Ruminant leptospirosis prevalence studies conducted worldwide.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3426",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Organic Pollutants - Monitoring, Risk and Treatment",title:"Organic Pollutants",subtitle:"Monitoring, Risk and Treatment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Organic pollutants cause several environmental problems if discharged to air or water body. The occurrence of organic pollutants in the ecosystem, their risk and removal methods are very important issues .This book deals with several aspects of organic pollutants, especially in the light of organic pollutants monitoring, risk assessment as well as the practical application of different techniques for removing it from the environment. The book is divided into three sections contains 9 chapters. The first section explains monitoring of organic pollutants in soil and water. The second section discusse its risk to human, soil and plants. The third section focuse on the different treatment process for the removal of organic pollutants.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0948-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5347-4",doi:"10.5772/55953",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"organic-pollutants-monitoring-risk-and-treatment",numberOfPages:240,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4dafb52ed4f5e21f079ab4b2f6825e78",bookSignature:"M. Nageeb Rashed",publishedDate:"January 30th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3426.jpg",numberOfDownloads:67670,numberOfWosCitations:213,numberOfCrossrefCitations:139,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:84,numberOfDimensionsCitations:442,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:89,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:794,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 8th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 29th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 2nd 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 1st 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. 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Gurtler",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2061.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101172",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",surname:"Annous",slug:"bassam-annous",fullName:"Bassam Annous"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3436",title:"Tuberculosis",subtitle:"Current Issues in Diagnosis and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"282ed814f4951ebc84e53bae46815973",slug:"tuberculosis-current-issues-in-diagnosis-and-management",bookSignature:"Bassam H. Mahboub and Mayank G. Vats",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3436.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143284",title:"Dr.",name:"Bassam",surname:"Mahboub",slug:"bassam-mahboub",fullName:"Bassam Mahboub"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59095",title:"Emerging Infectious Diseases in Water Buffalo: An Economic and Public Health Concern",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73395",slug:"emerging-infectious-diseases-in-water-buffalo-an-economic-and-public-health-concern",body:'\n
Livestock play an important role in the rural livelihood and economy of developing and several developed countries. They are providers of nourishment for billions of rural and urban households as well as income and employment for producers and others working in simple and sometimes complex value chains. Large ruminants, especially domestic water buffalo (
Wild as well as domestic water buffalo population is mainly confined to their breeding sites at 28 countries in Asia, Africa and South America, located in tropical and subtropical areas. A total of 161 million or about 97% of the 166 million water buffalo population are found in Asian countries; while the African region comprises of 2.12%, the South American and European region comprises of 0.84 and 0.15% of the world buffalo population, respectively [4].
\nThe water buffalo were domesticated in Indian subcontinent about 5000 years ago (river buffalo) and in China about 4000 years ago (swamp buffalo) [5]. With around 170 million domestic water buffalo that exists worldwide, more people depend on this gentle beast than on any other domestic animal.
\nThe contact between water buffaloes and cattle or other domestic and wild animals, as well as their access to different ecosystems, has exposed the species to different infectious diseases [2, 6]. These emerging infectious diseases can be caused by bacterial, viral, fungal, protozoal and endoparasites that have a significant economic impact especially in countries or regions where water buffalo served as the major livestock. However, published water buffalo-specific research is limited because it is not an important animal in many countries that have the necessary resources and it is believed that this animals show similar disease manifestation with that of cattle [7].
\nSeveral of these water buffalo diseases are endemic in developed and developing countries worldwide. However, epidemiology of these diseases is not fully studied in domesticated water buffalo [81, 82]. Most information on ruminant diseases studied cattle and African wild buffaloes [108]. In addition, livestock importation and exportation is a very important pathway of disease dissemination from one continent to parts of the world [170, 175]. However, still few diseases of water buffaloes are absent in the New World (bovine ephemeral fever) [141] and Australia (trypanosomiasis) [170, 175].
\nAdvancement of the beef and dairy cattle industry has enhanced dispersal of ruminant diseases from endemic parts of Africa, Australia and Southern Asia to the world as observed with bovine ephemeral fever [134, 140], trypanosomiasis [170, 175] and neosporosis [195]. Through these advancements in cattle industry, trypanosomiasis spread out from the tse-tese belt of Africa to the world triggering
In some cases, spread of ruminant disease is through vectors or reservoir. For example, bovine ephemeral fever is transmitted from one animal to another via mosquitoes [142], and biting flies transmit trypanosomiasis [168]. On the other hand, multi-species bacterial diseases like leptospirosis and brucellosis are known to be transferred via infected urine of rodents, carnivores [8, 9] and other farm animals and infected tissues (placenta, aborted fetuses, etc.) of aborted animals [2, 56, 57]. In cases of parasitic diseases, snails act as intermediate hosts for fasciolosis [284] and schistosomiasis [298, 299].
\nThe wallowing behavior or submergence to muddy water predisposes the water buffaloes to different diseases like leptospirosis [8, 9], brucellosis [83], fasciolosis [285], and schistosomiasis [295, 298, 299]. In addition, co-mingling with other buffaloes, ruminants and other animals further facilitate the transmission of these diseases. For example, co-mingling of water buffaloes in wallows increases the transfer rate of brucellosis [83] and schistosomiasis [295, 298, 299]. In some cases, water buffaloes acts as the reservoir or “spill-over” host for some diseases like in tuberculosis [94, 95].
\nExtensive distribution of ruminant diseases have a drastic negative economic impact due to low production output and high animal mortality, threat to public health and international trade and tourism [94]. Deg Nala, an emerging disease of water buffalo often misdiagnosed as foot and mouth disease or mange infection [272], affects milk yield and quality due to infection or necrosis of udder and inguinal canal [271] resulting in lower income to farmers.
\nWater buffalo also acts as reservoir host for zoonotic diseases like schistosomiasis [295, 298, 299], rotaviral infection [155], leptospirosis [8], brucellosis [84] and tuberculosis [94, 95]. For instance, schistosomiasis, the most prevalent zoonotic parasitic disease globally, infects more than 200 million people in more than 76 countries. With this, $ 25 million disability-adjusted life years are lost [298, 299].
\nControl of ruminant diseases is often difficult because the causative agents of certain diseases survive in the environment for months and resistant to most disinfectants like in cases of rotaviral infection [152]. In cases of cryptosporidiosis, high prevalence of the disease is due to contamination of oocyst in the environment from great oocyst shedding in feces and survival of oocyst for few weeks to months [227, 228]. Schistosomiasis and fasciolosis are difficult to control due to non-conformity to habitual good and proper husbandry practices, continuous transmission from shedder animals, quantity of intermediate and final host, malpractices of irrigation systems and poor hygiene management [245, 297, 299].
\nIn this review, the overview of each disease, its distribution, epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment and control were discussed in order to fully understand the behavior of such diseases which will be beneficial for veterinarians and other health professionals in the control of diseases.
\nLeptospirosis in large ruminants has a worldwide occurrence (\nTable 1\n). However, majority of the information on this disease is focused on cattle, while it is limited in water buffalo, indicating that both species resemble similar clinical manifestation of the disease [8, 9].
\nBovine leptospirosis is caused by pathogenic
Meanwhile, a wide variety of other serovars belonging to the Icterohaemorrhagiae, Canicola, Hebdomadis, Sejroe, Pyrogenes, Autumnalis, Australis, Javanica, Tarassovi and Grippotyphosa serogroups have been reported as causing incidental infections in cattle and water buffalo causing severe disease. Clinical signs include pyrexia, hemolytic anemia, hemoglobinuria, jaundice, occasionally meningitis and death. In lactating cows, incidental infections are often associated with small quantities of blood-tinged milk. The acute phase of clinical disease in serovar Hardjo (both subtypes) infection is usually subclinical, with the exception of lactating cows, where agalactia may occur. Large outbreaks, while very dramatic, are rare and individual cases (even herd outbreaks) can go unobserved unless milk production is recorded [11] (\nTable 1\n).
\nLocality | \nPrevalence (%) | \nTechnique | \nAuthors | \n
---|---|---|---|
New Zealand | \n5.7\n3\n\n | \nSerology | \nDorjee et al. [12] | \n
Mexico | \n10.33 | \nMAT | \nLeon et al. [13] | \n
Sri Lanka | \n20.3 | \nSerology | \nGamage et al. [14] | \n
Thailand | \n21.5 | \nMAT | \nSuepaul et al. [15] | \n
Nigeria | \n3.5 | \nELISA | \nNgbede et al. [16] | \n
Uganda | \n42.39\n1\n and 29.35\n2\n\n | \nELISA | \nAtherstone et al. [17] | \n
Poland | \n3.2 | \nDAS-ELISA | \nRypula et al. [18] | \n
Brazil | \n32 | \nMAT | \nde Carvalho et al. [19] | \n
Morocco | \n9.09 | \nSerology | \nLucchese et al. [20] | \n
Thailand | \n19.80 | \nLAMP | \nSuwancharoen et al. [21] | \n
Philippines | \n16.1 | \nnPCR | \nVillanueva et al. [22] | \n
Nicaragua | \n30.31 and 15.38 | \nMAT and in vitro culture | \nFlores et al. [23] | \n
Brazil (Santa Catarina State) | \n6.44\n2\n\n | \nMAT | \nFavero et al. [9] | \n
Northeastern Brazil | \n42.9 (50.5\n2\n, 40.5\n3\n, 34.6\n4\n) | \nMAT | \nCampos et al. [24] | \n
Lao PDR | \n3.3\n1\n\n 22.2\n2\n\n | \nELISA | \nOlmo et al. [25] | \n
Ruminant leptospirosis prevalence studies conducted worldwide.
