More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\n
IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1782",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Agricultural Science",title:"Agricultural Science",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers key areas in agricultural science, namely crop improvement, production, response to water, nutrients, and temperature, crop protection, agriculture and human health, and animal nutrition. 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\r\n\tDysphagia affects 1 in 25 individuals annually in the United States. Broadly we classify dysphagia into 2 main categories: oropharyngeal dysphagia and esophageal dysphagia. Oropharyngeal dysphagia is generally caused by neuromuscular problems, oropharyngeal tumors, radiation injury, cricopharyngeal achalasia and Zenker’s diverticulum. Esophageal dysphagia is generally due to gastrointestinal reflux disease, eosinophilic esophagitis, foreign body impaction, esophageal dysmotility, benign and malignant esophageal tumors and strictures. The etiology of dysphagia has changed over the years. Nowadays, we are seeing more and more patients with eosinophilic esophagitis presenting as acute dysphagia with food bolus impaction. We are also getting a considerable number of patients with dysphagia secondary to esophagogastric junction outflow obstruction (EGJOO) which could be idiopathic or secondary to prior fundoplication, migrated gastric band or sleeve gastrectomy. More and more patients with achalasia are now being treated by peroral endoscopic myotomy. \r\n\tI am proposing this book to discuss the different aspects of oropharyngeal and esophageal dysphagia, particularly the current management strategies.
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\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
Direct combustion of fuel for transportation accounts for over half of greenhouse gas emissions and a significant fraction of air pollutant emissions. Because of growing demand, especially in developing countries, emissions of greenhouse and air pollutants from fuels will grow over the next century even with improving of technology efficiency. Most issues are associated with the conventional engines, ICEs (internal-combustion engines), which primarily depend on hydrocarbon fuels. In this contest, different low-polluting vehicles and fuels have been proposed to improve environmental situation. Some vehicle technologies include advanced internal combustion engine (ICE), spark-ignition (SI) or compression ignition (CI) engines, hybrid electric vehicles (ICE/HEVs), battery powered electric vehicles and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs). Fuel cell vehicles, using hydrogen, can potentially offer lower emissions than other alternative and possibility to use different primary fuel option (Ogden, 2005) (Fig. 1.).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 1.
Alternative fuel vehicle pathways.
\n\t\t\t
A fuel cell vehicles fed by pure hydrogen are a “zero emission vehicle”, in fact the only local emission are water vapour. But in this case it is important to consider the full fuel cycle or “well-to wheels” emissions (fuel production, transport and delivery emissions). Primary source for hydrogen production is crucial for the environmental performance of vehicles. Hydrogen produced from renewable energy (i.e. wind or solar power connected with electrolysis process) and used in fuel cells can reduce significantly emissions.Recent studies concerning alternative fuels have been identified the fuel cell vehicles, using hydrogen, as the most promising technology with reference to fuel cycle emissions. An analysis for reductions in emissions and petroleum use is reported in following figure for different hydrogen FCVs pathways.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 2.
Well to wheels analysis of potential reduction in greenhouse gas emissions through the hydrogen from different sources. (DOE 2009, 2010)
\n\t\t\t
In order to develop technologies in ultra-low-carbon vehicles, European Commission considers tree principal power train:
\n\t\t\t
alternative fuels to burn in combustion engines to substitute gasoline or diesel fuel include liquid biofuels and gaseous fuels (including LPG, CNG and biogas);
Electric vehicles;
Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.
\n\t\t\t
Advanced vehicles with internal combustion engines may not achieved full decarbonisation alone (Mc Kinsey & Company 2010). It is therefore important to develop different technologies to ensure the long-term sustainability of mobility in Europe.
\n\t\t\t
According with this strategy, hydrogen fuel cell vehicles and battery electric vehicles have similar environmental benefits (European Commission COM(2010 )186).
\n\t\t\t
Today, in the light of numerous tests in a customer environmental (500 passenger cars – both large and small – covering over 15 million kilometres and undergoing 90,000 refuellings, Mc Kinsey & Company, 2010) FCVs may be considered technologically ready. Moreover, they are still expensive and further research is needed to bring costs down. To became competitive with today’s engine technologies, FCVs must reach large enough markets to reduce the cost via mass production. The figure 3 reports the most important technological challenges of FCVs for commercialization.
\n\t\t\t
Despite great improvements in automotive fuel cell system of last years, significant issues must be still resolved. These challenges include:
\n\t\t\t
Development and cost of hydrogen refuelling infrastructures for direct-hydrogen FCVs;
Storage systems for hydrogen simultaneously safe, compact and inexpensive;
Cost reduction in fuel cell stack and durability;
\n\t\t\t
Figure 3.
FCVs: from demonstration to commercial deployment (Mc Kinsey & Company, 2010).
\n\t\t\t
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is working towards activities that address the full range of technological and non-technological barriers facing the development and deployment of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies. The following figure shows the program’s activities conducted to overcome the entire range of barriers to the commercialization of hydrogen and fuel cells.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 4.
The DOE program’s activities for fuel cell commercialization.
\n\t\t\t
Regarding the stacks, the targets are to develop a fuel cell system with a 60 percent of efficiency and able to reach a 5000-hours lifespan, corresponding to 240000 km at a cost of $30/kW (at large manufacturing volumes) by 2015 (fig. 4.). The Program is also conducting RD&D efforts on small solid-oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems in the 1-to 10-kW range, with possible applications in the markets for auxiliary propulsion units (APUs).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Target of durability of FCVs in order to reach 240000 km (150000 miles). (DOE 2009).
\n\t\t\t
DOE targets for transportation applications were derived with information from FreedomCAR and Partnership, a collaborative technology organization of Chrysler Group LLC, Ford Motor Company and General Motors Company. In table 1 are showed the targets of direct hydrogen fuel cell power systems.
Energy efficiency @ 25% of rated power b\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
60
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Energy efficiency @ rated power
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Power density
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
W/L
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
650
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Specific power
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
W/kg
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
650
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cost c\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
$/We
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
30
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Transient response (time from 10% to 90% of rated power)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
s
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cold start up time to 50% of rated power @–20°C ambient temperature @+20°C ambient temperature
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
s s
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
30 5
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Start up and shut down energy d\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t from -20°C ambient temperature from +20°C ambient temperature
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
MJ MJ
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 1
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Durability with cycling
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
hours
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5,000 e\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Unassisted start from low temperatures f\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
°C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
-40
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
Targets exclude hydrogen storage, power electronics and electric drive.b Ratio of DC output energy to the lower heating value (LHV) of the input fuel (hydrogen). Peak efficiency occurs at about 25% rated power.c Based on 2002 dollars and cost projected to high-volume production (500,000 systems per year).d Includes electrical energy and the hydrogen used during the start-up and shut-down procedures.e Based on test protocols in Appendix D.f 8-hour soak at stated temperature must not impact subsequent achievement of targets.DOE targets for automotive application of direct hydrogen fuel cell power systems (DOE, 2010).
\n\t\t\t
An other important issue in fuel cell vehicles commercialization is hydrogen storage. Currently, compressed hydrogen is the principal technology used on board but the research is addressed towards a advanced materials able to store hydrogen at lower pressures and near ambient temperature, in compact and light weight systems ( metal hydrides, chemical hydrogen storage and hydrogen sorption).
\n\t\t\t
In this chapter the prospects of fuel cell in transport application will be discussed and particular attention will be paid to the CNR ITAE experiences. CNR ITAE is the National Council Research of Italy that studies advanced technologies for energy. The Institute is involved in different demonstration projects regarding the development of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) and in particular minibus, citycar, bicycle and tractor. Some kind of projects are addressed to different markets, in particular the so-called “early markets” are deal with. In this case the powertrain is electric and hybrid because it is composed by known technologies, like batteries, but also by supercaps and fuel cells that are innovative technologies. Fuel cells have a small size because are used like on board batteries recharge, “range extender” configuration, allowing to increase the range of traditional electric vehicles. The lower fuel cell power means a reduction in terms of stack size then a less cost of it as well as hydrogen storage amount.
\n\t\t\t
Other one kind of projects is instead addressed to a future market. The configuration used is the “full power fuel cell”, in which FCVs have a big size of power close the electric motor power. The full power fuel cell vehicles are provided with innovative components such as radio systems (information technology systems - ITS) able to broadcast with other similar vehicles and fleet managing station. They represent a new concept of vehicle because they are a high-tech products, equipped with hardware and chassis made with new light materials and with a platform having interchangeable upper bodies.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. Fuel cell technology for transport applications
\n\t\t\t
Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) are the most used technology in FCVs. In part, this dominance is due to large number of companies interested in PEMFC development. In technical terms, PEM fuel cells have high power density, required to meet the space constraints in vehicles, and a working temperature of about 70 ºC allowing a rapid start-up. The electric efficiency is usually 40-60% and the output power can be changed in order to meet quickly demanded load. Other characteristics of PEMFC systems are compactness and lightness. As a result of these characteristics, PEMFC are considered the best candidates for mobile applications. The disadvantages of this technology are sensitive to fuel CO impurities and expensive catalyst, higher CO levels result in loss of fuel cell performance. Furthermore, the electrolyte must be saturated with water and the control of the anode and cathode streams therefore becomes an important issue. In transport applications this technology is used in hybrid configuration with electricity storage devices, such as batteries or super capacitors.
