These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
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To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
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Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5136",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Recent Progress in Some Aircraft Technologies",title:"Recent Progress in Some Aircraft Technologies",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book describes the recent progress in some engine technologies and active flow control and morphing technologies and in topics related to aeroacoustics and aircraft controllers. Both the researchers and students should find the material useful in their work.",isbn:"978-953-51-2482-5",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2481-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6675-7",doi:"10.5772/61381",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"recent-progress-in-some-aircraft-technologies",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"6855bfb94011b56313a07020fa05ead6",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",publishedDate:"September 8th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5136.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17067,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:55,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 31st 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 31st 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 17th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 17th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38519/images/system/38519.jpg",biography:"Professor Ramesh K. Agarwal is William Palm Professor of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis, USA. From 1994 to 2001, he was Sam Bloomfield Distinguished Professor and Executive Director of the National Institute for Aviation Research at Wichita State University in Kansas. From 1978 to 1994, he worked in various scientific and managerial positions at McDonnell Douglas Research Laboratories in St. Louis; he became the Program Director and McDonnell Douglas Fellow in 1990. Dr. Agarwal received a PhD in Aeronautical Sciences from Stanford University in 1975, an MS in Aeronautical Engineering from the University of Minnesota in 1969, and a BS in Mechanical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India in 1968. Dr. Agarwal has worked in computational fluid dynamics and its applications to problems in aerospace and mechanical engineering, and energy and the environment.",institutionString:"Washington University in St. Louis",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Washington University in St. Louis",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"683",title:"Aeronautics",slug:"aeronautics"}],chapters:[{id:"50737",title:"Progress in Experimental Research of Turbine Aeroacoustics",doi:"10.5772/62431",slug:"progress-in-experimental-research-of-turbine-aeroacoustics",totalDownloads:1939,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modifications on the intermediate turbine duct in order to reduce noise emissions by changing interaction frequencies and/or modes capable to propagate are presented. Also different turbine exit casings are described that are optimised to reduce interaction noise that is propagating through the engine and is one of the major noise sources during landing (operating point approach). The most promising modifications to reduce sound power levels are described. Depending on different modifications at specific operating points, the reduction of sound power level is between 5 dB and 10 dB, which is a significant reduction. However, some of these measures show an increase in aerodynamic losses. Therefore, a compromise has to be found between higher losses during a short duration (e.g. landing) and significant noise reduction. The chapter focuses on experimental results obtained in the test facilities of the Institute for Thermal Turbomachinery and Machine Dynamics at Graz University of Technology.",signatures:"Andreas Marn, Christian Faustmann and Thorsten Selic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50737",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50737",authors:[{id:"178221",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",surname:"Marn",slug:"andreas-marn",fullName:"Andreas Marn"},{id:"178535",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"Faustmann",slug:"christian-faustmann",fullName:"Christian Faustmann"},{id:"178536",title:"Dr.",name:"Thorsten",surname:"Selic",slug:"thorsten-selic",fullName:"Thorsten Selic"}],corrections:null},{id:"50064",title:"Lubricants for Turbine Engines",doi:"10.5772/62394",slug:"lubricants-for-turbine-engines",totalDownloads:2641,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The lubricant systems used in turbine engine applications are discussed with respect to the particular problems associated with aircraft applications. After initially describing the relevant specifications, the typical basestocks are described along with some common degradation schemes. The additive systems, including antioxidants, anti-foaming agents, and anti-wear additives needed to achieve the typical specifications, are described along with their mechanism of action and degradation mechanisms. The methods used for the monitoring of lubricant health, including in-line and offline methods, are also discussed. Finally, future changes in specifications, basestocks, and additives are discussed with respect to new, high-performance bearing materials.",signatures:"David W. Johnson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50064",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50064",authors:[{id:"178441",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"}],corrections:null},{id:"50409",title:"Active Flow Control by Using Plasma Actuators",doi:"10.5772/62720",slug:"active-flow-control-by-using-plasma-actuators",totalDownloads:2925,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Active flow control has recently received an increasing attention since it allows to directly manipulate the flow-field around a surface only when it is effectively requested. Aerodynamic plasma actuators supplied by a dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) can be used for this purpose. Usually, sinusoidal voltages in the range 5–50 kV peak and frequencies between 1 and 100 kHz are utilized to ignite this plasma typology. The surface discharge produced by these devices is able to tangentially accelerate the flow field by means of the electrohydrodynamic (EHD) interaction. DBDs generate non-thermal plasmas characterized by low input energies and limited temperature increments. Plasma actuators can be easily designed by following the shape of the aerodynamic body and can be used over heat-sensitive surfaces. These aerodynamic devices have demonstrated to produce boundary layer modifications with induced speeds up to 10 m/s. Their use over airfoils, flaps, and blades have shown the possibility to delay the transition between laminar to turbulent regime, to prevent flow separation enhancing lift and reducing drag. Moreover, the adoption of these actuators over landing gears and trailing edges may induce a noise reduction effect. Dielectric materials, electrodes configuration, and supplying waveforms are most relevant parameters to be considered to enhance actuator performance. On a parallel plane, on/off actuation strategy is a key point in the use of these devices when utilized over aerodynamic surfaces impinged within an external flow.",signatures:"Gabriele Neretti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50409",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50409",authors:[{id:"178403",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriele",surname:"Neretti",slug:"gabriele-neretti",fullName:"Gabriele Neretti"}],corrections:null},{id:"50414",title:"Loads Simulator System for Testing and Qualification of Flight Actuators",doi:"10.5772/62710",slug:"loads-simulator-system-for-testing-and-qualification-of-flight-actuators",totalDownloads:1794,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The flight actuation system plays important role in the accurate guidance of the flight vehicles. The actuators driving the control surfaces are aerodynamically loaded during flight. The design, testing and selection process of the flight actuators play important role to ensure the stable and safe flight. Since a reliable flight actuation system can ensure appropriate guidance, the importance of qualification process cannot be neglected. Qualification of the actuators through field trials is a very costly and time-consuming process. The testing process using real flights takes more time and is costly. For ground testing, aerodynamic loading systems are used. The aerodynamic loading system is ground-based hardware in the loop (HWIL) simulator that can be used for exerting aerodynamic loads on actuation system of flight vehicles in real-time experiment. The actuation system under test is directly connected to the loading motor through a stiff shaft and the aerodynamics loading is applied in real time according to the flight trajectory generated by a flight computer.",signatures:"Nasim Ullah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50414",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50414",authors:[{id:"179559",title:"Dr.",name:"Nasim",surname:"Ullah",slug:"nasim-ullah",fullName:"Nasim Ullah"}],corrections:null},{id:"50748",title:"Morphing Technologies: Adaptive Ailerons",doi:"10.5772/63645",slug:"morphing-technologies-adaptive-ailerons",totalDownloads:2100,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"European Union is involving increasing amount of resources on research projects that will dramatically change the costs of building and operating aircraft in the near future. Morphing structures are a key to turn current airplanes to more efficient and versatile means of transport, operating into a wider range of flight conditions.",signatures:"Ignazio Dimino, Gianluca Amendola, Francesco Amoroso, Rosario\nPecora and Antonio Concilio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50748",authors:[{id:"178973",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ignazio",surname:"Dimino",slug:"ignazio-dimino",fullName:"Ignazio Dimino"},{id:"182346",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",surname:"Pecora",slug:"rosario-pecora",fullName:"Rosario Pecora"},{id:"182347",title:"Mr.",name:"Gianluca",surname:"Amendola",slug:"gianluca-amendola",fullName:"Gianluca Amendola"},{id:"182348",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Concilio",slug:"antonio-concilio",fullName:"Antonio Concilio"},{id:"182349",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Amoroso",slug:"francesco-amoroso",fullName:"Francesco Amoroso"}],corrections:null},{id:"50553",title:"Self-Healing Control Framework Against Actuator Fault of Single-Rotor Unmanned Helicopters",doi:"10.5772/62480",slug:"self-healing-control-framework-against-actuator-fault-of-single-rotor-unmanned-helicopters",totalDownloads:1137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Unmanned helicopters (UHs) develop quickly because of their ability to hover and low speed flight. Facing different work conditions, UHs require the ability to safely operate under both external environment constraints, such as obstacles, and their own dynamic limits, especially after faults occurrence. To guarantee the postfault UH system safety and maximum ability, a self‐healing control (SHC) framework is presented