1Buffalo.
2Cattle.
3Sheep.
4Goat.
MAT, microscopic agglutination test; ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; LAMP, loop-mediated isothermal amplification.
In cattle, the most vital economic aspects of chronic leptospirosis are premature birth, stillbirth, birth of immuno-compromised calves and abortion. In cases of Hardjo infection, the disease accumulates 6–12 weeks after an acute infection. On the other hand, it only takes 4–6 weeks after an acute disease in some cases [26]. Placental infection may also affect the weight of calves; stillborn or weak calves with Hardjo-infected placentas were significantly lighter than uninfected controls. There has also been an association with retention of fetal membranes [26]. Leptospires have been detected for up to 8 days in post abortion/calving vaginal discharges [27]. Infertility, which responds to antibiotic and/or vaccination, is described in Hardjo infection [28].
\nInfection most frequently occurs through the mucous membranes of the eye, mouth, nose or genital tract. A period of bacteremia which coincides with acute clinical disease can last for a week from the first day of infection. In this bacteremic phase, the organisms can be isolated from most organs of the body most especially in the blood and cerebrospinal fluid. However, after 10–14 days, this phase ends with the presence of circulating antibodies. Peak titers vary considerably (1000–100,000 in the MAT), and these may be maintained for up to 6 weeks, depending on the species, after which a subsequent gradual decline occurs. A secondary bacteremic period (after 15–26 days) has rarely been reported. Low titers may be detectable for several years in many animals [29]. During leptospiremia, leptospires multiply in the proximal renal tubules and are excreted in the urine [8].
\nInfection on pregnant females often leads to abortion and other neonatal diseases that can be caused by intrauterine infections during the last trimester of gestation. In the event of immunocompetence development, antibodies against the leptospires can be observed in the fetus [8, 30].
\nIn host-maintained infection, the persistence of leptospires in the oviduct and uterus of non-pregnant females and in the genital tracts of males were observed [31, 32, 33, 34]. In vitro studies have also shown that leptospires have the ability to adhere to and penetrate the zona pellucida and enter embryonic cells [30]. Chronic persistence in the mammary gland and its drainage to lymph nodes has also been reported [35]. Symptomless infection is thought to be very common as evidenced by the wide disparity between seroprevalence and apparent disease prevalence.
\nThe primary lesion due to this disease damages the endothelial cells of small blood vessels. The severity of disease varies with the infecting serovar, animal species, age, and the stage of infection [8, 30]. In acute fatal infection, there are no pathognomonic gross changes, but the following can be observed: icterus and the presence of ecchymotic and petechial hemorrhages on the serosal surface of major organs including the lungs, kidney, abomasum and the peritoneum, and pleura and blood in the bladder. Liver may be enlarged with accentuation of the hepatic lobes. Hepatocellular dissociation, intracanalicular cholestasis, hepatocellular necrosis, and Kupffer cell hypertrophy may be found on histological examination. Acute interstitial nephritis, with tubular and glomerular degeneration, and the infiltration of mononuclear cells, lymphocytes, plasma cells, and macrophages, may be seen on histological examination [8]. Lesions consisting of scattered gray foci which are usually bordered by a ring of hyperemia are concentrated in the kidneys in the case of chronic leptospirosis. [36].
\nFetal pathology varies considerably and depends on the species, the stage of gestation at which infection occurred, and the infecting serovar. Pathological examination of fetuses usually reveals only non-specific findings in cattle. In experimental fetal disease, vasculitis with perivascular hemorrhage predominantly in the liver and sometimes in the lungs and meninges with minor tubular necrosis and interstitial nephritis occurs [37]. These were consistent with what is seen in acute leptospirosis in young animals. Placentitis was also a feature [38].
\nA definitive diagnosis of leptospirosis is required in the confirmation of leptospirosis as a cause of clinical disease, assessment of the infection and/or the immune status of a herd for the purposes of a control or eradication program on either a herd or national basis, epidemiological studies and assessment of the infectivity status of an individual animal to assess its suitability for international trade or for introduction into an uninfected herd [8].
\nLaboratory diagnostic procedures for leptospirosis fall into two groups: (1) tests for the demonstration of leptospires and (2) tests for antibody detection. Demonstration of leptospires is usually performed in initial bacteremic phase, untreated fatal cases and aborted or stillborn fetuses and the localization phase where leptospires resides at its organ predilection sites of an infected animal. The available methods for the demonstration of leptospires include direct visualization of organisms by dark-field microscopy [39, 40], culture, DNA detection methods [41, 42] and staining (silver and immunochemical) [42, 43, 44].
\nDetection of the organism can be hasten through urine collection upon treatment [45]. Urine samples should be mixed immediately with an equal volume of phosphate buffered saline containing 1% bovine serum albumin on collection [46].
\nIn the tests for antibody detection, serological testing is the mainly used method of diagnosis such as ELISA, while microscopic agglutination test (MAT) is the standard serological test. The MAT is used primarily as a herd test. It is labor and resource demanding and its sensitivity depends on the stage of infection in individual animal [8].
\nThe treatment of acute leptospirosis in individual animals or in herds is dependent on the use of antibiotics plus supportive symptomatic treatment. When treating herd problems, vaccination may be combined with antibiotic treatment to obviate chronic reproductive wastage [8].
\nA combination of penicillin and streptomycin has been the antibiotic therapy of choice for the treatment of acute leptospirosis, but ampicillin, amoxicillin, tetracyclines, tulathromycin and third generation cephalosporins have also been used [47, 48, 49, 50].
\nAntibiotics are utilized for the medication about incessant renal also genital leptospirosis, a critical part from control projects. Streptomycin at 25 mg/kg has been the most widely used over vast majority of utilized antimicrobials for the medication of renal carrier animals, although some experiments found to be not powerful [27, 51].
\nThe principles of control are based on the interruption of direct and indirect transmission of infection as well as the reduction of its zoonotic risk. Control strategies must take into consideration the location, number of animals, infecting serovars, maintenance hosts, means of transmission, risk factors and the control options available. Good surveillance information is required. The tools for control include vaccination, antibiotic therapy, assessment of herd/population status (profiling), identification and removal of infected animals, rodent control, reducing risk factors through management systems and permutations of all these methods [8].
\nStudies have showed that monovalent and bivalent vaccines of serovar Hardjo and Pomona have conferred protection for a year [52]. Multivalent vaccines for cattle compared very unfavorably with monovalent product in a series of experiments [53] but they continue to be sold and the debate about their efficacy continues [48, 54, 55].
\nBrucellosis in water buffalo is acknowledged as a contagious infectious disease caused by
\n
Locality | \nPrevalence (%) | \nTechnique | \nAuthors | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sudan | \n2.15 and 3.4 | \nRBPT | \nGumaa et al. [58] | \n
Malaysia | \n0.91\n4\n | \nSerology | \nBamaiyi et al. [59] | \n
Turkey | \n6.86\na and 6.25\nf\n | \nRBPT and STAT | \nAslan et al. [60] | \n
Argentina | \n1.8 | \nBPAT | \nAznar et al. [61] | \n
Ethiopia | \n1.9\n2\n | \nRBPT | \nSintayehu et al. [62] | \n
Egpyt | \n20 | \nRBPT and CFT | \nHegazy et al. [63] | \n
Tajikistan | \n6.7 | \nIndirect ELISA | \nRajala et al. [64] | \n
Argentina | \n2\n3\n,\n4\n | \nBPAT and CFT | \nDraghi et al. [65] | \n
Morocco | \n33.48 | \nELISA | \nLucchese et al. [20] | \n
Nigeria | \n3.9 | \nRBPT | \nAkinseye et al. [66] | \n
Lao PDR | \n0.3 | \nELISA | \nDouangngeun et al. [67] | \n
India | \n30.40\na and 41.55\nb\n | \nRBPT and Indirect ELISA | \nPathak et al. [68] | \n
Uganda | \n14\n2\n,\ne, 29\n2\n,\nd, and 17\n4\n,\ne\n | \nIgG and IgM LFA and Milk Ring Test | \nMiller et al. [69] | \n
Cote d’Ivoire | \n4.6\n2\n | \nRBPT | \nKanoute et al. [70] | \n
Mexico | \n0.52\n4\n | \nCard Testing and Radial Immunodiffusion | \nRoman-Ramirez et al. [71] | \n
Pakistan | \n6.3\na, 3.28\nc, and 6.7\nd\n | \nRBPT, RT-PCR, and Milk Ring Test | \nAli et al. [72] | \n
Costa Rica | \n10.5–11.4\na and 4.1–6\nb\n | \nRBPT and ELISA | \nHernandez-Mora et al. [73] | \n
Algeria | \n12 | \nSerology | \nKardjadj [74] | \n
Prevalence studies of brucellosis in ruminants.
