Various studies conducted across globe depicting adverse impacts of COVID-19 on mental health.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11888",leadTitle:null,title:"Central Nervous System Tumors",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tCentral nervous system (CNS) tumors; represents a heterogeneous group comprising more than 100 tumor types originating from the brain, cerebellum, brain stem, spinal cord, and meninges. Primary CNS tumors constitute 2% of all cancers in adults and 15-25% in children. Among glial tumors, glioblastoma is the most common in adults and pilocytic astrocytoma in childhood. Embryonal tumors are also more common in children and are called medulloblastoma if they are located infratentorial. Other Primary CNS tumors include; Many tumors such as meningioma, pituitary adenoma, hemangioblastoma, craniopharyngioma, germ cell tumors, mixed glio-neuronal tumors can be counted. Secondary CNS tumors; are extraaxially located metastatic tumors and are observed much more frequently than primary CNS tumors. CNS tumors are classified into four grades, from Stage I to IV, according to the Malignant Scale of the World Health Organization (WHO).
\r\n\tThe WHO classification in 2007; was based on the histogenesis and cell origin of the tumor. In the latest classification made in 2016; to better characterize the tumor and obtain better data on its prognosis; The combination of molecular and genetic biomarkers and histopathological features of the tumor was used. Despite all current treatment approaches, the median survival time is around 12 months in most GBM patients. Compared with the situation of some types of successfully treated cancers; the survival time of GBM patients is not at an acceptable level today. In the treatment of CNS tumors; surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation treatments (x-rays, gamma rays, electron and proton beams) are used. The therapeutic potential of chemotherapy; New strategies are needed to increase drug concentration at the diseased site, as this largely depends on the ability of the chemotherapeutic agent to achieve effective concentrations at tumor localization. Based on our better understanding of the genetic and molecular characteristics of CNS tumors; Targeted therapies, including vaccines, and treatment protocols such as immunotherapy are promising developments.
\r\n\tThis book supposes to be written by many authors who have an internationally honored place in their field to share their ideas about the treatment of CNS tumors. Surgery, Radiotherapy, Chemotherapy and Antiangiogenic Therapy Protocols, Immunotherapy, Molecular Therapy, Specific target-agents therapy with Nanoparticles and Gene Therapy for CNS tumors among the book chapters.
\r\n\tIn these sections; there are many practical pieces of information that can help the students who graduated from the Medicine Faculty and specialist doctors who are interested in Neurosurgery.
Testes or testicles appear as a pair of oval-shaped complex organs enclosed in the scrotum and based behind the penis and in front of the anus. They produce male reproductive cells, spermatozoa, and androgens, the male hormones [1]. Each adult testis weights 12 to 19 g, 4.5x 2.5x 3 cm in dimension and is suspended in the scrotum by a spermatic cord. The rete testis at the mediastinum of the testis connects to the head of epididymis, which is opposed to the testis posteriorly [2].
The tunica albuginea, fibrous capsule, covers each testis. The testis is divided by partitions of the tissue from the tunica albuginea into approximately 250 lobes. Three to ten coiled tubules are inside each lobe. These tubules are called seminiferous tubules containing two different cells population: spermatogenic or germ cells and Sertoli cells surrounded by peritubular myoid cell layer. The stroma between the seminiferous tubules is called the interstitium (interstitial tissue), where located blood and lymphatic vessels, the steroidogenic Leydig cells and other cell types [3, 4].
Each testis is enclosed in a thick fibrous envelope, formed by collagen fibers impregnated with elastic fibers (5% elastin), called tunica albuginea. Besides, it is formed by two layers: outer longitudinal layer and inner circular layer [5].
Because of her contractile properties (erection), the tunica albuginea has different physiological functions: the preservation of the interstitial pressure inside the testis, the support of the spermatozoa movement from the testis to the epididymis, and the regulation of the blood movement through the testis. On the posterior surface of the testis, the tunica albuginea become thicker to form the mediastinum testis from which Septula testis enter the gland, separating it into almost 250 testicular lobules [6].
The basement membrane is a fibrous matrix formed by type IV collagen, glycoproteins and lamin produced by the epithelial cells. It plays a crucial part in keeping up the structural and functional integrity of tissues in the testis [7, 8].
Modified cellular layer structure has been related with extreme function abnormalities of the testis like cryptorchidism, autoimmune orchitis, vasectomy [9].
In human testicular, the outer coat of the seminiferous tubules is formed by several layers of myoid, peritubular cells and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. The cells are peritubular myofibroblast-like cells that encompass the seminiferous tubules to maintain its structural integrity and are capable of tubular contractility and sperm transport [10].
These cells, in adults, express markers for smooth-muscle-like cells similar to the smooth muscle actin [11].
Immunohistochemical studies suggested that the cellular phenotypes differ between the outer and inner layers. After stain, the inner layers showed a smooth muscle phenotype after stain with desmin. While the outer layers were stained with vimentin indicating a connective tissue phenotype [12].
A basal lamina separates the spermatogonial stem cells (SSC) and the peritubular myoid cells (PMC). This can indicate a possible cellular interaction between the PMCs and SSC to maintain the SSCs niche, similarly to Sertoli cells [4]. One of the contribution mechanisms is through the production of secreted factors like glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), that acts in combination with the androgen receptor (AR) [13].
It has also been demonstrated that the PMCs produce colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF-1) in interaction with specific receptor CSF-1R regulate the SSCs activity [4, 14].
Leydig cells called also interstitial cells because they are in the stroma between the seminiferous tubules: the interstitium (interstitial tissue) holding the tubules together within each lobule. This tissue is activated at puberty through the interstitial-cell-stimulating hormone of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland [15].
After stimulation through the luteinizing hormone (LH), the production of testosterone via the Leydig cells increases through the regulation of the expression level of steroidogenic enzymes like the 17-β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase [16].
Testosterone exerts its effects locally by binding to the androgen receptor (AR) within the testis or distantly by binding to androgen binding protein (ABP) which increases its levels in the seminiferous tubules and its carrying to the epididymis [17].
Elevated levels of serum LH, as well as FSH and lowered levels of serum testosterone, suggested Leydig and germ cell failure [18].
The seminiferous tubules are the basic units of the testicles where the SSCs proliferate and differentiate through cyclic events (mitosis, meiosis, postmeiotic spermatid development, and spermiogenesis) to generate spermatozoa in a process called spermatogenesis [19].
In humans, the seminiferous tubules represent about 60% of the total testicle volume and they are about 200 μm in diameter and have a total length of ~600 meters. These seminiferous tubules are composed of the lamina propria (peritubular tissue) with about 80 μm height and the germinal epithelium with about 8 μm thickness [20].
The germinal epithelium composed of large sertoli cells and spermatogonial germ cells. These cells are connected via tight junctions [20].
The stage of the seminiferous epithelium cycle has influence on the architecture of seminiferous tubule sections. In addition, the nerves, lymph vessels and blood vessels do not penetrate the seminiferous tubule and are located only on interstitial tissue [21].
The seminiferous tubules have terminal ends in the mediastinum testis and evacuate via straight tubular extensions called Tubuli seminiferi rect [22].
Enrico Sertoli was the author of the first publication reporting the existence of Seroli cells [23]. Later, numerous reviews in scientific journal and books have been published describing the Sertoli cell morphology and functions, mostly focusing on mammals [24].
In humans, Sertoli cells are crucial for testis physiology [25]. They proliferate during the perinatal and neonatal period, becoming quiescent for several years and having a second peak of proliferation just before puberty [26, 27].
Although, around puberty Sertoli cells stop proliferating and start to differentiate, being therefore able to support full spermatogenesis. The establishment of the Sertoli cell barrier and fluid secretion/lumen formation are clear character of Sertoli cells maturation [23, 25, 28].
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and androgens are considered important factors that regulate Sertoli cell proliferation [25, 29]. In addition, oestrogens, activins, TGF-beta, BMPs, interleukins and TNF- alpha are factors involved by proliferation and differentiation of Sertoli cells [30, 31].
Sertoli cells were identified as ‘nurse cells’ because they are morphologically reshaped by the developing germ cells and have multitude cytoplasmatic processes. Each Sertoli cell is “nursing” approximately 30–50 germ cells at four or five diverse stages of their advancement at any given time throughout the epithelial cycle [32, 33].
Structural characteristics of the Sertoli cells varies among species, such as the heavily vacuolated nucleolus present in some ruminants [34], the nucleus localization in the middle of the seminiferous epithelium in monkeys, the presence of Charcot-Bottcher cristaloids in men [23], and the presence and amount of lipid droplets and glycogen in the Sertoli cell cytoplasm [35].
Therefore, the Sertoli cell shape may vary according to the species and the progression of spermatogenesis and the tasks. As the germ cell requirements changed, interactions and metabolic needs change substantially and accordingly, high variations are detected on the Sertoli cell cytoplasm extension, the number of nuclear pores, the presence and translocation of organelles and the protein expression pattern and location across the different phases of spermatogenesis [36, 37].
On the other hand, the Sertoli cells are considered as “epithelial” cells as they are based on a strikingly thick basal lamina, appear a remarkable design (polar-basolateral-apical) with horizontal cell–cell intersections and border on a luminal space [38].