in this chapter which is composed of fault detection and diagnosis (FDD), fault‐tolerant control (FTC), trajectory (re‐)planning, and evaluation strategy. More specifically, actuator faults and saturation constraints are considered at the same time. Because of the existence of actuator constraints, usable actuator efficiency would be reduced after actuator fault occurrence. Thus, the performance of the postfault UH system should be evaluated to judge whether the original trajectory and reference is reachable, and the SHC would plan a new trajectory to guarantee the safety of the postfault system under environment constraints. At last, the effectiveness of proposed SHC framework is illustrated by numerical simulations.",signatures:"Xin Qi, Zhong Liu, Yuqing He, Liying Yang, Yuqing He and Jianda\nHan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50553",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50553",authors:[{id:"9884",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuqing",surname:"He",slug:"yuqing-he",fullName:"Yuqing He"},{id:"9921",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianda",surname:"Han",slug:"jianda-han",fullName:"Jianda Han"},{id:"29225",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalei",surname:"Song",slug:"dalei-song",fullName:"Dalei Song"},{id:"71619",title:"Dr.",name:"Liying",surname:"Yang",slug:"liying-yang",fullName:"Liying Yang"},{id:"179295",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin",surname:"Qi",slug:"xin-qi",fullName:"Xin Qi"},{id:"185017",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhong",surname:"Liu",slug:"zhong-liu",fullName:"Zhong Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"51026",title:"A Hierarchical Tracking Controller for Quadrotor Without Linear Velocity Measurements",doi:"10.5772/62442",slug:"a-hierarchical-tracking-controller-for-quadrotor-without-linear-velocity-measurements",totalDownloads:1649,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with the position control of quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) when quadrotor’s linear velocity is unavailable. We propose a hierarchical tracking controller for quadrotor UAV. The proposed controller does not require measurements of linear velocity of quadrotor. A nonlinear filter that avoids the need for measurements of linear velocity has proposed such that a global stability result is obtained for the position tracking error. However, backstepping based on barrier Lyapunov function has been used for the attitude controller. The control design is achieved by means of the hierarchical control, that is, design the position controller and attitude controller separately. This allows us to choose different nonlinear techniques for each controller.",signatures:"Yassine Jmili, Nuradeen Fethalla, Jawhar Ghomam and Maarouf\nSaad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51026",authors:[{id:"179087",title:"Prof.",name:"Jawhar",surname:"Ghommam",slug:"jawhar-ghommam",fullName:"Jawhar Ghommam"},{id:"179582",title:"MSc.",name:"Yassine",surname:"Jimli",slug:"yassine-jimli",fullName:"Yassine Jimli"},{id:"179583",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurradeen",surname:"Fathallah",slug:"nurradeen-fathallah",fullName:"Nurradeen Fathallah"}],corrections:null},{id:"50173",title:"Studies on Effects of Aircraft Noise on Behavior of Rats, Their Plasma Norepinephrine Levels and Cell Morphology of the Temporal Lobe",doi:"10.5772/62586",slug:"studies-on-effects-of-aircraft-noise-on-behavior-of-rats-their-plasma-norepinephrine-levels-and-cell",totalDownloads:1351,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To study the physiological effects of airport noise exposure on organisms, Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were exposed in soundproof chambers to previously recorded aircraft-related noise for 65 d. As a comparison, unexposed control rats were also used. According to aircraft flight schedules, aircraft noise was replayed and its weighted equivalent continuous perceived noise levels (LWECPN) were adjusted to 75 and 80 dB for the two experimental groups. Rat behaviors were observed through an open field test and the concentrations of plasma norepinephrine (NE) were tested by high-performance liquid chromatography-fluorimetric detection (HPLC-FLD). The morphologies of neurons and synapses in the temporal lobe were also examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Our results indicated that SD rats of experiment group exposed to airport noise of 80 dB had significantly lower line crossing number (P < 0.05) and significantly longer center area duration (P < 0.05) compared with that of control group. After 29 d of airport noise exposure, the concentrations of plasma NE of experiment group were significantly higher than that of control group (P < 0.05). It was determined that the neuron and synapsis of the temporal lobe of experiment group exposed to 80 dB for 65 d showed signs of damage. In conclusion, exposing rats to long-term aircraft noise affects their behaviors, plasma NE levels, and cell morphology of the temporal lobe. Of course, the differences in the hearing sensitivity to different sound frequencies and circadian rhythms between rats and humans can bring variances in physiological effects under the same noise exposure. Therefore, if this study results are applied into humans, it should be further confirmed.",signatures:"Guo-qing Di",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50173",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50173",authors:[{id:"179520",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Di",surname:"Guoqing",slug:"di-guoqing",fullName:"Di Guoqing"}],corrections:null},{id:"50209",title:"Numerical Study of Support Interferences on the SOAR Separation Wind Tunnel Test",doi:"10.5772/62241",slug:"numerical-study-of-support-interferences-on-the-soar-separation-wind-tunnel-test",totalDownloads:1532,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A process of support design for wind tunnel models and the evaluation of interferences effect are described in this chapter. The work was performed at the Von Karman Institute for Fluid Dynamics (VKI; Sint-Genesius-Rode, Belgium), and it was commissioned by the S3-Swiss Space System company. The work concerns the separation wind tunnel test of the Suborbital Aircraft Reusable (SOAR) vehicle from an Airbus commercial plane carrier. The supports are designed for future separation wind tunnel test of the SOAR version V10 in the VKI-S1 wind tunnel. They are designed in scale 1:180 for the test of the SOAR in the presence of the Airbus and in scale 1:80 for the SOAR alone test. Two different shapes of support (circular and elliptic) are tested in each case. First there are the supports designed, then the results of the finite element method (FEM) static structural analysis and vibrational analysis, and finally the result of the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) campaign. The flow and the force interferences caused by the support are investigated by comparing simulations with and without support. The behavior of the two shapes and of the dimensional variations are investigated at an angle of attack between 0° and 15° and at Mach 0.7.",signatures:"Alberto Ghiraldo, Sebastien Paris and Ernesto Benini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50209",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50209",authors:[{id:"11393",title:"Dr.",name:"Ernesto",surname:"Benini",slug:"ernesto-benini",fullName:"Ernesto Benini"},{id:"178175",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Alberto",surname:"Ghiraldo",slug:"alberto-ghiraldo",fullName:"Alberto Ghiraldo"},{id:"183603",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastien",surname:"Paris",slug:"sebastien-paris",fullName:"Sebastien Paris"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1992",title:"Recent Advances in Aircraft Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67fa903d68a094013f66d01b38882107",slug:"recent-advances-in-aircraft-technology",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6804",title:"Carbon Capture, Utilization and Sequestration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc6cd79987121b45dfa7f4cc6ba0ca1b",slug:"carbon-capture-utilization-and-sequestration",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6804.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. 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\n
1. Introduction
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In 1965, Zadeh [1] proposed the concept of fuzzy sets as a tool to test the unknown degree of membership. Many fuzzy studies then attempted to use this method as a theoretical framework, which is widely used in the research fields of natural sciences and social sciences, obtaining good study achievements [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. The fuzzy time series is also an analysis method derived from the concept of fuzzy sets. In 1993, Song and Chissom [18, 19, 20, 21] successfully combined the concept of fuzzy sets with the time series model and began studies on fuzzy time series. Chen [3] proposed the simplified and easy-to-calculate method for Song and Chissom’s model [18, 19, 20, 21], so that the computation complexity of fuzzy time series is dramatically reduced. Lee and Chou [14] also proposed that rational settings of the lower and upper boundary in intervals of the universal set for fuzzy time series have improved their accuracy and reliability. Liaw [17] proposed a simple test method for whether a fuzzy time series has a fuzzy trend, in which the method is used to determine whether the data for analysis is in a steady state. Chou [12] added to Chen and Hsieh’s defuzzification method [2] in the fuzzy time series, so that the long-term level for the series can be obtained, and the model originally used for single-point prediction can be applied to long-term prediction and interval prediction. This article mainly uses the algorithmic method of Chou’s [12] research process for illustrating the fuzzy time series, taking the Taiwan Shipping and Transportation Index (STI) [23] as an example.
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The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the definition of fuzzy time series and Section 3 defines the long-term predictive significance level process. A numerical example of STI is shown in Section 4, and concluding remarks are mentioned in conclusion.
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\n
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2. Definition of fuzzy time series
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Fuzzy sets, presented by Zadeh [1], have numerous presentations, such as in fuzzy sets, fuzzy decision analysis, and fuzzy time series. The concept is also widely applied in social science article and applications [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. Fuzzy time series is developed rapidly since their introduction by Song and Chissom [18, 19, 20, 21]. Current fuzzy time series methods have benefited from both theoretical developments as well as relevant applications in research [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22], which has led to more diverse uses. This trend indicates that the development of fuzzy time series has markedly improved. The definitions of the fuzzy time series used in this article are described as follows.
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Definition 1 [18, 19, 20, 21]. A fuzzy number on the real line \n\nℜ\n\n is a fuzzy subset of \n\nℜ\n\n that is normal and convex.