1Buffalo.
2Cattle.
3Sheep.
4Goat.
aRBPT, rose Bengal plate test.
bELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
cPCR, polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR, real-time PCR).
dMilk ring test.
eLFA, lateral flow assay.
fSTAT, serum tube agglutination test.
BPAT, buffered plate agglutination test; CFT, complement fixation test.
This disease of water buffalo has been reported and considered endemic in many developing (\nTable 2\n). In addition, developed countries in Latin America, Southern Europe, Africa, South and Southeast Asia, and the Middle East, especially in the rural areas, where livestock rearing and production of dairy products and by-products is crucial for family income [2, 7, 56, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80].
\nThe epidemiology of
\n
Brucellosis may be diagnosed through direct and indirect methods. The direct methods include isolating and identifying the bacteria in the samples obtained from the suspect animal, such as tissues from aborted fetuses, placenta, vaginal exudates and milk [39, 186]. Isolating the agent is the safest diagnostic method and is considered the gold standard for diagnosis. However, it presents difficulties concerning sample collection and conservation, as well as those concerning the implementation procedures of the technique. Low bacterial loads in collected specimen can lead to false negative result [57]. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays have been created to diagnose
On the other hand, the indirect or serological methods consist in detecting antibodies in serum, milk and seminal plasma [87]. These include milk ring test (MRT), serological tests such as the standard agglutination test (SAT) and buffered agglutination test, which are confirmed by the complement fixation test (CFT) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) [57]. According to Molnár et al. [88], the serological methods are one of the main bases used to support brucellosis control programs. The correct diagnosis of brucellosis gives support and assurance to the implementation of eradication programs [2].
\nThe most effective measures for controlling and eradicating bovine brucellosis in high prevalence countries or regions are grounded on vaccination of all susceptible host, serologic tests and slaughter/eradication of positive animals [89]. Vaccination is a critical tool pecker to control or eradicate bovine and buffalo brucellosis, because it prevents abortion miscarriage and consequent pasture ley contamination, recognized as major form to transmission of
Natural resistance to bovine brucellosis was also explored in water buffaloes. These include the candidate gene solute carrier family 11A1 (SLC11A1) through monocyte chemotactic/chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP1), Nramp1 (natural resistance-associated macrophage protein 1) gene, particularly the Nramp1BB genotype [90] and the haplotype pair HYA/HYA at the mannose-binding lectin (MBL) [91].
\nThe broad management system, challenges for the achievement of sterile control projects that were done nationally for huge herds and broad regional dimension, and the confusion that water buffaloes are highly resistant to disease are factors that thwart those control from claiming brucellosis clinched alongside water buffaloes [92, 93].
\nBovine tuberculosis (BTb), caused by
\n
The information was skewed on BTb in ruminants, which are most of the studies focus of cattle for domestic livestock and African buffalo in the wildlife. Very few peer-reviewed journals on BTb exist for water buffalo. BTb remains a serious problem for animal and human health in many developing countries [108]. Its extensive distribution has drastic negative economic impact (animal mortality and lower milk production output), affecting public health, international trade and tourism [94].
\nAfrican buffalos infected with BTb show clinical signs only in late stages of the disease course. The clinical signs of BTb in buffalo at such stage include coughing, debilitation, emaciation and lagging when chased [98, 99]. The incubation period for BTb is 9 months to a year, and infections can be subclinical or dormant for a long period of time and reactivate during periods of stress or in old age [100]. The losses to the cattle industry due to BTb manifests as 10–20% reduced milk and meat production, infertility and carcass contamination [101]. The epidemic of HIV in developing countries in which
Locality | \nPrevalence (%) | \nTechnique | \nAuthors | \n
---|---|---|---|
Uganda | \n21.6\n1\n | \nInterferon-γ | \nKalema-Zikusoka et al. [105] | \n
Lao PDR | \n1 | \nELISA | \nVongxay et al. [106] | \n
Brazil | \n5.63\n1\n | \nTuberculin Test | \nBarbosa et al. [107] | \n
El Salvador | \n18\n3 and 13\n4\n | \nSITT | \nLinderot de Cardona et al. [108] | \n
Ghana | \n19\n2\n | \nAnigen Rapid BTB test | \nAmemor et al. [109] | \n
Eritrea | \n11.3 | \nSITT | \nGhebremariam et al. [110] | \n
Spain\n3\n | \n50.44\na, 83.23\nb, 24.92\nc, 4.86\nd, 59.42\ne\n | \nCulture, Histopathology, SITT, Interferon-γ, ELISA, | \nMuñoz-Mendoza et al. [111] | \n
Cameroon | \n41\nf and 52\na\n | \nPost mortem Exam and Culture | \nEgbe et al. [112] | \n
South Africa | \n48.4\ng and 43.1\nh\n | \nZiehl-Neelsen Staining and Multiplex PCR | \nBhembe et al. [113] | \n
Democratic Republic of Congo | \n1.68\n4\n | \nZiehl-Neelsen Staining | \nLuboya et al. [114] | \n
Prevalence studies of bovine tuberculosis in ruminants.
1Buffalo.
2Cattle.
3Sheep.
4Goat.
aCulture.
bHistopathology.
cSITT, single intradermal tuberculin test.
dInterferon-γ.
eELISA, enzyme-linked imunosorbent assay.
fPost-mortem examination.
gZiehl-Neelsen staining.
hPCR, polymerase chain reaction.
Disease prevalence of BTb is 25.3 and 21.6% for cattle and buffaloes, respectively [115] (\nTable 3\n). Although, prevalence of BTb varies greatly among countries [103]. The results of PCR on suspected samples together confirmed 92.5% cases as Mycobacterium, 86.8% for
The “gold standard” diagnosis for TB is still the culture identification [123] or DNA amplification by PCR. Although, some indirect tests are used for screening test, the most frequently employed diagnostic test is intradermal tests (ITT), which is based on the inoculation of an
Serological assays (ELISA) have been suggested as an ancillary diagnostic test in screening or to identify immuno-compromised animals in a herd [32, 125]. For this purpose, some antigens have been assessed with variable results [34].
\nMPB70, a protein secreted by
Improving the diagnostic capability is another area for improvement to screen and detect all infected animals especially the subclinical cases. Recently, serologic assays (gamma-interferon assay, the MAPIA and rapid tests) are efforts to provide single point of contact tests, a valuable tool in disease surveillance of free-ranging wildlife [126].
\nHistorically, spread of
BTb is traditionally controlled using quarantine of infected or suspected herds, slaughter testing and milk pasteurization [94, 127]. Although traditional control programs have eradicated or almost eradicated the disease from farm animals and pets in some developed countries [128, 129], BTb is still prevalent in Great Britain, Ireland, New Zealand, Africa and many more developing countries [98, 130]. In fact, tuberculosis has a great negative impact on economy and public health [95, 130].
\nPoor husbandry and biosecurity, like co-mingling of infected livestock with wild animals, increases the spread of disease and the number of reservoir host. With this, the disease cannot be eradicated since the bacteria are circulating within the herd and reservoir hosts [126]. Controlling population densities of wildlife reservoirs and successfully implementing proper biosecurity to minimize interaction between wild and domestic animals can help to control and prevent the horizontal transmission of the disease. However, these methods may be insufficient in eradicate the disease. In addition, focal depopulation of wildlife reservoir is another control measure that can be employed successfully. Unfortunately, due to biodiversity and animal welfare issues, this extreme eradication measure should not be patronized [126]. Regardless of the methods employed, the control of bovine tuberculosis once establishes itself in a wildlife maintenance host population is generally a long-term commitment. It appears that BTb in its many forms remains an important disease in both domestic and wild animals and that its eventual control will remain an on-going concern for many decades into the foreseeable future [126]. Prevalence of tuberculosis is high in developing countries because the control strategies are lacking or poorly executed [128, 129].
\nDevelopment of vaccines for wildlife is the articulated theme by researchers worldwide for control to eradication of tuberculosis. The vaccine should reduce the shedding of
Bovine ephemeral fever (BEF) is an economically important disease affecting cattle, yak and water buffalo among other ruminants. This disease is caused by the arthropod-borne bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV) belonging to the family Rhabdoviridae under the genus Ephemerovirus [131]. Although it is not contagious among vertebrates, its epizootiology is consistent with insect-borne transmission. Infected animals are characterized by high fever, spontaneous abortion, lameness or paralysis [132, 133, 134] and its distribution among bovines covers Africa, Middle East, Australia and Asia [135].