Although Sertoli cells extend from the basement membrane of the seminiferous tubule into the adluminal compartment, the two tubular compartments are isolated by tight and adherent junction complexes between neighboring Sertoli cells, that works as the major component of the blood-testis barrier (BTB). These junctions generate the required chemical environment for fulfillment of meiosis and spermiogenesis [39].
Besides, the molecular character of Sertoli cells changed from keratin IFs to vimentin IFs during their development and maturation. Also, a wealth of special and rather extended forms of adherents junctions connected Sertoli cells and spermatogenic cells instead of the typical epithelial junctions [38].
Functionally, they play a critical role during the spermatozoa development by supporting and organizing spermatogonial germ cells during different stages of spermatogenesis through secretion of androgen-binding protein and interaction with Leydig cells [23, 28]. In addition, they provide the germ cells with a variety of ions, nutriments, carbohydrates, hormones, and growth factors [40, 41].
The seminiferous tubules connect to the rete testis in a region named: Transition region. This region might be a specific area for immature Sertoli cells [27, 42, 43]. Also, transitional region contain a subpopulation of mitotically active Sertoli cells without differentiation, Sertoli cells markers like transcription factor GATA-4 and the androgen receptor [27, 42, 43, 44]. It can be assumed that adult Sertoli cells population is not morphologically homogeneous. As the transition region presents modified Sertoli cells that exhibit features that resemble undifferentiated Sertoli cells, with less indentations, smaller nucleolus, and more peripheral heterochromatin [45, 46]. Therefore, the dogma that the adult Sertoli cells population constitutes a terminally differentiated population in mammals has been challenged by several recent studies [23, 42, 47, 48].
In addition, because this transitional region of mammalian testis also contains spermatogonial stem cells, it has been supposed that the transition region might be an area where the seminiferous tubules continue to grow in sexually mature individuals [27, 42, 44]. Other indicated that the transition region is a site where seminiferous tubules are originally formed [49].
The spermatogonial stem cell’s niche (SSCs) microenvironment has a complex regulation that involves the vascular network, macrophages, the basement membrane, peritubular myoid cells, and Sertoli cells. Meantime, the stimulation of SSCs differentiation involves Leydig cells [4, 50, 51, 52, 53].
The number of Sertoli cells per testis determines the number of available spermatogonial stem cell niches and, consequently, reflects the magnitude of sperm production capacity. Therefore, this Sertoli cell regulation ensures a proper gem cell homeostasis and regulates the germ cell density observed in the seminiferous epithelium [54].
Depending on the stimulus, a balance between differentiation and self-renewal factors regulates the fate of SSCs that are capable of self-renewal, differentiation and/or entering apoptosis [54].
In mammals, recent studies have demonstrated that the transition region is the closed niche area. The Sertoli cells in this region produce high amount of glial cell-line derived neutrophic factor (GDNF), maintaining the neighboring spermatogonia in an undifferentiated state [44].
Also, the Sertoli cells play a key role in the functional regulation of spermatogonial stem cells niche, where other somatic testicular cells, extracellular matrices and soluble factors actively participate in the complex interaction/signaling with these spermatogonial cells [4].
Several studies have demonstrated that SSCs are usually located in the seminiferous tubules area facing blood vessels of the testis interstitial compartment. It is speculated that FSH, coming from the blood vessels, stimulates Glial cell derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) synthesis of surrounding Sertoli cells [55].
GDNF and fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) are considered as the most important factors for the regulation of SSCs niche. The GDNF drive SSCs to self-renewal by binding glial cell line derived neurotrophic factor family receptor alpha 1 (GFRA1), a membrane receptor located at the surface of undifferentiated spermatogonia [10, 56, 57].
The secretion of GDNF is cyclic and coincident with the differentiation of SSCs to type A spermatogonia that are committed to spermatogenesis (density-dependent regulation), the lowest values of this peptide are found in last development stage near spermiation area [58].
Other important factors produced by Sertoli cells are leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) and wingless-related MMTV integration site 5A (WNT5A), essential peptides that promote spermatogonial stem cell survival [4, 23].
The key qualitative and quantitative determinants of sperm production are firstly the total number of Sertoli cells in the testicles and secondly their proper interactions with spermatogonial germ cells and the total number of these cells per Sertoli cells (Sertoli cell efficiency) [23, 28].
Sertoli cells show distinct capacities to hold germ cell development that varies among species. Each Sertoli cell can support a relatively fixed, species-specific, number of germ cells.
For instance, whereas chinchilla Sertoli cell can support 14 spermatids, each human Sertoli cell is able to support only 3 spermatids, resulting respectively in a huge difference in sperm production per testis gram per day (~60 vs. 4–4.5 million) between these species [1, 23, 25].
However, spermatogenic efficiency continually reduces and this characteristic is highly associated with the Sertoli cell support capacity, which decreases from around 100–150 (in fish) to 3 (in humans) spermatids for each Sertoli cell [23].
The Sertoli cells size and the space that they occupy in the seminiferous epithelium is another important factor to be considered. Species with reduced Sertoli cells occupancy in the seminiferous epithelium like mice for example (~15%), present higher spermatogenic efficiencies when compared to humans (~40%) [1].
Furthermore, the spermatogenic cycle lengths controlled by the germ cell genotype play a crucial role in determining the efficiency of spermatogenesis [1, 59]. The faster the cell differentiation process from spermatogonia to spermatozoa, the higher the daily sperm output is. If the spermatogenic cycle takes about 9 to 12 days, then the total duration of spermatogenesis (that takes almost ~4.5 cycles) will be 40 to 54 days. Spermatogenesis, in humans, takes a quite long duration (~70 days) [1].
However, germ cell loss particularly in mammalian, which is quite frequent during the spermatogonial and meiotic phases of spermatogenesis (DNA damage), influences significantly the total sperm production [60, 61, 62, 63]. Therefore, Sertoli cell efficiency is critical in deciding the frequency of sperm production [1].
Spermatozoa production and maintenance throughout life is very complex and the fine regulation of spermatogenesis is under tight control and regulation [23, 28, 64, 65, 66].
Therefore, interactions among testicular cells, specially between germ cells and Sertoli cells, are crucial to preserve and regulate spermatogenesis in a very coordinated and organized manner, providing all the necessary structural and nutritional support for the developing germ cells. These interactions are important to ensure the development and completion of spermatogenesis [23, 25, 67].
At their different areas/regions, the Sertoli cells present the following contacts and functions with germ cells. In the basal compartment of the seminiferous epithelium, Sertoli cells regulate spermatogonia self-renew and differentiation [68], create contact with spermatocytes on its lateral side and, regulate the meiotic process from the duplication of DNA to the formation of spermatids [69]. In addition, in the adluminal/apical portions, Sertoli cells interact specifically with spermatids, regulate their morphology, controlling spermiation and reabsorb the residual bodies [70].
The germ cells are attached by desmosome-like, ectoplasmic specializations to Sertoli cells. On its basal side Sertoli cells contact spermatogonia through adherens junctions (AJ), guiding their homing, niche, and colonization [24]. At their adluminal aspect, Sertoli cells contact elongated spermatids through ectoplasmatic specialization, organizing the movement of these haploid cells as well as their release during spermiation [24, 71].
Germ cells like spermatocytes and early spermatids are attached by desmosomes and gap junctions. One of the most studied constitutive proteins of the gap junction is connexin 43 [72].
Also, the expression of connexin 43 differs according to the stage of germ cell development, suggesting that a particular group of germ cells can modulate this protein expression in somatic cells [73]. In humans, connexin 43 is observed in Sertoli, spermatogonia and spermatocytes cells, which suggests an accurate communication among these cells [74].
Domke et al. found that the Sertoli cells relate to each other and with the germ cells by special N-cadherin-based AJ-type junctions (Bareae adherents), which in many regions are characterized by cytoplasmic AJ plaques containing proteins p120 and p0071, plakoglobin, and α- and β-catenin [38].
The cycle of the seminiferous epithelium refers to all the cellular interactions that occur between Sertoli cells and developing germ cells within the seminiferous epithelium in both adluminal and basal compartment.
Consequently, various cycles of spermatogenesis coincide within the seminiferous epithelium at each given time. The duration of each cycle is 16 days [75]. In humans, the cycle happens in segments rather than simultaneously around the entire periphery of the seminiferous tubule as occurs in some animals (Figure 1).
The cycle of the seminiferous epithelium in humans (adapted from Amann [
The stages of the cycle of seminiferous epithelium can be differentiated based on meiotic divisions, the arrangement of spermatids in the germinal epithelium and the modification of the spermatid nucleus shape and based on the development of spermatids morphology including the acrosome [77, 78].
The arrangement of stages in the seminiferous tubule of a man is different from that in most other species. The patch work of stages is arranged in a helical pattern, so a single cross section contains cells from more than one stage. Many studies have highlighted the importance of using the seminiferous epithelium cycle (SEC) stages to better understand the kinetics of the seminiferous epithelium (SE) [68, 70].
In most animals there is a wave of spermatogenesis going in an orderly fashion down the seminiferous tubule. In the human, however, there is a mosaic arrangement of the six stages of spermatogenesis [79].