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Definition 2 [18, 19, 20, 21]. Let \n\nY\n\nt\n\n\n\nt\n=\n…\n\n0\n1\n2\n…\n\n\n, a subset of \n\nℜ\n\n, be the universe of discourse on which the fuzzy sets \n\n\nf\ni\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nt\n=\n1\n\n2\n…\n\n\n are defined, and let \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n be the collection of \n\n\nf\ni\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nt\n=\n1\n\n2\n…\n\n\n. Then, \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n is called fuzzy time series on \n\nY\n\nt\n\n\n\nt\n=\n…\n\n0\n1\n2\n…\n\n\n.
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Definition 3 [18, 19, 20, 21]. Let \n\nI\n\n and \n\nJ\n\n be the index sets for \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n, respectively. If for any \n\n\nf\nj\n\n\nt\n\n∈\nF\n\nt\n\n\n, where \n\nj\n∈\nJ\n\n, there then exists \n\n\nf\ni\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∈\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, where \n\ni\n∈\nI\n\n, such that there exists a fuzzy relation \n\n\nR\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nf\nj\n\n\nt\n\n=\n\nf\ni\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∘\n\nR\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, where ‘\n\n∘\n\n’ is the max–min composition. Then, \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n is said to be caused by only \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n. Denote this as \n\n\nf\ni\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n→\n\nf\nj\n\n\nt\n\n\n, or equivalently, \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n→\nF\n\nt\n\n\n.
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Definition 4 [18, 19, 20, 21]. If, for any \n\n\nf\nj\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∈\nF\n\nt\n\n\n, where \n\nj\n∈\nJ\n\n, there exists \n\n\nf\ni\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∈\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, where \n\ni\n∈\nI\n\n, and a fuzzy relation \n\n\nR\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, such that \n\n\nf\nj\n\n\nt\n\n=\n\nf\ni\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∘\n\nR\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n. Let \n\nR\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n=\n\n∪\nij\n\n\nR\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, where \n\n∪\n\n is the union operator. Then, \n\nR\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n is called the fuzzy relation between \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n and \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n. Thus, we define this as the following fuzzy relational equation:
Definition 5 [18, 19, 20, 21]. Suppose that \n\n\nR\n1\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n=\n\n∪\nij\n\n\n\nR\n1\n\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nR\n2\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n=\n\n∪\nij\n\n\n\nR\n2\n\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n are two fuzzy relations between \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n and \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n. If, for any \n\n\nf\nj\n\n\nt\n\n∈\nF\n\nt\n\n\n, where \n\nj\n∈\nJ\n\n, there exists \n\n\nf\ni\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∈\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, where \n\ni\n∈\nI\n\n, and fuzzy relations \n\n\n\nR\n1\n\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\n\n\nR\n2\n\nij\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n such that \n\n\nf\ni\n\n\nt\n\n=\n\nf\ni\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∘\n\nR\nij\n1\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nf\ni\n\n\nt\n\n=\n\nf\ni\n\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∘\n\nR\nij\n2\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, then define \n\n\nR\n1\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n=\n\nR\n2\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n.
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Definition 6 [18, 19, 20, 21]. Suppose that \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n is only caused by \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n2\n\n\n\n, …, or \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\nm\n\n\n\n\n\nm\n>\n0\n\n\n\n. This relation can be expressed as the following fuzzy relational equation: \n\nF\n\nt\n\n=\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n∘\n\nR\n0\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\nm\n\n\n\n, which is called the first-order model of \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n.
\n
Definition 7 [18, 19, 20, 21]. Suppose that \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n is simultaneously caused by \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n2\n\n\n\n, …, and \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\nm\n\n\n\n\n\nm\n>\n0\n\n\n\n. This relation can be expressed as the following fuzzy relational equation: \n\nF\n\nt\n\n=\n\n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n×\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n2\n\n\n×\n…\n×\nF\n\n\nt\n−\nm\n\n\n\n\n∘\n\nR\na\n\n\nt\n\nt\n−\nm\n\n\n\n, which is called the mth-order model of \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n.
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Definition 8 [3]. \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n is fuzzy time series if \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n is a fuzzy set. The transition is denoted as \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n→\nF\n\nt\n\n\n.
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Definition 9 [7]. Let \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n be a set of real numbers: \n\nd\n\nt\n\n⊆\nR\n\n. We define an exponential function where
\n\n\ny\n=\nexp\nd\n\nt\n\n⇔\nln\ny\n=\nd\n\nt\n\n\n and
Definition 10 [14]. The universe of discourse \n\nU\n=\n\n\nD\nL\n\n\nD\nU\n\n\n\n is defined such that \n\n\nD\nL\n\n=\n\nD\nmin\n\n−\n\nst\nα\n\n\nn\n\n/\n\nn\n\n\n and \n\n\nD\nU\n\n=\n\nD\nmax\n\n+\n\nst\nα\n\n\nn\n\n/\n\nn\n\n\n when \n\nn\n≤\n30\n\n or \n\n\nD\nL\n\n=\n\nD\nmin\n\n−\nσ\n\nZ\nα\n\n/\n\nn\n\n\n and \n\n\nD\nU\n\n=\n\nD\nmax\n\n+\nσ\n\nZ\nα\n\n/\n\nn\n\n\n when \n\nn\n>\n30\n\n, where \n\n\nt\nα\n\n\nn\n\n\n is the \n\n100\n\n\n1\n−\nα\n\n\n\n percentile of the \n\nt\n\n distribution with \n\nn\n\n degrees of freedom. \n\n\nz\nα\n\n\n is the \n\n100\n\n\n1\n−\nα\n\n\n\n percentile of the standard normal distribution. Briefly, if \n\nZ\n\n is an \n\nN\n\n(0, 1) distribution, then \n\nP\n\n\nZ\n≥\n\nz\nα\n\n\n\n=\nα\n\n.
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Definition 11 [14]. Assuming that there are \n\nm\n\n linguistic values under consideration, let \n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n be the fuzzy number that represents the ith linguistic value of the linguistic variable, where \n\n1\n≤\ni\n≤\nm\n\n. The support of \n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n is defined as follows:
Definition 12 [17]. For a test \n\n\nH\n0\n\n:\nnonfuzzy trend\n\n against \n\n\nH\n1\n\n:\nfuzzy trend\n\n, where the critical region \n\n\nC\n∗\n\n=\n\n\nC\n\n\n\nC\n2\nk\n\n+\n\nC\n2\n\nn\n−\nk\n\n\n\n\n>\n\nC\nλ\n\n=\n\nC\n2\nn\n\n×\n\n\n1\n−\nλ\n\n\n\n\n\n, the initial value of the significance level \n\nα\n\n is 0.2.
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Definition 13 [8]. Let \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n be a set of real numbers \n\nd\n\nt\n\n⊆\nR\n\n. An upper interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n is a number b such that \n\nx\n≤\nb\n\n for all \n\nx\n∈\nd\n\nt\n\n\n. The set \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n is said to be an interval higher if \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n has an upper interval. A number, max, is the maximum of \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n if max is an upper interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n and \n\nmax\n∈\nd\n\nt\n\n\n.
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Definition 14 [8]. Let \n\nd\n\nt\n\n⊆\nR\n\n. The least upper interval of \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n is a number \n\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n\n satisfying:
\n\n\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n\n is an upper interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n such that \n\nx\n≤\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n\n for all \n\nx\n∈\nd\n\nt\n\n\n and
\n\n\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n\n is the least upper interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n, that is, \n\nx\n≤\nb\n\n for all \n\nx\n∈\nd\n\nt\n\n⇒\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n≤\nb\n\n.
\n
Definition 15 [8]. Let \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n be a set of real numbers \n\nd\n\nt\n\n⊆\nR\n\n. A lower interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n is a number b such that \n\nx\n≥\nb\n\n for all \n\nx\n∈\nd\n\nt\n\n\n. The set \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n is said to be an interval below if \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n has a lower interval. A number, min, is the minimum of \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n if min is a lower interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n and \n\nmin\n∈\nd\n\nt\n\n\n.
\n
Definition 16 [8]. Let \n\nd\n\nt\n\n⊆\nR\n\n. The least lower interval of \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n is a number \n\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n\n satisfying:
\n\n\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n\n is a lower interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n such that \n\nx\n≥\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n\n for all \n\nx\n∈\nd\n\nt\n\n\n and.
\n\n\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n\n is the least lower interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n, that is, \n\nx\n≥\nb\n\n for all \n\nx\n∈\nd\n\nt\n\n⇒\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n≤\nb\n\n.
\n
Definition 17 [8]. The long-term predictive value interval (\n\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n\n) is called the static long-term predictive value interval.
\n
Definition 18 [2]. Let \n\n\nA\ni\n\n=\n\n\nα\ni\n\n\n\n\nβ\ni\n\n\n\n\n\nγ\ni\n\n\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n2\n,\n…\n,\nn\n,\n\n be n triangular fuzzy numbers. By using the graded mean integration representation (GMIR) method, the GMIR value \n\nP\n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n\n of \n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n is \n\nP\n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n=\n\n\n\nα\ni\n\n+\n4\n\nβ\ni\n\n+\n\nγ\ni\n\n\n\n/\n6\n\n. \n\nP\n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n\n and \n\nP\n\n\nA\nj\n\n\n\n are the GMIR values of the triangular fuzzy numbers \n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n and \n\n\nA\nj\n\n\n, respectively.