\nAlthough its origin is quite unclear, the first report of BEF was documented in China in 1955, while the first strain of BEFV, the JB76H strain, was isolated from an infected dairy cattle during an epidemic in the country in 1976 [136, 137]. Subsequently, the disease was also reported in some countries in the East Africa, Rhodesia, Kenya, South Africa, Indonesia, India, Egypt, Palestine, Australia and Japan [138, 139]. Though bovine ephemeral fever has been endemic in several areas in Africa, Australia and Southern Asia, the advancement of cattle industry has enhanced its dispersal into a larger area [134, 140]. On the other hand, the disease has never been reported in the Western Hemisphere, North and South America. Serological evidences also showed that New Zealand and Pacific Islands are not affected by the disease. Presently, bovine ephemeral fever is enzootic in South Africa, India, Japan and some areas in Australia [141].
\nMany factors propose that mosquitoes are the main vectors of the disease. Commonly observed clinical signs are abrupt fever of about 41°C high, lasting for 1–3 days with severe decrease in milk production, lethargy, ocular and nasal discharge, stiffness, dyspnea, depression, salivation, anorexia, lameness and ruminal stasis, [142] though in some reports, prolonged paralysis and ataxia were observed in some animals following the acute stage of infection. Severe cases can lead to mortality which might be caused by exposure, starvation or even pneumonia [39].
\nBEF is usually diagnosed through serological assays. If the animal was exposed previously to another ephemerovirus, anamnestic responses to BEFV during the first infection can happen. The most frequently used diagnostic assays are the ELISA and viral neutralization [143]. In some countries, molecular methods such as reverse transcription polymerase reaction and real-time loop-mediated isothermal amplification are also being done for faster and more sensitive detection of the disease [141].
\nUnder the electron microscope, the BEF virus has a bullet shape with fringe of fine surface projections measuring about 80 × 120 ± 140 nm. However, South African strains are mostly conical in shape resembling the bullet-shaped Asian and Australian strains serologically. The citrated blood from affected cattle remains infectious at 48°C. However, there is a decrease of infectivity of the virus at extreme pH conditions (2.5 or 12) within 10 min. Consequently, the virus is inactivated within 10 min at 568°C and 18 h at 378°C [144].
\nIsolation of the virus is done by inoculating leucocyte from an infected cow into suckling mice (1 ± 3 days old) intracerebrally or suckling hamster and rats. The virus grows very well in BHK-21 cells inoculated from mouse brain or bovine leucocyte suspension. It also grows in bovine kidney, hamster lung, Vero and
Handling of the disease includes the usage of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and administration of calcium borogluconate to hypocalcemic animals in order to reduce the clinical signs. Vaccination is also considered as the most effective approach to control the disease. Previous studies have applied live attenuated, inactivated, subunit and recombinant vaccines experimentally and commercially. However, live vaccines generally induce more prolonged immunity [146].
\nRotavirus belongs to the family Reoviridae under the genus Rotavirus. The virion has a triple layer capsid that covers a genome of double-stranded RNA. Its envelope is lipid-free and has three concentric layers of protein made up of 3 of the 13 proteins that the rotavirus genome encodes [147]. The most common rotaviruses isolated from human and animals have a common group antigen present on the major inner capsid protein VP6 and are now categorized into group A [148] which are commonly isolated from rotaviral diarrhea cases. Other rotaviruses that lack the said antigen are characterized as non-group A rotaviruses and are classified into groups B, C, D, E, F and G. Furthermore, group A rotaviruses are subdivided into subgroups I and II, based on their antigenicity of a separate domain present in the VP6 [148, 149]. The two outer capsid proteins, VP7 and VP4, independently produce neutralizing antibodies, induce protective immunity, and are used to classify rotaviruses into G (for glycoprotein) and P (for protease-sensitive) types, respectively [150]. Neonatal diarrhea caused by RVA boRV projects significant economic loss in the dairy and beef industry due to increased morbidity and mortality, treatment costs and reduced growth rates [150].
\nThe virus attacks the villi upon its entrance in the small intestine suppressing effectively absorption of nutrients into the animal’s body that leads to dehydration. The incubation period of the virus lasts for about 12–24 hours and the infected calves are usually feverless [147]. Clinical signs include runny diarrhea, dehydration and loss of appetite and if severity increases, it leads to mortality [151]. No specific treatment is being used for this disease. Hence, replacing lost fluids and restoring the balance of the body’s important electrolytes are most applicable. Usage of antibiotics is not recommended, however, it can be administered if there is a presence of secondary infection caused by bacteria [152]. Animals that have recovered often return to their normal bodyweight in around 10–28 days after the infection [147].
\nTransmission of the disease to other animals usually occurs upon contact with infected feces [153]. Infected calves excrete the virus in their feces up to the age of 6–8 weeks [154]. It is quite hard to eradicate for it survives for several months and can resists several disinfectants [152]. Also, the disease is considered as zoonotic [155]. Thus, vaccines are used for the prevention of the disease [156]. Also, passive immunity plays a vital role in the prevention of rotavirus infection. The transfer of colostral antibodies provides early immunity in new born animals and serves as the most important form of protection for a newly born calf. However, this type of protection lasts for only 3–4 days, thus it only reduces the rotaviral diarrhea rather than eliminating it. In this regard, continuous colostrum feeding is advised [157].
\nDiagnosis for the disease is also being carried out using antigen-antibody assays along with PCR and electron microscopy [188]. Also, the disease can be detected through agglutination and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Detection techniques dealing on the viral RNA such as RT-PCR, nested RT-PCR and real-time qPCR are even becoming a more widely used way of diagnosis [147].
\nBovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV) is another significant pathogen causing respiratory and reproductive illnesses infecting ruminants that leads to various clinical problems including abortion. BVDV belongs to family Flaviviridae under the genus Pestivirus, subdivided into four well-known species: bovine viral diarrhea virus 1 (BVDV-1), bovine viral diarrhea virus 2 (BVDV-2), border disease virus (BDV) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV), previously known as hog cholera virus. BVDV has a worldwide distribution and its natural hosts include a wide range of domestic and wildlife animal populations, ruminants in particular [158, 159]. Previously, another type of BVDV was identified: the HoBi-like pestiviruses, also known as the bovine viral diarrhea virus 3 [160]. This type of BVDV has been occasionally reported from naturally infected cattle in Brazil, Asia and Europe [161].
\nClinical symptoms of the disease include diarrhea, mucosal disease and reproduction dysfunctions such as abortion, teratogenesis, embryo resorption, fetal mummification and stillbirth [45]. Also, birth of an immunotolerant calf with persistent infection (PI) is also possible if the mother has been infected by the disease from 50 to 125 days of gestation [162]. The most birth defect among calves caused by this disease is cerebral hypoplasia characterized by ataxia, tremors, wide stance, stumbling and failure to nurse. Severe cases can lead to death [160].
\nThe disease is more frequently transmitted vertically leading to births of persistently infected calves. On the other hand, it can also be transmitted horizontally through direct contact among infected animals [163, 164]. There is no known treatment for this disease and only supportive therapy is being applied. However, upon detection, the infected animal should be culled [151].
\nDetection methods for the disease include virus isolation, immunohistochemistry, polymerase chain reaction and serology depending on the setting of the disease. Immunohistochemistry is more applicable for herd surveillance and screening since samples may be collected from cattle of any age. Thus, allowing simpler sampling, stable samples for transport and results are not affected by passive antibodies. On the other hand, polymerase chain reaction is advantageous for pooled blood or milk samples since trace amount of virus can be identified using this technique [45]. Both virus isolation and polymerase chain reaction methods require subsequent testing within 3 weeks of the first testing to discriminate transient infection from persistent infection [165].
\nThe presently known control measure for BVDV is through vaccination [166]. Two types of vaccine for BVDV are being used: the modified live virus (MLV) vaccines and the killed virus (KV) vaccines. MLV vaccines have few antigens and only require one dose during the initial immunization step since the viral antigen replicates in the vaccinated animal thus, boosting the immunogenic mass. However, this vaccine is not stable in varying temperature and can be easily deactivated by some chemicals. Also, it is not recommended to administer this vaccine to pregnant cattle. On the other hand, the KV vaccines are more expensive since it requires more antigens per dose and more than one dose of vaccine is usually given during initial immunization, but this type of vaccine remains stable in varying temperature and are not easily deactivated by chemicals [167].
\n\n
Presence of adult
Among salivarian trypanosomes,
Originally, the principal host of
Trypanosomiasis caused by
Locality | \nPrevalence (%) | \nTechnique | \nAuthors | \n
---|---|---|---|
Jordan | \n8.2\n1\n 9.6\n2\n | \nBPE and MIT | \nAbo-Shehada et al. [183] | \n
Tanzania | \n30.4\na\n 0.6–2\nb\n | \nPRF-LAMP PCR | \nLaohasinnarong et al. [184] | \n
Spain (Canary Islands) | \n5 | \nELISA | \nRodriguez Diego et al., [185] | \n
North Vietnam | \n22.4 | \nCAT | \nNguyen et al., [186] | \n
South Africa | \n23.7\nc\n 29\nd\n 19.9\ne\n | \nELISA TeGMG-4r ELISA ICT | \nNguyen et al., [187] | \n
Thailand | \n12.2 | \nIndirect ELISA | \nKocher et al., [188] | \n
Zambia | \n6.1 7.5\nb\n 18.6\na\n | \nMicroscopy PCR PRF-LAMP | \nLaohasinnarong et al. [189] | \n
Zambia | \n19.8\n3\n | \nPCR | \nMusinguzi et al. [190] | \n
Prevalence studies of ruminant trypanosomiasis worldwide.