These stages are designed by Roman numerals. Each of these stages has a characteristic spermatid development step. Six stages were identified in cross sections of the seminiferous tubules and were described in the spermatid maturation step and termed as follow: Sa-1 and Sa-2, Sb-1 and Sb-2, Sc-1 and Sc-2. Each one of these stages might be characterized with morphological characteristics (Figure 1) [80].
The spermatogenic wave is a spatial organization along the length of the tubule occurring at a single moment in time. Morphological examination of cross-sections of seminiferous tubules reveals six typical cellular associations based on the type and stage of germ cells present in a given segment. A wave contains all 14 stages of the cycle, as well as any modulations that may be present in that segment of the tubule [76].
Chiquoine was the first to describe the blood-testis barrier (BTB) or the Sertoli cell seminiferous epithelium barrier [81]. BTB is considered as one of the tightest blood-tissue barriers in the human body. It subdivides the seminiferous tubules epithelium into two compartments: the basal compartment and the apical compartment (Figure 2) [71, 82].
The position of the BTB in the seminiferous tubules epithelium (B) of an adult mammalian testis (A) and its physiological relationship with developing germ cells during spermatogenesis (PS, pachytene spermatocyte; RS, round spermatid; ES, elongating spermatid) that are tightly associated with the Sertoli cells (SC) (adapted from Cheng and Mruk [
BTB is constituted almost exclusively by an inter-Sertoli cell junctional complex located near the basement membrane of the seminiferous tubule’s epithelium. Behind the BTB localized the adluminal compartment which is a particular microenvironment that is significantly different from the interstitial space and the systemic circulation [7].
Many researchers have demonstrated that the BTB is established by actin-based tight junction (TJ), gap junction, intermediate filament-based desmosome, as well as basal ectoplasmic specialization (ES) [83, 84, 85].
However, different signaling molecules and signal pathways are controlling the BTB functions [83, 86]. Across the seminiferous epithelium in the testis, cellular events are tightly coordinated as shown by various researchers who demonstrate the existence of a local autocrine-based regulatory axis to coordinate these events. During spermiation this axis coordinates the release of spermatozoa at the apical ES at the luminal edge near the tubule lumen in the adluminal compartment at late stage III, which coincide with the remodeling of the basal ES/BTB to promote and support import of preleptotene spermatocytes that raised in the basal compartment traversing the immunological barrier at stage VIII of the epithelial cycle [1, 21, 87].
There are different types of distinct adherent Junctions (AJs) between the Sertoli cells and spermatogonial cells in the basal part of the Sertoli-Sertoli cells (heterotypic-basolateral junctions), and between Sertoli-Sertoli cells (homotypic), and between the adluminal pockets of the Sertoli cells and the spermatid heads (heterotypic-apical junctions). Therefore, Sertoli cell barrier considered one of tightest barrier in mammals [71].
Tight junctions (TJs) are the main component of the BTB that are found between adjacent Sertoli cells. They divided the seminiferous epithelium into basal compartment harbor spermatogonia and young spermatocytes and adluminal compartments where spermatocytes and spermatids are located [25, 71, 88].
Gap junctions, desmosomes, and two types of adherents junctions, testis-specific (tubulobulbar complexes and ectoplasmic specialization are other components of the sertoli cell barrier [25, 71, 88].
Spermatogenesis takes place stepwise in various segment of the seminiferous epithelium and is associated with extensive Adherent Junctions (AJs) restructuring between Sertoli cells and spermatogonial cells in the basal part of the Sertoli cells (heterotypic-basolateral junctions), and between Sertoli-Sertoli cells (homotypic), as well as between the adluminal pockets of the Sertoli cells and the spermatid heads (heterotypic-apical junctions) [41].
Spermatogonial renewal, differentiation, and cell cycle progression up to the preleptotene spermatocyte stage developed in the basal compartment of the epithelium outside the BTB.
These BTB undergoes reconstruction to allow the transit of preleptotene spermatocytes connected by intercellular bridges as clones at stage VIII of the seminiferous epithelial cycle of spermatogenesis [87, 89].
Therefore, preleptotene spermatocytes are the germ cells that pass the BTB as clones linked by intercellular bridges, that will differentiate into spermatocytes (zygotene and diplotene), to be pursued by two meiotic divisions (meiosis I and II) to form haploid spermatids in the apical compartment behind the BTB [89].
Meiosis I and II, spermiogenesis, and spermiation all take place in a specialized microenvironment in the adluminal compartment behind the BTB [71].
Therefore, the passage across the Sertoli cell barrier is a remarkable achievement, because the spermatocytes are no single cells, but form syncytia in which the cells are connected through cytoplasmic bridges [90].
Smith and Braun have provided critical insights of the molecular mechanism underlying this process. They revealed that an intermediate compartment enclosing the migrating spermatocytes was formed by “new” and “old” TJs above and below the spermatocytes, respectively [91].
Claudin-3 was transiently incorporated into the new tight junctions (TJs) and then replaced by claudin-11. Dissolution of the old TJs released the spermatocytes into the adluminal compartment. Also, when the syncytium moves toward the adluminal compartment, the BTB is opened on the adluminal side and is simultaneously closed on the basal side, at all to prevent the barrier from becoming leaky [91].
Therefore, BTB barrier created to protect germ cells undergoing meiosis from autoimmune reaction. The blood testes barrier was identified as a major barrier between the germinal epithelium and the interstitium of the testis. Also, this barrier established an immune privileged environmental with the seminiferous tubules [23, 42, 92].
By dividing the seminiferous epithelium, the BTB selectively inhibits the passage of many substances included in the general circulation [39, 93].
However, as a barrier, TJs restrict free passage of water, solutes, and ions. As a fence, TJs divide the plasma membrane into basolateral and apical regions, which confers cell polarity [94, 95, 96].
Nevertheless, during spermiogenesis, less than 25% of haploid spermatids become spermatozoa and at spermiation, could be liberated into the tubule lumen. The other portion of spermatids undergoes apoptosis [61, 97].
Spermatogenesis is a very well-organized temporal process. It included different steps leading to a chronological evolution from totipotent, primitive stem cells (spermatogonial stem cells, SSCs) to a spermatogonium transformed to a specialized cell: Spermatozoon. Also, spermatogenesis is a highly organized process in which the germ cells go through several divisions and intricate differentiation steps, resulting in the production of the spermatozoa (Figure 3) [80].
Different steps of spermatogenesis leading from spermatogonia to spermatozoon.
Germ cell development is a lengthy and complex process that starts with specification in the early embryo and proceeds through stages of migration, proliferation, epigenetic reprogramming, sex differentiation, and gametogenesis to ultimately produce mature oocyte or sperm [98].
Therefore, Germ cells have a pivotal role in development by transmitting genetic information to the next generation. During germ cell development, epigenetic marks are erased and subsequently re-established during gametogenesis [99].
Embryonic bipotent primordial germ cells (PGCs) are among the first lineages established in early embryonic development, and the successful passage of these dedicated precursors from their birthplace to the developing gonad (gonad primordia) ensures an adequate supply of gametes for reproduction in the adult [100, 101, 102].
In the embryo, PGCs migrate from the proximal epiblast to the gonadal ridge, where they are enclosed by Sertoli and peritubular myoid cells, forming the seminiferous cords. In the developing seminiferous cords, the PGCs become gonocytes, which home to the basement membrane of the seminiferous tubules, where they differentiate into spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) and initiate self-renewing divisions [103].
In other words, Primordial germ cells (PGC) take up residence at the testicular tubules during embryonic development, and undergo mitotic proliferation and differentiation, to become the spermatogonial stem cells which stand at the basis of spermatogenesis, starting at the onset of puberty [103]. By the end of PGC migration, around 5% of migratory cells remain outside the gonad and later undergo apoptosis [104].
During their migration however, heterogeneity of cellular behavior is observed due to change in cellular morphology from the time of specification to colonization [100].
SSCs, precursors originate from the PGCs, are usually located in a distinct position inside the seminiferous epithelium, referred to as the spermatogonial stem cell niche [105, 106].
SSCs within their niche either self-renew, remain quiescent, or generate spermatogonia committed to differentiation [4, 51, 107, 108].
Immature (fetal/neonatal) SSC precursors are commonly referred to as gonocytes or prospermatogonia, which are considered quiescent from the time of colonizing the seminiferous cords. This quiescence continues until they re-enter the cell cycle, migrate to the basement membrane, and undergo maturation and differentiation, either to constitute the SSC pool or differentiate into spermatogonia that will later become sperm [109, 110, 111].
Therefore, spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs) are the basis of spermatogenesis and maintain the continuous sperm production required for male fertility [107, 112].
More than a decade is required for prepubertal testis development and gonadal maturation in humans, generally characterized by the existence of a juvenile pause and an extended time span of prepubertal development [113, 114, 115].
Testicular tissue reactivation at the puberty, called gonadarche (earliest gonadal changes), occurs between 9 and 13 years in human. Before gonardache, there is a period of gonadal dormancy, characterized by low gonadotropin secretion, minimal testosterone secretion, discontinued Sertoli cell proliferation, and variable mitotic activity of germ cells human [116, 117, 118].
In humans, the neonatal maturation of the testis in mammals is commonly characterized by an early testosterone peak. The testosterone peak occurs after several months [119, 120].
