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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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Image processing is evolving fast and continually. During the past 10 years, there has been a significant research increase in image segmentation. To study a specific object in an image, its boundary can be highlighted by an image segmentation procedure.\nThe objective of the image segmentation is to simplify the representation of pictures into meaningful information by partitioning into image regions. Image segmentation is a technique to locate certain objects or boundaries within an image. There are many algorithms and techniques have been developed to solve image segmentation problems, the research topics in this book such as level set, active contour, AR time series image modeling, Support Vector Machines, Pixon based image segmentations, region similarity metric based technique, statistical ANN and JSEG algorithm were written in details.\nThis book brings together many different aspects of the current research on several fields associated to digital image segmentation. Four parts allowed gathering the 27 chapters around the following topics: Survey of Image Segmentation Algorithms, Image Segmentation methods, Image Segmentation Applications and Hardware Implementation. The readers will find the contents in this book enjoyable and get many helpful ideas and overviews on their own study.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-228-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5520-1",doi:"10.5772/628",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"image-segmentation",numberOfPages:552,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c5a76ae0e1714cc2c4019296ef7f4f08",bookSignature:"Pei-Gee Ho",publishedDate:"April 19th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/99.jpg",numberOfDownloads:90368,numberOfWosCitations:108,numberOfCrossrefCitations:36,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:118,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:11,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:262,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 25th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 27th 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 26th 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"21284",title:"Dr.",name:"Pei-Gee",middleName:null,surname:"Ho",slug:"pei-gee-ho",fullName:"Pei-Gee Ho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/21284/images/1601_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Pei-Gee Peter Ho was born in Hsinchu, Taiwan. He received his BSEE from National Cheng Kung University, Tainan, Taiwan in 1976. After two years military service, he worked two years in On-Line Power System Dispatch group of Taiwan Power Company. In 1981, he was awarded a research assistantship and obtained the MSEE degree from UMass Dartmouth. During the following 20 plus years he has worked in various electrical and computer engineering companies such as Wang Lab., Brooktrout Technology, Compugraphics, SystemSoft, Ennovate Networks, Quarry Technology, Lockheed Martin Inc. and was primarily associated with embedded computing systems, networking, and device driver developments. He received his Ph.D. degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering from UMass Dartmouth in January 2008. He is now working in the Digital Signal Processing Algorithm and Software Design group in Range and Engineering department of NUWC at Newport, Rhode Island USA.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Massachusetts Dartmouth",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"544",title:"Image Processing",slug:"computer-and-information-science-computer-graphics-image-processing"}],chapters:[{id:"15374",title:"A Survey of Image Segmentation by the Classical Method and Resonance Algorithm",doi:"10.5772/15070",slug:"a-survey-of-image-segmentation-by-the-classical-method-and-resonance-algorithm",totalDownloads:3456,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Fengzhi Dai, Masanori Sugisaka and Baolong Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15374",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15374",authors:[{id:"19367",title:"Dr.",name:"Fengzhi",surname:"Dai",slug:"fengzhi-dai",fullName:"Fengzhi Dai"},{id:"23792",title:"Professor",name:"Masanori",surname:"Sugisaka",slug:"masanori-sugisaka",fullName:"Masanori Sugisaka"},{id:"24545",title:"Dr.",name:"Baolong",surname:"Zhang",slug:"baolong-zhang",fullName:"Baolong Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"15371",title:"A Review of Algorithms for Segmentation of Retinal Image Data Using Optical Coherence Tomography",doi:"10.5772/15833",slug:"a-review-of-algorithms-for-segmentation-of-retinal-image-data-using-optical-coherence-tomography",totalDownloads:5984,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:46,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Delia Cabrera DeBuc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/15371",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/15371",authors:[{id:"22156",title:"Dr.",name:"Delia",surname:"Cabrera DeBuc",slug:"delia-cabrera-debuc",fullName:"Delia Cabrera DeBuc"}],corrections:null},{id:"15372",title:"Image Segmentation through Clustering Based on Natural Computing Techniques",doi:"10.5772/15926",slug:"image-segmentation-through-clustering-based-on-natural-computing-techniques",totalDownloads:4101,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Jose Alfredo F. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"78817",title:"Polyimide-Derived Graphite Films with High Thermal Conductivity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100374",slug:"polyimide-derived-graphite-films-with-high-thermal-conductivity",body:'Highly oriented graphite film has excellent electrical and thermal conductivity properties, and is an ideal material indispensable for the development of modern science and technology. It has a very broad application prospect in thermal management field such as modern microelectronic packaging-integration and 5 G wireless communication technologies. In the early 1960s, scientists had used high-temperature pyrolysis deposition technology to prepare highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), however, the material needs to be prepared at high temperature (up to 3400-3600°C) and high pressure (10 MPa), the production cycle is long and the production cost is high. Thus, the wide application of such material is subject to certain restrictions [1]. Subsequently, Japanese scientists had initially discovered that polyimide (PI) film with a golden appearance as shown in Figure 1a did not melt during the carbonization process and maintained the original film shape, after high-temperature (2800-3200°C) graphitization treatment, a highly oriented graphite film with a structure close to single crystal graphite can be obtained [3, 4]. Nowadays, PI developed as a thermoresistant polymer has been widely used in different fields, for instance, aromatic PI is often employed as an excellent carbonaceous precursor to prepare various carbon materials with different morphologies (e.g., fiber, film, foam and block) [2]. This is because aromatic PI has many advantages such as wide range of well-defined molecular structure as shown in Figure 1b, relatively high crystallinity and carbon yield.
(a) Optical appearance and (b) a molecular repeating unit of Kapton PI film [
Recently, PI-derived graphite films with high thermal conductivity in the planar direction ranging in 500–1900 W/m K have been successfully produced and practically applied in heat dissipation of many microelectronic devices as shown in Figure 2a. This is attributed to the extensive research on the composition, structure and properties of PI polymer film and related high-temperature heat treatment process have been conducted to improve the thermal conductivity of resultant graphite films and reduce the production cost [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. It is well-known that the thermal conductivity of graphite films is greatly affected by many factors (the quality of PI film precursor, film thickness and heat treatment temperature, etc.). In addition, the microstructural evolution and transformation mechanism [4, 6, 12] of PI polymer during high-temperature heat treatment, the capability of forming an ordered graphite structure and the relevant control strategy need to be further understood. This will make the application of graphite films for thermal management move forward [2, 4, 11].
(a) Wide heat-dissipation application of PI-derived graphite films in advanced microelectronics and (b) a variety of graphite films classified by different precursors.
Generally, high-thermal-conductivity graphite films can be divided into two main types (natural graphite-derived and artificial synthetic films) and several subdivided categories as shown in Figure 2b according to different raw materials: oriented pyrolytic graphite sheet, flexible graphite sheet, graphene-based graphite film, PI-derived graphite film and other carbonaceous precursor derivative.
HOPG sheet refers to polycrystalline graphite film with a high bulk density of ~2.20 g/cm3 and highly oriented graphene layers stacking along the c-axis direction, similar to single crystal graphite as shown in Figure 3 [14]. Its room-temperature thermal conductivity along the a-axis direction of the graphite sheet reaches up to 1600–2000 W/m K [15]. Recently, through a facile and feasible chemical vapor deposition on transition metal substrates, the prepared graphite films possess a high thermal conductivity of 600–1570 W/m K [16, 17].
(a) Electron channeling pattern and (b) SEM image of HOPG [
Flexible graphite sheet is prepared by using natural flake graphite as raw material through several procedures as follows. Firstly, strong acidification treatment for chemical intercalation, then washing, drying and high-temperature expansion to obtain high-expanded graphite worms, and finally calendering and pressing treatment processes. The thermal conductivity of flexible graphite sheet can be adjusted in the range of 200–600 W/m K according to the bulk density and sheet thickness [18, 19]. Because this material does not require high-temperature graphitization and the preparation process is simple, the production cost is relatively low, and it can be used not only as a high-temperature sealing material, but also as a heat dissipation pad for the interface between electronic devices and heat sinks. In addition, the thin graphite sheet has a certain degree of flexibility and can be bent and rolled for storage as shown in Figure 4, which accelerates its low-cost industrial production. However, the mechanical properties of flexible graphite sheet decrease with the increase of thickness. So it is suitable for fields where material strength, toughness and flexural properties are not very high.
Optical photographs of (a) flexible graphite sheet rolled for store in Nihon carbon and (b) GrafTech graphite sheet production line.
PI graphite film with high crystallinity and preferred orientation is similar to HOPG as shown in Figure 5 and has a high thermal conductivity up to 1900 W/m K in the planar direction [2]. The thermal conductivity of the pyrolytic graphite sheets developed by Panasonic Industry is reported to be 700-1950 W/m K according to their bulk densities (0.85–2.13 g/cm3) and sheet thicknesses (0.10–0.01 mm) [20]. Obviously, the thermal conductivity of graphite sheets is greatly affected by its bulk density, thickness and pyrolysis process. As a rule, the greater the thickness is, the lower the thermal conductivity is.
(a) Optical photograph and (b) microscopic image of PI-derived thermal pyrolytic graphite sheet (PGS) produced by Panasonic Industry [
Recently, there has been numerous studies on making graphene or its precursor (e.g., graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide) into graphite films as shown in Figure 6a [21, 22, 23]. This extensive research greatly improves the thermal conductivity of graphene-based films up to 2000 W/m K and promotes their various applications [23]. Although the production cost of large-area high-quality graphene films with high thermal conductivity is still high at this stage, the large-scale fabrication in science and industry is rising [21, 22].