\n\t\t\t
Today real competitors in transport market are SOFC (Solid Oxide Fuel Cell) systems, particularly suited for auxiliary power unit (APU) such as heating, air conditioning, etc (heating, air-condition etc..). SOFCs are characterised by their high working temperature of 800-1000ºC. There are two configuration of stack, tubular and planar. The tubular concept is suitable for large-scale stationary applications while the planar concept is preferred for transport application tanks to the higher power density.The SOFC applications in vehicles are limited to APU rule due to long start-up time and slow dynamic behaviour caused by high temperature operation. However, it is also considered an important option for auxiliary power units on board of vehicles in the 5 kW range. The power density of the SOFC is in the range of 0.15-0.7 W/cm2 but high temperature corrosion is a problem that requires the use of expensive materials. Delphi automotive and BMW companies have already been examined this technology in prototype vehicles.
\n\t\t\t
Other different typologies of fuel cells used in transport are the AFC (Alkaline Fuel Cell). The use of this kind of FC is, today, limited if compared with other FC technologies. Several units are installed in niche transport sectors such as motorbikes, forklift trucks, marine and space applications. Several installations (80%) were introduced before 1990 and used in space applications especially. The rest were installed in transportation development and demonstration vehicles. After 1990 some units were installed in light duty, portable and small stationary end-use. When PEM units were introduced in the 1980s, the interest was shifted to this fuel cell alternative, particularly for the transport sector. Recently, some companies have been considered AFC technology for operation in stationary and portable application. The main problem of this technology is the carbon dioxide poisoning: small amounts of CO2 reduce the conductivity of electrolyte. As consequence of this, pure hydrogen must be used. Besides, air needs to be cleaned from CO2, which limits the application for terrestrial applications considerably.
\n\t\t\t
Finally, DMFC (Direct Methanol Fuel Cell) technology is used to power portable applications and in some niche transport sector such as marine, motorbikes and APU. In the year 2000, Ballard and Daimler Chrysler installed a DMFC system on a light duty but after no other vehicles have been developed. Some years ago DMFC had been considered a promising technology because methanol, that is a liquid fuel, allows to maintain all refuelling infrastructures. However if compared with PEMFC, the DMFC power density is lower but the high energy density of fuel (methanol) has potential to replace batteries with micro fuel cell systems.
Buses, Niche transport, light duty vehicles, APU (niche transport vehicles)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
high power density rapid start-up capacity to meet quickly demand load Solid electrolyte
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
sensitive to fuel CO impurities expensive catalysts
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SOFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
700-1000 °C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
50-60%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU ((niche transport vehicles)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Tolerance to fuel CO impurities Fuel flexibility Solid electrolyte
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Long start-up Slow dynamic load behaviour High temperature corrosion of components
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DMFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
60-130°C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
40%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU (niche transport vehicles)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Storage of liquid fuel (methanol)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Low power density high noble metal loadings
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
90-100 °C
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
50-60%
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU (niche transport vehicles)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Low cost components
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Sensitive to CO2 in fuel and air
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
Fuel Cell technologies for transport applications.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tTable 2 summarizes fuel cell technologies for transport sector by application. The used technologies are PEM, SOFC, AFC and DMFC while PAFC (Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell) and MCFC (Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell) systems are generally suitable to provide stationary power and generation of heat for residential and industrial applications.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. The current market of FCVs
\n\t\t\t
Fuel cell vehicles are still in development and demonstration phase. All automakers have substantial development programs underway. Most attention is focused on the use of PEMFCs for transportation applications. Actually, PEM technology is used in different application as shown in figure 5. The majority of units installed globally are used for portable applications. Niche transportation, light duty vehicles and buses are only around 15% of total installed units because the request is low compared to the other markets.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Percentage of PEM units installed by application (Gemma Crawley, 2006).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Buses fuel cells units produced from 1994 to 2008 (Lisa Callaghan Jerram, 2008).
\n\t\t\t
The PEFC systems was chosen for providing primary power train for buses involved in the clean urban transport for Europe (CUTE) (2003-2006). A total of 27 Mercedes-Benz Citaro buses, equipped with fuel cell power train, were used on three continents. Figure 7 shows the buses units number produced per years, the peak number is in 2003 when started the CUTE project. In term of fuel cell bus deployment, Europe is leader with 53% of total deployments and 17 cities involved in demonstration projects. Asia’s projects are focused in Japan, China and South Korea, in USA several activities are presented in California (fig. 8).
\n\t\t\t
With regard to the regions of manufacture the situation mirrors the deployments with Europe 67% of total. The reason of that is the CUTE project, supported by Mercedes Benz fuel cell Citaros, and a Belgian fuel cell buses company, Van Hool.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 8.
Fuel Cell bus deployment (a) and region of manufacture (b) from 2003 to 2008 (Lisa Callaghan Jerram, 2008).
\n\t\t\t
Such as in buses market, in duty vehicles the technology choice is PEM. The annual distribution of units is not constant and reflects the pre-commercial nature of this market (fig. 9). Besides, the targets of past are shifted into next years. The main automaker involved in this sector are Honda, General Motors, Nissan, Hyundai-Kia and Toyota.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Annual New Light Duty Vehicle (Lisa Callaghan Jerram, May 2009).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 10 reports the manufacture and deployment percentage by region. For 2007-2009 (projected) Asia and North America have become the major areas of manufacture. California, with the presence of infrastructures and the ZEV mandate, is a leading market for fuel cell vehicles. Germany, due to government programs, is a promising country for fuel cell market. With regard to Asia, fuel cell vehicles are used as small fleets leased to government officials.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 10.
Light Duty Vehicle deployment (a) and region of manufacture (b) 2007-2009 (Lisa Callaghan Jerram, May 2009).
\n\t\t\t
The Honda fuel cell concept car is shown in figure 11 witch illustrates how modern fuel cell systems can be packaged into a small light-duty vehicles. Like most FC cars, the vehicle is equipped with a compressed hydrogen storage system.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 11.
Fuel cell concept car (manufacturer Honda, type FCX Clarity).
\n\t\t\t
In table 3 the last fuel cell vehicles produced by some carmakers are listed. FC manufacture, range and fuel type are reported.
\n\t\t\t
Transport sector comprises applications as aircraft and aerospace, scooters, motorbikes and other two- and three-wheeled vehicles, materials handling vehicles such as forklift trucks, trains and the ‘other’ category, including such applications as wheelchairs and mobility assistance vehicles. Annual growth from 2005 through 2008 is showed in figure 12. The units installed in 2008 regard principally materials handling vehicles, scooters and motorbikes and the ‘other’ category including mobility assistance vehicles, each of which saw tens to hundreds of units deployed.
Niche transportation: annual growth (Jonathan Butler, July 2008).
\n\t\t\t
The technologies used for this application are PEM and DMFC, very little units installed are SOFC (fig. 13). In particular, there is most units PEM in aerospace and aircraft sector, a two thirds to one third split between PEM and DMFC in the scooters and motorbike market. In the materials handling market, almost exclusively PEM units are used. In the ‘other’ category, there are roughly six times the number of DMFC units compared with PEM units.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 13.
Percentage of units shipment by technologies (Jonathan Butler, July 2008).
\n\t\t\t
Marine and APU market is another interesting application where fuel cells have about 7000 units installed into 2008. Starting with very low units installed in 2005 the numbers increased during 2007/2008.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 14.
Fuel cells units installed in niche transportation sector (APU and marine) from 2005 through 2008 (Dr. Jonathan Butler, 2008).
\n\t\t\t
In terms of technology, DMFC is the principal chose thanks to the liquid fuel and flexibility of refilling. The followed figure shows the percentage by technology. Number of PEM units are limited to APU applications for on board yachts due to their silent operation.
\n\t\t\t
Very interesting is the SOFC technology used mainly for APU demonstration units for road vehicles and marine vessels. In fact, units installed in this transport sector are higher than in large stationary applications (Gemma Crawley, 2007). In this sector SOFC units are used as APUs to supply auxiliary power to selected vehicles. Companies involved in development of automotive system for fuel cell, as Delphi Automotive Systems, believe in SOFC technology for the high efficiency, simply reforming technology and less stringent fuel requirements. The majority fuel cell manufacturer in transportation sector are indicated in table 4.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 15.
APU and Marine sectors: percentage by technology 2007/2008 (Dr. Jonathan Butler, 2008).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tManufacturer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tApplication\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tsize\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTechnology\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Ballard
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Transportation/bus/light mobility
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 - 85 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
General Hydrogen
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Small/medium/large trucks
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
/
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SFC Smart Fuel Cell
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mobile/niche transport
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
600 - 1600 Wh/day
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DMFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
UTC Power
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Transportation
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
120 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Hydrogenics
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mobility application
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
4 – 65 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Nuvera FC
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU, transportation
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 – 82 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
PEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Delphi Automotive System
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
APU
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
1-5 kW
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
SOFC
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 4.