It is associated with the movement of gonocytes to the basement membrane. Hence, this migration toward the basement membrane can take up to nine months [121]. Some studies have reported some spermatogonial heterogeneity neonatally and the appearance of differentiating spermatogonia prior to puberty [103].
The first phase in spermatogenesis is the proliferation and differentiation of spermatogonia.
The fetal spermatogonia develop first into transitional spermatogonia and then to spermatogonial stem cells forming the spermatogonial stem cell niche and located in the basal compartment of seminiferous tubule. These are classified into three categories: dark type (Adark), pale type (Apale) and type B spermatogonia [55].
Type Adark spermatogonia reproduce via mitosis to generate both dark and pale spermatogonia. Throughout adult live, undifferentiated Apale Spermatogonia (Apale) periodically divide, giving rise to B spermatogonia (B). The Adark spermatogonia (Adark) are quiescent reserve cells [80].
Another proliferative spermatogonia type include type A isolated spermatogonia (Aisolated) which divided to form the type Apaired spermatogonia (Apaired). After 4 mitotic divisions, 16 cells of type A aligned spermatogonia (Aaligned) are formed will differentiate into A1 spermatogonia to be followed by 6 mitotic divisions to form 1024 preleptotene spermatocytes [1].
However, some of type A spermatogonia transform to differentiated type A spermatogonia (A1, A2, A3, A4), intermediate spermatogonia (In) and then type B spermatogonia (B) (Figure 3) [1, 112].
It is important to mention that during the different stages of spermatogenesis, the spermatogonia remain connected by intercellular bridges to ensure the synchronization of the germ cell maturation and the biochemical interactions [122].
Besides, it is not yet clear if all cells within the type A spermatogonia pool are true spermatogonial stem cells because different studies have found counts that were significantly lower than the ones originally disclosed. Approximately 1/12–1/15 of the pool appears to be composed of true spermatogonial stem cells [51, 123].
Spermatocytogenesis phase include the meiotic phase, in which primary spermatocyte in the basal compartment undergo meiosis I and meiosis II to give rise to haploid spermatids that are released from the seminiferous epithelium at spermiation area [77, 124].
Mitosis involves the proliferation and maintenance of spermatogonia. The mitotic phase involves spermatogonia (types A and B) and primary spermatocytes (spermatocytes I). Primary spermatocytes are produced by developing germ cells interconnected by intracellular bridges through a series of mitotic divisions. The tight junction barrier supports an early spermatocyte within the basal compartment and all subsequent germ cells within the adluminal compartment.
Type B spermatogonia undergo mitosis to produce primary spermatocytes, secondary spermatocytes, and spermatids. At stage VII of the epithelial cycle, type B spermatogonia differentiate into preleptotene, followed by leptotene spermatocytes, which are the primary diploid spermatocytes that cross the BTB while differentiating into zygotene spermatocytes at stages VIII-IX [125, 126].
Once in the adluminal compartment, spermatocytes undergo two consecutive rounds of meiosis at stage XIV. During the first meiotic division (reduction division), the primary spermatocytes divided to form secondary spermatocytes. The spermatocyte needs almost 26 days to be mature. Spermatocytes type I undergoes a long prophase in the first division, therefore they have the longest life span. The prophase of the second meiotic division is very short, thus secondary spermatocytes have a short life span [80].
To obtain a hydrodynamic sperm head and to protect the paternal genome from any modifications during his journey through the male and female reproductive tracts, the human sperm DNA, in early spermiogenic phases, undergoes major cellular and nuclear changes [97].
Spermiogenesis is the process of differentiation of the spermatids into spermatozoa with fully compacted chromatin. A process of metamorphosis occurs from a round cell with typical organelles to a highly specialized, elongated cell. Later, the spermatid undergoes a series of morphological changes (Head, midpiece and tail) and their chromatin structure and function change [97].
The spermatid undergoes the Golgi phase, which is marked by the formation of the polarity. The head is at one end covered by Golgi apparatus developed later to acrosome and contain the synthesized proteolytic enzyme. The midpiece is at the other end, in which the mitochondria accumulates and one of the centriole pair elongates to form the tail or flagellum [97].
The post meiotic phase, progressive condensation of the chromatin occurs with inactivation of the genome. The meiotic phase involves primary spermatocytes until spermatids are formed, and during this process, chromosome pairing, crossover, and genetic exchange take place until a new genome is determined. Meiosis consists of two successive divisions to yield four haploid spermatids from one diploid primary spermatocyte. After the first meiotic division (reduction division), each daughter cell contains one partner of the homologous chromosome pair, and they are called secondary spermatocytes (2n). These spermatids are haploid with (22, X) or (22, Y) chromosome and undergo complete differentiation/morphogenesis known as Spermiogenesis [127].
During this process, morphological changes, chromatin structural and functional modifications occur once the process of meiosis is completed (Figure 4).
Developmental changes in the spermatid [
Sperm cells are remarkably different from somatic cells in their chromatin structure. During spermatogenesis, the majority of histones replace transition proteins and protamine (small highly basic proteins bound to the sperm DNA) [128].
So, in early spermiogenic phases, a major chromatin packaging takes place. The nucleosome-bound DNA configuration will be first destabilized by hyperacetylation of the canonical histones, which will neutralize the positive charge of lysine, reducing their affinity for DNA and by the DNA topoisomerase II (topo II), which will cause double and single DNA strands breaks to reduce the tension of the DNA [129].
The chromatin in the elongated nucleus became ten times more compacted than the chromatin in the nucleus of a somatic cell through progressive modifications (Figure 5) [130].
A representation of the difference in the chromatin packaging between a somatic cell (left) and a sperm (right). The chromatin converted from a nucleo-histone structure (solenoid loop) into nucleo-protamine structure (toroid: Doughnut loop).
Post-translational modifications of the proteins facilitated the transition histone-protamine: Acetylation, ubiquitination, and phosphorylation of histone H4, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of the transition proteins. (Adapted from Braun [130]).
Sperm chromatin is tightly packaged by protamines, while up to 15% of the histones remain in the mature human spermatozoa [131], these retained histones within the sperm nucleus possibly have a contribution on sperm function [132].
It concerns mainly the transcription sites of genes in sperms that are important for the preservation of the paternal genome epigenetics for their later expression during the early embryonic development [133]. The regulatory sequences [134], microRNA clusters, Transcription factors, paternally imprinted genes [132], the centromeric and telomeric DNA [135], retroposons [136], matrix associated regions [137], genes that produces rRNA, are transcribed at the final stages of spermatogenesis [138].
In fact, there are imprinted genes in the male genome, epigenetic changes in the DNA and nucleoproteins that edit the chromatin to make it ready for the control of the embryonic growth and development [139] and step by step the chromatin will be genetically silenced in the spermatozoa [140].
Also, after spermatocytogenesis, the chromatin structural changes will be more obvious when two smaller more basic proteins (10–20% lysine and arginine) named “Transition proteins” TP1 and TP2 are synthesized and deposed at the mid-stage of spermatids formation (Figure 5).
TP2 (13KDa) appears in step 1 and TP1 (6,2KDa) appears in step3. At this time, most of the core histones are eliminated, and the chromatin structure becomes more condensed. As their name indicate these proteins stay only for a short period of time attached to the DNA [141].
The transition proteins are then replaced by sperm-specific nuclear basic proteins (protamines), which are a synthesis in the last spermatid stage and play a vital role in the condensation and stabilization of sperm chromatin [142].
Humans sperm contain two protamines, protamine 1 (P1) and protamine 2 (P2), both are expressed in roughly similar quantities with a mean P1/P2 ratio of approximately 1.0 [143].
The sperm protamine 1 (P1) (51 AA) is the first to be synthesized as a mature protein [144]. The protamine 2 (P2) is formed as a precursor which is twice size as P1 (101 residues) and undergoes cleavage by proteolysis after its deposition onto sperm DNA to eliminate a short fragment of peptide [145]. Nanassy et al. suggested a clinical value of the protamine ratio between 0.54 and 1.43 for a fertile, normozoospermic man [146]. Any change in the ratio P1/P2 or between histone and protamines in the human sperm will be associated with the low compaction of human chromatin, which results in DNA fragmentation, lower fertilization rates, and reduced pregnancy rates [143, 147, 148]. Finally, a mature spermatid frees itself from the Sertoli cells and in a process called spermiation and enters the seminiferous tubule as a spermatozoon.
Spermatogenesis is controlled through several hormones. The first control is through a neurological pathway; the gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) secreted by the hypothalamus stimulate the adenohypophysis to secret the luteinizing hormone (LH) and the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). The LH stimulates the Leydig cells to produce the Testosterone, and the FSH assists the Sertoli cells to support the spermatozoa during the different phases of spermatogenesis. Beside FSH and LH there are other hormones which plays crucial roles during spermatogenesis like the prolactin, and the growth hormone (Figure 6) [80].
Hormonal regulation of spermatogenesis.
Besides, anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH), which promotes the regression of Müller’s ducts as the male foetus develops produced by Sertoli cells [149, 150]. In addition, inhibin and activin secreted by Sertoli cells, Activin increases the FSH levels needed for semen production. Whereas Inhibin regulate FSH secretion by the hypothalamus and helps maintain testicular homeostasis [149]. Sertoli cells only syndrome is characterized by the exclusive presence of Sertoli cells (without germ cells) in seminiferous tubules, making spermatogenesis impossible [151].