\n
Definition 19 [12]. Set up new triangular fuzzy numbers by S = (\n\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nd\n^\n\n\n\nt\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n\n). After GMIR transformation, S becomes a real number ΔS. This is called the long-term significance level with fuzzy time series. The ΔS is a real number satisfying the following:
ΔS is called a long-term significance level up, only if: ΔS > \n\n\nd\n^\n\n\nt\n\n\n;
ΔS is called a long-term significance level down, only if: ΔS < \n\n\nd\n^\n\n\nt\n\n\n; and
ΔS is called a long-term significance level stable, only if: ΔS = \n\n\nd\n^\n\n\nt\n\n\n.
\n
\n
\n
3. Procedure of fuzzy time series forecasting
\n
This section proposes a method to forecast the long-term predictive significance level by Chou. The stepwise procedure of the proposed method consists the following steps [8], illustrated as a flowchart in Figure 1 [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12].
\n
Figure 1.
Procedure of the proposed model.
\n
Step 1. Let \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n be the data under consideration and let \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n be fuzzy time series. Following Definition 11, a difference test is performed to determine whether stability of the information. Recursion is performed until the information is in a stable state, where the critical region is \n\n\nC\n∗\n\n=\n\n\nC\n\n\n\nC\n2\nk\n\n+\n\nC\n2\n\nn\n−\nk\n\n\n\n\n>\n\nC\nλ\n\n=\n\nC\n2\nn\n\n×\n\n\n1\n−\nλ\n\n\n\n\n\n.
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Step 2. Determine the universe of discourse \n\nU\n=\n\n\nD\nL\n\n\nD\nU\n\n\n\n.
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Step 3. Define \n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n by letting its membership function be as follows:
Step 4. Then, \n\nF\n\nt\n\n=\n\nA\ni\n\n\n if \n\nd\n\nt\n\n∈\nsupp\n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n\n, where supp\n\n\n⋅\n\n\n denotes the support.
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Step 5. Derive the transition rule from period \n\nt\n−\n1\n\n to \n\nt\n\n and denote it as \n\nF\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n→\nF\n\nt\n\n\n. Aggregate all transition rules. Let the set of rules be \n\nR\n=\n\n\n\nr\ni\n\n\n\n\nr\ni\n\n:\n\nP\ni\n\n→\n\nQ\ni\n\n\n\n\n\n\n.
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Step 6. The value of \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n can be predicted using the fuzzy time series \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n as follows. Let \n\nT\n\nt\n\n=\n\n\n\nr\nj\n\n\n\nd\n\nt\n\n∈\nsupp\n\n\nP\nj\n\n\n\n\n\n\nwhere\n\n\nr\nj\n\n∈\nR\n\n\n\n be the set of rules fired by \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n, where \n\nsupp\n\n\nP\nj\n\n\n\n is the support of \n\n\nP\nj\n\n\n. Let \n\n\n\nsupp\n\n\nP\nj\n\n\n\n¯\n\n\n be the median of \n\nsupp\n\n\nP\nj\n\n\n\n. The predicted value of \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n is \n\n\n∑\n\n\nr\nj\n\n∈\nT\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nsupp\n\n\nQ\nj\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n\nt\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n¯\n\n\n.
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Step 7. The long-term predictive value interval for \n\nd\n\nt\n\n\n is given as (\n\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n\n, \n\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n\n).
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Step 8. Set up new triangular fuzzy numbers by ΔS = (\n\n\n\nmin\n←\n\n\n\n,\n\n\nd\n^\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nmax\n→\n\n\n\n) .
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Step 9. Defuzzify S to be ΔS.
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\n
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4. Numerical example of Shipping and Transportation Index in Taiwan
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In this study, the Shipping and Transportation Index (STI) in Taiwan is used for a numerical example. The STI reflects the spot rates of the Taiwan Stock Exchange Corporation. The STI data are sourced from the Taiwan Stock Exchange Corporation [23], the historical data for which is defined here as the STI, and month-averaged data for the period between January, 2015, and June, 2018, was collected.
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Over these 42 data points, the analysis produces an average of 4.226, with a standard deviation of 0.172, maximum value of 4.571, and minimum value of 4.067. These descriptive statistics show that the STI has largely remained at the 1124.70 level. As shown in Figure 2, its current rate of return is negative.
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Figure 2.
Rate of return of the STI.
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The following steps in the procedure are performed when using fuzzy time series to analyze STI.
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Step 1. First, we take the logarithm of the STI data to reduce variation and improve the forecast accuracy, letting \n\nS\nTI\n\n\nt\n˜\n\n\n=\nln\nS\nTI\n\nt\n\n\n.
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Step 2. Maintaining stationary data while forecasting helps to improve the forecast quality; therefore, we conduct a stationary test on the STI data. For fuzzy time series, a fuzzy trend test can measure whether the STI’s fuzzy trend moves upward or downward. Using this fuzzy trend test, the STI data can be converted into a stationary series. If the original STI data exhibited a fuzzy trend, it can be eliminated by taking the difference. We then repeat the test after taking the first difference to measure if the STI data exhibits a fuzzy trend. If a fuzzy trend is again observed, then we take the second difference, and so on.
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Letting \n\nSTI\n\nt\n\n\n be the historical data under consideration and fuzzy time series, a difference test is used (following Definition 11) to understand whether the stability of the information. Recursion is performed until the information is determined to be stable. Once the region \n\n\nC\n\n\'\n\'\n\n\n=\n\n\nC\n\n\nC\n=\n\nC\n2\n22\n\n+\n\nC\n2\n\n42\n−\n22\n\n\n\n\n\n\n=\n432\n<\n\n\nC\n\n\n\nC\n2\n42\n\n×\n\n\n1\n−\n0.2\n\n\n\n\n\n\n=\n688.8\n\n, the STI data are considered in a stable state and are not rejected.
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Step 3. According to the interval setting of the STI data, we define the upper and lower bounds, which facilitate dividing the linguistic value intervals later. From Definition 10, the discourse \n\nU\n=\n\n\nD\nL\n\n\nD\nU\n\n\n\n. From Table 1, \n\n\nD\nmin\n\n=\n4.067\n\n\n, \n\n\nD\nmax\n\n=\n4.571\n\n, \n\ns\n=\n0.172\n\n, and \n\nn\n=\n42\n\n can be obtained. Letting\n\nα\n=\n0.05\n\n, since \n\nn\n\n is large than 30, a standard normal Z was used. Thus, \n\n\nZ\n0.05\n\n=\n1.645\n\n, \n\n\nD\nL\n\n=\n\nD\nmin\n\n−\n\nst\nα\n\n/\n\nn\n\n≈\n3.627\n\n, and \n\n\nD\nU\n\n=\n\nD\nmax\n\n+\n\nst\nα\n\n/\n\nn\n\n≈\n5.011\n\n. That is, \n\nU\n=\n\n3.627\n\n5.011\n\n\n\n\n.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Year
\n
Actual
\n
ln(Actual)
\n
Fuzzified
\n
The forecast value
\n
\n\n\n
\n
201501
\n
95.611
\n
4.560
\n
A5
\n
4.518
\n
\n
\n
201502
\n
92.839
\n
4.531
\n
A5
\n
4.518
\n
\n
\n
201503
\n
94.750
\n
4.551
\n
A5
\n
4.518
\n
\n
\n
201504
\n
96.622
\n
4.571
\n
A6
\n
4.617
\n
\n
\n
201505
\n
88.503
\n
4.483
\n
A5
\n
4.518
\n
\n
\n
201506
\n
79.003
\n
4.369
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201507
\n
80.103
\n
4.383
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201508
\n
74.787
\n
4.315
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201509
\n
69.560
\n
4.242
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201510
\n
71.416
\n
4.269
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201511
\n
67.625
\n
4.214
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201512
\n
64.282
\n
4.163
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201601
\n
63.301
\n
4.148
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201602
\n
64.315
\n
4.164
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201603
\n
67.143
\n
4.207
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201604
\n
65.073
\n
4.176
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201605
\n
61.163
\n
4.114
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201606
\n
61.221
\n
4.114
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201607
\n
61.043
\n
4.112
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201608
\n
59.942
\n
4.093
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201609
\n
60.293
\n
4.099
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201610
\n
58.372
\n
4.067
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201611
\n
58.736
\n
4.073
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201612
\n
57.892
\n
4.059
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201701
\n
59.278
\n
4.082
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201702
\n
62.746
\n
4.139
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201703
\n
65.467
\n
4.182
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201704
\n
62.142
\n
4.129
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201705
\n
76.626
\n
4.339
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201706
\n
63.029
\n
4.144
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201707
\n
64.728
\n
4.170
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201708
\n
68.464
\n
4.226
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201709
\n
70.555
\n
4.256
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201710
\n
67.830
\n
4.217
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201711
\n
66.696
\n
4.200
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201712
\n
67.640
\n
4.214
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201801
\n
69.769
\n
4.245
\n
A4
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201802
\n
65.206
\n
4.178
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201803
\n
64.669
\n
4.169
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201804
\n
64.671
\n
4.169
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201805
\n
63.759
\n
4.155
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n
\n
201806
\n
62.712
\n
4.139
\n
A3
\n
4.221
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Fuzzy historical STI data and the forecasted results.