(a) Optical photograph of large-scale preparation of graphene laminated films [
At present, a batch-scale preparation method, i.e., multi-sheet carbonization by laminated molding in a small-sized vacuum induction furnace as shown in Figure 7a, is generally adopted to prepare sheet-like PI-derived graphite films with different sizes. However, this method shows obvious disadvantages such as relatively high production cost, low preparation efficiency, and particularly large energy consumption. Moreover, the size of the films is limited by the graphite mold (which needs to repeatedly endure severe condition under high temperature and high pressure) and the size of the heat treatment furnace.
Optical photographs of (a) a lab-scale vacuum induction furnace and (b) roll-shaped graphite film prepared from PI film.
In general, the industrial production of PI-derived graphite films is carried out in multiple sets of large-sized vacuum induction furnace. The emerging advanced rolling-carbonization technology, i.e., directly performing carbonization-graphitization treatment on the roll-shaped organic PI films, could obtain a roll-shaped graphite films with a large size as shown in Figure 7b by controlling the heat treatment process of tightly rolled films. This technology can significantly improve the production efficiency of graphite films, reduce the production cost and improve their mechanical properties.
With the rapid development of graphene and graphene-based materials throughout the world, some new methods, new processes and new technologies [21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27], such as molecular welding, molecular assembling, flow coating and centrifugal casting, as shown in Figures 6b and 8, have been increasingly developed to fabricate graphene-based graphite films with high thermal conductivity for thermal management application. This will surely provide some reference for the preparation strategy of PI-derived graphite films. It is possible to take advantage of continuous high-temperature carbonization technology as shown in Figure 8b to fabricate large-scale PI-derived graphite films at a low cost in the future.
Schematics of producing graphene-derived films by different methods (a) the continuous centrifugal casting [
The uniform PI raw film (DuPont Kapton) with a golden color shrinks significantly after 1000°C carbonization and 3000°C graphitization under proper pressure in a vacuum furnace, and the shrinkage rate in the planar direction is about 15% × 15%. The color of the film changes from yellow to black and gray as shown in Figure 9a–c, the carbonized and graphitized samples are brittle and flexible (can be bent at a certain angle >90o at many times), respectively. The molding-press and its pressing strength on the PI films have an important role on the final quality of resultant graphite films as shown in Figure 9d–f.
Optical photographs of (a) PI raw film, its (b, d and e) 1000°C-carbonized and (c and f) 3000°C-graphitizatized samples made by various molding-press treatments ((b and c) suitable pressure; (d) no pressure; (e) insufficient pressure; and (f) excessive pressure).
As shown in Figure 10, the surface of 1000°C-carbonized carbon films (with a thickness of 50 μm for the raw film) is smooth and the thickness is still uniform, the internals of carbon films exhibit an amorphous carbon structure. After 2000°C graphitization, a local chaotic layered structure can be observed in the cross-section of the films [28]. When the graphitization temperature reaches 2400°C, the cross-section of the films presents a more uniformly oriented layered structure, and as the graphitization temperature further increases up to 3000°C, the layered structure becomes more flatted and ordered, and the graphite-like crystal structure is nearly perfect.
(a–c) PLM and (d–i) SEM images of the transversal section of PI films heat-treated at different temperatures ((a, d and g) 1000; (b, e and h) 2400; and (c, f and i) 3000°C), (g–i) are high magnification images of (d–f), respectively, and the top right inset in i is the corresponding enlargement.
The thickness and the nature of the PI films have a significant impact on the capability of forming a graphite-like crystal structure. As shown in Figure 11a–c, the PI film with a thickness of 50 μm completely forms a graphite-like layered structure with high crystallinity, and the degree of preferred orientation of the graphene layers is high. The PI films with thicknesses of 75 and 100 μm display a partial graphite-like layered structure and nearly amorphous structure with low crystallinity and poor crystalline orientation, respectively. Some small holes appear on the cross-section of graphite film, which may be related to the removal of non-carbon elements during the high-temperature graphitization process. Moreover, the nature of PI films (e.g., the variety of polymer constituent and molecular structure in various PI films produced by different manufacturers) is very critical to prepare highly oriented graphite films, which has been demonstrated in Figure 11d–f.
SEM images of the transversal section of 3000°C-graphitized films derived from Kapton PI films with different thicknesses of ((a) 50, (b) 75, (c) 100 μm) and other brand PI film with a thickness of 50 μm at different enlargements (d–f).
The PI laminated sample with a good graphite-like crystal structure as shown in Figure 12 could be prepared by a hot-press method at 2400°C under a certain pressure. It has a uniformly layered structure in the cross-section, and the stacking of PI films is regular and orderly. The PI monolayer film inside the laminated sample still maintains its complete sheet-like structure, which is conducive to the high efficient conduction of heat in the two-dimensional direction of the plane. The PI-derived laminates can be used as a bulk thermally conductive material to further expand the application field of graphite films, but the controllable preparation of such large-size and ultra-thick bulk materials (e.g., blocks) is still difficult [4].
(a) PLM and (b and c) SEM images of the transversal section of PI film-stacked block made by a suitable molding-press treatment at 2400°C.
It can be seen from the XRD patterns as shown in Figure 13a–c that the PI raw film has a certain degree of orientation owing to the arrangement of aromatic molecules. With the rise of heat treatment temperature, the intensity of diffraction peak of the (002) crystal plane of the PI sample continues to increase. Meanwhile, the microcrystallite accumulation height (Lc) and graphitization degree (g) listed in Table 1 increase step by step. After 3000°C graphitization, the interlayer spacing d002 (0.336 nm) is close to the theoretical value of single crystal graphite (0.3354 nm). The ratio of the two peaks (D and G) as shown in Figure 13d gradually decreases, especially the D peak of 2400°C-graphitized sample completely disappears, which indicates that a three-dimensional ordered graphite structure forms in the graphite film, the content of amorphous carbon and structural defects is very low, and the graphite crystalline size is large [29]. It is worth noting that the microcrystalline size and g of graphite films are affected significantly by the nature (e.g., the extent of biaxial stretching on the original film) and thickness of PI films. The microcrystals in the thick graphite films grow and crystallize slowly, and their preferred orientation is relatively low. As a comparison, the graphite films made from other brand PI show an amorphous structure after graphitization at 3000°C, their microcrystals are small and disordered. The higher the heat-treatment temperature is, the easier the structural transformation completes. Graphitization treatment results in the better growth and crystallization of graphite microcrystals and the preferable orientation of graphene layers in the graphite films.
(a–c) XRD patterns and (d) Raman spectra of various PI films ((a, b and d) Kapton; (c) other brand) heat-treated at different temperatures.
Sample | 2θ002/o | d002/nm | Lc/nm | g/% |
---|---|---|---|---|
PI raw film | 25.94 | 0.343 | 2.03 | 10 |
PI-1000°C-50 μm | 24.37 | 0.365 | 3.06 | — |
PI-2000°C-50 μm | 26.12 | 0.341 | 5.63 | 34 |
PI-2400°C-50 μm | 26.44 | 0.338 | 39.83 | 70 |
PI-2800°C-50 μm | 26.50 | 0.337 | 50.95 | 82 |
PI-3000°C-50 μm | 26.56 | 0.336 | 65.94 | 93 |
PI-3000°C-100 μm | 26.33 | 0.338 | 49.71 | 70 |
PI-3000°C-50 μma | 26.22 | 0.340 | 12.42 | 47 |
PI-3000°C-225μma | 26.01 | 0.342 | 5.63 | 23 |
Single crystal graphite | 26.58 | 0.3354 | >100 | 100 |
Microcrystalline parameters of various PI films heat-treated at different temperatures.
Other brand PI film.
Figure 14a shows the room-temperature electrical resistivities of the Kapton PI films after heat treatment at different temperatures. It can be seen that the electrical resistivities of the PI films decrease significantly with the increase of the heat treatment temperature, indicating that the electrical conductivities increase rapidly. The PI film is a polymer insulating material and its volume electrical resistivity is as high as 1016 Ω cm. After 1000°C carbonization treatment, the electrical resistivity reduces by 18 orders of magnitude, to about 54.6 μΩ m, because the PI film has undergone structural changes at this time, most of the heteroatoms are eliminated, and the carbon content increases significantly. At this stage, a local hexagonal-like carbon layer structure forms in the interior of carbon film. The electrical resistivities of the graphitized samples at 2000 and 2800°C are 5.5 and 0.82 μΩ m, respectively. The decline is not very large due to the fact that the conductive path in PI film has been formed around 2000°C. Further graphitization is only to improve its three-dimensional ordered structure with highly preferred orientation as shown in Figure 10. The electrical resistivity of the 3000°C-graphitized PI film is as low as 0.48 μΩ m, which is very close to the theoretical electrical resistivity of single crystal graphite (0.4 μΩ m) in the planar direction [30]. With the rise of heat treatment temperature, the g of PI films continues to increase as listed in Table 1, and its internal graphene layered structure with highly preferred orientation is conducive to the transmission of electrons [2, 4].
(a) Room-temperature electrical resistivities of PI films heat-treated at different temperatures in the planar direction and (b) micro-structural evolution and transformation mechanism model from PI polymer to ordered graphite film during high-temperature treatment reproduced from [
From the above discussion on the morphology and microstructure of the PI films heat-treated at different temperatures, a microstructural change model from PI polymer to ordered graphite at each stage is shown in Figure 14b [6]. The heat-treatment process can be roughly divided into four stages: the first stage (500-1000°C), the second stage (1000-2000°C), the third stage (2000-2400°C) and the fourth stage (2400-3000°C). The whole process reflects that the internal structure of the PI film gradually changes from a disorderly amorphous structure to a highly crystalline graphite structure as the heat treatment temperature progresses [4].