Furthermore, Leydig and Sertoli cells produce reproductive steroid hormones. Leydig cells secrete several different types of androgens, including dihydrotestosterone and testosterone, which modulate the development and maturation of spermatozoa [152].
The novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) has become the fifth pandemic reported since 1918 Spanish flu pandemic. COVID-19 first reported in December 2019, Wuhan, China and is caused by a virus called severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) It is an enveloped and spherical virus containing a positive-sense single-stranded RNA genome and belongs to the subfamily Coronavirinae. Like many other respiratory viruses, coronavirus is transmitted through droplets projected out during breath, cough or sneeze. The symptoms of respiratory tract infections vary from mild cold to severe acute respiratory distress [1]. It crept in silently and subsequently spread at a rapid pace progressing into a pandemic.
The Coronavirus Disease was unprecedented in recent history with a high rate of morbidity, mortality, loss of income and sustained social isolation for billions of people. Now it has been affecting the world at an alarming rate, unfolding a tsunami of changes and leaving it in shambles, at the same time triggering a global collaboration to disease containment. Being a novel disease, COVID-19 has presented itself as a mystery infection to the health and research field. SARS-CoV-2 has a tendency for genetic evolution resulting in quick mutation and multiple variants that may have different features compared to its ancestral strains. The coronavirus has created frequent challenges ranging from virus isolation, detection, prevention, vaccine development to clinical and mental health issues. Besides, the tremendous research and insights about nature of virus, the studies regarding short term and long-term consequences on mental and psychological health of the community need to be focused.
To restrict the rate of both infections and death of fellow-citizens from COVID-19 and meanwhile also to prepare ourselves for the pandemic of such a magnitude, inter-individual physical contacts were restricted in the form of social lockdown. Under this situation, minimal and only emergency movement of general public was allowed. The central objective was to forbid people from two different families or nearby inhabitants to come in close contact with each other and thus break the cycle of infection [2]. Following this there was a significant reduction in the growth rate and increase in doubling time of cases [3]. But this swift change in people’s daily life in the form of loss of freedom and dissociation from family members led to dramatic consequences. Confinement of physical space, lack of mobility, fear of contraction, loss of income, hopelessness and growing ambiguity along with uncertainty and unpredictability over the disease were some of the observed collective experiences affecting the wellbeing during lockdown [4]. COVID-19 led to roughly 5–20% contraction of global economy which could result in an increased poverty rate for the first time since 1990 with Asia, Africa and Latin America enduring the hardest blow [5]. Factories and industries were shut down forcing thousands of informal workers to return back to their native villages in absence of any form of conveyance. A survey conducted by International Labor Organization in April 2020 estimated roughly 2.5 crores job loss in 2020 alone worldwide due to the pandemic, predicting a deep economic crisis in coming days. The situation of Crises often reveals the structural inequalities present in the social and political dimensions (such as the unequal distribution of resources or the uneven delivery of healthcare). United States unemployment rates rose and the country neared a recession and as the pandemic progressed it created a situation of socioeconomic crisis which was reflected across the borders. Unemployment rate in urban India rose to 20.9% during the April–June quarter of 2020 pushing over 40 crores informal workers jobless [6]. Roughly 80 million children of under 1 year missed their routine vaccination while an estimated 38% increase in maternal mortality was registered due to health system disruption resulting from COVID [5]. This sudden human tragedy required heavy adjustment and was difficult to adapt quickly as we humans are gregarious in nature and always need social connect in our lives especially during a crisis [4]. This was the largest psychological experiment ever conducted as 1/3rd of the world’s population was living under some kind of lockdown, dealing with an intense stressor called “loneliness” [7].
According to the World Health Organization (W.H.O)., mental health is a “state of wellbeing in which an individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with normal stressors of life, work positively and fruitfully and is able to make a contribution to his or her community” [8]. Keyes identified 3 components of mental health: emotional, psychological and social well-being and its definition is said to be influenced by the culture that defines it [9].
Psychological distress, a common mental health disorder is defined as a state of emotional suffering typically characterized by symptoms of depression and anxiety [10]. An important point to remember here is that, mental health can change over time, and depends heavily over the prevailing conditions. More so, when the demand exceeds the resource of coping abilities, it is heavily impacted. People became vulnerable to psychological impact of COVID-19 infection due to both the pandemic and its cascading consequences worldwide including lockdown and economic recession. It negatively affected people’s mental health and created new barriers for ones already suffering from mental illness. A broad body of work links social isolation and loneliness to both poor mental and physical health. Loneliness and frustration seemed to originate from inhibition of daily activities, interruption of social necessities and inability to indulge in social networking, leading to psychological distress and progressing to unhealthy ways of coping in form of overeating and substance abuse [11]. This abrupt situation exposed that individuals were largely emotionally unprepared to the detrimental effects of biological disasters and everyone was feeling frail and helpless. It had a remarkable and variable psychological impact in various countries, depending on the phase of the pandemic. Also, certain features were distinct to psychological presentations of the catastrophe. First, the overlapping of psychological issues was very frequent i.e. anxious people may also have depression and smoke or drink alcohol to reduce the problem. Second, normal individuals presented with psychological problems were overwhelmed by an exceptional stressor. And thirdly, a huge number of people presenting with pandemic associated psychological disturbances got better naturally over time or with brief psychological support. As a consequence, these presentations did not necessarily lead to an overtly psychiatric diagnosis. A report published by W.H.O. following a survey conducted on 130 countries provides the first global data screening the devastating impact of COVID-19 in form of compromised access to mental health services, reduced compliance and poor supervision of patients leading to disruption of mental health services in nearly 93% of countries worldwide, while the demand kept on increasing, underscoring the urgent need for surge in funding [12]. Unfortunately, in a frantic search for biological cure and vaccines against the virus, these issues were all the more neglected, contributing to an increased public health burden. Forced into physical separateness we were united by a common trauma, a common fear as all of us were terrified for our own safety and that of our loved ones.
Previous researches reveal profound and wide range of impact on mental health of individuals, communities and countries, during past outbreak of infectious diseases primarily on disease survivors (Ebola, SARS) [13]. Studies report adverse psychological symptoms in the form of mood alteration, insomnia, anger and emotional exhaustion. The psychological trauma of bereavement during Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) outbreak showed that surviving individuals were stigmatized, marginalized and socially isolated even after successful treatment [11]. Literature published during Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak a decade ago suggested 50% of health care workers (HCW) were at an increased risk of acute distress syndrome (ADS) during these periods [14]. Moreover, long term behavioral changes in the form of vigilant hand washing and avoidance of crowds many months even after quarantine have been reported, depicting that pandemic and isolation has a definite long-term impact on the mental health of humans [15].
The emotional and psychological effects of COVID-19 outbreak ranged from biological factors like the neurotropic effects of SARS-CoV-2 (causative agent of COVID-19) and involvement of limbic system along with its psychological factors of fear, discomfort, uncertainty, anger, addiction, socioeconomic issues of isolation, xenophobia, stigma, domestic-violence, loss of livelihoods and constraint of open spaces. Global studies have established COVID-19 to be increasingly associated with neuropsychiatric manifestations such as delirium, anxiety, depressive disorders, insomnia and incidences of increased self-harm. Meanwhile, COVID-19 itself can progress to neurological and mental complications like delirium, stroke, cerebrovascular accidents, seizures and agitation that can have added psychiatric associations. Further on, those with pre-existing psychiatric conditions might be at increased risk of COVID infection due to lack of supervision and inadequate compliance to many precautionary measures [16]. The emotional outcome of subjects who were quarantined compared to those who were not, shows presence of acute stress disorder, anxiety, irritability, insomnia, boredom, poor concentration and performance, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and nervousness. Other psychological reactions reported during mass quarantine were generalized fear, collective hysteria and pervasive community anxiety. These symptoms are typically associated with disease outbreaks and escalation of new cases, together with inadequate anxiety provoking information provided by the media [15]. Reports of people emptying supermarkets and panic buying was indicative of their escalated levels of anxiety [4]. Anxiety may be related to sensorial deprivation and pervasive loneliness initially in the form of insomnia and later progressing to depression and PTSD. Moreover, other health measures get compromised in presence of abnormally elevated anxiety. The butterfly effect of increased anxiety and depression could also lead to a global increase in chronic illnesses including heart-disease-related deaths as people diagnosed with depression are up to five-times more likely to die within six months of having had a heart attack than those without depression [17]. Factors associated with a greater psychological vulnerability seem to be more important than factors associated with the risk of infection in predicting mental health consequences of the pandemic. Furthermore, symptoms of the infection, such as fever, myalgia, hypoxia and cough, as well as adverse effects of treatment, such as insomnia caused by corticosteroids, led to feelings of fear of contracting COVID-19 causing worsening of anxiety and mental distress. As mental and physical health are equally important and closely connected, a sound state of mental health plays a crucial role in people’s ability to maintain good physical health. Table 1 shows the various research conducted globally to study the impact of COVID -19 on mental health.