1Camel.
2Horses.
3
aPRF-LAMP, loop-mediated isothermal amplification.
bPCR, polymerase chain reaction.
cELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
dTeGMG-4r ELISA.
eICT, immunochromatographt test.
BPE, blood parasite examination; CAT, card agglutination test.
Anemia is one of the most consistent clinical sign of trypanosomiasis. In water buffaloes, trypanosomiasis infection causes a significant drop in hemoglobin concentration, packed cell volume and red blood cell count, creatinine and urea and liver alkaline phosphatase, in contradiction, total leucocyte count increases together with lactate dehydrogenase enzymes (LDH) activity, globulin, total bilirubin and indirect bilirubin, highlighting a link between immune and metabolic disorders [169, 191, 192].
\nThe most common therapeutic drug used against surra is diminazene aceturate, though isometamidium chloride, cymelarsan, suramin and quinapyramine can also be used [193]. A dose of 7 mg/kg bw intramuscularly of diminazene aceturate (DA) is used to treat animals infected with
In the past,
\n
In a recent worldwide review, seroprevalence of dairy and beef cattle is at 16.1 and 11.5%, respectively, and in water buffalo is at least higher than cattle [195]. Vertical transmission is the most persistent way the parasite stays in the herd [89]. Viable
The initial claim on seroprevalence of
Locality | \nPositive (%) | \nTechnique | \nAuthors | \n
---|---|---|---|
Egypt | \n68.0 | \nDAT | \nDubey et al. [32] | \n
Vietnam | \n1.5 | \nIFAT and ELISA | \nHuong et al. [205] | \n
Brazil | \n36.5 | \nIFAT | \nGondim et al. [206] | \n
Italy | \n34.6 | \nIFAT | \nGuarino et al. [207] | \n
Brazil | \n56 | \nIFAT | \nSouza et al. [208] | \n
Brazil | \n63.9 | \nIFAT | \nFujii et al. [209] | \n
Brazil | \n70.9 | \nIFAT | \nGennari et al. [210] | \n
Brazil | \n14.6 | \nELISA | \nVogel et al. [211] | \n
China | \n0 | \nELISA | \nYu et al. [212] | \n
Argentina | \n64.0 | \nIFAT | \nCampero et al. [213] | \n
Iran | \n37.0 | \nELISA | \nHajikolaei et al. [214] | \n
Philippines | \n3.8 | \nELISA | \nKonnai et al. [215] | \n
Philippines | \n27.3 | \nELISA | \nAbes and Divina [216] | \n
Brazil | \n40.9 | \nIFAT | \nSilva et al. [217] | \n
Pakistan | \n54.7 | \nELISA | \nNasir et al. [218] | \n
Argentina | \n42.2 | \nIFAT | \nKonrad et al. [200] | \n
Italy | \n51.0 | \nELISA | \nAuriemma et al. [219] | \n
Brazil | \n55.6\na and 48.9\nb\n | \nIFAT and ELISA | \nSilva et al. [79] | \n
Argentina | \n43.3 | \nIFAT | \nMoore et al. [196] | \n
Morocco | \n8.52 | \nELISA | \nLucchese et al. [20] | \n
Lao PDR | \n68.9\na and 7.8\nb\n | \nELISA | \nOlmo et al. [25] | \n
\n
aDAT, direct agglutination test; IFAT, indirect fluorescent antibody test.
bELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.
In a Pakistani study, seroprevalence of
Serology, molecular assays and histological analysis are some diagnostic examinations done for neosporosis [32]. Lesions caused by
Several serological assays (NAT and IFAT) have been used to measure seroprevalence and describe the epidemiology of
Calves positive for the disease can be treated with toltrazuril to prevent vertical transmission in small scale farming, however, this method is not recommended in large scale farming [221]. There is an available vaccine against
As stated earlier, the parasite is transmitted vertically in the herd. Consequently, it is best to prevent and control transmission of the parasite. In addition, Dubey et al. [31] reported that another way of controlling neosporosis is through proper biosecurity measures: (1) quarantine of new animals, (2) preventing the entry of wild carnivores and rodent control in the farm, (3) feed, water and semen safety test and (4) reduce stress to the suspected animals [221].
\n\n
Cryptosporidiosis in cattle is commonly caused by four major
The members of the genus
Locality | \nPrevalence (%) | \nTechnique | \nAuthors | \n
---|---|---|---|
Italy | \n14.7 | \nELISA | \nSaralli et al. [232] | \n
Spain | \n— | \nPCR-RFLP | \nGomez-Couso et al. [233] | \n
Italy | \n34.9 | \nELISA | \nRinaldi et al. [234] | \n
Egypt | \n14.19 | \nFecal Examination | \nEl-Khodery and Osman [33] | \n
Egypt | \n22.5 | \nSheathers sugar Floatation and Modified ZN | \nShoukry et al. [235] | \n
Pakistan | \n24.0 | \nZN | \nNasir et al. [236] | \n
Philippines | \n5–50 | \nKinyoun Acid Fast Test | \nVillanueva et al. [22] | \n
India | \n38.3 | \nFecal Examination | \nBhat et al. [237] | \n
Nepal | \n— | \nPCR-RFLP | \nFeng et al. [227] | \n
Australia | \n12.2 | \nPCR | \nAbeywardena et al. [238] | \n
South Africa | \n2.8 | \nPCR-RFLP | \nAbu Sarma et al. [239] | \n
Egypt | \n32.2 | \nPCR | \nHelmy et al. [240] | \n
Italy | \n14.2 | \nELISA | \nGaliero et al. [241] | \n
Egypt | \n1.29 | \nZN | \nMahfouz et al. [229] | \n
China | \n43.0 | \nPCR | \nMa et al. [242] | \n
Brazil | \n48.2 | \nnPCR | \nAquino et al. [243] | \n
Australia | \n30\n1 and 12\n2\n | \nqPCR | \nZahedi et al. [244] | \n
Prevalence of cryptosporidiosis in different countries.
1Domesticated/farmed buffalo.
2Wild buffalo.
PCR, polymerase chain reaction (qPCR, real-time PCR; nPCR, nested PCR; PCR-RFLP, PCR restriction fragment length polymorphism); ELISA, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; ZN, Ziehl-Neelsen acid fast.
\n
Studies have shown that livestock is a main source of giardiasis and cryptosporidiosis in humans from claims of different molecular-based studies [199, 238, 262]. Many studies proved that cattle are carriers of various zoonotic species of
\n
Still, cryptosporidiosis is self-limiting, but treatment can help manage the disease especially for the immuno-compromised animals. In ruminants, halofuginone, synthetic drug from quinazolinone, has therapeutic effect against cryptosporidiosis [268]. A study on the efficacy of halofuginone against cryptosporidiosis has promising results due to its capacity to reduce oocysts excretion and diarrhea, and delay the onset of infection in calves infected with
Though there are plenty of treatment regimen, prevention is still the best option in protecting animals and humans against
Deg Nala is a disease of water buffalo characterized by lameness, edema of the extremities, gangrenous ulceration or necrosis of mouth, ears, hooves and tail (sloughing of epidermis) (\nFigure 2\n), general wasting, recumbency and eventual death [270]. The condition is usually afebrile and limits the movements of the affected animals due to painful condition of the legs [271]. It affects the milk yield of dairy animals due to involvement of udder and inguinal canal. This leads to significant loss of milk yield which has not been quantified so far [271].
\nTypical signs of water buffaloes with Deg Nala disease, including gangrenous ulceration or necrosis of the hoof (left) and tail (right) (photo from Philippine Carabao Center).
The disease is named due to its first occurrence around Muridke (District Sheipura), an area bordering the course of Nala Deg (a monsoon rain water stream) in the Indo-Pakistan region, which was first reported in the 1930s [271].
\nDeg Nala causes serious concern to the farmers and shows a severe impact on rural economy. It is often overlooked and misdiagnosed as foot and mouth disease and/or mange infection [272].
\nThe disease is considered to be caused by mycotoxin produced mainly by
Several
The mycotoxin produced by the metabolism of
The animals fed with
In the case of chronic selenium toxicosis, the disease is more prevalent in peak winter season along with feeding of lush green fodder with high moisture content and mostly those in the rice growing parts of some countries such as India [271, 272, 273, 274]. Feeding of green fodders and cereal straws containing 1.1–24 times the upper toxic limits of 5 ppm cause Se toxicity in animals [277]. For indicators of SE condition of an animal, blood SE plus erythrocyte glutathione peroxidase activity are valuable. Blood SE levels can be classified as impending toxicity, toxic and highly fatal for 1.5–1.75 ppm, above 2 ppm and exceeding 3.4 ppm, respectively [278].