According to the relevant empirical formulas [31], the thermal conductivity of 3000°C-graphitized graphite films (with a thickness of ca. 25 μm) is calculated to be 1143 W/m K. Measured by a laser thermal conductivity meter (NETZSCH LFA 457), its room-temperature thermal diffusion coefficient is ~700 mm2/s, and the corresponding thermal conductivity is measured to be 994 W/m K (the bulk density and specific heat are about 2.0 g/cm3 and 0.71 J/g K, respectively). This excellent conduction performance is attributed to the highly ordered three-dimensional graphite structure of this film material.
It is well-known to all that the high-thermal-conductivity of carbon materials comes from the strong C—C covalent bonding between carbon atoms and the highly ordered graphite structure stacked by graphene layers and mainly results from the anharmonic vibration of the elastic lattice (i.e., the mutual interaction of phonons) to transfer heat [32]. Single crystal graphite has a hexagonal network layered structure and an anisotropic thermal conductivity, as shown in Figure 15a, its thermal conductivity along the a-axis direction (as high as 2000 W/m K) is much greater than that along the c-axis direction [33]. However, for carbon materials with a disordered graphite structure, the graphene layers with different sizes are stacked randomly, a lower thermal conductivity will yield unexpectedly. There are many critical factors governing the heat-dissipation performance of graphene-assembling carbon materials, such as microcrystalline size, crystalline orientation, structural defects (e.g., vacancies and substitution) and wrinkle deformation in graphene layers as shown in Figure 15b [34].
(a) Crystal structure of perfect graphite with anisotropic thermal conductivity reproduced from [
Usually, organic carbonaceous compounds are used as raw materials to prepare carbon materials. Under low temperature at about 300-1000°C, the component containing H, O, N and other non-C elements in organic compounds is gradually decomposed, and C-containing aromatic molecules continue to cyclize and aromatize, which forms C-rich material (i.e., carbon material), and finally through the graphitization process up to 3000°C, pure C material, i.e., graphite material can be obtained. Most of the chemical reactions during the carbonization of precursors are accompanied by the evolution of various gases—different hydrocarbons, carbon oxides, and H2 [35]. It is important to timely remove the pyrolytic gases from the stress-stacked PI films in the highly sealed furnace. The conversion from PI polymer film to graphite film is a typical process of solid phase carbonization. Its prominent characteristic is the similarity in morphology (and shape) of raw material and final product without experiencing a fusion process, which is different from that of liquid phase carbonization [36]. Therefore, selecting proper carbonaceous precursors (e.g. Kapton PI film) and appropriate heat treatment process (e.g., high temperature graphitization under a suitable pressure and duly degassing treatment) to control the growth, accumulation and orientation of graphite microcrystals inside the carbon materials as shown in Figure 16a [37], are essential for obtaining graphite films with high thermal conductivity.
(a) Marsh-Griffiths model of carbonization-graphitization process on a carbonaceous precursor [
As a result, the thermal conductivity of graphite films mainly depends on the nature of the polymer films and their capability of forming an ordered graphite structure through high-temperature heat treatment as diagramed in Figure 16b. There are three mainly important conditions for obtaining graphite films with high thermal conductivity as follows [2, 4, 7, 28]. Firstly, high carbon content in the large molecules and high carbon yield after carbonization treatment. Secondly, the quality of polymer films (e.g., the constituents and structure of aromatic molecules, high molecular planarity and suitable stiffness as well as molecular orientation degree through the role of biaxial stretching treatment, appropriate film thickness). Thirdly, heat treatment process control (e.g., heating treatment procedure, molding-press condition, non-carbon elements escape, and final graphitization temperature).
There is no denying that the PI-derived graphite films with high thermal conductivity after graphitization treatment have a certain degree of brittleness as shown in Figure 17a due to their high stiffness (modulus) and high crystallinity and crystalline orientation, which undoubtedly limits their wide applications. It is difficult to achieve high thermal conductivity and ideal mechanical properties for the graphite films (e.g., internally contradictory indices like high modulus (associating with thermal conductivity) and high flexibility are hardly satisfied simultaneously) except a few reports such as Refs [2, 11, 39, 40]. Nowadays, the modification by doping of PI precursor with graphene (and graphene oxide) and other precursors (e.g., polyacrylonitrile) is a good strategy to improve the flexibility of graphite films with high thermal conductivity [38, 41, 42, 43] as shown in Figure 17b. It is interesting to note that various striking cranes with good flexibility as shown in Figure 18 made with different raw materials by different methods and processes have been successfully prepared [2, 19, 38, 43].
Optical photographs of (a) highly-oriented PI-derived graphite thin sheet with improved manual handling [
Optical photographs of evolutional crane made of a PI film (a) and after carbonization (b) and graphitization (c) treatments showing good shape-retention and flexibility [
Recently, many new forms of PI-derived carbons (including carbon fibers, carbon foams, carbon aerogels and carbon blocks as shown in Figure 19, which are beyond graphite films) with a feature of high thermal conductivity have been fabricated [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51]. This extensive and intensive research on PI polymer will expand its application areas. Especially, ultrathick graphene film with a high thickness up to 200 μm while retaining a high thermal conductivity of 1200 W/m K has been achieved [52], which will stimulate the preparation of ultrathick (e.g., millimeter-scale) PI-derived graphite films or large graphite blocks.
(a–e) SEM images of various PI-derived carbons with high thermal conductivity ((a) carbon nanofibers [
It is well accepted that graphene-based carbon films as thermal management materials can boost the heat-dissipation performance of film materials in the planar direction [21, 22, 23, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 40, 41, 53, 54]. Through new functional composite technologies (e.g., chemical interaction as shown in Figure 20a [53], and modification treatment through doping or hybridizing with other carbonaceous precursors (graphene, carbon nanotube, etc.) and non-carbon fillers such as BN) [53, 54, 55, 56], the thermal conductivity and mechanical flexibility of resultant graphite films can be both enhanced. Furthermore, in the through-plane direction, a superhigh thermal conductivity up to 150 W/m K can be obtained by novel structure design as shown in Figure 20b [54]. This affords carbon materials with a feature of three-dimensional high thermal conductivity (it is beyond the traditional graphite materials with high thermal conductivity only in the planar direction [32]), which will further promote the wide practical applications of carbon materials in thermal management [22, 23, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59].
(a) A diagram of preparing composite films through the covalent bonding between graphene oxide and PI [
In a lab-scale study, the Kapton PI-derived graphite films (with a thickness of 50 μm for raw film) show a three-dimensional ordered structure consisting of graphene layers with highly preferred orientation and prefect graphite crystals after graphitization at 3000°C. Their electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity at room temperature in the planar direction are 0.48 μΩ m and ~ 1000 W/m K, respectively. The nature of PI precursor (the molecular structure, planar molecular orientation and film thickness, etc.) and preparation technics (e.g., heat-treatment temperature and molding pressure) have a critical influence on the final conduction performance of graphite films.
In the early time, limited by preparation technology, the thickness of PI-derived graphite films were mainly 20–50 μm, and their thermal conductivity in the planar direction was mostly 300–1000 W/m K. With the continuous improvement of production technology, high-thermal-conductivity graphite film products become more abundant, and some are even industrialized. The 10 μm-thin graphite films can approach a high thermal conductivity of 1900 W/m K. Currently, the thickest product (derived from graphene) is about 200 μm, and its thermal conductivity could reach about 1200 W/m K. However, there is still no breakthrough in the preparation of millimeter-thick graphite films and PI-derived graphite blocks with large sizes. In the future, as the application range widens, the market demand for high-thermal-conductivity graphite films will be more diversified, and the diverse products will also be developed in the direction of wider thickness and higher thermal conductivity.
The emerging modification treatment and composite technology provide a promising strategy not only to improve the comprehensive performance (e.g., high thermal conductivity and good mechanical flexibility) of PI-derived graphite films but also to prepare a variety of new forms of PI-derived carbon materials with high thermal conductivity. Furthermore, polymer-derived carbon materials with a significant feature of three-dimensional high thermal conductivity can be achieved by novel structure design.
At present, high-thermal-conductivity graphite films have been widely used in smart phones, successfully solving the heat dissipation problem of various electronic products. In the near future, with the development of miniaturization and thinning of electronics, high-thermal-conductivity graphite films and other carbon composites with good flexibility will be promisingly used in the field of thermal management as next-generation heat-dissipation components for highly integrated microelectronics, 5 G wireless communication, and high-power smart devices.
We acknowledge support of the publication fee by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 52072275).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The entire world population is around 7.7 billion, which is growing steadily. One of the main predicaments is the lack of quality food for human beings due to environmental biotic and abiotic problems such as weeds, pests, and diseases [1]. Over 65,000 kinds of pests are recorded, including weeds, arthropods, and fungi or are also regarded primarily as plant pathogens [2]. The recent evidence recommended that pests prompted an 8-10% loss in wheat crops, 20% in sugar, 25% in rice, 30% in pulses, 35% in oilseeds, and 50% in cotton. The estimated annual crop loss caused by pests and diseases is USD 2000 billion. Therefore, different pesticidal technologies should be extended in these circumstances, particularly in developing countries, to subdue these food predicaments [1]. For the last several years, pest management in industrialized counties has depended on the application of pesticides. Hence, the application of pesticides was raised above 1900% within the 1940s-1980s. According to a calculation, today, 2.3 billion kg of pesticides have been applied annually, making up to $ 58.5 billion of the global exchange [2, 3].
Every year, almost 25% of the world’s crop production is destroyed by pests [4]. Many types of pests including
The pesticides are divided into chemical, biological, synthetic, microbial, biopesticides, biochemical, and plant-incorporated pesticides. Chemical pesticides are delivered to plants either directly for seed treatment and weed control or indirectly through spraying the chemical on plants. Some chemical pesticides show good pesticidal activity, but they exert negative impacts both on human health and the environment; for example, methyl bromide has been reported as a good pesticide over the last 40 years against soil-borne pathogens, pests, and nematodes in many crops like tomato, melon, pepper, and strawberry. But later on, due to its ozone depletion negativity, it was banned in 2015 following the Montreal Protocol. Moreover, some other chemicals like chloropicrin and dazomet are restricted in some areas due to their concern about food safety and human health [9].