Fuel cell manufacturers for transport applications.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
4. Vehicles configuration
\n\t\t\t
Fuel cell vehicles are electric vehicles powered by batteries and fuel cell. There are different configurations for fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs). In particular the configuration depends on the desired hybridization level and on the fuel cell and batteries rules.
\n\t\t\t
In conventional electric vehicles batteries provide power to the electric motor, in the FCHEVs batteries and fuel cell are connected in a parallel system and together provide power.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFigure 16 shows a fuel cell stack connected with a DC/DC converter needed to provide a regulated voltage at the output. Battery pack is connected with auxiliary devices and with fuel cell. The DC/AC inverter converts the direct current (DC) in alternate current (AC) in order to fed electric motor. The motor is able to recover part of energy that would normally be lost due to braking (regenerative braking). This recovered energy is used to recharge batteries.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 16.
Fuel Cell Hybrid Electric Vehicle configuration
\n\t\t\t
The sizes of batteries and fuel cell define the hybridization level and the configuration.
\n\t\t\t
A conventional electric vehicle (full battery) presents intrinsic limits like the range (that is function of batteries capacity) and recharge time (about 6-8 hours), that can reduce their use. FCHEVs allow to increase the range, in terms of working hours or distance, because it is a function of the on board stored hydrogen and the hydrogen refuelling time isn’t comparable to the batteries recharging time.
\n\t\t\t
In the first configuration, called "total fuel cell" or "full power fuel cell", the electric drive motor is totally fed by fuel cell and a small battery can be installed just for the vehicle start up or for peak power. In this case the fuel cell power is close the electric motor power. A similar architecture, having a big size of fuel cell, means a great quantity of stored hydrogen (also depending on the required range) and high costs.
\n\t\t\t
Another configuration consists of an architecture in which the fuel cell is used as APU (auxiliary power unit) and provides the electrical power required by the auxiliary devices. In this case the fuel cell size is very small and its function is essentially addressed to cover small loads like air conditioning, electric windows, lights, etc.
\n\t\t\t
Finally, the "range extender" configuration is characterized by a small size fuel cell used like on board batteries recharge. This solution, depending on the on board stored hydrogen, allows to increase the range of traditional electric vehicles. Using this configuration it is possible to define a specific batteries recharge strategy; in particular the batteries can be recharged when the electric motor doesn\'t require load, i.e. during the stops and at the terminus. In some case the fuel cell can contribute to the electric traction providing energy when the vehicle runs also. In this way the fuel cell works in optimal operation conditions at a fixed power, avoiding the load following operation that could cause thermal and mechanical stress of materials.
\n\t\t\t
Moreover, the lower fuel cell power means a reduction in terms of stack size then a less cost of it as well as hydrogen storage amount.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. CNR ITAE challenges and activities
\n\t\t\t
The automotive strategy of CNR-ITAE is to investigate the fuel cell technology in order to evaluate the stack behavior and its integration in a system, addressing the research towards an efficient system interface and architecture trade off. This includes hydrogen stack modules as well as reformate stack modules. The principal issues regard efficiency, cost, durability and manufacturing. The research activities is focused on SOFC and PEM technologies for applications with hydrogen and Reformed hydrocarbon (NG, GPL). In fact, although the long term target is to implement hydrogen as fuel, since the current limited hydrogen infrastructures, other fuel (such as Reformed NG) can be a short term solution (figure 17).
\n\t\t\t
The projects in which CNR ITAE is involved concern electric vehicles realization, having an electric motor like driving force. This kind of projects are addressed to different markets, in particular the so-called “early markets” are deal with. In this case the powertrain is electric and hybrid because it is composed by known technologies, like batteries, but also by supercaps and fuel cells that are innovative technologies. Fuel cells have a small size because are used like on board batteries recharge, “range extender” configuration, allowing to increase the range of traditional electric vehicles. This approach is a way to introduce the FC technology gradually thanks to the lower power and costs.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 17.
Fuel options for fuel cell power generation.
\n\t\t\t
The other one kind of projects is instead addressed to a future market. The configuration used is the “full power fuel cell”, in which FCs have a big size of power close the electric motor power. The full power fuel cell vehicles are provided with innovative components such as radio systems (information technology systems - ITS) able to broadcast with other similar vehicles and fleet managing station. They represent a new concept of vehicle because they are a high-tech products, equipped with hardware and chassis made with new light materials and with a platform having interchangeable upper bodies.
\n\t\t\t
Demonstration projects regarding the development of fuel cell hybrid electric vehicles (FCHEVs) and in particular minibus, citycar, bicycle, tractor and airplane.The tractor projects intends to demonstrate that the fuel cell can be applied in the farm context because hydrogen could be produced on site using different methods (biomass, wind energy, photovoltaic). In this case the hurdle of hydrogen distribution is avoided.
\n\t\t\t
The research activities of CNR ITAE are supported by numerous partners involved in fuel cell development. This includes collaborations and with fuel cell developers like Nuvera Fuel Cell, SOFCPower and with industrial partners.
\n\t\t\t
The most of important projects in automotive sector which CNR ITAE is involved are “Meccano”, “BHYKE”, “HY-TRACTOR” and “H-BUS”.
\n\t\t\t
The project, called “MECCANO”, is to develop a highly evolved concept vehicle which offers competitive advantages in terms of optimized ergonomics, low running costs, high levels of safety, modularity and low environmental impact. This new product wants to meet societies demand for reduced congestions, low road-space occupation and improved intermodality with public transportation systems. In this context, the vehicle is characterized by the following features (fig. 18):
\n\t\t\t
Very highly efficient propulsion system: the powertrain configurations include full-power fuel cell, plug-in battery electric, battery electric with auxiliary motor-generator (series hybrid), and parallel hybrid with methane fuelled internal combustion engine.
Compact body and short vehicle length (approx. 3m) with high vehicle habitability.
Advanced technologies for integrated preventive, active and passive safety, in order to attain the highest levels of Euro-NCAP consumer ratings.
Latest solutions for human-machine and machine-infrastructure interactions and communication personalized depending on the user and on the specific application.
This economic and ecological urban vehicle aspires to become an ideal mode of transport for environment-aware individuals and municipal authorities. This dual-use concept (ie. individuals as conventional cars or as a means of personalised public transport) introduces radically new opportunities for vehicle design: a) the development of a platform: chassis and low part of the vehicle can be configured in a highly flexible manner in order to accommodate the different propulsions listed above; b) the design of two vehicle bodies and their relative interiors offering different styles and appropriate technologies.
\n\t\t\t
In MECCANO project several automotive companies are directly involved (FIAT, Michelin, Magneti Marelli, Marangoni, ecc.) in conjunction with research institutes.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 18.
Meccano project.
\n\t\t\t
The bicycle project “BHYKE” is the study of an innovative electric bicycle in joint venture with an Italian company, called TRE S.p.A. (Tozzi Renewable Energy). The bike, having pedal assistance, is provided with a 250 W fuel cell and a hydrogen solid state storage cylinder of 900 Sl at 12 bar. The targets for this project are: a range of 130-150 km, a maximum speed of 35 km/h and total weight of 30 kg (fig. 13). The aim of the project is to realize, through a new concept of bike sharing service, a representative sample of field test of hydrogen refuelling station from renewable energy (photovoltaic and wind).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 19.
Hydrogen bicycle and technical characteristics.
\n\t\t\t
In order to demonstrate that fuel cell technology can be used also in farm sector “Hy-Tractor” project wants to develop a fuel cell tractor fed by hydrogen. In farm sector the hydrogen distribution is not a problem because hydrogen can be produced on site using the available renewable energies: wind, photovoltaic, biomass. The main activities are:
\n\t\t\t
Development of a hydrogen production and storage system based on: 1) photovoltaic and electrolyzer (fig. 14), 2) biomass, 3) low temperature thermolysis, 4) high temperature pyrolysis;
Design and development of tractor equipped with fuel cell powertrain, on board hydrogen storage system and other needed auxiliary subsystems.
Development of energy saving systems for efficiency increase. Some of these are: photovoltaic roof, high efficiency air-conditioning and external lights, hydraulic systems and power take-off (PTO) with electric drive.
Replacement of hydraulic drive with electric drive, avoiding oil (that is a polluting substances) and increasing the check.
Design of a Multi-Power Testing-Trailer able to carry out simultaneous tests on the traction, hydraulic system and electric devices.
Field test of the FC tractor during operation both in external sites and inside places (hayloft).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 20.
“Hy-Tractor”: Project layout with photovoltaic plant.