\nBuffalo are more frequently affected than cattle and younger animals appeared to be more susceptible. Arora et al. [279] reported chronic selenium toxicity, as a result of Deg Nala disease in buffaloes. Arora et al. [279] reported that 80% of Deg Nala was cured by feeding pentasulfate mixture [273].
\nThe administration of oxytetracycline is effective at early stage of Deg Nala disease in buffaloes [280]. Also, cases of Deg Nala disease have been successfully treated using proprietary pentasulfate mixture based on sulfur and Se antagonism [279]. Antagonism between arsenic (As) and Se, whereby each reduces the toxicity of the other, has been reported in animal models [281, 282]. Proper management of the wound is recommended for complete recovery of the animal.
\nIt is advisable to stop feeding mold-smelling straw to the animal and to prevent contamination of lesion of animal to dust and dirt. Inadequate postharvest drying of rice plants before stacking and stacking at low-lying places or near water channels were the factors identified with occurrence of the disease [283].
\nFasciolosis is an endoparasitic disease caused by a trematode known as
One of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in ruminants worldwide is Fasciolosis. Small ruminants are less exposed to fasciolosis than buffaloes and cattle which provide major draft power in rice field farming activities. Both buffaloes and cattle have a wallowing nature that predisposes them to infection (\nFigure 3\n). Higher prevalence of fasciolosis was observed in animals more than 3 months old compared to other age groups simply because they are more often to eat or graze on farm grasses resulting to greater exposure to infection.
\nInfection with
Presence of adult
Fasciolosis ranges in severity from a fatal disease in sheep to an asymptomatic infection in cattle [286, 287]. The course of infection is usually determined by the number of ingested metacercariae. Fasciolosis can be classified into two such as (a) subacute and (b) chronic fasciolosis. Subacute fasciolosis cases have survival of 7–10 weeks with tremendous liver damage, however, the animal dies from hemorrhage and anemia, while chronic fasciolosis clinical manifestations includes anemia, wasting, submandibular edema, and decreased milk production, yet heavily infected cattle displays no clinical signs [286] (\nTable 7\n).
\nLocality | \nPrevalence (%) | \nTechnique | \nAuthors | \n
---|---|---|---|
Nigeria | \n9.1\n4, 12\n3,54.3\n2\n | \nSedimentation technique | \nAdediran et al. [288] | \n
Pakistan | \n5.68 | \nPCR | \nAyaz et al. [289] | \n
Philippines1 | \n95.33\na and 96.00\nb\n | \nQuantitative PCR and FEA-SD | \nGordon et al. [290] | \n
Botswana | \n0.09 | \nPost mortem examination | \nMochankana and Robertson [291] | \n
Vietnam | \n23.4 | \nMicroscopy examination | \nNguyen et al. [292] | \n
Egypt | \n30.88 | \nPost mortem examination | \nElshraway and Mahmound [293] | \n
Prevalence studies of Fasciolosis in different countries.
1Buffalo.
2Cattle.
3Sheep.
4Goat.
aPCR, polymerase chain reaction.
bFEA-SD, formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation.
Most of
The diagnosis of fasciolosis is imperative for planning treatment and the eradication program in an endemic area. Different diagnostic techniques are developed since then. Coproscopic detection through sedimentation technique is useful; however, there is concern in terms of sensitivity. Hence, immunodiagnostic techniques are recommended like enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A recently developed technology is FgCL-3 ELISA which showed 100 and 97% sensitivity under experimental and field situations [269]. Another platform is through molecular technique which is more specific than coproscopic and immunodiagnostic techniques. In Samar, Philippines, Gordon et al. [295] used quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in the detection of
Infected ruminants are usually treated with anthelminthic drugs like albendazole, triclabendazole and bromofenofos. But latest study showed that with the frequent usage of these common anthelmintic drugs, anthelmintic resistance may have developed in water buffaloes [296]. Other endeavor is the use of medicinal plant-like betel nut as dewormer in water buffaloes.
\nFasciolosis control is a difficult and habitual task comprising of good and proper husbandry practices, good hygiene management (for animal excrements, waste waters, etc.) and effective integrated treatment and control for infected host and intermediate host, respectively. The use of predators (ducks and frogs) and molluscicides for control and possible elimination of the snail intermediate host is impossible as it is labor extensive, costly and may disturb the ecological balance in the area [297]. Vaccine development was vigorously pursued, however, despite persistent efforts, a vaccine with adequate protection against fasciolosis has not yet been developed to the point of commercialization [297].
\nSchistosomiasis or bilharzia is one of the most prevalent parasitic diseases worldwide that currently infects over 200 million people in more than 76 countries, resulting in approximately 25 million disability-adjusted life years lost [298, 299]. The disease is caused by blood fluke species of the genus
Schistosomiasis japonica (term used for the disease caused by
Although human infection caused by
Locality | \nPrevalence (%) | \nTechnique | \nAuthors | \n
---|---|---|---|
Philippines | \n3.7\nc, 3.7\nd,0\ne and 51.5\na\n | \nDanish Bilharziasis Laboratory Technique, Kato-Katz technique, Miracidia hatching and RT-PCR | \nWu et al. [300] | \n
Philippines | \n51 | \nRT-PCR | \nGordon et al. [295] | \n
Philippines | \n87.50\n2\n,\na and 77.08\n2\n,\nb\n 80.00\n1\n,\na and 55.24\n1\n,\nb\n | \nRT-PCR and FEA-SD | \nGordon et al. [295] | \n
Prevalence studies of Schistosoma in the Philippines.
1Buffalo.
2Cattle.
aPCR, polymerase chain reaction.
bFEA-SD, formalin-ethyl acetate sedimentation.
cDanish Bilharziasis laboratory technique.
dKato-Katz technique.
eMiracidia hatching.
Animal schistosomiasis is traditionally diagnosed using direct coprological parasitologic techniques, for example, Kato-Katz technique and miracidia hatching. These simple and economical diagnostic techniques are very helpful in areas and cases with medium to very high infection intensity but has a drawback for low-level infections. Lately, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) platforms (e.g. convention and qualitative PCR) had been developed to amplify and detect the parasite DNA for the three zoonotic species of schistosoma [299].
\nEffective control measures of schistosomiasis japonica can be learned from China. Over the last 5 decades, China has remarkable schistosomias program achievements that drastically reduce the disease prevalence and morbidity, and the Chinese government is aiming to eradicate the disease in the country by 2020. The successful Chinese control action plan targets the importance on involvement on bovine considering efficacy of praziquantel, biosecurity measures on common grazing areas, mechanization as farm equipments and development of effective vaccine [301].
\nSchistosomiasis japonica has been eliminated in Japan and the coastal plains of China by a combination of medical treatment, health education, improved water quality and sanitation and snail control through environmental modification, molluscicide and new farming methods. In addition, several measures can be initiated such as mapping of the transmission patterns in humans and animals which can lead to a better understanding of transmission of schistosomiasis between different host species [302].
\nFrom the diseases affecting water buffalo that were discussed, those that are zoonotic include leptospirosis, bovine tuberculosis, brucellosis, trypanosomiasis, cryptosporidiosis, fasciolosis and schistosomiasis. Also, the economic impact of these diseases in the water buffalo industry is alarming, particularly whose effects are unquantifiable since it is a neglected disease and highly prevalent in developing countries.
\nBovine leptospirosis is an example of a zoonotic disease wherein the real economic hazard is quite difficult to be determined. In Argentina, for example, the reported losses from an outbreak is approximately US$ 150,000 in regards of 100 calf deaths due to abortion, vaccination and treatment of the 1300 survivors along 1 year [65]. In France, the annual cost of leptospirosis in dairy cattle herds was estimated from US$ 97 to 2611/aborted cow [303].
\nAnother disease with limited information on its impact among livestock in endemic regions/countries, particularly on its host population dynamics and demographics, economic losses and social impact on animal owners is Surra (
In the case of brucellosis, official estimates report annual losses of about $600 million in Latin America due to bovine brucellosis [124]. The national program for the eradication of brucellosis in the US costs $3.5 billion between 1934 and 1997. The losses due to reduced milk production and increased occurrence of miscarriages in 1952 were $400 million [92]. Meanwhile, brucellosis as a zoonosis accounts for an annual occurrence of more than 500,000 cases [178, 238], which is considered the most common zoonosis worldwide. On the other hand, a national survey in India in bovines found a brucellosis prevalence of 5% in cattle and 3% in water buffaloes. The occurrence of the disease is usually high in organized farms (50%) compared to the marginal herds (10%) and this primarily associated with intensive farming practices in large organized animal farms [40].