Sl. No. | Study | Sample characteristics | Research tool | Outcome |
---|---|---|---|---|
1. | Varshney et al. [18] | Cross- sectional study of 1106 participants across India | IES(R) | One-third participants had psychological impact (mostly mild) which was higher in younger age group and female participants |
2. | Khanna et al. [19] | 2355 Ophthalmologists | Mean patient health questionnaire score | One-third participants had depressive symptoms (mostly mild). Predictor of depression being young age, gender, marital status and profession |
3. | Chandu et al. [20] | 307 participants | COVID-19 related Anxiety scale | Higher anxiety in lower educational qualification group |
4. | Narsimhan et al. [21] | Hospital based study with 96 alcoholic middle-aged males | Changepoint analysis | 95% participants reported alcohol withdrawal symptoms due to sudden cessation of alcohol during lockdown. |
5. | Roy et al. [22] | Cross- sectional study with 662 participants in Indian Population | Online Semi-Structured Questionnaire | 80% participants were preoccupied with thoughts of COVID-19. 72% reported overuse of gloves and sanitizer, 37.8% had paranoia about acquiring the infection, 36.4% had distress related to social media and 12.5% had sleep disturbances |
6. | Grover et al. [23] | Cross sectional study with 1685 participants | PHQ-9, GAD-7 Warwick Edinburgh mental well- being scale | 74.1% had moderate stress, 40.5% had either depression or anxiety, 38.2% had anxiety and 10.5% had depression |
7. | Chakarborty and Chatterjee [24] | Regional survey of 507 participants from West Bengal, India | Self-designed questionnaire | 71.8% and 24.7% showed increased worries and depressive symptoms during pandemic. 69.6% were worried about the financial loss, 30.8% perceived higher health anxiety and feared it to continue post lockdown |
8. | Chatterjee et al. [25] | Cross sectional study of 152 doctors | DASS-21 | 34.9%, 39.5% and 32.9% were depressed, anxious and stressed respectively. Stigma and discrimination against frontline workers were important factors contributing to stress. |
9. | Mohindra et al. [26] | 3083 HCWs across north India | Interview | 23.9% of HCWs reported anxiety disorder and 20% depression which was higher in females, aged and unmarried participants |
10. | Wang et al. [27] | 1210 participants across China | IES(R) and DASS-21 scales | 53.8% participants had a psychological impact (moderate or severe); 16.5%, 28.8% and 8.1% reported moderate to severe depression, anxiety and stress |
11. | Rehman et al. [28] | 403 participants | Family affluence scale, Response accuracy scale and DASS | Students and HCWs had higher depression, anxiety and stress, which was negatively correlated with family affluence. |
12 | Gao et al. [29] | Cross sectional study of 4827 participants China | GAD-7, WHO-5 | 22.6% had anxiety while 48.3% suffered from depression |
13 | Gonzalez Sanguino et al. [30] | Cross sectional study of 3480 participants across Spain | GAD-2, PCL-C-2, PHQ-2 | 21.6% had Anxiety, 18.7% had Depression while 15.8% had PTSD symptoms |
14 | Mazza et al. [31] | Cross-sectional study of 2766 participants conducted in Italy | DASS-21 | 18.7% suffered from anxiety, 32.7% Depression and 27.2% had stress |
15 | Sonderskov et al. [32] | Cross-sectional study of 2458 participants conducted in Denmark | WHO-5 | 25.4% suffered from Depression |
Various studies conducted across globe depicting adverse impacts of COVID-19 on mental health.
Zhao et al. highlighted that even close contacts of people with COVID-19 experienced distress and prolonged mental health consequences including severe depression and chronic fatigue in the post-COVID period in a study comprising 1169 close contacts. The study revealed that old age, heavy financial loss and perception of poor health were significantly associated with depression in them while the cause of fatigue reported was frequent use of mass media [33]. Among the varied corollaries of the pandemic, one among them was diametrically opposite incidences of both alcohol abuse as well as alcohol withdrawal symptoms in different circumstances due to sudden lockdown. The migrant labourers who represent 4.7% of the global labour workforce along with refugees, having limited access to healthcare, living in overcrowded environments, working in marginalized sectors and lacking workplace and social protection were the worst sufferers of pandemic and economic shutdown [16]. Researches depict that people working on site, within lower income bracket, job loss and households with children under the age of 18 yrs. were more likely to report negative mental health outcome in form of anxiety, stress or depression [34]. Lack of authentic information, dissatisfaction with fulfillment of basic needs, poor sleep quality, ambiguity about SARS-CoV-2 and a relatively lower confidence in health care fraternity could be the stipulated reason for ongoing extreme stress.
Even though the SARS-CoV-2 was considered a public health calamity, certain sections of the society were at clearly defined risk and the morbidity as well as mortality correlated well with age, sex, profession and socio-economic conditions. This exposed the existing socio-economic, gender, ethnic and health inequities present in the social determinants of health community and exacerbated it some extent [35].
In March 2020, schools across India were shut down to curb the transmission of infection. But now, children have been at home for longer periods of time than ever before in recent memory. Closure of schools led to disruption of their daily routine along with lack of extracurricular and outdoor activities. This sudden unexpected change caused altered eating and sleep habits, anguish, irritation and lack of peer time fostering monotony and diverse neuropsychiatric symptoms in them. Commonly reported psychological problems among them were inattention, clinginess, boredom, irritability, restlessness, nervousness, distraction and stress about the pandemic with the risk greatly increasing in those already suffering from some form of mental disorder. The domino effect of school closure on children is shown in Figure 1.
Depicting the domino effect of school closure on children.
The social disruption which happened due to job loss, progressed to financial insecurity and threatened loss of loved ones impacting the quality of family relationship between parents and children causing a significant risk of adjustment to more than 370 million children in India, given their dependence on positive family processes for a host of developmental outcomes [30]. As COVID deaths among adults occurred within weeks, the families had little or no time to prepare for mental trauma and agony that a child underwent in a case of death of a parent or caregiver. An estimated 1.5 million children globally, experienced orphanhood either due to sudden death of their parents or death of their custodian grandparents or kin due to COVID-19. Such children usually face poverty, physical, emotional and sexual violence apart from depression, family separation and institutionalization in upcoming days [36]. Although home is the safest place for a child, physical, sexual and psychological abuse saw a significant rise in numbers and severity during the pandemic leading to heightened child abuse related hospitalizations. Child abuse leads to immediate emotional and psychological problems and an adverse childhood experience linked to possible mental illness, substance abuse and suicidal ideation later in life.
Young adults (<35 yrs.) experienced pandemic related consequences in form of closure of universities, uncertainty about future, financial crisis and space crunch that contributed to poor mental health. The stigmatizing psychological pressure of performance during the timespan when universities were shut led to aggravated feeling of guilt, shame, regret, sadness, self-pity, anger, internalized emotions, overwhelmed feelings, negative self-talk, unrealistic expectations and perceived sense of failure among the ones who could not perform due to various reasons [11]. Some of the reviewed studies have highlighted increased correlation of social media exposure with psychological issues like hampered social communication, sleep deprivation and increased gaming behavior, that was inversely related to physical activity in students and finally impairing their overall health [16]. Researches from prior economic downturns show that job loss is associated with increased depression, anxiety, distress and low self-esteem leading to higher rates of substance abuse and “deaths of despair”. A study done on 1543 respondents to assess the prevalence of distress found 21–35 years old more prone to distress as compared to other age groups, maybe due to heavy pressure of managing finances along with reduced resilience and coping mechanisms [4, 33].
Older adults were susceptible both to the virus and to its psychological impact as they have unique physical, psychosocial and environmental vulnerabilities owing to frailty [37]. Latest reports from Nature Medicine quoted those below 30 and above 59 years were 0.6 and 5.1 times more likely to die after developing symptoms respectively. According to the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), people having chronic illness such as chronic lung diseases, asthma, serious heart conditions and diabetes are at an increased risk of COVID-19. Moreover, mental health disorders are a common comorbidity among older adults, which may get exacerbated by their fear and trepidation of being vulnerable to severe illness from COVID-19 [34]. This form of stress is associated with reduction in immunity compounding the already weakened physiological defense systems in an elderly. Recently, a study found that 18% individuals who received a COVID-19 diagnosis were later diagnosed with a mental health disorder such as anxiety or mood disorder and both was found to have a higher prevalence in the older age group as compared to middle aged and youngsters [38]. Neglected older people can even serve as vulnerable ‘hidden pockets’ of viral load that can contribute to increased infection spread due to under-reporting of the psychiatric symptoms in them. This leads to under-detection of symptoms, faulty treatment and increased prevalence of them being asymptomatic carriers. Higher viral load and virulence among geriatrics increases the fatality rate from 3.6% in 60–69 yrs. suddenly to 18% in more than 80 years [37]. Loneliness, especially when chronic and associated with lack of physical activity is a potent risk factor for depression and cognitive disorders. In 2018, an estimated 27% adults aged 65 and above were reportedly living alone [34]. In face of older elderlies not being well-versed with technology, their inability to conduct virtual meetings led to increase distancing during the pandemic. Finally, the social stigma of ageism magnified by COVID-19 outbreak led to marginalization, segregation, abuse, increased institutionalization and suicidal ideation among senior citizens. Banerjee et al. has shown increased depressive disorders, PTSD and adjustment reactions in geriatrics due to the pandemic [38]. On the other hand, poor perception of one’s own health could lead to health-related anxiety which may further result in depression, headache, insomnia, and even suicidal tendency in the aged [33].