\n\t\t\t
The H-BUS is a joint project of National research Council of Italy and two supplier companies to develop a range extender Fuel Cell/Battery Hybrid Electric city bus. The aim of H-BUS project is to realize a pre-commercial Fuel Cell/Battery HEV able to increase the range (at least 30%) with respect to same bus in a standard electric configuration, using a small size of fuel cell that works as batteries recharge on board. Within the project, CNR TAE Institute is involved in determining the optimal level of hybridization assessing all boundary conditions (mission, performances, hydrogen consumption, range, etc...). The bus selected for the prototype realization is an electric vehicle having an 85 kW rated power of electric drive motor and a capacity of 44 passengers (Fig.21).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 21.
The selected bus for the H-BUS project
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.1. Fuel cell systems development
\n\t\t\t\t
The CNR ITAE collaborations with fuel cell developers are focused on improving durability, architecture and cost reduction of fuel cell systems and stacks. As above said, in automotive sector, PEMFC and SOFC are the principal technologies studied. The development of PEM fuel cell systems is summarized in table 5, all devises are fed by pure hydrogen. Gen 3 is a hybrid system composed by a stack of 5 kWe and a battery pack with a power output of 4 kW. Besides, this system is equipped with a new kind of hydrogen recirculation system which increases stack durability up to 10000 hr.
\n\t\t\t\t
A fuel cell system is composed by fuel cell stack and the linked ancillaries: a blower for the air, a pump for the water and a fan for the cooling circuit (Fig 22). Dedicated micro–computer and software are used for the management of the entire system in terms of operation and safety
\n\t\t\t\t
The stack is the core componentof a fuel cell system but, for the electrical energy production, hydrogen and air have to be fed into the stack. Excess heat must be removed through a cooling system. The operational characteristic curve of a stack (polarization curve) illustrates the device’s performance unambiguously. The experimental curve of the fuel cell PEM system is is shown in Fig. 23a.It demonstrates that the stack works in a defined range of voltage of 0.65-1Vcell. In this range of voltage it is possible to obtain high performance in terms of efficiency and to limit the materials stress in order to assure a long durability. The figure also reports cell voltage of stack (average voltage of two contiguous cells) at different power levels (fig.23b). The stack is composed by 40 cells.
\n\t\t\t\t
An important issue in automotive sector is the response time of system. For this reason start-up/warm-up times have been evaluated at different temperatures in order to determine system limitations and the best operative conditions. The aim was to minimize the battery pack that supply the load and the FC system ancillaries at the same time. The first remark is that batteries cannot be completely eliminated, due to start-up operations. In fact, during the
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rated Power (kW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
5 kW FC + 4 kW batteries
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Number of cells
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
40
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Temperature (°C)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
80
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Active area (cm2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Efficiency (%)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
52
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
54
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
54
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Durability (hr)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10000
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 5.
PEM Fuel Cell Systems development.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 22.
Schematic diagram of the Fuel Cells System.
\n\t\t\t\t
start-up, system drains an average current of 13.5 A (P = 648W), from an external power supply (Fig. 18). The minimum time needed by the FC system to generate power is ever 7 seconds (FC system software setting), but its value never reaches the maximum value (5 kW) before the warm-up.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 23.
Polarization curve (A) and voltage distribution (B) for a stack of 40 cells PEM.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 24.
Current demand from external 48V power supply by FC system during then start-up.
\n\t\t\t\t
The minimum time needed by the FC system to generate power is ever 7 seconds (FC system software setting), but its value never reaches the maximum value (5 kW) before the warm-up. FC system produces the best response when it starts to run at the nominal temperature as shown in the following figure 19, where is reported the start-up/warm-up time depending on the different initial FC system temperature. At the nominal temperature, FC system generates maximum power after 76 seconds during start-up routine runs (7 seconds) and FC stack is warmed-up (69 seconds) at the nominal temperature.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 25.
Start-up times at different initial FC system temperatures.
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\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Rated Power (kW)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.248
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.811
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1.096
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Number of cells
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
75
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
10
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
32
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Temperature (°C)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
650
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
500
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
750
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Active area (cm2)
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
92
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
360
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
50
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
NG reforming
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Internal with pre-reforming
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Internal
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Internal
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 6.
Features of the three SOFC stacks.
\n\t\t\t\t
Among Fuel Cells, SOFCs show the great advantage of working with more flexible gas than than polymer electrolyte fuel cells. The table 6 reports the performance of three intermediate temperature SOFC stacks. The aim is to build a complete SOFC power generation system around the stack. All these three stacks have planar bipolar plate, but they are arranged with different technical solutions: active areas, volumes, dimensions, ect.
\n\t\t\t\t
A polarization curve of a SOFC system tested is showed in figure 26. The stack power output is 500 W and 55% of electric efficiency is expected. The working temperature is about 750 ºC.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 26.
Polarization curve of a SOFC system with a power of 500 W.
\n\t\t\t\t
These systems are suitable for small recreation vehicles (i.e. motor cycles, golf car), utility vehicles ( i.e. fork-lift trucks) and hybrid vehicles in range extended configuration.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.2. Hybrid powertrain studies
\n\t\t\t\t
Over the years, CNR ITAE has evaluated different powertrain configurations in terms of the energy flows and system components size. Here are reported some architectures chosen for hybrid powertrains used in small vehicles and buses.
\n\t\t\t\t
The structure of a hybrid powertarin for a golf car is the same showed in figure 16. The hybrid powertrain is composed by the following main devices: fuel cell power soure, battery pack, static power converter (inserted between FC and load diode between the static power converter and load). The fuel cell system is a compact power module with a nominal power of 5kWe, developed with Nuvera Fuel Cells. The lightweight vehicle was adequately instrumented for data acquisition by applying speed transducer, voltage and current sensors (fig. 27); it was subjected to a work cycle with heavy load conditions, both on road and in laboratory simulated by electric load.
\n\t\t\t\t
In this latter configuration, the fuel cell is used as main power source for the powertrain, also providing battery charge. The battery has the role to provide peak power during the start up of the vehicle and to supply the necessary energy to the fuel cell system during the start up. The hybrid powertrain has shown a fast response even at extreme and impulsive loads and a wider range compared to a battery vehicle, without compromising the weight limitations on the vehicles.
\n\t\t\t\t
The figure 28 shows the response of the battery and the fuel cell system during a rising transient. The behaviour of starting batteries is characterized by a short delay in the load response when rising transient begins. This phenomenon is due to a small power inlet from fuel cell to batteries. The batteries package is connected directly to the electronic load and, in correspondence of the power demand, voltage decreases. As a consequence the recharging current of the batteries increases, since the voltage difference between PowerFlow and batteries is higher than the pre-fixed control value. During this very short time (0.1 s) the fuel cell tries to recharge the batteries even if the demand is higher than its rated power. This delay occurs every time the load changes. Moreover, the load response is slightly lower than the electronic load demand.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 27.
Golf car Hybrid Powertrain.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 28.
Response of the battery and the fuel cell system during a rising transient.
\n\t\t\t\t
An important instrument to identify the most favourable vehicle configuration in specified operating conditions is the computer simulations. Figure 29 shows a power train simulation for a bus in range extended configuration. A range-extender HEV is essentially an EV with an on-board charging system(Suppes GJ et al., 2004). Simulation studies have been performed to evaluate the potential SoC saving and autonomy increase with respect of pure battery EV bus. The simulation models have been developed in the Matlab® Simulink® environment utilizing the SimPowerSystems tool.
\n\t\t\t\t
In the proposed configuration FC system works as batteries recharge that provides, following an identified strategy, the necessary power to the driving cycle to increase the autonomy of the vehicle. The storage system (traction batteries) provides, however, the energy required to satisfy the peak power demand. PEM Fuel Cell and ZEBRA® (Zero Emission Battery Research Activities) technologies have been selected for the fuel cell system and batteries, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\t
The study has demonstrated that a power train with 6 ZEBRA® batteries connected with 5 kW FC system appears as the best solution. This configuration allows to increase the range of about 40% as shown Figure 30.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 29.
Simulink® model of the powertrain for bus application.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 30.
SoC (%) analysis: Comparison of proposed HEV (blue) and pure battery EV (green).
\n\t\t\t\t
The obtained results show that Fuel Cells and Batteries achieve an optimal synergy because their combination provides better performance and lower costs than batteries or total fuel cells vehicles.
\n\t\t\t\t
With regard to the integration of fuel cell in the vehicles, the figure 31 shows the layout bus for the project "H-Bus". The fuel cell system and hydrogen storage are assembled on the top of the vehicle in substitution of Nº1 batteries box. TIn order to reduce costs and improve the fuel cell system technological development the exiting vehicle structure and electric drive train technology have been used.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 31.
Position of batteries packs on the top of the electric Bus version (only battery electric vehicle).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 32.
Example of distribution of the power between SOFC and battery.
