Arturo A. Wilkins-Rodríguez and Laila Gutiérrez-Kobeh"},{id:"80917",title:"Digestive Disorders in Chagas Disease: Megaesophagus and Chagasic Megacolon",slug:"digestive-disorders-in-chagas-disease-megaesophagus-and-chagasic-megacolon",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102871",abstract:"Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and transmitted by hematophagous vectors, is a parasitic disease, which according to the WHO ranks fourth as a cause of loss of potential years of life due to complications that can occur in multiple body systems. According to the reports presented by the World Health Organization, there are between 16 and 18 million infected people in the world, predominantly in endemic areas of Latin America, of which only 1% receives an adequate diagnosis and full treatment, thereby that the chronic phase comes to present digestive disorders that are one of the main causes of loss in the quality of life of patients, as well as complications that can lead to life-threatening surgical emergencies.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Víctor Hugo García Orozco, Juan Enrique Villalvazo Navarro, Carlos Solar Aguirre, Carlos Manuel Ibarra Ocampo, César Iván Díaz Sandoval, Carlos Alejandro Ortíz Gallegos, Diego Javier Oregel Camacho and Araceli Noriega Bucio"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. 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