Biopesticides, often known as biological pesticides, are insecticides derived from microorganisms or natural substances. Biopesticides are divided into three categories: microbial biopesticides, botanical biopesticides, and plant-incorporated protectants [10]. As an alternative to conventional insecticidal methods, biopesticides have recently gained much attention due to their potential target specificity, fewer harmful side effects, capacity to disintegrate fast, and high efficacy. Several substances have been investigated as biopesticides in recent years, including
The nano-biopesticides have superiority over the biopesticides and conventional techniques for many reasons, including environmentally friendly behavior, desired results within a few hours after applications, biodegradability, easy delivery to plants, and release slowly from the vector [15]. Furthermore, their small size makes them an effective carrier when combined with pesticides that can easily enter the plants. Another advantage of nano-biopesticides is that they did not have an adverse effect on soil microorganisms and phototoxicity of Ag-based nano-particles was suppressed by nano-coating them with biocompatible polyvinyl pyrrole compounds [17]. The nano-biopesticides can be synthesized by following two ways: either by extracting the biological active pesticidal compound (APC) from plants and blended it with nano-particles and inserted it into a suitable polymer that acts as a supporting material, or APC secrete the metallic salt with bind with nano-particles (NPs) that hemolyze and merge into an appropriate polymer. The APC integrated with NPs and merged into a compatible vector including micelles, liposomes, nanosphere, polymer, and nanofiber. These ingredients were used as a spray to kill the insect pests for food protection [18].
The accumulative data revealed that nano-biopesticides contain secondary plant metabolites and their mediated metal oxide nanomaterials. It was found that biopesticides have gained importance over chemical pesticides during the past few decades due to their eco-friendly behavior, high efficiency, and fewer side effects. The evidence reported that recently much research had been carried out on nano-biopesticides; either pests are attaining chemical pesticide resistance, or a small number of insecticides have expired due to severe environmental and human concerns. However, this situation demands novel plant-based pesticides on the nanoscale to formulate the nano-biopesticides for pest management. Recently, different biopesticides have been reported against different pests such as
Agricultural output has been increased dramatically in the early 20th century, especially in the United States, to keep up with the rapidly growing human population. During the last century, the world’s population has tripled from 1.5 billion in 1900 to 6.1 billion in 2000. The world’s population has grown by one billion people in the past decade, and the UN predicts it could reach 9.4 to 10 billion by 2050 if current growth rates continue [22]. A lateral increase in food production was needed during the 20th century to keep up with the increase in the world population. This was accomplished via the use of fertilizers and other agricultural inputs throughout the twentieth century. Bio-fertilizers (such as guano) were first used in the late 1800s; inorganic phosphate fertilizers (such as urea) were first used in the early 1900s and have steadily gained in favor ever since [23]. Phosphates helps to increase the crop diversity and yields and aided in the unprecedented “green revolution” for agricultural productivity. This caused a tenfold increase in grain production per unit surface area of agricultural land, leading to a global food surplus [24]. An increasing global population and increased phosphate production were shown to be positively linked throughout the 20th century, with an R2 of 0.97 for the period 1900–1988 [25].
Synthetic crop preservation agents were introduced to the market in the 1940s, which increased food output. It grew from 0.2 million tons in 1950 to over 5 million tons in 2000, up from 0.2 million tons the year before. Between 1950 and 2000, pesticide production grew by about 11%, from 0.2 million tons to over 5 million tons. Crop preservation chemicals, sometimes known as pesticides, are composed of various composites, including growth regulators, neonicotinoids, organochlorines, pyrethroids, organophosphates, carbamates, and more recently, biopesticides. This wide spectrum of chemicals and insecticides has been developed throughout history to protect crops from pests and diseases. All sorts of pesticide sales grew; however, herbicides were the group that extended the most, accompanied by fungicides and insecticides. Pesticide application has suffered owing to lack of global uniformity, high cost of chemicals, human resources, and the vast diversity of pests present in each climatic or geographical area. Using FAO data, it was found that the mean pesticide application rates per hectare of arable land ranged from 6.5 to 60 kg/ha, with the greatest mean values occurring in Asia and a few South American nations. Unlike Western Europe and North America, Asia has not witnessed a rise in the usage of herbicides in both urban and agricultural areas. Compared to the widespread use of insecticides, herbicide usage in Asia has remained relatively low in recent years, according to World Bank and International Food Policy Research Institute data [26].
Throughout the twentieth century, ancient synthetic pesticides intended for agricultural pest control, such as DDT, were often used to treat human parasites and animal ticks. So, for example, DDT was designed to be used in agricultural pest control. Despite of being prohibited, it is nevertheless extensively used as a food prophylactic for various fish in South Asia, and to control home pests and malaria vectors globally, albeit seldom illegally [27]. Pesticides have been administered in agricultural settings for decades, employing techniques ranging from truck and aircraft spraying to old-fashioned field worker spraying. Studies on the effects and toxicity of manufactured chemicals on human health and well-being have shown that individuals report euphoria after pesticide application. This research included peasants, farmworkers, and their families following pesticide treatments. They previously discovered that unintentional poisoning affects about 355,000 individuals annually and is linked to high susceptibility and poor chemical management. They also discovered that increased sensitivity and poor management of hazardous substances are closely linked to such toxicities [28]. The research was conducted to assess the number of pesticides in the environment that killed various animals. Among the animals that resided there were fish, birds, bees, amphibians, and tiny mammals. It was also noted how much they were killed and how they were slaughtered [29].
Following the introduction of synthetic chemicals into the environment, it was only a short amount of time before it was thought that crop protection pesticides were causing disease both locally and internationally [26]. Many believe that sprayed on-crop DDT is deported into water bodies, quickly converted into DDE, and bio-accumulated in aquatic food systems before being reintroduced into the environment and ultimately reaching people. To manufacture endosulfan at this time, a rigorous and scientific decision-making procedure is undertaken. Additionally, this strategy includes scientific research to enhance food production, food safety, and environmental security in addition to the other objectives listed above [26].
Common use of synthetic pesticides inhibits the development of plant pathogen strains resistant to these chemicals, causing the reemergence of illnesses in the environment. Pesticides are being used more often by farmers, which is good [30]. Synthetic pesticides include active ingredients that are absorbed and retained by plants after application. People suffer chronic health issues due to the high concentration of harmful chemical deposits in these crops cultivated for human use [31]. Synthetic pesticides include active ingredients that are absorbed and retained by plants after application. People are suffering from chronic health issues due to the high concentration of harmful chemical deposits in these crops cultivated for human use [32].
The need for biopesticides has been increased significantly in recent years, particularly in developing countries, due to restrictions placed on the use of some synthetic pesticides, such as organophthaloids, organochlorines, carbamates, and organophosphates, among other things. Synthetic pesticides are not only harmful to pests and diseases at the time of application, but they also have the potential to contaminate plant crops, posing a threat to human health, animal welfare, and environmental health. Synthetic pesticides are used to control pests and diseases in agriculture. In agriculture, synthetic pesticides are used to manage pests and illnesses that are introduced via the soil. As reported by the Environmental Protection Agency, synthetic pesticides are also harmful to both people and animals. They are also bad for the health of the ecosystem. When it comes to biochemistry, chemical pesticides are characterized by alterations in the signaling system, inhibition of enzymes, pH shifts, disruption of electrolytic balance, osmotic and membrane breakdown, pH gradients across membranes, and other characteristics. They also generate free radicals and other toxic compounds, which have the potential to damage proteins and DNA, as well as cause tissue degeneration, among other undesirable effects [14]. A wide range of diseases has been linked to the use of synthetic pesticides, including Parkinson’s disease and neurotoxicity, type 2 diabetes, endocrine disruption, many cancers, and obesity, among others. Parkinson’s disease is the most well-known of these disorders. It has been shown that the use of synthetic pesticides is linked with the development of these diseases, which may be due in part to the mechanisms of action of these chemicals, as well as the increasing exposure of individuals to these chemicals over time [33, 34, 35]. Despite the fact that it is regrettable, the majority of pesticides now in use are being phased out at a rapid rate, which is a good trend in the industry. On the other hand, pesticides that are still in use continue to accumulate in the human body with every meal that is eaten. In addition, employees who have been exposed to pesticides have been observed to get drunk as a result of the pesticides they have been exposed to over the course of their shift [36]. Natural pesticides offer many benefits over synthetic pesticides, the most significant of which is that they are less harmful to the environment and human health. However, this does not mean that they should be utilized recklessly or without consideration for the repercussions of their actions. Even if certain products have been authorized for use as biopesticides, it is conceivable that they may cause health issues among members of the general population. Large quantities of copper, which is an essential nutrient in the diets of both mammals and plants, have the potential to be poisonous to both humans and animals and hazardous to aquatic life if eaten over an extended period of time. There is also concern about toxic plant species, microalgae, and algae such as
As the name implies, biopesticides are pesticides that include active ingredients formed by microorganisms or natural materials rather than synthetic chemicals. They are used to control insects in a variety of circumstances and are referred to as “biopesticides.” Pesticides derived from plants are divided into three categories: (a) microbial biopesticides, which are microorganisms that are effective against diseases and insects; (b) botanical biopesticides; and (c) plant-incorporated protectants. Microbial biopesticides are microorganisms that are effective against diseases and insects. Microbial biopesticides are microorganisms that have been shown to be efficient against many illnesses and insects in the field. A microbial biopesticide is a bacterium that is effective against a wide range of diseases and insect species, including fungi [10].
The presence of fungus is associated with insect damage.