\n
Step 4. After defining the upper and lower bounds of the STI data in Step 3, we can define the SCFI range by determining the membership function as well as the linguistic values. We can also define the range of the subinterval for each linguistic value, assuming that the following linguistic values are under consideration: extremely few, very few, few, some, many, very many, and extremely many. According to Definition 11, the supports of fuzzy numbers that represent these linguistic values are given as follows:
where \n\n\nA\n1\n\n\n = “extremely few,” \n\n\nA\n2\n\n\n = “very few,” \n\n\nA\n3\n\n\n = “few,” \n\n\nA\n4\n\n\n = “some,” \n\n\nA\n5\n\n\n = “many,” \n\n\nA\n6\n\n\n = “very many,” and \n\n\nA\n7\n\n\n = “extremely many.” Thus, the supports are \n\nsupp\n\n\nA\n1\n\n\n=\n\n3.627\n3.825\n\n\n, \n\nsupp\n\n\nA\n2\n\n\n=\n\n3.825\n4.023\n\n\n, \n\nsupp\n\n\nA\n3\n\n\n=\n\n4.023\n4.221\n\n\n, \n\nsupp\n\n\nA\n4\n\n\n=\n\n4.221\n4.419\n\n\n, \n\nsupp\n\n\nA\n5\n\n\n=\n\n4.419\n4.617\n\n\n, \n\nsupp\n\n\nA\n6\n\n\n=\n\n4.617\n4.815\n\n\n, and \n\nsupp\n\n\nA\n7\n\n\n=\n\n4.815\n5.011\n\n\n.
\n
Step 5. According to the subinterval setting of each linguistic value, we classified each historical dataset of the STI into its corresponding interval to measure the value corresponding to the linguistic value for each interval. The fuzzy time series \n\nF\n\nt\n\n\n was given by \n\nF\n\nt\n\n=\n\nA\ni\n\n\n when \n\nd\n\nt\n\n∈\nsupp\n\n\nA\ni\n\n\n\n. Therefore, \n\nF\n\n201501\n\n=\n\nA\n5\n\n\n, \n\nF\n\n201502\n\n=\n\nA\n6\n\n\n, \n\nF\n\n201503\n\n=\n\nA\n5\n\n\n, \n\nF\n\n201504\n\n=\n\nA\n6\n\n\n, …, and \n\nF\n\n201806\n\n=\n\nA\n3\n\n\n. Table 1 shows the comparison between the actual SCFI data and the fuzzy enrollment data.
\n
Step 6. We apply fuzzy theory to define the corresponding value for the intervals of the STI data, arrange the corresponding method for the STI data, and integrate the changes from all the rules to determine the rules for the STI. The transition rules are derived from Table 1. For example, \n\nF\n\n201501\n\n→\nF\n\n201502\n\n\n is \n\n\nA\n5\n\n→\n\nA\n5\n\n\n. Table 2 shows all transition rules obtained from Table 1.
Step 7. We calculate each rule by determining all the rules of the STI, and the calculation results can be used to forecast future values. Table 1 shows the forecasting results from 201001 to 201806.
\n
Step 8. The calculated STI rules can define the intervals of the STI data; using these intervals, we can determine the variation in future long-term intervals. The long-term predictive value interval for the STI is given as (3.726, 4.913). Thus, the long-term predictive interval for the STI is given as (41.506, 136.022). Therefore, the current long-term S STI is bounded by this interval. According to Step 8, the fuzzy STI of 201501 shown in Table 1 is A5, and from Table 2, we can see that the rules are the fuzzy logical relationships in Rule 8 of Table 2, in which the current state of fuzzy logical relationships is A3. Thus, the 201806 STI predictive value is 41.506.
\n
Step 9. Letting defuzzified S be ΔS, the STI 201806 forecast value based on our investigation is 68.090, and its trading range is between 41.506 and 136.002. Thus, the new triangular fuzzy numbers by S = (41.506, 68.090, 136.002). Thus, the defuzzified S is ΔS = 74.981, and ΔS = 74.981 > \n\n\nd\n^\n\n\nt\n\n\n = 68.090. ΔS is called a long-term significance level up.
\n
The result shows that based on the long-term significance level, the STI is currently oversold. This result and the risk–reward ratio are both related within the group. We used Table 1 data in our analysis according to the root mean square percentage error (R.M.S.P.E.) method, with an average prediction error of 1.708%. Figure 3 shows the forecast visitor arrivals determined through fuzzy time series analysis and the actual STI values. Based on the fuzzy time series results, the average STI is estimated to be 68.090 in 201806 (Figure 3).
\n
Figure 3.
Forecast STI and actual STI.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions and future work
\n
In this article, a long-term predictive value interval model is developed for forecasting the STI. This model facilitates minimizing the uncertainties associated with fuzzy numbers. The method is examined by forecasting the STI by using data from which ΔS = 74.981 and ΔS > \n\n\nd\n^\n\n\nt\n\n\n is obtained. For index returns, the current rate of return is negative and its volatility is increasing. The long-term predictive significance level of the STI is at the ΔS level; the STI should thus exhibit extreme volatility.
\n
The current model for the STI 201806 forecast level deviates insignificantly from the actual values for an average of 68.090 and is within the group; the prediction error does not exceed 1.708% of the significance level. By constructing a fuzzy time series forecasting model for the STI with an error of less than 1.708%, with the traditional fuzzy time excluded from the single-point forecast comparison, this model provides a long-term predictive significance level.
\n
Furthermore, the proposed method can be computerized. Thus, by improving fuzzy linguistic assessments as well as the evaluation of fuzzy time series, decision makers can automatically obtain the final long-term predictive significance level.
\n
The STI used in this chapter is used as a forecasting example. If you predict that the future will rise, you can use the buying strategy. For example, if the index returns in the future, you can use the selling strategy.
\n
The four functions of management are mainly four functions: planning, organization, leadership and control. The fuzzy time series mode used in this chapter can be applied to controlled projects to compare and correct whether the re-executed work meets expectations. If you meet expectations, re-plan the original settings.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This chapter is extended and revised the article “An improved fuzzy time series theory with applications in the Shanghai containerized freight index”.
\n
\n',keywords:"fuzzy time series, interval prediction, long-term prediction significance level",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65010.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65010.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65010",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65010",totalDownloads:1614,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:39,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 3rd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"November 6th 2019",dateFinished:"January 2nd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter mainly uses fuzzy time series for interval prediction and long-term significance level analysis. In this study, the Taiwan Shipping and Transportation Index (Taiwan STI) is used to illustrate the prediction process. Nine steps have been used to establish the interval prediction of the Taiwan Shipping and Transportation Index (Taiwan STI), and ΔS is called a long-term significance level (up/down/stable) is used to illustrate the long-term prediction significance level. By means of interval prediction and long-term prediction significance level, the future trends for this index and more internal messages related to this index can be provided to relevant researchers.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65010",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65010",book:{id:"8362",slug:"time-series-analysis-data-methods-and-applications"},signatures:"Ming-Tao Chou",authors:[{id:"262691",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming-Tao",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",fullName:"Ming-Tao Chou",slug:"ming-tao-chou",email:"mtchou@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Chang Jung Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Definition of fuzzy time series",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Procedure of fuzzy time series forecasting",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Numerical example of Shipping and Transportation Index in Taiwan",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions and future work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zadeh LA. Fuzzy set. Information and Control. 1965;8:338-353'},{id:"B2",body:'Chen S-H, Hsieh C-H. Representation, ranking, distance, and similarity of L-R type fuzzy number and application. Australian Journal of Intelligent Information Processing Systems. 2000;6:217-229'},{id:"B3",body:'Chen S-M. Forecasting enrollments based on fuzzy time series. Fuzzy Sets and Systems. 1996;81:311-319'},{id:"B4",body:'Chen S-M. Forecasting enrollments based on high order fuzzy time series. Cybernetics and Systems: An International Journal. 2002;33:1-16'},{id:"B5",body:'Chou M-T, Lee H-S. Increasing and decreasing with fuzzy time series. In: Joint Conference on Information Sciences; 2006. pp. 1240-1243'},{id:"B6",body:'Chou M-T. A fuzzy time series model to forecast the BDI. In: IEEE Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Networked Computing and Advanced Information Management; 2008. pp. 50-53'},{id:"B7",body:'Chou M-T. The logarithm function with a fuzzy time series. Journal of Convergence Information Technology. 2009;4:47-51'},{id:"B8",body:'Chou M-T. Long-term predictive value interval with the fuzzy time series. Journal of Marine Science and Technology. 2011;19:509-513'},{id:"B9",body:'Chou M-T. An application of fuzzy time series: A long range forecasting method in the global steel price index forecast. Review of Economics and Finance. 2013;3:90-98'},{id:"B10",body:'Chou M-T, Chou C-C. The implication of Taiwan’s ore tramp carrier cargo on the blast furnace plant. Advanced Materials Research. 2013;694–697:3488-3491'},{id:"B11",body:'Chou MT. Fuzzy time series theory application for the China containerized freight index. Applied Economics and Finance. 2016;3:444-453'},{id:"B12",body:'Chou MT. 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Available from: http://www.twse.com.tw/en/ [Accessed: August 03, 2018]'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ming-Tao Chou",address:"mtchou@mail.cjcu.edu.tw",affiliation:'
Department of Aviation and Maritime Transportation Management, Chang Jung Christian University, Taiwan
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1. Introduction
Every year, thousands of people come from the lowlands to high altitude such as the Qinghai-Tibetan plateau, the Andes, and the Alps, for sight-seeing and mountaineering. Although identification on high altitude is controversial [1, 2] (see Table 1), altitude illnesses do not generally occur until 2500 m altitude or greater [2]. Currently, there are hundreds of thousands of non-native people working and living in these areas at altitudes ranging from 4000 to 5072 m including mountaineers, search and rescue personnel, and military personnel.