\nThe economic loss in Argentina due to BTb is at US$ 63 million [304]. In the United States, cost/benefit analysis of eradication showed an actual cost of US$ 538 million between 1917 and 1992 (current programs cost approximately US$ 3.5–4.0 million per year [94, 305]. Although cattle are the main reservoir of the bacterium, buffaloes are also infected by
BVDV infection presents an economic concern since it affects both health and productivity of the herd. During outbreaks of acute BVD, losses were estimated to be $50–$100 per cow in the herd. In Canada, were in severe acute BVD was reported around 1998, the estimated losses was $40,000–$100,000 per herd, or $400 per cow in the each herd [164].
\n\n
In the case of schistosomiasis, three recent interventional studies strongly support the contribution of water buffaloes to human transmission along the lake and marshlands region of China. In two studies,
In conclusion, this review demonstrated the importance of water buffalo as a progressive livestock industry in several countries worldwide, harnessing its adaptability in tropical and subtropical climate without affecting its reproductive performance. Also, several infectious diseases affecting this animal were discussed that have an enormous negative economic impact in the industry as well as its threat to human health. Knowledge on these common diseases in water buffaloes and its management will be beneficial to veterinarians and farmers in preventing the occurrence of those infectious diseases. In addition, limited studies and published articles on infectious diseases in water buffalo were available, since it is believed that diseases in cattle are similar to that of water buffalo. This should be changed because both species behave differently in such diseases. Aside from the conventional control and prevention methods against the discussed infectious diseases, development of a simpler and practical farm management practices are needed. Lastly, more studies should be conducted, especially in areas where water buffalo is the main livestock animal in order to utilize the full potential of the animal and uplift the water buffalo industry.
\nAssuming that care for the environment is more than just a matter of technical adaptations, it is worthwhile to delve into the religions. Will they serve as an incentive to necessary changes in our dealing with creation, or are they tributary to our problems? We limit ourselves to the so-called Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. This not because only these religions have something to contribute, but because of their similar basis in the creation story they can be treated together (without, incidentally, suggesting that their message as to creation is identical). In the course of our discourse, we will have occasion to side glance at other religions as well, although each religion would deserve a separate treatment.
First, we will deal with the religious perspective on the human being and on humankind, to continue with more specific religious notions of care for the environment.
Undoubtedly, the notion of the human being created in God’s image as stated in Genesis 1:27 is a cornerstone of the Abrahamic religious perspective on human beings. Critical voices argue that here already the exploitation of the earth finds its legitimation: The human being is distinguished from the other living creatures, created “according to their species.” Hence, a closer look is necessary. Indeed, Genesis 1:26 allows the human being to rule over the other living creatures. A few verses further, God even instructs the human being “to fill the earth and to subdue it” (1:28). Small wonder that critical voices point to texts such as these to accuse the religions of complicity in exploiting the earth.
Let us take a closer look by drawing upon the interpretations the religions themselves offer. Indeed, humankind is presented as separated from the rest of the living animals. Although both human beings and animals are creatures and as such related to each other, God addresses only the human being directly, vouchsafing him the dignity of being created in God’s image. This dignity is explained ethically, rather than ontologically: The human being bears a responsibility for all of creation, and just like the First Human Being, the
The anthropocentric reading of Genesis ignores the fact that the day of rest is intended for both human beings and animals. It likewise fails to assess the specifics of the covenant between God and Noah in which the animals are included as partners of the covenant (Genesis 9:10). Only then a certain alienation between human beings and animals seems to be emphasized (Genesis 9:2), as if Adam and Eve in paradise lived more harmoniously with their fellow creatures the animals than humankind outside paradise. This may have fostered the idea that initially Adam and Eve were not allowed to eat meat, happy as they were as vegetarians. Only after humankind had shown how much evil it could spread, the eating of meat would have been allowed (Genesis 9:3). Hence, the eating of meat may be interpreted as a concession to the cruelty of humankind and to prevent him from doing violence to his fellow human beings. Even then, restrictions on eating meat remain in force: Blood as the seat of life is forbidden. The notion of divine permission to be asked before slaughtering an animal finds its origin in these texts. Ironically, ritual slaughter in Judaism and in Islam is often the target of attempts to abolish this practice, although the respect for animal life is a hallmark of it: Even a prayer is said over each individual animal is said before the slaughter.
In this perspective, vegetarianism is not an obligation, but can still be seen as an anticipation of messianic times, in which paradisiac vegetarianism will be restored. A peaceful relationship between the animals and the human beings belongs to the characteristics of messianic times, as can be seen by the many lives of saints in which an animal plays a role. In addition, some monastic rules prescribe a vegetarian menu. However, as with many messianic elements, enforcing vegetarianism without humankind being ready for it leads to violence and mutual dissension.
The notion of the human being created in God’s image knows of a plethora of religious interpretations, some of them seemingly rather exclusive. The banishment from paradise has been interpreted as a Fall of humanity, by which the dignity of the image of God has been obscured, rightly so if we consider the murder and deterioration described in Genesis 4-9. However, Christianity may claim that only redemption by Christ restores the image of God in the human being. This would imply an inability to act responsibly in all other human beings. This is, however, not the general line in Christianity: free will, although damaged by the Fall, is never completely absent. Distinguishing between the image of God and the likeness of God (Genesis 1:27), some theologians argue that the image of God should be considered a permanent state, whereas the likeness invites to
Greek-orthodox theology has always emphasized the dignity of the human being more than his condemnation after the banishment from paradise. An interesting theology of the environment connects the human being again the First Human Being in paradise. Just like in Paradise, the good of the earth has been celebrated as God’s gift to humanity; nowadays, the Human Being should be considered a priest of creation, receiving the gifts of the earth in gratitude, consciously of the Giver of all these benefits and rendering grace for that. If humankind would be conscious of having received the goods of the earth, humankind would not consider himself as the sole possessor of the goods, but he would be willing to share with others what he has received himself.3 Possibly, some similarity with the cosmic notions of the human being within Hinduism may be detected here. Obviously, the
The Greek-orthodox concept of priestly dignity is undoubtedly also a correction of the ambiguous notion of the human being as the steward of creation. This notion has been derived from the parables in the New Testament, in which it denotes the human responsibility to develop and increase the wisdom/Torah received from God. In the course of history, this notion of stewardship of the talents has been taken literally, as money, instead of metaphorically, as God’s wisdom. It began to serve as a legitimation of capitalist increase of money and wealth. Coupled with the obligation that wealth should be re-invested rather than enjoyed,—“in the sweat of your face you will eat your bread”(Gen 3:19)—sociologists like Max Weber and Richard Tawney detected in this religious notion a possible foundation of capitalism. Be it as it may, the human being as priest of creation allows for an generous distribution of wealth and a sincere enjoyment of God’s good gifts, deserved to be treated with holy reverence.
It should be noted that Islam is hesitant to use the concept of human being as “image of God.” No doubt, fear of a too anthropomorphic speaking about God lies at the heart of this hesitance. Although it should be stressed that according to the Bible, God creates the human being in His image, which should not be confused with the human being creating God in
From a more general perspective, it is clear that the Hebrew Bible knows of many regulations about animals. They should be treated with care and without vexing them, allowing them to rest together with the human beings. The long lists of pure and impure animals, which has laid the basis of
In the course of history, animals have more or less disappeared from the religious consciousness, except for farmers who, in spite of an industrialized agriculture, still feel attached to their animals. Not long ago, the day of slaughtering animals was still celebrated as a feast of thanksgiving to God. Hence, we should not blame the Bible for ignoring animals and all of creation, but rather an anthropocentric reading of the Bible as it has developed in Western society, possibly only after the Middle Ages. Whereas in the Middle Ages, according to some thinkers the tripartite division of the soul in a vegetative animal and human soul, as proposed by Aristotle, were all of them present in the human being, Western philosophy has ignored the position of nonhuman creatures until recently.8
Another relevant topic when it comes to Bible and environment is time perception. The noncyclical linear time perception of monotheistic religions is held responsible for exploiting the earth.9 The linear time concept would have fostered a blind faith in progress and expansion. Suffice it to state that the notion of a last judgment can indeed be understood as the End of Time, but also as the ultimate expression of human responsibility for his behavior. This last element is, however, sadly neglected in Christianity. The cyclical time perception in Hinduism may have led to an undervaluation of history, but also to a less result-driven approach to life.10 Mutatis mutandis the African concept of time in which the remote future does not seem to play an essential role (John Mbiti) may provide a less-exploiting attitude to the environment. However, all this needs further scrutiny.
Pope Francis has surprised the world with his encyclical
The encyclical develops this concept in five sections: ecology of the environment; cultural ecology; ecology of daily life; the principle of the common good; and: justice among the generations.
Surprisingly, concern for the destruction of
The
Last but not the least,
The encyclical ends with introducing the term: ecological conversion. Conversion to God and to creation is the only way to spiritually combat the ecological crisis we are in.