\n\t\t\t\t
Some studies are focused on SOFC technology used mainly for APU demonstration units for road vehicles having a hybrid configuration (Battery and FC). The work here reported regards the integration of a little SOFC system of 500 W with a battery. In particular, a specific control algorithm was developed for utilizing the SOFC system as a base power source and battery as a complementary source (Fig.32). In fact, on the contrary of PEM technology, SOFC device is not able to follow fast and wide changes of the load because its high working temperature. The aim is to develop an efficient hybrid system able to deliver the power requirement, to combine energy storage and to ensure durable operation.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
To obtain benefits from the operation of a hybrid system, the flows of power within the system must be carefully planned and regulated in accordance with an appropriate energetic strategy to optimize the total efficiency and to preserve the devices from stress that may reduce their lifecycle. This research with a power of 500 W can be scaled-up and optimized for specific conditions.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/18666.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/18666.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18666",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18666",totalDownloads:7933,totalViews:1314,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,impactScore:5,impactScorePercentile:93,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"October 28th 2010",dateReviewed:"April 14th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/18666",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/18666",book:{id:"192",slug:"electric-vehicles-the-benefits-and-barriers"},signatures:"Nicola Briguglio, Laura Andaloro, Marco Ferraro and Vincenzo Antonucci",authors:[{id:"32072",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicola",middleName:null,surname:"Briguglio",fullName:"Nicola Briguglio",slug:"nicola-briguglio",email:"nicola.briguglio@itae.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"40746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraro",fullName:"Marco Ferraro",slug:"marco-ferraro",email:"ferraro@itae.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"40747",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Andaloro",fullName:"Laura Andaloro",slug:"laura-andaloro",email:"andaloro@itae.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"40748",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Antonucci",fullName:"Vincenzo Antonucci",slug:"vincenzo-antonucci",email:"vincenzo.antonucci@itae.cnr.it",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fuel cell technology for transport applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The current market of FCVs",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Vehicles configuration",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. CNR ITAE challenges and activities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Fuel cell systems development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2. Hybrid powertrain studies",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\tWorld Resources Institute, Sustainable Development Information Service, The global commons: Proceed with caution: Growth in the global motor vehicle fleet.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOgden\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2005Alternative fuels and prospects-Overview, In: Handbook of Fuel Cell. Wolf Vielstich Arnold Lamm Hubert A. Gasteiger, 3\n\t\t\t\t\t24Wiley, England.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tEuropean CommissionCOM(2010April 2010. A European strategy on clean and energy efficient vehicles. Available from: < http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=COM:2010:0186:FIN:EN:PDF>.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tMcKinsey & Company on behalf of a consortium of 31 public and private companies.November 2010\n\t\t\t\t\tA Portfolio of Powertrains for Europe: A Fact Based Analysis: The role of Battery Electric Vehicles, Plug-in Hybrids and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles. Available from :< www.zeroemissionvehicles.eu\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDOE, (January\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tHydrogen and Fuel Cell Activities, Progress, and Plans. Report to Congress. Available from: < http://www.hydrogen.energy.gov/pdfs/epact_report_sec811.pdf\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDOE,\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tWell-to-Wheels Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Petroleum Use for Mid-Size Light-Duty Vehicles. Available from: < www.hydrogen.energy.gov/program_records.html\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLisa Callaghan Jerram.\n\t\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t\t\tBus Survey, Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGemma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrawley. .\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMarch\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2006\n\t\t\t\t\tProton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells, Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGemma\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCrawley. .\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAugust\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tDirect Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC). Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDOE\n\t\t\t\t\t2010\n\t\t\t\t\tResearch and Development of Fuel Cells for Stationary and Transportation. Available from: < www.energy.gov/>.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B11",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tLisa Callaghan Jerram (May,\n\t\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t\t\tLight Duty Vehicle Survey. Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDr. Jonathan Butler\n\t\t\t\t\t2008Niche Transport 2Available from< http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tGemma Crawley (\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tSolid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC). Available from< http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFuel Cell 2000\n\t\t\t\t\t2011Available from< http://www.fuelcells.org/info/charts/carchart.pdf>.\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tDr.Jonathan Butler (July 2008Niche Transport Survey 1Available from < http://www.fuelcelltoday.com/\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSuppes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLopes\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC. W.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tPlug-in fuel cell, hybridsas transition technology to hydrogen infrastructure”. Int. J Hydrogen Energy 29\n\t\t\t\t\t369\n\t\t\t\t\t374\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nicola Briguglio",address:"",affiliation:'
CNR-ITAE, Via Salita S. Lucia sopra Contesse, Messina, Italy
CNR-ITAE, Via Salita S. Lucia sopra Contesse, Messina, Italy
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"192",type:"book",title:"Electric Vehicles",subtitle:"The Benefits and Barriers",fullTitle:"Electric Vehicles - The Benefits and Barriers",slug:"electric-vehicles-the-benefits-and-barriers",publishedDate:"September 6th 2011",bookSignature:"Seref Soylu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/192.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-287-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6037-3",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:64,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"12153",title:"Dr.",name:"Seref",middleName:null,surname:"Soylu",slug:"seref-soylu",fullName:"Seref Soylu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"829"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"18661",type:"chapter",title:"A Survey on Electric and Hybrid Electric Vehicle Technology",slug:"a-survey-on-electric-and-hybrid-electric-vehicle-technology",totalDownloads:6196,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Samuel E. de Lucena",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"30228",title:"Prof.",name:"Samuel",middleName:"E. 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1. Introduction
Poverty is an issue that is still a concern in most countries of the world. It is a complex phenomenon and covers many dimensions and is closely related to human and social behavior [1]. It is estimated that over 1.2 billion people around the world are in a state of poverty in which 26% are categorized as low national income, 58% with moderate national income, and 17% as medium high national income [2]. Poverty in many countries also tends to be concentrated in rural areas than in the city. According to [3], more than three quarters of poor society members are those who live in rural areas. The poor are expected to continue to live in rural areas for several decades. The issue of poverty is giving a signal to all parties to continue efforts to eradicate poverty.
Globally, aggressive efforts to eradicate poverty can be viewed through the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which involves 15 years of duration since year 2000. The implementation of the MDGs are aimed at eradicating poverty, aimed at eight goals, namely eradicating extreme poverty and hunger; achieving universal basic education; achieving gender equality and empower women; reducing the rate of children’s mortality; improving the health state of mothers; preventing human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), malaria, and other diseases; ensuring the preservation and sustainability of nature; and promoting global cooperation. Report of [4] showed greater success in eradicating poverty in the last 15 years. According to the report:
Since 1990, the number of people who live in the conditions of extreme poor has been reduced by 50% worldwide.
The proportion of individuals who do not have sufficient nutrients has been reduced by almost 50% worldwide.
School admission rates in the developing region has reached 91% and increasing number of female students compared to 15 years ago.
Promising efforts against HIV/AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis.
The rate of deaths of children under 5 years old has been reduced more than half, and the death of mothers has declined by 45% in the whole world.
Presently, efforts to eradicate poverty continued through the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). SDG has established the eradication of all forms of poverty in the society. In the year 2030, all individuals are targeted to not suffer any form of poverty where people strive to live with a minimum of USD$1.25 per day. In addition to that, some of the goals were also determined, that is:
Eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere
Reduce at least by half the proportion of men, women, and children of all ages living in poverty according to the dimensions determined by respective nation
Implement nationally appropriate social protection systems and measures for all, including the poor, and by 2030 achieve substantial coverage of the poor and the vulnerable
Ensure that the poor and vulnerable have equal access to economic resources, as well as access to basic services, ownership, and control over land and other ownership.
Building the resilience of the poor toward vulnerability.
Implementation of policies and programs that can eliminate multi-dimensional poverty.
Establish a strong framework at national, regional, and international level that addresses development strategies for poverty alleviation.
In the Malaysian context, the reduction of poverty rates is strongly contributed by the policy implementation by the government, through four major policies, namely New Economic Policy (NEP) (1970–1990), the National Development Policy (NDP) (1990–2000), National Vision Policy (NVP) (2001–2010), New Economic Model (MBE) (2010), and Shared Prosperity Vision (SPV 2030). Malaysia has managed to reduce the rate of poverty from 49.3% in the year 1970 to 0.4% in the year 2016 as in Table 1.
The national poverty rate in Malaysia has declined from 49.3% in the year 1970 to 0.6% the year 2014. Poverty analysis based on strata showed declining trend in the urban and rural areas. In the urban area, the rate continued to decline to 0.3 % in the year 2014 compared to 21.3% in 1970. The rural area exhibited the same declining trend from the year 1970 until the year 2014, but with a slight rise in 2009. Despite the decreasing trend in both areas, during the years from 1970 to 2017, the rate of poverty in rural areas remained higher than in the urban. The difference in the rate of poverty is pushing the government to focus its efforts to eradicate poverty in the rural areas.
Rural poverty eradication has been government’s priority because there are more than 36% of Malaysia’s population (10.34 million people population) living in rural areas [7]. Therefore, the efforts to eradicate rural poverty and develop the rural areas have been given priority by the government. Among the policies and programs that have been implemented are Rural Development Master Plan (PIPLB), Indigenous Development Strategic Planning, Rural Mega Uplifting Program (PLMLB), New Model for Rural Economy (MBELB), Rural Transformation Centers (RTC) and Government Transformation Program that involve Sustainable Village Program. Rural Development and Master Plan (PIPLB), Strategic Development Plan for Indigenous People, Mega Rural Uplift Program (PLMLB), New Rural Economy Model (MBELB), and National and Rural Transformation Programs.