Poor sleep quality is a common experience for new arrivals at high altitude in the days to weeks following acute ascent. They often encounter with increased awakenings, frequent brief arousals, a sense of suffocation relieved by a few deep breaths, and resumption of sleep, which is now known as periodic breathing (PB). Upon arising from sleep, the impression is one of greatly restless sleep. Poor sleep quality at high altitude is one of the serious complaints in people with mountain sickness and influences physical and mental well-being, which can manifest as impaired cognitive abilities [3, 4] and poor daytime performance [5]. Up to now, there are no acceptable diagnostic criteria for sleep disorder at high altitude. It is recognized as a symptom of mountain sickness rather than an altitude disease.
Here we discuss the features of sleep at high altitude with focus on the role and causes of PB in altitude sleep disturbance, subjective changes in sleep quality, objective variations in sleep architecture, and management of sleep disorder at high altitude. We also discuss whether it is appropriate to name it high-altitude sleep disorder (HASD) as one of the altitude-related illness in accordance with the nomenclature of other high-altitude diseases.
2. Breathing disturbance during sleep at high altitude
One of the most important characteristics of sleep disorder at high altitude is PB, which usually occurs at altitudes above 2000 m [6]. PB during sleep was first recorded in 1886 by Mosso [7] and further observed by Douglas and Haldane in 1909 [8]. It is considered that under high altitude hypoxic circumstances, breathing was stimulated by hypoxia, leading to hypocapnia and lessening of hypoxia, which triggers apnea during sleep. Apnea, in turn, restores ventilatory by raising PCO2 and increasing hypoxia, generating the periodic respiratory cycle. This cyclical crescendo-decrescendo pattern periodicity usually consists of 2–4 breaths, separated by an apnea of 5–15 s in duration from the next burst of 2–4 breaths. Therefore, unstable breathing is the main characteristic of PB.
The extent of PB increased progressively as the altitude increased [9]. There is a strong positive correlation between PB and severity of acute mountain sickness (AMS) as assessed by Lake Louise (LL) score. With the increasing of altitude, normal values for partial pressure of arterial (PaO2) decreased compared to sea level, pH changing to respiratory alkalosis with concomitant hypocapnia [10]. Above 4000 m altitude, PB exists in most people, but this phenomenon may be beneficial, because with the worsening of PB, a higher arterial oxygen saturation (SaO2) was observed during sleep [10, 11]. After 3 months of acclimatization at 3800 altitude, PB could also be observed in lowlanders. Although acclimatized lowlanders experienced PB more frequently than native Tibetans at 89–85% of SaO2 stage, there is no significant difference in total PB events occurring either in non-rapid eye movement (NREM) or rapid eye movement (REM) stage [12]. See details in Figure 1, periodic breathing during sleep between native Tibetans and acclimatized Han lowlanders at 3800 m altitude. Even for a longer time (13 months) of camp in the Antarctic base Concordia (3800 m), PB prevailed for the major part of sleeping time [13]. These findings from a cross-sectional and a longitudinal study support our current understanding which assumes PB would not be largely relieved after acclimatization.
Figure 1.
Periodic breathing during sleep between native Tibetans and acclimatized Han lowlanders at 3800 altitude. Modified from Kong et al. [12].
The mechanism underlying this respiratory pattern for apnea and PB during sleep in hypoxic environments is believed to be a reduction in the PaO2 and acid-base adjustments. The procedure of PB may be summarized as conflicting dynamics between hypoxic stimulation of ventilation and suppression of respiratory output from ensuing hypocapnia. These changes lead to alterations in chemoreflex control and cerebrovascular responses to changes in arterial O2 which finally result in hyperventilation. For lowlanders, acclimatization to high altitude magnifies these changes. Briefly, an elevated chemosensitivity causes a more vigorous response to the rise in PaCO2 while the apnea outweighs the improvements in the effectiveness of ventilation in changing the arterial O2 caused by the chronic hypocapnia leading to the occurrence of PB [14].
The severity of PB is determined to be aggravated by an increasing neural respiratory drive (NRD), which can be measured by the electromyogram of the diaphragm. A sleep study in four healthy mountaineers performed at 3380, 4370, and 5570 m in the Andes, Argentina, confirmed this hypothesis [15]. A high NRD at altitude leads to a higher ventilation to maintain oxygenation, which results in more significant hypocapnia. This triggers apneas and O2 desaturations, as indicated by the positive correlation between the EMG of the diaphragm and the O2 desaturation index.
PB is considered to contribute to and/or be a result of sleep fragmentation by frequent arousals which may be responsible for poor sleep quality following altitude ascent. Sleep and arousals lead to greater breathing instability. Apnea is in correspondence to an increase in PaCO2 and decrease in PaO2 and consequently unstable ventilation. These changes in blood gases also lead to marked alterations in cerebral blood flow (CBF) which, in turn, may result in a sudden elevation (with reduced CBF) or reduction (with increased CBF) in brain stem pH.
Therefore, the uncomfortable sensation of sleep at high altitude is largely due to respiratory disturbance arising from the physiologic ventilatory dilemma of acute ascent, where stimulation by hypoxia alternates with inhibition by hypocapnic alkalosis.
3. Poor subjective sleep quality at high altitude
3.1 Evaluation and prevalence of poor sleep quality at high altitude
Subjective sleep quality at high altitude is usually evaluated by a questionnaire, e.g., sleep log questions, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), and Athens Insomnia Score (AIS). The prevalence of sleep disorder may differ considerably at altitude from observational studies. At a 3500 m hotel, 46% of 100 Iranian ski tourists reported frequent awakenings and other subjective sleep disturbances [16]. At an altitude of 3700 m in Lhasa, Tibet, 36.8% of 180 Chinese stationed soldiers reported poor sleep quality as measured by PSQI [17]. Data analysis from the same sample also indicated that poor sleepers (defined as PSQI > 5) were 1.45 times greater in those with polycythemia than those without polycythemia [95% (confidence interval) CI 1.82–2.56] [4]. Report from early pharmacologic treatment trials in acute mountain sickness (AMS) suggested that 53–71% of participants reported difficulty sleeping [18, 19]. Of note, despite the 3 months of acclimatization, a greater proportion of poor sleepers were still observed in lowlanders stationed at 3800 altitude than the native Tibetans (90.91 vs. 45.45%, P = 0.004) [12].
3.2 Sleep quality and severity of mountain sickness
Poor sleep quality at high altitude was one of the most frequently reported symptoms in mountain sickness as assessed by the Lake Louise Symptom Questionnaire and the Qinghai Chronis Mountain Score [12], which are used to diagnose AMS [20] and evaluate severity of chronic mountain sickness(CMS) [21], respectively. This was confirmed by a study using PSQI and AIS which reports decreased subjective sleep quality at high altitude, especially reduced general sleep quality and prolonged sleep induction [22]. For workers rapidly transported from sea level to high altitude, there are no statistically significant differences in polysomnographic parameters between subjects with AMS and those without AMS [23].