Non-toxic biochemical pesticides are natural insecticides produced by animals, plants, and insects. They do not damage the creatures that produce them. They are employed to manage pests without killing them. These chemicals may assist in growth and development by attracting or repelling pests (pheromones) and acting as plant growth regulators (PGR). It’s difficult to tell whether a biopesticide is hazardous since so few countries have committees to test metabolites.
As a consequence, evaluating a biopesticide’s safety is difficult [43]. Since their discovery, Auxin-type PGRs have been hailed as one of the most effective herbicides and biological control agents on the market. And for a good reason. It is generally recognized as one of the most efficient herbicides and biological control agents on the market today. Consider the difference in action selectivity between marijuana and PGR. Marijuana has a more selective effect, perhaps due to its fast detoxification process. Low concentrations of these chemicals promote cell elongation, biofertilizer activity, cell division, and cell growth. Dense doses cause weeds to get intoxicated and exhibit developmental abnormalities such as impaired respiration, carbon absorption, and transpiration. In the end, these anomalies harm weeds’ circulatory systems and membranes, leading to their demise [14].
When applied to crops, pesticides (chemical compounds and plant extracts) are used to prevent the growth of pests (including insects) of various types. Pesticides are used to limit, halt, or otherwise manage pests of many kinds, including insects. Some ways in which plant security may be achieved include the utilization of a variety of secondary metabolites produced from plant sources such as essential oils, phenolics, and terpenes, among other things [44]. The non-persistency of essential oils in the environment, along with the fact that they are non-toxic to animals, has led to their being widely regarded as one of the most efficient agricultural pesticides presently available. As acaricides and insecticides, these compounds have the potential to be utilized in the environment, where they may also be used to inhibit the growth of fungus and bacteria. When essential oils are applied to plant cultures, the anti-oxidant properties of the oils protect the plants from pro-oxidants found in proteins and DNA, which cause cytotoxicity, the formation of reactive oxygen species, as well as the breakdown of cell membranes and organelles in the microorganisms that infect the plants [45]. However, the effectiveness of a biological pesticide can be affected by several factors, including the mist of the substance harvested, the method of extraction used to obtain this type of biopesticide, and the age of the plant from which the oil will be collected. The toxicity of a biological pesticide can also be affected by several factors, including the phenological age of the plant from which the oil will be collected. Although agricultural pesticides have many advantages, their use has been restricted for a variety of reasons, including their inability to maintain stability over time, the complexity of the extracted combination, extraction techniques, or formulation of the active component, as well as difficulties encountered during the purification process [46].
There are a number of plants that have been recognized as intrinsic sources of agricultural pesticides, as described in Table 1. The pests that are targeted by the insecticides contained in those plants are also included in the table. The ethanolic plant extracts of ginger (
Plant | Host | Target pest | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Human and animal sp., | [47, 48, 49] | ||
[50, 51, 52] | |||
Human and animals sp., | [53, 54] | ||
[55, 56, 57] | |||
Zea mays, | [58, 59] | ||
Human sp., Animal sp. | [60, 61] | ||
[62, 63] |
The potential plant compounds as botanical pesticides and respective target pests.
Because of a number of factors, biopesticides are not widely utilized as a pest and disease management alternative, despite the fact that they offer many benefits, including the preservation of the environment and the safety of food for human consumption. For the component compounds to be effective in field settings, high dosages of the compounds are required [67]. The emerging evidence revealed that the biopesticides isolated from plants have to face more challenges regarding activity because they are extracted from plants that also contain several other bioactive compounds that could change their chemical properties. Moreover, the utilization of organic compounds as a solvent for the extraction of pesticides is involved in environmental pollution through their disposal. It was also found that biopesticides have a short shelf life that is associated with a high biodegradability rate. In addition to botanical pesticides, microbial pesticides could prove to be better pesticides for a limited type of pest in the field, but they only showed activity against one type of pest, that is one of the biggest disadvantages of microbial pesticides. Furthermore, other environmental factors such as desiccation, heat, light, and UV reduce the activity of microbial pesticides, resulting in continuous crop destruction [68].
The number of bioactive compounds present in plants and the kind of habitat in which they develop is influenced by the environment in which they are grown. Furthermore, the diversity of plants and their differences have an impact on the amount and kind of active chemicals contained in them, resulting in differences in how they respond to illnesses [69]. The quality of plant extracts, on the other hand, varies depending on the extraction method employed. It may be difficult to get the appropriate active and inert components ratios during the formulation process in certain instances. Aside from that, there are no established processes for preparation or assessment of efficacy, especially in field situations when time is of the essence [70]. However, although
From 1959 to 1960, developments in nanotechnology and nanoscience have been made to explore the synthesis and role of nano-particles prior to using them for different biomedical applications. Norio Taniguchi, a professor at Tokyo University of Science, made several successful attempts to synthesize nanometer-sized semiconductors in 1974. Later, it laid the foundation for research to perform experimentation on different types of nano-particles and nanocomposites. Nano-particles are found naturally in plants such as algae in the form of superoxide nano-particles and insects in the form of nanostructures. Nano-particles can be synthesized through physical, chemical, and biological methods [72].
Nano-particles fabricated via physical, chemical, and biological methods are classified by their chemical composition, Nanoparticles in the form of metals such as Cu, Fe, Zinc, Au and in the form of oxides such as ZnO, CuO, AlO, in the form of semiconductors such as ZnS, CdS, ZnSe, carbon-based nano-particles in the form of graphene, diamond, fullerenes, in the form of silicates such as nano clays, in the form of nano-particles based on dendrite with long chains of fibers [73]. Different nano-particles are divided into different dimensions on the basis of their application in different biomaterials. The one-dimensional object possesses thin layers and fine surfaces. Second-dimensional possesses the wires with excellent flexibility and long tubes. Third-dimensional materials can be synthesized from metal oxides through physical and biological methods. These dimensions of the nano-particles have different applications in the fields of agriculture, medical, pharmaceuticals, pest management, and different industrial sectors [72].
Nano-biopesticides are attractive due to their tiny size, high surface-area-to-volume ratio, stability, enhanced efficacy, better solubility, mobility, and decreased toxicity. Nano-biopesticides are also suggested because of their low toxicity (see Figure 1). Chemical pesticides are directly applied to plants can possess toxins released by air into the food chain and cause environmental issues. To control these issues, pesticides with formulations of nano-particles such as micelles and nanocomposites reduce the chances of both environmental and health issues. Similarly, clay-based nanotubes deliver pesticides to control pests [75].
The importance of nanotechnology for the formulation of nano-based biopesticides. This figure is reproduced from Lade et al. [
Like nano-fertilizers, nano-biopesticides are contained in carriers that enable for regulated release of active ingredients to accomplish desired effects in a given environment. Stiffness and penetrability are two properties enhanced by adding nano-biopesticides to biopolymers. Crystallinity, thermal stability, solubility, and biodegradability are also enhanced [76, 77]. When nanomaterials were applied to the soils, nano-biopesticides containing nanomaterials resulted in the growth of mutualistic microorganisms that promote the pants’ activities [17]. Sometimes, toxicity can be induced by coatings of silver-based nano-particles that could be reversed by biocompatible coatings, thus increasing the chances of seed germination in plants. Recently, nano-emulsions, nano-encapsulates, nanocontainers, and nano-cages have been reported as some nano-pesticide delivery techniques with different functionalities for plant protection [77].
Further research shows that cationic polymers may bind to polyanionic surfaces of bacteria, disrupt cell membranes, and kill pests. In agriculture, plants may be treated with biopesticides, such as nano-biopesticides, which can decrease microbial resistance, whereas chemicals applied directly to plants are unable to suppress a wide range of bacterial growth. Tertiary ammonium groups may be found in nano-particles as lengthy amino acid chains. Depending on their structure, these groups may attack various pests and illnesses, including bacteria. Because of their high activity in a wide variety of environmental and chemical conditions, polymers with quaternary ammonium groups in their chains are widely used [78]. Many polymers with this characteristic have been found and researched throughout time. For example, amphiphilic copolymers, functionalized cationic polycarbonates, poly(amidoamines), polyethylenimine, poly(methyl methacrylates), amino celluloses and chlorinated cellulose acetates are now available [78, 79, 80].
Essential oils (EOs) are highly volatile secondary metabolites found in many higher plants and flowers and certain fruits and vegetables. In addition to their traditional uses in medicine and cosmetics, a new study indicates they represent a major natural source of ecologically friendly pesticides. Essential oils are often used to treat gardening pants to keep insects and bees out of the garden. Invertebrates become neurotoxic when their nervous systems are suppressed of GABA and acetylcholine esterase (ACE) [81]. This 2007 research evaluated the anti-pest effects of plant extracts, essential oils, their purified components, and plant-based nano-formulations, as well as their modes of action. Temperature, light, and oxygen supply all have an impact on the EO’s integrity. Researchers found that encapsulating flaxseed in gelatin and Arabic capsules may improve effectiveness by up to 84 percent, preventing the production of certain oxidants that stimulate the growth of some insects [82]. Sagiri
A variety of plants with nano-emulsions of ECs can be used to control the larval infections of different insects. These plants are
Nano-biopesticides can be tested against a specific pest in order to check their efficiency before applying them in different crops. Nano-biopesticides can be synthesized through the active pesticidal compounds and combinations of different nanomaterials such as zinc oxides, silver oxides, and aluminum oxides. [89]. The toxicity of nano-biopesticides can be measured through the minimum inhibitory concentration that employs the agar well diffusion method. Filter paper is usually coated with the outer surface of nano-biopesticides, and oral feeding directly applies to the target pest. The concentration of dead and alive pests can be precisely measured after 40 days of feeding [90].