Females reported elevated distress due to closure of schools and day care with increased household chores along with their regular professional work during times of crisis and quarantine. Apart from this, women also faced the brunt of domestic violence, which was reportedly at an all-time high since last 10 yrs. in India during COVID lockdown [30]. Generally, both prior to and during the pandemic, women have reported higher rates of anxiety and depression compared to men. Further, it was observed that the recovery rate of unemployment post-national lockdown in India was lower in case of females as compared to males and the gaps seems to have widened [6].
It appears that disaster management workforce was itself not immune to the psychological consequences of the pandemic. While others were under strict vigil of lockdown and quarantine, the local hospitals continued to receive suddenly thousands of critically ill COVID-19 patients and were forced to implement their emergency protocols [15]. With overwhelming hospitals and a rapidly increasing demand along with supply shortage, frontline HCW were put to immense stress. Previous studies on the infectious outbreaks of SARS, MERS and Ebola have revealed the severity of emotional distress among medical practitioners and law enforcing agents who faced PTSD, depression, anxiety, exhaustion and burnout at the onset, during and even after the outbreak of such epidemics [11]. A study conducted on 1563 health professionals found roughly half of them to suffer from depression, whereas 44.7% and 36.1% from anxiety and sleep disturbances. Higher depression, anxiety and acute overall psychological burden was reported particularly in those directly diagnosing and treating COVID cases [34]. Spoorthy et al. suggested that 68.7%–85.5% of medical staff comprises of females and were likely to be affected in the COVID-19 pandemic by elevated degrees of anxiety, distress and depression [39]. Psychological symptoms were frankly correlated with increased duty hours, lack of shift rotations, societal stigma, inadequate medical protective equipment, increased witness to death and dying, increased risk of exposure and self-blame, as well as the guilt and fear of spreading the infection to the family members [39, 40]. They suffered the worst sleep quality and sleep time. The discrimination, isolation, negative emotions of patients and lack of contact with own families for long led to frustration and hopelessness. Some studies have even depicted burnout of young nurses and found them to be more anxious and depressed when compared to doctors, which could be accounted due to low nurse to patient density (Figure 2) [39].
The text in the inner circle depicts the probable causes of mental health disorders while that in the boxes depict how those circumstances were created and got aggravated due to COVID-19.
Although government regulations were necessary to maintain social balance and guarantee the safety of individuals, a strategy to deal with psychosocial issues related to the crisis and its consequences in the community was relatively lacking [15].
History has shown that mental health impact of pandemics outlasts the physical impact, suggesting that today’s elevated mental health need may continue well beyond the coronavirus outbreak itself and we may be heading towards an outbreak of a second pandemic, that of mental health crisis. As people faced the onslaught of pandemic related stressors, they wished and wanted to lean over, on each other for connection and coping strategies to ease the weight of public health crisis on their mental health, which was sadly cut down due to lockdown and isolation. Dissatisfaction with levels of social interaction led to negative affect which was further associated with a slowing of passage of time. The slower the passage of time, the higher was the negative emotions experienced escalating the feelings of helplessness and anxiety. A report highlights that the number of adults with anxiety or depression in U.S. increased four-hundred percent in the sixteen months following COVID-related lockdowns [11].
As rightly said by Dr. Tedros Adhanom, DG of W.H.O. “Good mental health is absolutely fundamental to overall health and wellbeing” [12]. During this public health emergency when the external environment is not in our control, it is imperative to focus on building and strengthening our mental immunity. People with strong psychological resilience and a healthy life appear to be less affected by COVID-19. This statement underpins that fear of pandemic disrupts people’s psychology and the psychology of those who had an underlying illness before the pandemic or had family or friends who were infected or had died. Therefore, psychological resilience and being healthy are important individual characteristics that can be developed in facing the fear of COVID-19 and the psychological problems caused by this fear [41]. Other lessons learnt are that safety policies, accurate information dissemination about pandemic prevention and pandemic prevention impacts should be emphasized. There was a negative influence of attitudinal construct and mythical behavior on disease prevention practices especially in South-Asian countries [42]. Peer support, risk averse behavior and internet based cognitive behavior are some pragmatic implications for stress management at macro and micro level during an epidemiological level. Apart from these, individuals and communities could deliberately cultivate resilience, healthy coping strategies, mindfulness and well-being. These all are processes and they can be acquired with practice and learned dynamically. Recent researches have depicted those healthy coping strategies have helped individuals to stay positive, view lockdown as a golden opportunity to ruminate on their individual and social identity and to march ahead to enhance their skills [43]. Cultivating a sense of community belongingness may also help and prepare people to face the mental health issues that they may endure in the upcoming days. Throughout the pandemic, leading public health organizations — including the CDC, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA), the World Health Organization, and the United Nations — have released general considerations and resources addressing the mental health and well-being of both general populations and specifically high-risk groups during the pandemic [34]. In India, along with the National Institute of Mental Health and Neurosciences (NIMHANS), the Indian Psychiatric Society also brought out a rulebook for effective mental health management titled “Mental Health Challenges during COVID-19 pandemic: Guidance for psychiatrists. It covers telepsychiatry, psychopharmacology, and brain stimulation practices during COVID-19, also catering to special populations like children and adolescents, older adults, perinatal groups and rehabilitation settings and can be referred.
In general, mental health and related issues are not recognized in public and with global pandemic these silent and insidious issues can be either misdiagnosed or go unnoticed completely. Thus, the role of mental health professional can be vital in this regard especially in educating, training, encouraging mental health-promoting behaviors, maintaining cross-specialty integration, facilitating problems solving approaches, empowering patients and allied professionals, and finally enabling self-care strategies for resilience [16]. Despite the common mental health problems and disorders among patients and HCW during the pandemic, most health professionals working in isolation units and hospitals did not receive any training in providing mental health care [13]. In this regard, mental health services, facilities and specialized psychiatric treatment teams including psychologists, psychiatrists and psychiatric nurses should be established to address psychological health concerns in the general public and we need to validate and value their immense selfless contribution. W.H.O. has previously highlighted the chronic underfunding of mental health prior to the pandemic, but the pandemic has suddenly increased its requirement, especially in the South Asian countries which suffer from an inadequate psychiatrist-patient ratio. Based on this, the Primary Care first and Collaborative Care model which has been suggested by Türközer and Öngür, teletherapy: Telemedicine and teletherapy should be established to provide psychological help which can be a boon during restrictive conditions of an infectious disease outbreak like COVID-19, but at the same time, limited accessibility and poor Internet connectivity in various areas are the existing challenges. Standardization of treatment, online surveys and local management of stable patients to reduce risk of infections can also be of help during this crisis [16]. It is suggested that public health machinery should conduct mental health audits during epidemiological emergencies which are critical for effective management of community mental health. Bouncing forwards for a new normal, we need to:
Identify people at risk during clinical visit or teleconsultation, especially younger age, females and those having a preexisting mental health condition for which COVID-19 data disaggregated by characteristics such as age, gender, sex and race are needed to help tackle the health inequalities.
Screen for psychiatric and psychosocial effects of social distancing of vulnerable population.
Ask direct questions about wellbeing and safety at home.
Specialized psychiatric treatments and appropriate mental health services for patients with comorbid mental disorders.
Tremendous interconnectedness including cross country collaboration and research [4, 13, 16].
Intergovernmental Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) hints at more severe and frequent pandemics in coming times. SARS, MERS, H1N1 to name a few along with COVID-19 testify to its damage [44]. With more than 2/3rd of the recently emerging diseases and almost all known pandemics being zoonotic diseases, following are some of the probable reasons of spill over of diseases from other organisms to humans, which needs to be addressed on a priority basis:
The risk further increases with climate change, intensive farming and international travels enabling disease to spread across the world at an alarming rate. The estimated present cost of prevention of pandemics for 10 years is estimated to be only 2% of the cost incurred during the COVID-19 pandemic. A few stringent steps can go a long way in detection and managing them. Working on these lines, December 27th is proclaimed as the international day of Epidemic Preparedness – a day to embark on the importance of prevention of, preparedness for and partnership against epidemics like COVID-19. To prevent and be prepared for future pandemics, we need to invest in 4 core spheres i.e., surveillance, early detection and control, manufacturing and coordinated research and development.
And for such a rigorous pandemic preparedness, we need to have a sound financial footing and a collective investment globally, to support the key gaps in infrastructure. The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 showed the limits of current approach and the overall long reaction time of international reporting systems. The need of the hour is to improve global coordination and leadership while action is needed at local, national and regional levels. Establishing a trusted dialog between scientists, politicians and public could also be helpful if we want to act fast. The participation of community health workers who play a crucial role in covering the last mile in delivery of services also cannot go unacknowledged. International agencies like FAO, WHO need to endorse these decisions on a slow roll out plan when the prevalence of cases is low and show the advantages of long-term investment in proper system [46].