For people with CMS stationed at Tibet, the proportion of poor sleepers (defined as PSQI > 5) with severe CMS was 12.54-fold higher than that of good sleepers. See Figure 2, CMS severity comparison between “good” and “poor” sleepers at 3996 m altitude. Subjects with CMS had higher scores in each sleep component of the PSQI score, except the use of sleep medication. After adjusted for CMS score, age, and education, poor sleep quality was determined to be an independent predictor of impaired intelligence quotient [odds ratio (OR) 1.59, 95% CI 1.30–1.95] and short-term memory (OR 1.18, 95% CI 1.07–1.31). Therefore, for people with CMS, the poorer the sleep quality, the worse was the cognitive function [4].
Figure 2.
Sleep quality comparison among different CMS severity at 3996 altitude. Modified from Kong et al. [4].
4. Variation of sleep architecture at high altitude
Polysomnography (PSG) is the gold standard for investigating sleep architecture. However, the technical complexity and logistic demands had brought restriction on its utilization during altitude studies. Although there are several studies that suggest wrist actigraphy-derived data on total sleep time, sleep efficiency and sleep onset latency were similar to those of PSG [24]; actigraphy is insufficient in detecting sleep stage and breathing events.
Objective assessment of sleep architecture at altitude by electroencephalogram was first reported by Joern et al. in 1970 [25]. They found a near absence of stages 3 and 4 and a 50% reduction in rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and reported PB and arousals in one subject. A later study in 1975 confirmed a decrease in deeper sleep and increase in lighter sleep stages and brief arousals after ascending to an altitude of 4300 m at the Pikes Peak when compared to subjects at low altitude [26]. Subsequent studies have generally confirmed the shift at altitude toward lighter sleep stages, with a variable change in duration of REM sleep and increased awakenings associated with PB [27, 28, 29, 30].
Alterations in objective sleep parameters have also been observed during acclimatization. A recent literature review on high-altitude sleep concludes that during rapid ascent to high altitude, there is a reduction in total sleep time, sleep efficiency, and deep sleep (stages 3 and 4) (in new nomenclature N3) and a significant increase in arousals and PB [31]. These variations are possibly high altitude dependent, and the effects tend to moderate with acclimatization [6]. Hypnograms of a partially acclimatized lowlander sleeping and a native Tibetan sleeping at high altitude are shown in Figures 3 and 4.
Figure 3.
Hypnogram of a 27-year-old young man sleeping acclimatized for 11 months at altitude of 3800 m. Frequent awake, less proportion of stage 4 and REM sleep might be observed.
Figure 4.
Hypnogram of a 25-year-old native Tibetan sleeping at altitude of 3800 m. There is sufficient time in stage 4 sleep and scarce REM sleep.
Although subjective sleep quality is impaired at high altitude, attempts to find a correlation between objective and subjective measures have failed to find a connection [24]. One study investigated 63 participants who completed a 3-hour flight from sea level to the South Pole (3200 m) and discovered no association between self-reported sleep quality and sleep efficiency, nocturnal oxygen saturation, and apnea/hypopnea index (AHI) obtained from PSG [32]. When assessed by LL score, there was no significant correlation of the subjective sleep measurement compared to sleep efficiency derived from PSG and actigraphy [24]. Another study investigated 165 young male soldiers stationed in Tibet Plateau (3800 m) for at least 3 months. In a multiple regression model adjusted for age, service time, body mass index, Epworth Sleepiness Scale, anxiety, and depression, sleep onset latency (b = 0.08, 95% CI: 0.01–0.15) and NREM latency (b = 0.011, 95% CI: 0.001–0.02) obtained from PSG were slightly positively correlated with global PSQI, while mean nocturnal SpO2 (b = −0.79, 95% CI: −1.35 to −0.23) and time in stage 3 + 4 sleep (b = −0.014, 95% CI: −0.001 to −0.028) was slightly negatively associated with global PSQI [12].
5. Differences in sleep architecture between lowlanders and native highlanders at high altitude
5.1 Sleep patterns of high-altitude natives
Tibetans and Andeans are the native populations to the Tibetan and Andean Plateaus descending from colonizers. Both populations have been exposed to the hypoxic environmental stress of lifelong exposure to high altitude. But native Tibetans and Andean highlanders exhibit different ways of adaptation to chronic hypoxia [33]. Andean highlanders have blunted hypoxia ventilatory response compared to Tibetans which is thought to be acquired and developed in adolescence [34]. Native Tibetans were reported to have higher maximal oxygen uptake, greater ventilation, and brisker hypoxic ventilatory responses to adapt to the hypoxic environment at high altitude and, therefore, to have a better-quality sleep than Han lowlanders [35] which may largely be attributed to genetic adaptations [36].
Few studies had compared sleep architecture between high-altitude dwellers and non-native highlanders. An elder study investigated the Sherpa highlanders dwelling above 3500 m. The Sherpas exhibited few PB with apnea due to low ventilatory sensitivity to hypoxia at 5300 m altitude [37]. A later study reported the sleep pattern of Peruvian Andeans situated at 4330 m altitude. Sleep architecture is closely resembling to normal of people at sea level with significant amount of NREM sleep and unimpaired REM sleep [38]. Contrary to the previous reports, a recent study surveyed sleep architecture of Peruvian highlanders living in Puno at 3825 m. The highlanders had a longer time in total sleep time and increased wake-after-sleep onset and arousal index but decreased sleep efficiency, which suggest greater disturbances in sleep in highlanders compared with lowlanders [39].
5.2 Sleep architecture in partially acclimatized lowlanders
As we mentioned above, acclimatization would help lowlanders to relieve sleep disturbance after ascending to high altitude. This could be supported by an earlier study which claimed over 3 days of acclimatization over 4559 m resulted in a partial recovery of sleep structure with increases in slow wave sleep and REM sleep and a reduction in the arousal index [40].
But little is known whether prolonged hypoxia may help to improve sleep architecture at high altitude. Animal studies showed that there was a 50% reduction in the proportion of slow wave sleep and loss of REM sleep when rats were chronically exposed to hypoxia environment simulating an altitude of 5000 m [41, 42]. A clinical study conducted in Shangri-La, which has an altitude of 3800 m, surveyed the differences in sleep architecture between native Tibetans’ and Han lowlanders’ stations for at least 3 months. After adjusted for the length of stay at altitude, significant differences in lower mean nocturnal SpO2 and shorter time in NREM sleep were determined in acclimatized lowlanders than the native Tibetans [12]. Figure 5 indicates a decreased nocturnal artery oxygen of a 3-month acclimatized lowlander. So, it is reasonable to conclude that the effect of prolonged acclimatization to hypoxia is limited in relieving hypoxemia and improving deep sleep which might be an explanation for the impaired cognition brought about by poor sleep.
Figure 5.
Decreasing in artery oxygen during sleep of a 24-year lowlander acclimatized for 3 months at 3800 altitude. The lowest SaO2 is 83% and the mean SaO2 is 92%.
6. Is sleep disorder an altitude-related illness?
Studies on sleep disorder at high altitude from the above reviewed scientific literature confirm the assumption that altitude-related illness including AMS and HAPE may deteriorate sleep quality either directly or indirectly through complaints of headache, hard breathing, cough, etc. It is widely accepted that HAPE usually develops within 2–4 days after quickly ascending to high altitude, but sleep in the first night at altitude may have been affected. Both susceptible HAPE subjects and healthy mountaineers without HAPE revealed a major reduction in sleep efficiency and in NREM stage 3 and 4 sleep (in new nomenclature N3) in the first night after the ascent to 4559 m within 1 day [43]. The deteriorated ventilation and intermittent hypoxia associated with PB in the first 1–2 nights at high altitude with the associated elevation of pulmonary artery pressure may promote the subsequent development of HAPE in susceptible subjects. Thus, the occurrence of sleep disorder is prior to and/or independent of HAPE but may worsen due to HAPE.
Literature reports also provide empirical evidence that sleep disturbance was discordant from other AMS symptoms and absent in 40% of cases with severe headache, long considered a symptom of AMS. Since sleep disorder correlated poorly with other symptoms of AMS, the sleep component had been removed from the 2018 Lake Louise Acute Mountain Sickness Score [44].
Therefore, it is conceivable that sleep disorder should be viewed as an independent altitude-related illness rather than a symptom of AMS despite the fact that it may overlap other mountain sicknesses. In accordance with the nomenclature of other high-altitude diseases [e.g., high altitude cerebral edema (HACE), high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE), etc.], high-altitude sleep disorder (HASD) might be an appropriate name.
7. Treatment of HASD
Hypoxemia is the main reason and one of the primary independent contributors to poor sleep quality at high altitudes [12]. In theory, correction of hypoxemia by supplemental oxygen or pharmacological suppression of ventilation may have the potential in treating sleep disorder at high altitude.