The pupicidal activity of nano-biopesticides is helpful in preventing the attack of pupae of different insect groups. It can be measured after applying the nano-biopesticides applied to the pupae of the target insects. This activity strongly measures the mortality rate after one day, which depends on the concentrations of nano-biopesticides. The work of Sivapriyajothi
The larvicidal activity of nano-biopesticides can be measured by the leaf disc method by introducing them into the leaf, and concentrations of larvae can be determined after 96 hours. Some plants show larvicidal activity, such as leaf extract of
The anti-feeding activity of nano-biopesticides can be measured by applying them to the leaf disc of pest food. The one-third-instar larva is introduced to the leaf, and the condemnations of leaf eaten by larvae can be measured every 24 hours. Anti-feeding activity has been observed about 92.4% in
Nano-biopesticides can be applied to plants in the right concentration in order to protect them from seasonal diseases. These concentrations (LC 50 and LC 90) aid in the identification of specific larvae, insets, and bee attacks. Nano-biopesticides are also applied in changing environments such as temperatures, humidity, and environmental stresses. In these conditions, nano-biopesticides are directly applied in the form of sprays to protect the plants from pest attacks. Therefore, the use of nano-biopesticides has become the most effective method in controlling the attack of animal vectors and disease-transmitting pests.
Pests of stored grains are among the most difficult to manage in an agricultural system because of their large size [94]. Recently, it has been shown that alumina, silica, SiO2, zinc, and silver nano-particles have a substantial anti-pest effect against a range of pests when combined with other chemicals [95]. According to the researchers, when sprayed on plants or crops, nano-emulsions have been shown to be efficient in deterring the attack of attack insects that cause harm to grains that have been stored for extended periods of time. The researchers discovered that nano-biopesticide emulsions effectively prevented the spread of the
Creating nanosuspensions may be accomplished using two distinct approaches, which are referred to as the bottom-up approach and top-down technology. The bottom-up approach is the more traditional way of creating nanosuspensions. In order to achieve top-down drug particle reduction, a number of techniques such as high-pressure homogenization and media milling are used. Following the bottom-up approach, pesticides (that are to be converted into nanosuspension) are solubilized in a suitable organic solvent and precipitated with the aid of a suitable stabilizer that has been dissolved in an antisolvent as a result of this solubilization and precipitation (often water). Methods such as precipitation, microemulsion, and melt emulsification, to name a few, are among the most often used in this method, and they are described in more detail below [98, 99]. The following are some of the most important methods for the production of nanosuspensions, which are described below.
The advantage of this method is the production of pesticides that are poorly soluble in water via the use of high-pressure homogenization. Successful completion of this procedure depends on completing three essential steps: In the first stage, a finely powdered medication is dispersed in a suitable stabilizer solution, resulting in a pre-suspension that is then subjected to further treatment after being stabilized. The pre-suspension is homogenized at a low pressure throughout the following procedure to guarantee consistency. Finally, but certainly not least, it is homogenized at high pressure for about 10 to 25 cycles, or until the desired size is achieved. Despite this, this method is only suitable for the production of highly concentrated nanosuspension formulations rather than diluted nanosuspension formulations since the pesticides must be micronized before they can be delivered to the field [99, 100].
It has been shown that when exposed to high temperatures, precipitated plant extract nano-particles may crystallize and transform into microparticles. Greater energy pressures are thus required to homogenize them in order to avoid the development of microparticles. Because of their crystalline structure, these particles, which may be completely amorphous, completely crystalline, or slightly amorphous in nature, may cause bioavailability and long-term stability problems when used in pesticide formulations. It is necessary to homogenize the precipitated nanosuspension before it can be used to maintain the particle size achieved during precipitation. This method also has the benefit of being able to be used to produce pesticides that have low solubility in both organic and aqueous solutions, which is advantageous in both cases [101].
In this method, the plant extracts are exposed to an ultra-fine grinding medium, which results in the production of extract particles of a nanometer or smaller diameter. As a consequence of the contact of extracted particles with the milling medium, higher energy shear forces are produced throughout the milling process. This provides the required energy input to induce the microparticles to burst into nano-particles during the operation. For many days, milling material, which may consist of extract, a stabilizer, and water or another appropriate buffer, is rotated at a faster speed than the rest of the milling chamber and spun at a slower speed than the rest of the milling chamber [102].
When the plant extract is dissolved in an organic solvent of choice, it is dried, which is referred to as precipitation. The surfactant is mixed with water (antisolvent), which also includes surfactant, to create a cohesive combination in order to achieve cohesiveness in the final organic phase of the reaction (aqueous phase). It is feasible to oversaturate the plant extract by adding the prepared organic phase to the aqueous phase in a fast manner (organic solvent to antisolvent). As a consequence, ultrafine particles are produced in large quantities (crystalline or amorphous). This process involves, among other things, the creation of nuclei as well as the growth of crystals, depending on the temperature. A high nucleation rate combined with a slow crystal development rate is required to do this since a stable solution with a smaller particle size than is presently accessible cannot be achieved without doing so [103].
Any nano-effective formulation in real-world applications depends on effective distribution. Environmentally friendly use of water, fertilizers, and pesticides is possible using nano-sensors and smart delivery systems (see Figure 2). Using satellite pictures of their fields in combination may allow farm managers to identify agricultural pests and collect evidence of stress caused by high heat, floods, or drought. Nanomaterials and GPS will be combined with satellite images of fields to produce a more realistic environmental model. Using this technology, farmers can now change agricultural inputs automatically. So, nano-sensors in the field may be able to detect plant viruses and soil nutrients, allowing for more precise crop management. Pesticide use and contamination will be minimized when slow-release nano-biopesticides contained in nano-particles are delivered to their targets [105]. Another alternative is to utilize a nano-barcode, a new technology that may be used to check the quality of agricultural products. Cornell University researchers used supermarket barcodes to create a low-cost, efficient, quick, and simple method for decoding and detecting diseases and illnesses. The technique was developed using grocery barcodes. These tiny probes or nano-barcodes may be scanned with a microscope using self-folding branching DNA constructs. It is feasible to detect a disease biomarker on agricultural goods or on the farm using a fluorescent color ratio. Because nano-barcodes and pathogen biomarkers are so compatible, any fluorescent-based device capable of detecting infection or illness should be able to recognize them. This continuing study’s goal is to create a portable on-site detector that non-experts may utilize [106]. Auxins, plant hormones, are important in root development and seedling establishment in both young and mature plants. Purdue University researchers have created an auxin-detecting nano-sensor that may be used to detect it in the environment. The interaction of auxin with biosensors produces a signal that can be monitored and used to detect the amount of auxin present at different locations along the root’s length. Another method is to use mathematics to see whether neighboring cells absorb or release auxin at different rates. This advances auxin research by allowing scientists to better understand how plant roots adapt to their surroundings. This study’s findings may help improve agricultural research in the future [107].
The schematic diagram of delivery of nano-biopesticides to crop for pest management. This figure is reproduced from Lade and Gogle [
Using a micro- or nano-emulsion may enhance nano-biopesticide solubility, kinetic stability, optical transparency, and bioavailability while decreasing emulsion size and viscosity [108]. Despite not being intended for agricultural usage, a nano-permethrin formulation free of artificial polymers and stabilized with natural plant surfactants was shown to be an efficient larvicide. Developing nano-particles that act as a coating or protective layer for conventional nano-biopesticides and fertilizers may also be a future research topic. According to the National Science Foundation, nano-clay materials provide high aspect ratio interaction surfaces for encapsulating “agrochemicals such as fertilizers, plant growth stimulants, and insecticides” [109]. Incorporating silver nano-particles into electrospun polyacrylonitrile fibers is intriguing due to the possible antibacterial characteristics. This method may be used to entrap an active biopesticide or a nano-biopesticide for use in soil-applied pesticides or insecticides. To kill the soilborne bug, an electrospun nanofibrous mat loaded with nano-biopesticides is electrospun into the soil and subsequently removed [110].
Biopesticides have a variety of distinct modes of action that are distinct from one another and may be used in various settings, including agriculture. Through a variety of mechanisms, including parasitism, antibiosis, and predation, among others, microorganisms generate pesticides that are harmful to humans and animals. Botanical pesticides have been shown to be very effective since they kill insects while also interfering with the development of diseases. Prey is killed as a result of the attack by being parasitized or poisoned, which leads them to die as a result of the attack. Pests are attracted to the treatment area as a consequence of the application of the treatment, which results in the pests being killed or sterilized (see Figure 3). Extracts from plants belonging to the Asteraceae family have been reported to inhibit hyphal growth and induce structural modifications in the mycelia of plant pathogenic fungi [112].
The general mechanism of action of nano-biopesticides for pest insect management. This figure is reproduced from Mossa, [
There are different types of biopesticides, including sabadilla, pyrethrum, azadirachtin, and fluoroacetate that show different mechanisms of action against pests. For example, the alkaloid toxin of sabadilla significantly caused the loss of nerve cell membrane mechanism by affecting the nerve cell membrane of insects. It was found that sabadilla could kill most insects immediately after its use, but a few could survive up to few days in a state of paralysis before dying [115]. In addition, the emerging evidence revealed that a low dose of pyrethrins significantly causes the immediate death of insects. For humans and warm-blooded animals, pyrethrins are not toxic. Allergic responses to humans, however, are frequent. It may cause a rash, and inhaling the dust can lead to headaches and illness. By altering the process of sodium and potassium ion exchanges in insect nerve fibers, pyrethrins exert their deadly effects by inhibiting the normal transmission of nerve impulses. The insecticides containing pyrethrin work very quickly and produce paralysis in the insects very quickly. But many insects can swiftly metabolize (break down) pyrethrins in spite of their acute toxicity. However, piperonyl butoxide (PBO) and pyrethrin could be used as combined therapy against these insects [116].