Turning to Judaism: The Jewish scholar and Rabbi Norman Solomon distinguishes six basic principles in the Jewish approach to the environment [7]:
The creation is good and God (who should be distinguished from creation) may be praised because of that;
Biodiversity should be guarded according to the Bible. Each animal is created according to its species;
The hierarchy of living creatures with the human being at the top should be acknowledged accompanied with this principle: the higher the ranking the higher the responsibility
Human beings are responsible for the active maintenance of all life.
Land and people belong together. This would imply for the Jewish people exemplary way of dealing with water, the soil, and the air in the land of Israel.
Do not waste. This Biblical injunction (Deuteronomy 20:19) can be applied to water and chemical waste12
Islam may be less known for its environmental thought. Still already in the Middle Ages, the animals are told to start a lawsuit against the human beings because of the bad treatment by the latter.13 The Islamic scholar Abdelilah Ljamai brings forward a plethora of literature about environmental care, hardly known in Europe and America [9]. Some of the Muslim writers he quotes are critical about the way Islamic countries deal with the environment. They resort to the Qur’an, to post-Quranic narratives, and to Islamic jurisprudence in order to develop an Islamic environmental ethics. The worldview of the Islam consists of three principles:
The cosmos reflects the glory of God;14
The cosmos may be taken into service of humankind;
Destruction of nature is a gross form of injustice.
Nonhuman beings have an intrinsic value and hence, the concept of rights of animals is not alien to Islam, as our example above has shown.
Striking are the practical exhortations, often backed up with some saying allegedly going back to Muhammad: plant trees; revive dead soil (one is even entitled to become the owner); prohibition to pollute the air; moderate eating; careful handling of water resources (prohibition to defecate); withdrawal of water for one’s own field should not happen at the expense of other farmers. Both in traditional Islamic sources and in modern publications emphasis upon the rights of animals and the rejection of cruel treatment of animals can be found [11].
The way we have dealt with religious perspectives on the environment is both hermeneutic and benevolent. Hermeneutic because it allows for a merging of ideas of the past with our modern horizon of understanding. This is in marked contrast to historic-critical approaches which aim at a reconstruction of past phenomena without taking into account our modern world.
Our approach is also benevolent: Obviously, people from centuries ago did not have the same sense of urgency and the same knowledge of technological issues as we have. The examples quoted above should be considered paradigmatic rather than identical to modern issues. They may offer spiritual vistas to be explored further, without claiming to offer exhaustive solutions or direct applications. Still, the spiritual depth of these religious traditions may surprise us, accustomed we are to assume the preeminence of our own technological era. The advancement on the spiritual level, if at all, is less clear than on the technological level. A future for our planet cannot dispense with spiritual resources such as these. A broad perspective on religions and spiritualities, critically assessing its possibilities and stumbling blocks, may contribute to overcoming the spiritual crisis of the human attitude to the environment.
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Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. 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The main global health organizations have incorporated patient safety in their review of work practices. The data provided by the medical laboratories have a direct impact on patient safety and a fault in any of processes such as strategic, operational and support, could affect it. To provide appreciate and reliable data to the physicians, it is important to emphasize the need to design risk management plan in the laboratory. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is an efficient technique for error detection and reduction. Technical Committee of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) licensed a technical specification for medical laboratories suggesting FMEA as a method for prospective risk analysis of high-risk processes. FMEA model helps to identify quality failures, their effects and risks with their reduction/elimination, which depends on severity, probability and detection. Applying FMEA in clinical approaches can lead to a significant reduction of the risk priority number (RPN).",book:{id:"9808",slug:"contemporary-topics-in-patient-safety-volume-1",title:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety",fullTitle:"Contemporary Topics in Patient Safety - Volume 1"},signatures:"Hoda Sabati, Amin Mohsenzadeh and Nooshin Khelghati",authors:[{id:"340486",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Hoda",middleName:null,surname:"Sabati",slug:"hoda-sabati",fullName:"Hoda Sabati"},{id:"348872",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Mohsenzadeh",slug:"amin-mohsenzadeh",fullName:"Amin Mohsenzadeh"},{id:"348874",title:"MSc.",name:"Nooshin",middleName:null,surname:"Khelghati",slug:"nooshin-khelghati",fullName:"Nooshin Khelghati"}]},{id:"69876",title:"Leadership Styles in Nursing",slug:"leadership-styles-in-nursing",totalDownloads:3157,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Recent developments in the field of management-organization and organizational behavior and new concepts have also led to the emergence of new leadership styles in leadership. Leadership in health services is important for following innovations and adapting to current situations. Nurses working together with other health personnel in hospitals providing health services constitute an important group in leadership. Nursing, which is a key force for patient safety and safe care, is a human-centered profession, and therefore leadership is a key skill for nurses at all levels. The leadership styles of nurse managers are believed to be an important determinant of job satisfaction and persistence of nurses. The need for nurses with leadership skills and the need for nurses to develop their leadership skills are increasing day by day. There are several leadership styles defined in nursing literature. These leadership styles are examined under the titles of relational leadership style, transformational leadership, resonant leadership, emotional intelligence leadership, and participatory leadership. The task-focused leadership style is explored under the headings of transactional and autocratic leadership, laissez-faire leadership, and instrumental leadership.",book:{id:"9047",slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing - New Perspectives"},signatures:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş and Kamile Kırca",authors:null},{id:"58916",title:"Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Women toward Family Planning",slug:"factors-affecting-the-attitudes-of-women-toward-family-planning",totalDownloads:8548,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Everyone has the right to decide on the number and timing of children without discrimination, violence and oppression, to have the necessary information and facilities for it, to access sexual and reproductive health services at the highest standard. Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",middleName:null,surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",middleName:null,surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}]},{id:"69631",title:"Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours",slug:"cultural-practices-and-health-consequences-health-or-habits-the-choice-is-ours",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human beings are social animals with an innate desire to conform to socially accepted norms and values. Over periods of time, some of these norms become standards that all members of the community are expected to adhere to. Deviance from these standards is seen as absurd, wrong, or frankly abnormal. However, many of these cultural mores have no scientific basis and, some of them actually promote behaviors with negative health consequences. This chapter examines the cultural practices of some communities in Africa and their health consequences and, explores ways to address the challenges.",book:{id:"9138",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Public Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Radiance Ogundipe",authors:[{id:"302308",title:"Dr.",name:"Radiance",middleName:null,surname:"Ogundipe",slug:"radiance-ogundipe",fullName:"Radiance Ogundipe"}]},{id:"55808",title:"The Role of Legumes in Human Nutrition",slug:"the-role-of-legumes-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5433,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:109,abstract:"Legumes are valued worldwide as a sustainable and inexpensive meat alternative and are considered the second most important food source after cereals. 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Thirteen percent of female infertility is due to smoking. Female smoking can lead to gamete mutagenesis, early loss of reproductive function, and thus advance the time to menopause. It has been also associated with ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. Even when it comes to assisted reproductive technologies cycles, smokers require more cycles, almost double the number of cycles needed to conceive as non-smokers. Male smoking is shown to be correlated with poorer semen parameters and sperm DNA fragmentation. Not only active smokers but also passive smokers, when excessively exposed to smoking, can have reproductive problems comparable to those seen in smokers. In this book chapter, we will approach the effect of tobacco, especially tobacco smoking, on male and female reproductive health. 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It represents the most cost-effective method for preventing unwanted pregnancies, scientifically proven for its safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness and is known to last longer in preventing pregnancy than other methods. This study assessed the knowledge of mothers attending ESUT teaching hospital, Parklane on intrauterine contraceptive device, the use as well as the common side effects experienced by the users. A descriptive survey research design was used to sample 175 mothers. A structured researcher developed questionnaire was used for data collection. The findings revealed that more than half of the respondents have good knowledge of intrauterine device but only 23 (14%) respondents make use of it. The commonly experienced side effects identified were irregular bleeding (75%) and vaginal discharge (62.5%). Although, the respondents had good knowledge of intrauterine device, their uptake of the method was poor. Therefore, there is a need to improve contraceptive counseling to ensure that women understand the relative effectiveness of IUDS. The study also recommended the need for better education for both clients and providers to improve the accessibility and acceptability of intrauterine device.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Chukwuasokam Caleb Aniechi and Uloma Cynthia Ezuma"},{id:"81003",title:"Perspective Chapter: Modern Birth Control Methods",slug:"perspective-chapter-modern-birth-control-methods",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103858",abstract:"This chapter focuses on various modern birth control methods, including combined oral contraceptives, progestogen-only pills, progestogen-only injectables, progestogen-only implants, intrauterine devices, barrier contraceptives, and emergency contraceptive pills. 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It was identified that age does not affect the use of contraceptive implants but educational status is significant to its usage; there is an association between the age at first birth and the use of contraceptive implants; the number of liveborn children has a significant impact or influence on the use of implants; etc. This chapter focuses on types of contraceptive implants and its mechanism of action; global statistics on contraceptive implants; side effects; health benefits and positive characteristics of contraceptive implants; those who can and cannot use contraceptive implants; reasons women are not interested in contraceptive implants and factors influencing its usage.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Hassan Ilegbusi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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