The infamous COVID-19, apart from being highly contagious, had severe physical, social and psychological manifestations in the form of isolation, quarantine and lockdown which hampered our social support system on a large scale. COVID-19 looks to be a lingering stressor and is bound to induce acute panic, anxiety, obsessive behavior, paranoia, depression and PTSD in long term even if the cases subside. The notable psychological consequences looming out of this disaster need to be addressed. Altered mental status and behavioral changes have been mentioned to be acute effects of the virus, and a putative link between those affected with COVID-19 and long-term psychiatric comorbidities might merit further research. So, all efforts should be directed towards minimizing the negative effects of this traumatic pandemic event on mankind including its mental health implications. Lessons learnt from this pandemic can help shape interventions and legislations in the near future. Therefore, either we identify the probable rising impact on mental health and work upon it or we will pay the price in the form of worsened quality of life in the post pandemic aftermath when we will need all the able bodies to help the world economy recover.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
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MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5952,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. 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Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7207,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1477,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:193348,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4632,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3565,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3622,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1370,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82953",title:"Early Visual Areas are Activated during Object Recognition in Emerging Images",slug:"early-visual-areas-are-activated-during-object-recognition-in-emerging-images",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105756",abstract:"Human observers can reliably segment visual input and recognise objects. However, the underlying processes happen so quickly that they normally cannot be captured with fMRI. We used Emerging Images (EI), which contains a hidden object and extends the process of recognition, to investigate the involvement of early visual areas (V1, V2 and V3) and lateral occipital complex (LOC) in object recognition. The early visual areas were located with a retinotopy scan and the LOC with a localiser. The participants (N=8) then viewed an EI, followed by the hidden object’s silhouette (disambiguation), and then, the EI was repeated. BOLD responses before and after disambiguation were compared. The retinotopy parameters were used to back-project the BOLD response onto the visual field, creating spatially detailed maps of the activity change. V1 and V2 (but not V3) showed stronger response after disambiguation, while there was no difference in the LOC. The back-projections revealed no distinct pattern or changes in activity on object location, indicating that the activity in V1 and V2 is not specific for voxels corresponding to the object location. We found no difference before and after disambiguation in the LOC, which may be repetition suppression counteracting the effect of recognition.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Marleen Bakker, Hinke N. Halbertsma, Nicolás Gravel, Remco Renken, Frans W. Cornelissen and Barbara Nordhjem"},{id:"82931",title:"Neuroinflammation in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"neuroinflammation-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105178",abstract:"Neuroinflammation following traumatic brain injury (TBI) is an important cause of secondary brain injury that perpetuates the duration and scope of disease after initial impact. This chapter discusses the pathophysiology of acute and chronic neuroinflammation, providing insight into factors that influence the acute clinical course and later functional outcomes. Secondary injury due to neuroinflammation is described by mechanisms of action such as ischemia, neuroexcitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and glymphatic and lymphatic dysfunction. Neurodegenerative sequelae of inflammation, including chronic traumatic encephalopathy, which are important to understand for clinical practice, are detailed by disease type. Prominent research topics of TBI animal models and biomarkers of traumatic neuroinflammation are outlined to provide insight into the advances in TBI research. We then discuss current clinical treatments in TBI and their implications in preventing inflammation. To complete the chapter, recent research models, novel biomarkers, and future research directions aimed at mitigating TBI will be described and will highlight novel therapeutic targets. Understanding the pathophysiology and contributors of neuroinflammation after TBI will aid in future development of prophylaxis strategies, as well as more tailored management and treatment algorithms. This topic chapter is important to both clinicians and basic and translational scientists, with the goal of improving patient outcomes in this common disease.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Grace Y. Kuo, Fawaz Philip Tarzi, Stan Louie and Roy A. Poblete"},{id:"82876",title:"Oxygen Tissue Levels as an Effectively Modifiable Factor in Alzheimer’s Disease Improvement",slug:"oxygen-tissue-levels-as-an-effectively-modifiable-factor-in-alzheimer-s-disease-improvement",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106331",abstract:"Despite the advance in biochemistry, there are two substantial errors that have remained for at least two centuries. One is that oxygen from the atmosphere passes through the lungs and reaches the bloodstream, which distributes it throughout the body. Another major mistake is the belief that such oxygen is used by the cell to obtain energy, by combining it with glucose. Since the late nineteenth century, it began to be published that the gas exchange in the lungs cannot be explained by diffusion. Even Christian Bohr suggested that it looked like a cellular secretion. But despite experimental evidence to the contrary and based only on theoretical models, the dogma that our body takes the oxygen it contains inside from the air around it has been perpetuated to this day. The oxygen levels contained in the human body are high, close to 99%, and the atmosphere only contains between 19 and 21%. The hypothesis that there is a supposed oxygen concentrating mechanism has not been experimentally proven to date, after almost two centuries. The mistaken belief, even among neurologists, that our body takes oxygen from the atmosphere is widespread, even though there is no experimental basis to support it, just theoretical models. Our finding that the human body can take oxygen from the water it contains, not from the air around it, like plants, comes to mark a before and after in biology in general, and the CNS is no exception. Therefore, establishing the true origin of the oxygen present within our body and brain will allow us to better understand the physio pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases.",book:{id:"11637",title:"Neuropsychology of Dementia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11637.jpg"},signatures:"Arturo Solís Herrera"},{id:"82859",title:"Impact of Hypoxia on Astrocyte Induced Pathogenesis",slug:"impact-of-hypoxia-on-astrocyte-induced-pathogenesis",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106263",abstract:"Astrocytes are the most abundant cells of the central nervous system. These cells are of diverse types based on their function and structure. Astrocyte activation is linked mainly with microbial infections, but long-term activation can lead to neurological impairment. Astrocytes play a significant role in neuro-inflammation by activating pro-inflammatory pathways. Activation of interleukins and cytokines causes neuroinflammation resulting in many neurodegenerative disorders such as stroke, growth of tumours, and Alzheimer’s. Inflammation of the brain hinders neural circulation and compromises blood flow by affecting the blood–brain barrier. So the oxygen concentration is lowered, causing brain hypoxia. Hypoxia leads to the activation of nuclear factor kappa B (NFkB) and hypoxia-inducible factors (HIF), which aggravates the inflammatory state of the brain. Hypoxia evoked changes in the blood–brain barrier, further complicating astrocyte-induced pathogenesis.",book:{id:"10744",title:"Astrocytes in Brain Communication and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg"},signatures:"Farwa Munir, Nida Islam, Muhammad Hassan Nasir, Zainab Anis, Shahar Bano, Shahzaib Naeem, Atif Amin Baig and Zaineb Sohail"},{id:"82839",title:"Neurophysiology of Emotions",slug:"neurophysiology-of-emotions",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106043",abstract:"Emotions are automatic and primary patterns of purposeful cognitive-behavioral organizations. They have three main functions: coordination, signaling, and information. First, emotions coordinate organs and tissues, thus predisposing the body to peculiar responses. Scholars have not reached a consensus on the plausibility of emotion-specific response patterns yet. Despite the limitations, data support the hypothesis of specific response patterns for distinct subtypes of emotions. Second, emotional episodes signal the current state of the individual. Humans display their state with verbal behaviors, nonverbal actions (e.g., facial movements), and neurovegetative signals. Third, emotions inform the brain for interpretative and evaluative purposes. Emotional experiences include mental representations of arousal, relations, and situations. Every emotional episode begins with exposure to stimuli with distinctive features (i.e., elicitor). These inputs can arise from learning, expressions, empathy, and be inherited, or rely on limited aspects of the environment (i.e., sign stimuli). The existence of the latter ones in humans is unclear; however, emotions influence several processes, such as perception, attention, learning, memory, decision-making, attitudes, and mental schemes. Overall, the literature suggests the nonlinearity of the emotional process. Each section outlines the neurophysiological basis of elements of emotion.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Maurizio Oggiano"},{id:"82172",title:"Neuroimaging in Common Neurological Diseases Treated by Anticoagulants",slug:"neuroimaging-in-common-neurological-diseases-treated-by-anticoagulants",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105128",abstract:"Stroke imaging/Cerebral Venous sinus thrombosis/Arterial dissecting disease in Head and Neck regions/Neurocomplication of anticoagulation therapy. Nowsday, anticoagulant drugs are common drugs used in daily practice for patients in neurology clinic. Anticoagulant treatment used for treated symptomatic patients as well as for prophylaxis therapy in asymptomatic patients. The purpose of this chapter based on the review of essential neuroimaging in the most common neurological conditions that benefit from treatment with anticoagulant drugs such as ischemic stroke, cerebral venous sinus thrombosis, and arterial dissecting disease of head and neck arteries and will be enclosed with neuroimaging in case of neurocomplication by anticoagulant therapy.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Pipat Chiewvit"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:12},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218",scope:"\r\n\tThis book series will offer a comprehensive overview of recent research trends as well as clinical applications within different specialties of dentistry. Topics will include overviews of the health of the oral cavity, from prevention and care to different treatments for the rehabilitation of problems that may affect the organs and/or tissues present. The different areas of dentistry will be explored, with the aim of disseminating knowledge and providing readers with new tools for the comprehensive treatment of their patients with greater safety and with current techniques. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This series of books will focus on various aspects of the properties and results obtained by the various treatments available, whether preventive or curative.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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