Among the programs to eradicate extreme poverty was implemented through the Rural Mega Uplifting Program (PLMLB) is Agropolitan project. Since 2006 till 2007, a total of 44,000 people from extreme poverty have been identified in Malaysia. Four ministries, inclusive of the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Women, Family and Community Development and Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (MRRD) were responsible for eradicating poverty which involves 10,000 people from extreme poverty cluster. At the same time, the government established five development corridors namely the Northern Corridor Economic Region (NCER), East Coast Economic Region (ECER), Sabah Development Corridor (SDC), Sarawak Renewable Energy Corridor (SCORE), and Iskandar Malaysia (ISKANDAR). Through the implementation of the five corridors, 4400 individuals from extreme poverty were placed under the implementing agencies of the respective corridors. The remaining 5600 individuals coming from extreme poverty group were handed over to MRRD for poverty eradication planning and become a focus for participating in the Agropolitan program [8].
As of 2017, there were 11 projects under agropolitan programs which have been implemented and involved five states under the supervision of the Ministry of Rural Development Affairs and Regional Development (MRRD) [9]. According to the ministry, there are two successful agropolitan programs which are Gahai Agropolitan Programme, Lipis, Pahang and Batang Lupar Agropolitan Program, Sarawak. Based on the poverty index, namely Poverty Lines Income (PLI), all participants for both agropolitan programs have been classified as non-poor after joining the agropolitan programs which were implemented since 2007 [10].
2. Vicious cycle poverty theory and agropolitan mechanism
Poverty is a system that associates certain factors and affects each other. This concept corresponds to poverty factors and turned to beginning points of the poverty vicious cycle and ultimately prevents the development process [11]. With regards to poverty, rural sectors and farming activities participation is considered as a trap of poverty for individuals. Individuals in the rural areas are engaged in low scale production activities that affected their income. This situation is described as a setback and as a barrier and a system which connects barriers and causing the poor to fall into vicious cycle. If left unattended continuously, this will cause the poor will not be able to get food, health, and education adequately. In addition, poverty will cause the poor to not being able change or raise the standard of living better than their parents. The situation is due to low income and poverty that is sustained from generation to another generation as depicted in Figure 1 that shows the poverty vicious cycle. At individual level, vicious cycle could be initiated by the poverty faced caused by failure to meet the nutritional diet requirement. Less nutritious diet intake ultimately affects health and the ability to work. Due to health issues, individuals are not able to work efficiently, and this leads to low productivity. The situation affects their ability to raise their income and thus continue to be in a state of poverty.
Figure 1.
Individual poverty vicious cycle. Source: [12].
Poverty faced by individuals will also affect members of the family. Due to poverty, people are not able to provide sufficient and nutritious food to members of the family, particularly children, and will inhibit their mental growth. The study [12] found the lack of nutritious food affects children’s health and eventually will contribute to weakening education and contribute to the low education achievement. Failure to obtain education causes them to continue to be engaged in low-income activities and consequently remain to be in a poor situation.
Even though the Vicious Cycle Theory can explain the poverty faced by individuals is associated with poverty factors, there was some criticism of the theory. First, this theory does not explain in detail the concept of poverty and setback. Secondly, the theory does not consider the differences of poverty faced by every country, and thirdly, the theory discusses poverty in static and unchanged situation. The theory is also unable to give a detailed description on how to overcome the vicious poverty cycle.
Theoretical discussions on vicious poverty cycle shows poverty is a societal problem that involve multiple factors and difficult to overcome. However, attempts to solve it are necessary because failure to alleviate poverty will reflect bad impression on one’s society and nation. Gill [13] explained that a country cannot develop because of poverty. Therefore, the efforts to alleviate individuals from poverty should be given attention. According to the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) in [14] explained, there are five factors that allow a person to free oneself from poverty. These involve:
Economic ability which refers to the ability of the income, expenditure, and ownership of assets.
People’s ability referring to ability to obtain health, education, nutritious food, clean water, and safe place to stay.
Political ability that refers to the ability to get the legislature rights
Socio-cultural ability that refers to individuals’ ability to be involved in the community activities.
Protection ability that refers to the ability to deal with uncertain situation.
Matin and Hulme [15] discussed the perspective of materialism, which indicates individual is unable to meet the basic requirements due to (i) having low income to expend and (ii) shocks applied that caused the income of individuals to fall under the poverty line. In assisting this group, the government will conduct interventions such as micro-financing programs to increase individual income subsequently overcome poverty. Poverty eradication through this approach is called “poverty reduction” as the first step to increase household income (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Reduction of poverty is the first to raise higher revenues contents home. Source: [15].
In other situation, if shock happens unexpectedly, the situation is just temporary because it only affects the individual’s income to obtain food at a certain time. If government intervenes to help people improve their income, this approach refers to the poverty reduction as a “one-off” grant, which would reverse the household income to the previous level (Figure 3). Although this approach is simple, it still fails to help the poor. Consequently, there exists the need to promote an approach that emphasizes the multi-dimensional design complex programs (multi-sector and partnerships between organizations), to help the poor. Not only has it met the minimum of physical needs but also access to health, education, and other services.
Figure 3.
Poverty reduction as a “one-off” grant that return household income to previous level. Source: [15].
Sachs [16] in his book “The End of Poverty” discusses that government intervention is important to increase the poor’s individual’s ability to get the poor out of the situation and able to increase savings and investment which are becoming the driving force to the accumulation of capital to move out of poverty. He said there is a correlation between economic activities, savings, capital investment, and increasing economic activities. Household uses income as a means for consumption, savings, and taxes. The government uses the tax for current spending and development expenses. Capital is generated by household savings and government expenses. Higher capital formation leads to economic growth, which in turn increases household income as a result of income growth. Capital assistance for projects would lead to capital accumulation, economic growth, and an income increase among the household members who receive benefits from the given assistance. In the context of this study, Vicious Poverty Cycle Theory describes the poverty situation faced by the extreme poor group. The extreme poor not only lack income but also basic needs such as housing, education, health, and other amenities. This poverty will continue to be inherited by their children to the next generation. The Agropolitan project was a government intervention to eradicate poverty to increase income (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
The Agropolitan project is a government intervention to eradicate poverty to increase income. Source: Adapted from [15].
3. Development of Gahai Agropolitan for rural development and poverty eradication
Agropolitan is a development alternative model which is also known as Region Klauster that was introduced in 1974 by an economist, John Friedman. Agropolitan is a development concept that prioritizes the development of much lower level and aims to improve the socio-economic community in rural area. Agropolitan development highlights network development between urban and rural areas [17, 18, 19, 20]. Agropolitan development prioritizes on micro-planning that involves specific target group, government, local research and development (R&D), and education institutions [21]. It is an integrated development involving complete physical and institutional infrastructure as well as optimal resource utilization. Besides, the economic farming and non-farming complement agropolitan development projects as agricultural town. Economic activities in the areas of the Agropolitan project is able to contribute to the region in addition to providing opportunities for employment in off-farm and non-farm and existing commercially available in the agropolitan area. Today, agropolitan has become the choice of several countries in planning rural development by the developing countries such as Indonesia, Nepal, and Malaysia [8, 22, 23].
Agropolitan is different when compared to conventional development models like Growth Pole Model. Conventional development model is “above to below approach” and give priority to competition than cooperation for development [24, 25]. Instead, agropolitan prioritizes planning and cooperation establishment starting from the bottom. Table 2 shows the agropolitan difference which is also known as Region Klauster and conventional development model namely, Pole Growth Model.
The agropolitan model is also known as the Klauster Regional Model which conducts economic activities that depend on the availability of resources in the development area. The agropolitan concept encouraged the development of side economies in the project area. In terms of urbanization, agropolitan development prioritizes a horizontal (decentralized) urbanization system that has major areas and is linked to the more interior areas. In view of planning, it is decentralized in nature prioritizing on diversifying the economic sectors.
3.1 Case study: development of the Agropolitan Gahai Project
The Agropolitan project is one of the government’s initiatives to eradicate poverty and also involves several districts in the state of Pahang, Malaysia. According to records, there are 11 agropolitan projects which were launched by the government under the Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (MRRD) until 2016, and Pahang have two agropolitan projects which are the Chemomoi Agropolitan Project and Gahai Agropolitan Project [10]. The implementation of Chemomoi Agropolitan still runs and ends in September 2016. While the process of development of the Gahai Agropolitan Project, Lipis, Pahang has stopped in 2012 and has shown results to participants through the income acquisition.
The selection of the Gahai Agropolitan Project, Lipis for this study is based on the following criteria:
Gahai Agropolitan Project has surpassed the development of more than 5 years and allows the impact study to be conducted.