A recently reported study revealed that administration of azadirachtin to third instar larvae significantly reduces food consumption compared to control [117]. But, its antifeedant activity surely depends on the insect species and dose concentration [118]. It was reported that the inhibition of feeding behaviors after azadirachtin dose from stimulation of deterrent receptors was coupled with sugar receptors that lead to food restriction, starvation, and bad nutrition [119]. Recently, various studies have demonstrated the weight loss behavior of azadirachtin in different insects, including
Nano-biopesticides are eco-friendly, possess biodegradation properties, and are transported to the different parts of plants. Due to their bioavailability in the plant system, they are helpful in understanding the interactions and behavior of different pests that tack on crops. Spraying silver nano-particles with combinations of aloe vera extract and silver nitrate is helpful to control the growth of pests such as
Nano-biopesticides are biodegradable and transported to the different tissues of pants. Some studies have shown that soil applications of nano-biopesticides under optimum conditions are helpful for the degradation of toxic metabolites that are produced in plants. These metabolites cause the accumulation of toxic metals. It leads to an increase in the chances of death of plant tissues. On the other hand, traditionally used chemicals also increase the chances of death of plant tissues due to cellular toxicity in some cells. Therefore, the use of nano-biopesticides in environmental applications is much more reliable than other chemical compounds [125]. Nano-biopesticides reach the soil by activating the microbial activities that increase the chances of useful bacterial activities in plants such as mycorrhizal association.
Nano-biopesticides play an important role in maintaining environmental sustainability by replacing traditionally used chemicals in the form of sprays. The use of nano-biopesticides to control the pests also maintains the ecological chain. Nano-biopesticides for land conservation ensure the maximum yields and maintain the farming system. So, nano-biopesticides are also helpful for improving soil quality and increasing food yields under different cultivations. Other applications are found in crop protection by controlling pests and other animals such as bees and birds through sustainable development [126, 127]. The representation of the process of formulation of nano-biopesticides to fully commercialization is presented in Figure 4.
The general process of formulation of nano-fertilizer to commercialization. This figure is reproduced from Lengai and Muthomi [
Nano-biopesticides are used in the control of pests in order to prevent their action in agriculture sectors. These bio-pesticides will be helpful in targeting the different pests in more effective ways by reducing the chemical compounds in order to make profitable and environmentally friendly production. Due to unclear molecular mechanisms and sites of action to the target of the action, research progress for pest control in agriculture is slow [129]. Recent studies show that applications of nano-biopesticides are effective in controlling pests by replacing the traditionally used chemical compounds. These nano-biopesticides have fewer side effects as compared to directly applied chemical compounds. Nano-biopesticides have great potential to release active ingredients that are helpful in maintaining the different problems associated with agricultural systems, such as eutrophication. Although nano-biopesticides are widely used in different crops to control pests, their utilization in humans and animals remains unclear as they have entered into the food chain. More study is needed to characterize and formulate newly developed nano-biopesticides for controlling the different varieties of pests by ensuring no side effects on humans through the food chain [130].
As the world population increases rapidly, the feeding of humans will reach approximately 9 billion by 2050. It requires lots of nano-biopesticides to kill the pests and for the storage of food for long periods of time. It will be an emerging approach towards pest management that maintains environmental sustainability with fewer toxic effects on human health. The use of nano-biopesticides is also helpful in maintaining the nutrient balance in crops, minimize the risks to food security, and accumulating hazardous materials [131]. Nano-biopesticides have been extensively used in the agricultural fields for pest management or arthropod attack, but they possess chemical formulations that contain nano-particles that lead to toxicity concerns and health issues. These nano-biopesticides need to be standardized internationally to reduce their toxic effects on crops and the food chain. The use of nano-biopesticides in agriculture looks promising, but more research is needed in order to understand their toxic nature and monitor their application time to soils [132].
Approximatively, 25% of the world’s food yield is destroyed each year by the attack of pests. According to recent studies, using synthetic pesticides has been related to an increase in some illnesses, including Parkinson’s disease, neurotoxicity, type 2 diabetes, endocrine disruption, various malignancies, and even obesity. Insecticides produced from microorganisms or natural compounds are known as biopesticides. Due to their eco-friendliness, great efficacy, and few side effects, nano-biopesticides have gained in popularity over conventional pesticides over recent years. Biologically active pesticide compounds (APCs) may be produced in two ways: either by extracting APCs from plants and combining them with nano-particles or by inserting them into a polymer. As a result of their nano-size, high surface area/volume ratio, durability, enhanced effectiveness, greater solubility, mobility, and low toxicity, nano-biopesticides are superior to chemical pesticides. Biopesticides inhibit pathogen’s growth by altering their cellular structures and morphology and exhibit neurotoxicity on insects. As a result, nano-biopesticides are environmentally benign and have biodegradation characteristics; they assist in cleaning the environment by reducing the danger of harmful metal buildup in plants. However, the use of nano-sensors and nano-based smart delivery systems could help in the efficient use of agricultural, natural resources such as water, nutrients, and chemicals through precision farming. Moreover, it is recommended to use a nano-barcode, which is a novel method to monitor the quality of agricultural products.
Hereby, we extend our gratitude to A.Q Research Group, Pakistan for reviewing the article and providing helpful comments.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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\n\nOnline First Chapters are considered published on the day they are posted and are citable from that date.
\n\nChapters will remain listed as Online First until the final versions of the books are published online. Following publication of the full monograph, Chapters will be redirected from the Online First version and will be available only through the final link of the official published page.
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This chapter aims specifically at the mechanism of solubility of polysaccharides from the molecular level. General understandings of the solubility including definition, testing methods, and the solution behaviors were provided; the relationships between polysaccharide solubility and the structural features in terms of molecular weight, degree of branching, charging properties, chain flexibility, and the special groups were all discussed. With all the information provided, the molecular modification and further applications of polysaccharides in both food and nonfood areas could be promoted.",book:{id:"5935",slug:"solubility-of-polysaccharides",title:"Solubility of Polysaccharides",fullTitle:"Solubility of Polysaccharides"},signatures:"Mark Q. 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Mainly, the versatile techniques of ultra−/high-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC/HPLC) are in use for the analysis of assay and organic impurities/related substances/degradation products of a drug substance or drug product or intermediate or raw material of pharmaceuticals. A suitable analytical method is developed only after evaluating the major and critical separation parameters of chromatography (examples for UPLC/HPLC are selection of diluent, wavelength, detector, stationary phase, column temperature, flow rate, solvent system, elution mode, and injection volume, etc.). The analytical method development is a process of proving the developed analytical method is suitable for its intended use for the quantitative estimation of the targeted analyte present in pharmaceutical drugs. And it mostly plays a vital role in the development and manufacture of pharmaceuticals drugs.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Narasimha S. 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RNA‐seq data analyses typically consist of (1) accurate mapping of millions of short sequencing reads to a reference genome, including the identification of splicing events; (2) quantifying expression levels of genes, transcripts, and exons; (3) differential analysis of gene expression among different biological conditions; and (4) biological interpretation of differentially expressed genes. Despite the fact that multiple algorithms pertinent to basic analyses have been developed, there are still a variety of unresolved questions. In this chapter, we review the main tools and algorithms currently available for RNA‐seq data analyses, and our goal is to help RNA‐seq data analysts to make an informed choice of tools in practical RNA‐seq data analysis. In the meantime, RNA‐seq is evolving rapidly, and newer sequencing technologies are briefly introduced, including stranded RNA‐seq, targeted RNA‐seq, and single‐cell RNA‐seq.",book:{id:"5160",slug:"bioinformatics-updated-features-and-applications",title:"Bioinformatics",fullTitle:"Bioinformatics - Updated Features and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Baohong Zhang, Ying Zhang, William Gordon,\nSarah Du, Theresa Paradis, Michael Vincent and David von Schack",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]},{id:"49873",title:"An Introduction to Actinobacteria",slug:"an-introduction-to-actinobacteria",totalDownloads:8178,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:108,abstract:"Actinobacteria, which share the characteristics of both bacteria and fungi, are widely distributed in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, mainly in soil, where they play an essential role in recycling refractory biomaterials by decomposing complex mixtures of polymers in dead plants and animals and fungal materials. They are considered as the biotechnologically valuable bacteria that are exploited for its secondary metabolite production. Approximately, 10,000 bioactive metabolites are produced by Actinobacteria, which is 45% of all bioactive microbial metabolites discovered. Especially Streptomyces species produce industrially important microorganisms as they are a rich source of several useful bioactive natural products with potential applications. Though it has various applications, some Actinobacteria have its own negative effect against plants, animals, and humans. On this context, this chapter summarizes the general characteristics of Actinobacteria, its habitat, systematic classification, various biotechnological applications, and negative impact on plants and animals.",book:{id:"5056",slug:"actinobacteria-basics-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Actinobacteria",fullTitle:"Actinobacteria - Basics and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Ranjani Anandan, Dhanasekaran Dharumadurai and Gopinath\nPonnusamy Manogaran",authors:[{id:"48914",title:"Dr.",name:"Dharumadurai",middleName:null,surname:"Dhanasekaran",slug:"dharumadurai-dhanasekaran",fullName:"Dharumadurai Dhanasekaran"}]},{id:"72074",title:"The Chemistry Behind Plant DNA Isolation Protocols",slug:"the-chemistry-behind-plant-dna-isolation-protocols",totalDownloads:3797,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Various plant species are biochemically heterogeneous in nature, a single deoxyribose nucleic acid (DNA) isolation protocol may not be suitable. There have