Gahai Agropolitan Project is in Pahang, which is among the state with highest poverty rate (Malaysia 2015), and it is compatible with the objectives of the study in evaluating the impact of the Agropolitan project in eradicating poverty.
The selection of Gahai Agropolitan Project was proposed from the Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (MRRD) as it is an early established Agropolitan project and has showed good performance and exist necessity in evaluating the project.
Gahai Agropolitan Project, Lipis, Pahang encompasses the area of 238.76 hectares, which involves a total of 80 projects participants. Each participant of the project was selected from the extreme/hardcore poor group. The participants of the project were divided into two categories: 50 individuals with house placements and 30 individuals without placements. Although there are 80 registered participants of the Gahai Agropolitan Project, only 50 local participants are actively involved in economic activities and utilize the benefits of the development of economic components, physical components, and human capital components in the Gahai Agropolitan Project. While another 30% are registered participants but are not involved in economic activities, living in the Gahai Agropolitan Project area and they only receive an annual dividend from the Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority (RISDA). Gahai Agropolitan Project, Lipis is managed by the implementing agency, Rubber Industry Smallholders Development Authority (RISDA) which was entrusted by the Ministry of Rural and Regional Development (MRRD). The Gahai Agropolitan Project involves the development of economic, physical, and human capital components.
For the first component, economic activities involving primary and downstream activities contribute to participants’ income and thus help to increase the standard of living. Primary economic activities refer to the participation of participants in the Well-Being Farm (Ladang Sejahtera). Presently, 232.69 hectares of Well-Being Farm are planted with 117,940 trees and have been producing incomes in the form of wages and dividends. In addition to that, there are downstream activities that can contribute to the participant’s income, majority of them are from the extreme poverty group. This is evidenced by the increase in participants’ income. Before joining the Gahai Agropolitan Project, participants who are from the extreme poor were with an average income of RM400 a month. After participating in the Agropolitan project, participants receive income in the form of rubber tapping wage and dividends with an average income of RM1900 per month.
As of May 2015, a total of RM400,000 has been paid to participants as “Well-Being Farm” dividends. For downstream activities, host of bird’s nests are still active, which is managed by the Gahai Participants Cooperative (KOPEGA). The project involved initial cost totaling RM58,000 which was contributed by 80 agropolitan participants. The management cost for the project up till May 2015 was RM4,591 which focused on the maintenance and pest control. For bird’s nest marketing, it involves the sale of products such as bird’s nests and drinks. In 2014, the bird’s nest project was already producing output of 8.020 kg with an average price of RM1,200 per kilogram with total income of RM6,000.
Development of physical component also includes home, basic infrastructure, amenities, and business infrastructure. This physical component was provided by the implementing agencies during the project development. Basic infrastructure covering roads in settlements, Rural Water Supply (BALB), Rural Roads (JALB), Village Road Project (PJK), and drain and good drainage system. Besides that, the Gahai Agropolitan Project participants also enjoy the convenience of amenities such as the multi-purpose hall, place of worship, playground, and much more. In addition to the basic physical development, the project development also provided business infrastructure, namely booths, workshops, kiosks, and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) infrastructure.
Besides the economic and physical components development, emphasis is also given to the human capital component. This component refers to the course preparation or training for pre-placement and post-placement. For pre-placement courses, the courses were conducted before participants enter the settlement or participate in agropolitan projects. The course was attended by the head of the households (KIR), and it was for the participants’ settlement only. Post-settlement course was conducted continuously after the inclusion of participants in the Agropolitan project. The course is not limited to head of households but also involve members of the house. The courses include on entrepreneurship, skills and technical, spirituality, and family well-being.
The analysis of this study include 50 participants of the Gahai Agropolitan Project who are actively involved in economic activities and utilize the benefits of the development of economic components, physical components, and human capital components in the Gahai Agropolitan Project. A total of 50 participants were defined as the study population. During the survey, only 45 participants of the Gahai Agropolitan Project were actively involved in providing feedback as sampling units. Despite not obtaining the entire project participants, 45 participants were sufficient to be used as a sample using simple random sampling technique. Sampling size is following to [26] if the total population is 50, a total of 44 samples are required, and for this study, it meets the number of samples to be analyzed.
Table 3 shows the percentage information regarding the profiles of participants of the Gahai Agropolitan Project. Participants’ profile shows that the majority of respondents (82.2%) are men and the remaining (17.8%) are female. The age breakdown showed participants aged between 46 and 50 years represented the highest (28.9%) followed by the participants aged between 36–40 years and 41–45 years with the same percentage (22.2%). Participants aged 56 years and over also participated but the percentage is small (11.1%). While participants aged 35 years and below are only 2.2% equivalent to one person.
Components
Conventional models Growth pole model
Agropolitan model Klauster Region
Basic sector
Large scale economic activities and management agencies outside economic activities (urban)
Economic activity depends on the availability of resources in the area and encourages the development of side economic activities in key areas.
City system
Hierarchy, focused on a number of the population that are associated with the Region Centre Theory
Horizontal, containing the main and rural areas that have specialization and benefits
Urban-rural relationship
Spreading the benefits of the urban to the rural area gives trickling effects mutually
In terms of education, the study shows that the majority of participants, (51.1%) successfully obtained mid-secondary level (Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia [SPM]) while 17.8% graduated with lower secondary (PMR/SRP). About 26.7% of respondents completed with only primary school education up to Primary 6. Even though the number of respondents with primary school education is quite high, most of these respondents are 50 years old and above. Regarding employment, the majority of participants (88.9%) are rubber tappers while the remaining 11.1% are employed in other types of occupation. For respondents who did not rubber tapping as main occupation, they still receive income from the rubber plantation activities which were paid in the form of dividends for their status as project participants. These dividends contribute to their household income.
3.3 Agropolitan Projects’ role in poverty eradication
The Agropolitan Project’s performance evaluation is based on income that is earned by the individual or group of extreme poor who participated in this project. It is compatible with the project’s main objectives which is eradicating poverty among the participants through an increase in income. For the case study, the income of participants of the Agropolitan Project was analyzed using descriptive analysis and parametric analysis which is paired sample t-test. Descriptive analysis involves minimum value, maximum value, and participant’s average income. Besides that, the paired sample t-test is used to determine whether there is a significant change in participant’s income for before and after participating in the Project Agropolitan Gahai, Lipis. Furthermore, income analysis also applied Poverty Line Income (PLI) to determine the number of participants who are categorized as poor. The analysis using PLI provides the latest poverty situation for the Gahai Agropolitan Project participants.
3.4 Discrete income analysis
Table 4 shows the participants monthly income before and after participating in the Gahai Agropolitan Project. The left side of Table 4 shows the income before participating in the Agropolitan project. The analysis shows the majority of respondents (75.5%) earn income of less than RM1, 000 which is below the poverty line income. There are 17.8% of participants earning incomes of between RM1001 and RM1500 and 4.4% have income of between RM1501 and RM2000. Only 2.2% of participants received income exceeding RM2, 000. The average monthly income of the participants before participating in the Gahai Agropolitan Project is RM920.22. This total income is almost similar to the national PLI.
n = 45
Before
After
Income
Percentage (%)
Income
Percentage (%)
RM500 and below
11.1
RM500 and below
0.0
RM501–RM1000
64.4
RM501–RM1000
8.9
RM1001–RM1500
17.8
RM1001–RM1500
31.1
RM1501–RM2000
4.4
RM1501–RM2000
42.2
RM2000 and above
2.2
RM2000 and above
17.8
Table 4.
Participants’ income before and after participating in Gahai Agropolitan Project.
Source: Field survey, 2017.
The right side of Table 4 also shows the participants income after participating in the Agropolitan Project. The value of the incomes is based on the respondents’ feedback on questions related to the monthly average income earned after participating in the project. The income analysis shows all participants of the Agropolitan project obtain incomes exceeding RM 500 a month. There are 8.9% of the participants of the project receiving incomes between RM501 and RM1000. Most of the respondents had income above PLI which is RM850. A total of 91.1% respondents earned incomes above RM1000. Details on the incomes amount show 31.1% of respondents earn incomes RM1001–RM1500, 42.2% earn incomes between RM1501–RM2000, and 17.8% earn more than RM2, 000 and above. Income comparison before and after participating the project shows a significant increment. The average monthly income of the participant after participating in the Gahai Agropolitan Project was RM1628.33. This average income is higher compared to monthly average income prior to joining the Gahai Agropolitan Project.
3.5 Income parametric analysis
To further strengthen the analysis, the findings of an increase in a participant’s income for involvement in Gahai Agropolitan Project were analyzed using a parametric test, paired sample t-test. The test is carried out using the data of the participants’ income before and after participating in the project. Table 5 shows income differences before and after participating in the Agropolitan project. The analysis show significant differences to the participants’ income with a value of t = 8196 and the value of p = 0.000, indicating that there is a significant income difference before and after participating in the Agropolitan project. Participant’s income increased and significant differences were significant before and after participating in the Gahai Agropolitan Project.
Paired t-test
Pair differences
t-value
Degree of freedom (df)
Significance (two sides)
Average income
Standard deviation
8.190
44
0.000
718.01111
588.08925
Table 5.
Participants’ income difference before and after joining the Gahai Agropolitan Project.
Source: Field survey, 2017.
3.6 Poverty analysis using poverty line income (PLI)
Table 6 shows the poverty analysis for the Gahai Agropolitan Project’s participants using the poverty line income (PLI). Based on the table above, the household is categorized poor should the household receive an income less than the poverty line. This case study applied PLI at a national level in 2014 for Peninsular Malaysia and rural area at RM 840. RM840 value means the households earning incomes less than this value is considered poor. Based on Table 6, 95.6% of the Agropolitan project participants are considered not poor, earning income exceeding RM840 per month. This income is derived from active involvement in the Well-Being Farm which was the main income source. However, there were still poor participants (4.4%). This PLI poverty analysis thus shows a good state whereby participants’ poverty could be addressed as 95.6% of participants have come out of poverty after joining the Gahai Agropolitan Project.
Category
Percentage (%)
Poor
4.4
Not poor
95.6
Table 6.
Gahai Agropolitan Project’s participants poverty based on the poverty line income (PLI).
4. Conclusion
The Agropolitan project implementation as a mechanism for poverty eradication in rural area is a precise effort to eradicate poverty and subsequently be able to break the Vicious Poverty Cycle. Agropolitan project development throughout Malaysia is a recognition of Malaysian government’s effort to improve socio-economic development and improve quality of life and ultimately eradicate poverty, especially in the rural areas. Toward this goal, responsible ministries and agencies, including state government, must have a mechanism in drawing up an effective program for ensuring the goals of the program can be achieved, thus providing positive impacts to participants. The Gahai Agropolitan Project case study has shown how its implementation can contribute to poverty eradication through increasing the participant’s income so that they are able to move out of poverty. In the long run, poverty among the participants and their second-generation households could be eradicated through improved human capital development involving improvement in education and health facilities and sustained by institutional support that would benefit the rural community as a whole.
\n',keywords:"Agropolitan, rural development, poverty eradication",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73029.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73029.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73029",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73029",totalDownloads:392,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"May 27th 2020",dateReviewed:"July 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"October 30th 2020",datePublished:"December 15th 2021",dateFinished:"August 20th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Theoretical discussions on vicious cycle of poverty shows poverty is a societal problem involving various factors and difficult to overcome. Hence, the efforts to resolve it are necessary as it gives negative impression to society and country. In Malaysia, poverty rate in rural areas remain higher than in urban areas. The situation has prompted the government to focus its efforts to eradicate poverty in the rural area. The Agropolitan project is an incentive by Malaysian government, introduced in 2007 to eradicate poverty in rural areas by increasing the income of participants. This chapter will consider the Agropolitan Project of Gahai, Malaysia as a case study. Discussion of the case study for Agropolitan Gahai Project has shown how its implementation can contribute to the alleviation through increasing income of participants whereby participants were not categorized poor and helped them move out of the vicious cycle of poverty.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73029",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73029",signatures:"Mohd Khairi Ismail, Chamhuri Siwar and Muhamad Zahid Muhamad",book:{id:"10142",type:"book",title:"Agricultural Economics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Agricultural Economics",slug:"agricultural-economics",publishedDate:"December 15th 2021",bookSignature:"Ifeoluwapo O. Amao and Iyabo B. Adeoye",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10142.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-538-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-537-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-539-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"223341",title:"Dr.",name:"Ifeoluwapo",middleName:null,surname:"Amao",slug:"ifeoluwapo-amao",fullName:"Ifeoluwapo Amao"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"243316",title:"Prof.",name:"Chamhuri",middleName:null,surname:"Siwar",fullName:"Chamhuri Siwar",slug:"chamhuri-siwar",email:"csiwar@ukm.edu.my",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"320804",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Khairi",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",fullName:"Mohd Khairi Ismail",slug:"mohd-khairi-ismail",email:"drkhairiismail@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"320809",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhamad",middleName:null,surname:"Zahid Muhamad",fullName:"Muhamad Zahid Muhamad",slug:"muhamad-zahid-muhamad",email:"zahid5264@uitm.edu.my",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Vicious cycle poverty theory and agropolitan mechanism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Development of Gahai Agropolitan for rural development and poverty eradication",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Case study: development of the Agropolitan Gahai Project",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Gahai Agropolitan Project participants’ profile",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Agropolitan Projects’ role in poverty eradication",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Discrete income analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Income parametric analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.6 Poverty analysis using poverty line income (PLI)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Chamhuri S, Ferdoushi A, Nor D, Shaharudin I, Amelia H, Siti ZZ. Poverty mapping and assessing socio-demographic characteristics of the households: A case study in Pahang, Malaysia. 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Available from: http://rmk11.epu.gov.my/book/eng/Elevent-Malaysia-Plan/RMKe-11Book.pdf'},{id:"B8",body:'Shaffril HAM, Nasir AFA, Idris K, Uli J, Drsquo JL. Agriculture project as an economic development tool to boost socio-economic level of the poor community: The case of Agropolitan project in Malaysia. African Journal of Business Management. 2010;4(11):2354-2361'},{id:"B9",body:'Ismail MK, Siwar C, Ghazali R. Gahai agropolitan project in eradicating poverty: Multidimensional poverty index. Plan Malaysia. 2018;16(7):97-108'},{id:"B10",body:'Kementerian Luar Bandar dan Wilayah. Laporan Penilaian Outcome Projek Pembangunan Kementerian Luar Bandar dan Wilayah (MRRD). Putrajaya: Ministry of Rural and Regional Development, Malaysia; 2013'},{id:"B11",body:'Jomo KS, Ahmad SK. Teori Pembangunan Ekonomi: Satu Ulasan Kritis Terhadap Pendekatan Yang Sedia Ada. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Utusan Publications; 2004'},{id:"B12",body:'Barke M, editor. Conceptual Frameworks in Geography: Case Study Supplements Case Studies of the Third World. London, United Kingdom: Oliver & Boyd; 1991'},{id:"B13",body:'Gill R. Economic Development: Past and Present. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1963'},{id:"B14",body:'Watkins K, Carvajal L, Coppard D, Fuentes R, Ghosh A, Giamberardini C, et al. United Nations Development Program 2007. Human Development Report; 2007;2:70-75'},{id:"B15",body:'Matin I, Hulme D. Programs for the poorest: Learning from the IGVGD program in Bangladesh. World Development. 2003;31(3):647-665'},{id:"B16",body:'Sachs J. The End of Poverty: How We Can Make It Happen in Our Lifetime. United Kingdom: Penguin UK; 2005'},{id:"B17",body:'Friedmann J, Douglass M. Agropolitan development: Towards a new strategy for regional planning in Asia. In: Growth Pole Strategy and Regional Development Policy [Internet]. United Kingdom: Elsevier; 1978. pp. 163-192. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780080219844500149'},{id:"B18",body:'Friedman JW, Weaver C. C. 1979. Territory and Function: The Evolution of Regional Planning. United Kingdom: British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data; 1989'},{id:"B19",body:'Douglass M. Agropolitan development: An alternative for regional development in Asia. Himalayan Review. 1981;13:37-71'},{id:"B20",body:'Hardoy JE, Satterthwaite D. Small and intermediate urban centres in the third world. What role for government? Third World Planning Review. 1988;3:27-43'},{id:"B21",body:'Buang A, Habibah A, Hamzah J, Ratnawati YS. The agropolitan way of re-empowering the rural poor. World Applied Sciences Journal. 2011;13(13):1-6'},{id:"B22",body:'Zulfa FI, Syamsul M, Endang GS, Tajuddin B, Aris M. Agroindustry based agropolitan institutional design with analytical network process. Journal Teknologi Pertanian. 2009;19(3):130-137'},{id:"B23",body:'Bajracharya BN. Promoting small towns for rural development: A view from Nepal. Asia-Pacific Popul J [Internet]. 1995;10(2):1-13. Available from: https://www.un-ilibrary.org/population-and-demography/promoting-small-towns-for-rural-development-a-view-from-nepal_f9234773-en'},{id:"B24",body:'Murdoch J. Networks - A new paradigm of rural development? Journal of Rural Studies. 2000;16(4)407-419'},{id:"B25",body:'Akkoyunlu S. The potential of rural–urban linkages for sustainable development and trade. Interantional Journal of Sustainable Develpoment and World Policy. 2015;4(2):20-40'},{id:"B26",body:'Krejcie RV, Morgan DW. Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurement. 1970;30(3):607-610'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mohd Khairi Ismail",address:null,affiliation:'
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CHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
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AFFILIATION
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Authors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
Substantially contribute to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
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Participate in drafting or revising the work
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Approve the final version of the work to be published.
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All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
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Conversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
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CHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
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If it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
\n\n
AFFILIATION
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Authors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
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Policy last updated: 2017-05-29
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