been continuous modification and standardization in DNA isolation protocols. Most of the plant DNA isolation protocols used today are modified versions of hexadecyltrimethyl-ammonium bromide (CTAB) extraction procedure. Modification is usually performed in the concentration of chemicals used during the extraction procedure according to the plant species and plant part used. Thus, understanding the role of each chemical (viz. CTAB, NaCl, PVP, ethanol, and isopropanol) used during the DNA extraction procedure will benefit to set or modify protocols for more precisions. A review of the chemicals used in the CTAB method of DNA extraction and their probable functions on the highly evolved yet complex to students and researchers has been summarized.",book:{id:"8912",slug:"biochemical-analysis-tools-methods-for-bio-molecules-studies",title:"Biochemical Analysis Tools",fullTitle:"Biochemical Analysis Tools - Methods for Bio-Molecules Studies"},signatures:"Jina Heikrujam, Rajkumar Kishor and Pranab Behari Mazumder",authors:[{id:"74521",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajkumar",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor",slug:"rajkumar-kishor",fullName:"Rajkumar Kishor"},{id:"309357",title:"Prof.",name:"Pranab Behari",middleName:null,surname:"Mazumder",slug:"pranab-behari-mazumder",fullName:"Pranab Behari Mazumder"},{id:"318351",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jina",middleName:null,surname:"Heikrujam",slug:"jina-heikrujam",fullName:"Jina Heikrujam"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"6",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83046",title:"Gene Expression and Transcriptome Sequencing: Basics, Analysis, Advances",slug:"gene-expression-and-transcriptome-sequencing-basics-analysis-advances",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105929",abstract:"Gene expression studies are extremely useful for understanding a broad range of biological, physiological, and molecular responses. The techniques for gene expression reflect differential patterns of gene regulation and have evolved with time from detecting one gene to many genes at a time laterally. Gene expression depends on the spatiotemporal expression in a particular tissue at a given time point and needs critical examination and interpretation. Transcriptome sequencing or RNA-seq using next-generation sequencing (short and long reads) is the most widely deployed technology for accurate quantification of gene expression. According to the biological aim of the experiment, replications, platform, and chemistries, propelling improvement has been demonstrated and documented using RNA-seq in plants, humans, animals, and clinical sciences with respect to gene expression of mRNA, small non-coding, long non-coding RNAs, alternative splice variations, isoform variations, gene fusions, single-nucleotide variants. Integrating transcriptome sequencing with other techniques such as chromatin immunoprecipitation, methylation, genome-wide association studies, manifests insights into genetic and epigenetic regulation. Epi-transcriptome including RNA methylation, modification, and alternative polyadenylation events can also be explored through long-read sequencing. In this chapter, we have presented an account of the basics of gene expression methods, transcriptome sequencing, and the various methodologies involved in the downstream analysis.",book:{id:"11349",title:"Gene Expression",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11349.jpg"},signatures:"Yogesh Shukla, Amol Phule, Harshvardhan Zala, Nakul D. Magar, Priya Shah, K. Harish, Tejas C. Bosamia, Kalyani M. Barbadikar, Maganti Sheshu Madhav, Satendra Kumar Mangrauthia, Chirravuri Naga Neeraja and Raman Meenakshi Sundaram"},{id:"83043",title:"Applications of CRISPR/Cas9 for Selective Sequencing and Clinical Diagnostics",slug:"applications-of-crispr-cas9-for-selective-sequencing-and-clinical-diagnostics",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106548",abstract:"In this chapter, we will discuss the applications of CRISPR/Cas9 in the context of clinical diagnostics. We will provide an overview of existing methods and their use cases in the diagnostic field. Special attention will be given to selective sequencing approaches using third-generation sequencing and PAM-site requirements. As target sequences in an AT-rich environment cannot easily be accessed by the commercially available SpCas9 due to rarity of NGG PAM-sites, new enzymes such as ScCas9 with PAM-site requirements of NNG will be highlighted. Original research on CRISPR/Cas9 systems to determine molecular glioma markers by enriching regions of interest will be discussed in the context of potential future applications in clinical diagnostics.",book:{id:"11804",title:"CRISPR Technology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11804.jpg"},signatures:"Maximilian Evers, Björn Brändl, Franz-Josef Müller, Sönke Friedrichsen and Stephan Kolkenbrock"},{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",abstract:"In this chapter, we will discuss the importance of genetic variations in the IL-23 receptor (IL-23R) gene in driving the process of inflammation-induced carcinogenesis. By applying bladder cancer (BLC) as a model, we will focus on two contradictory genetic mutations within the receptor gene. The first one is enhanced by cancer and induces inflammation-induced carcinogenesis via up-regulating IL-23/IL-17 inflammatory axis. However, the other preventive one deregulates this inflammatory pathway by distorting the protein nature of the receptor, leading to block its binding affinity. During the process of carcinogenesis, cancer genetically inclines the balance towards the protumor, via over-expressing the IL-23R on the surfaces of immune-bearing cells, particularly tumor-associated monocytes (TAMs) and thus increasing the levels of pro-angiogenic cytokines IL-23 and IL-17.",book:{id:"11672",title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy"},{id:"82259",title:"p53 Tumor Suppressor: Functional Regulation and Role in Gene Therapy",slug:"p53-tumor-suppressor-functional-regulation-and-role-in-gene-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105029",abstract:"p53, a homo-tetrameric protein found in mammalian cells, derives its name from the fact that it settles at around 53KDa position in SDS-PAGE, due to a “kink” in its structure. In its functional state, p53 forms a homo-tetramer and binds to the promoters of a wide array of genes. Binding of p53 downregulates the transcription of target genes. Most of the gene targets of p53 are involved in cell cycle progression, and therefore, any malfunctions associated with p53 have catastrophic consequences for the cell. The gene encoding for p53 known as TP53 is the most well-studied gene in the entire genome because of being the most highly mutated gene in all cancer types. It is due to this widely accepted and documented “cell protective feature” that p53 is generally referred to as “the guardian of the genome.” In this chapter, we will discuss the involvement of p53 in relation to carcinogenesis. We will also cover the major functions of p53 under normal conditions, major mutations of the TP53 gene, and their association with different forms of cancer.",book:{id:"10246",title:"P53 - A Guardian of the Genome and Beyond",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10246.jpg"},signatures:"Zeenat Farooq, Shahnawaz Wani, Vijay Avin BR, Rakesh Kochhar and Mumtaz Anwar"},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",abstract:"The lipids are essential compounds of cells, with biochemical and structural properties. Lipids are classified according to their chain length or saturation levels and biogenesis. Lipidomics is a spectroscopic and spectrometric technique, like Mass Spectrometry and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, as well as bioinformatics to quantify and characterize the lipid profile. Lipidomics enables the fundamental understanding of lipid biology, the identification of drug targets for therapy, and the discovery of lipid biomarkers of disease cohorts. Therefore, lipidomics allows knowing the diagnosis and clinical follow-up in medical therapy towards any disease. In this way, the lipid profile allows us to monitor the administration of a clinical treatment and assertively diagnose human diseases.",book:{id:"11669",title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg"},signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra"},{id:"82862",title:"Assessment of Genetic Variability of Three Types of Sorghum Cultivated in Burkina Faso Using Morphoagronomic Quantitative Traits and Brix",slug:"assessment-of-genetic-variability-of-three-types-of-sorghum-cultivated-in-burkina-faso-using-morphoa",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105984",abstract:"In Burkina Faso, tree types of sorghum are mainly grown. Despite their genetic proximity revealed by molecular markers, the identification of distinctive agro-morphological traits between sweet grain sorghum, sweet sorghum and grain sorghum could contribute to better management of their genetic resources. Thus, 42 genotypes consisting of the three sorghum types were evaluated in a three replicate Fisher incomplete block design using 20 quantitative traits. The results showed a high variability of traits within each sorghum type and a greater closeness between sweet grain sorghum and sweet stalk sorghum. In addition, nine traits clearly discriminated sweet grain sorghum from the other sorghum types. Sweet grain sorghum expressed the highest values of the sowing-heading cycle, leaf sheath length, stem diameter, productive tillers, and panicle width and the lowest values of mean heading-flowering difference, 100-grain weight, and Brix. Moreover, the ‘sorghum type’ factor is less preponderant than the ‘genotype factor’ in expressing the variability of all traits. Therefore, the 42 genotypes are organized into three genetic groups independently of the sorghum- type factor, where the group I contains all sweet grain sorghum genotypes and three sweet stalk sorghum genotypes. These results could be exploited in sorghum breeding programs.",book:{id:"11643",title:"Genetic Diversity - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11643.jpg"},signatures:"Nerbéwendé Sawadogo, Mahamadi Hamed Ouédraogo, Lardia Ali Bougma, Norbert Yaméogo, Wendmanegda Hermann Tondé, Josiane Tiendrébéogo, Sévérin Tuina, Gapili Naoura and Mahamadou Sawadogo"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:92},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:14,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/11.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"133493",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/133493/images/3091_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Angel Catalá \r\nShort Biography Angel Catalá was born in Rodeo (San Juan, Argentina). He studied \r\nchemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where received aPh.D. degree in chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:16,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. Nkanga",slug:"carotenoids-in-cassava-manihot-esculenta-crantz",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Carotenoids - New Perspectives and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10836.jpg",subseries:{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology"}}},{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hassan M.",surname:"Heshmati"}],book:{title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81796",title:"Apoptosis-Related Diseases and Peroxisomes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105052",signatures:"Meimei Wang, Yakun Liu, Ni Chen, Juan Wang and Ye Zhao",slug:"apoptosis-related-diseases-and-peroxisomes",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}},{id:"81723",title:"Peroxisomal Modulation as Therapeutic Alternative for Tackling Multiple Cancers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104873",signatures:"Shazia Usmani, Shadma Wahab, Abdul Hafeez, Shabana Khatoon and Syed Misbahul Hasan",slug:"peroxisomal-modulation-as-therapeutic-alternative-for-tackling-multiple-cancers",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"The Metabolic Role of Peroxisome in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10837.jpg",subseries:{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:14,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. 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