7.1 Supplemental oxygen
A case report tested the treatment effect of a nasal demand oxygen delivery device on hypoxemia during sleep at high altitude in a 46-year-old male healthy participant at an altitude of 4600 and 5700 m [45]. The participant received a volume of oxygen delivery dose for 0, 16.7, 33.3, and 50 ml/s at random per pulse for every 2 h during sleep period. Results of the study indicated an increase in arterial blood oxygen saturation and decreases in tidal volume and AHI.
Another controlled trial employed a noninvasive ventilation mode named adaptive servo ventilation (ASV) to stabilize periodic breathing due to hypobaric hypoxemia at an altitude of 3800 m, but it failed to affirm its efficacy in controlling central sleep apnea during sleep. However, in their controlled group, supplemental oxygen improved oxygen desaturation index and oxygen saturation, whereas it reduced the arousal index and NREM stage 1 sleep. But neither ASV nor supplemental oxygen could improve subjective quality as measured by the Stanford Sleep Questionnaire and LL score [46].
In summary, based on current limited studies, supplemental oxygen does improve arterial blood oxygen saturation but could not result to a better sleep quality.
7.2 Diet therapy
Dietary nitrate (NO3−), which is found in beetroot and other vegetables, and inorganic NO3− salts have been shown to have vasodilatory properties [47] and also to reduce oxygen uptake during exercise [48], suggesting NO3− supplementation might play a physiological role during sleep at high altitude. A single-blind placebo-controlled trial examined the effects of dietary NO3− supplementation on the degree of sleep-related hypoxemia in healthy subjects at an altitude from 3700 to 4900 m. Each subject received two 70 ml shots of either beetroot juice (∼5.0 mmol NO3− per shot) or placebo (∼0.003 mmol NO3− per shot) over two consecutive nights at altitude. Results of the study favored dietary nitrate in increasing fluctuations in arterial O2 saturation during sleep at altitude in native lowlanders, but it does not improve AHI or oxygenation [49].
7.3 Pharmacological agents
Previous reports suggested that only a few medications may be helpful at high altitudes [50, 51], including theophylline, acetazolamide, zolpidem, zaleplon, temazepam, and integripetal rhodiola herb, a traditional Chinese herb. However, there are often several limitations on pharmacological selection at high altitudes in clinical practice, as current sleeping medications prescribed for sleep disturbances at sea level are not suggested to be used at altitude. For example, it is widely accepted that benzodiazepines (BZDs) may cause hypoventilation, triggering respiratory abnormalities during sleep [52, 53, 54]. Therefore, an ideal choice for medication use at high altitude should neither deteriorate ventilation and oxygen saturation nor affect sleep architecture.
7.3.1 Acetazolamide
Acetazolamide is considered to increase ventilation and oxygenation, effectively reducing PB by approximately 50% [55]. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials determined that acetazolamide improves sleep apnea at high altitude by decreasing AHI and percentage of PB time and increasing nocturnal oxygenation. Results from clinic trials also suggested that a 250 mg daily dose may be as effective as higher daily doses for healthy trekkers [56].
7.3.2 Non-benzodiazepines
The efficacy and safety of zolpidem and zaleplon in treating sleep disturbances at high altitude had been confirmed by several well-designed clinic trials [57, 58, 59, 60]. A recent meta-analysis of randomized placebo-controlled trials revealed that zaleplon and zolpidem improved the total sleep time, sleep efficiency, and stage 4 sleep duration, whereas they decreased the wake-after-sleep onset without impairing ventilation [61] (data are shown in Figure 6).
Figure 6.
Summary of non-benzodiazepines in improving sleep architecture at high altitude. Modified from Kong et al. [61].
There was no significant difference in ventilation as measured by SpO2 and PB between participants administered with zaleplon or zolpidem and placebo [58, 59, 60]. Furthermore, participants who were administered with zaleplon or zolpidem expressed a significant improvement in the subjective sleep quality, which was measured by sleep log question [59, 60] and PSQI (4.15 ± 2.76 in zolpidem group vs. 6.58 ± 3.98 in placebo group, P = 0.047) [60].
7.3.3 Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepine use in this environment is controversial. Early studies showed that 1 mg of oral loprazolam did not worsen either slow wave sleep depression or apnea and allowed normal sleep reappearance after acclimatization [28, 62]. Later, a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial conducted at 3000 m altitude validated PaO2 decreasing and PaCO2 increasing significantly 1 hour after 5 mg of oral diazepam [63], which suggests that it may cause hypoventilation.
On the contrary, temazepam, a short-acting benzodiazepine, was recommended to be safely used by the International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation MedCom Consensus Guide [51]. However, the effect of temazepam on the objective sleep parameters was inconsistent. Nicholson et al. [64] reported that temazepam significantly shortened the mean sleep onset latency and increased the amount of the REM sleep, whereas Nickol et al. [65] reported no differences in the actigraphy-derived sleep parameters. Results on oxygen saturation and PB from the aforementioned studies were also inconsistent. When compared to the placebo, temazepam showed no significant effect on mean oxygen saturation, yet PB significantly decreased [66]. Although Nickol et al. [65] reported that temazepam could decrease median oxygen saturation, it did not significantly reduce PB during sleep. Because of the inconsistencies in the reported variables, no confirming conclusions can be drawn from available evidence.
To sum up, the use of benzodiazepines should be discouraged at high altitude due to the nocturnal hypoventilation nature of these agents. The efficacy and safety of temazepam need further confirmation by well-designed placebo-controlled trials.
7.3.4 Others
Additional drugs that may be helpful reported by case series include theophylline and the integripetal rhodiola herb, which is a widely used traditional Chinese herb in Tibetan areas. However, strong clinical evidence from randomized controlled trials supporting the effectiveness and safety of these agents has not been demonstrated.
7.4 Recommendations
Evidence from current available studies support the routing use of supplemental oxygen during sleep to increase arterial blood oxygen saturation. Acute dietary NO3− supplementation reduces flow limitation and induces more pronounced SaO2 desaturations during sleep at high altitude. Acetazolamide at 250 mg daily dose is effective in reducing sleep apnea, decreasing AHI and PB, and increasing nocturnal oxygenation. Both zaleplon and zolpidem improved the objective sleep architecture without impairing ventilation.
8. Conclusions
Our understanding on sleep disorder at high altitude is still limited. Mountain tourists commonly complain about subjective sleep disturbances with difficulty in onset of sleep and frequent awakenings in the first few nights at altitude. But those subjective sensations of poor sleep neither are associated with severity of mountain sickness nor tend to disappear after long exposure to high altitude. And consequently, cognitive function was impaired.
There is no reliable evidence that support the consistency between self-report sleep quality and sleep parameters obtained from PSG. The most frequently reported changes in sleep architecture at high altitude are detected by PSG including a decrease in NREM sleep and occurrence of PB. Different patterns of adoption to hypoxic environment exist among native highlanders. For lowlanders ascending to high altitude, acclimatization would be beneficial in relieving hypoxemia and improving deep sleep; however, PB would not be largely relieved after acclimatization.
The occurrence of HASD is prior to most altitude-related diseases and would last for a longer time. We strongly suggest future study to consider it as an independent high-altitude illness as it had been removed from the diagnosing and managing of AMS by the International Society of Mountain Medicine World Congress Committee.
The treatment principle of HASD should not deteriorate nocturnal ventilation and SaO2 or affect sleep architecture. The following evidence-based choices are recommended. Effective treatments for altitude-related nocturnal hypoxemia include dietary NO3− supplementation before sleep and supplemental oxygen during sleep. Medication for respiratory disturbance is 250 mg daily dose of oral acetazolamide, which is beneficial in relieving sleep apnea, decreasing AHI and PB, and promoting nocturnal oxygenation. Both zaleplon and zolpidem are optional agents in improving the objective sleep architecture and subjective sleep quality without impairing ventilation.
\n',keywords:"sleep architecture, sleep disorder, sleep quality, periodic breathing, high altitude, treatment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67469.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67469.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67469",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67469",totalDownloads:837,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:2,dateSubmitted:"November 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 7th 2019",datePrePublished:"June 3rd 2019",datePublished:"September 15th 2021",dateFinished:"June 3rd 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, we discuss the occurrence, mechanism, clinical manifestations, outcomes, and managements of a commonly encountered sleep disorder of someone traveling in high altitude for working and sight-seeing. Humans ascending to altitudes above 2500 m usually suffer from substantial disturbances in sleep quality as difficulty in sleep onset, frequent awakenings, respiratory disturbance, and a feeling of drowsiness on the next day. Data obtained from polysomnographic studies demonstrated several variations of sleep architecture in those healthy subjects ascending to high altitude during sleep, including periodic breathing and decreased non-rapid eye movement deep sleep stage 3 and 4 (in new nomenclature N3), which were usually accompanied by and the lowered arterial O2 and restricted ventilation. Hypoxia is most severe during sleep and in correspondence to periodic breathing and sleep disturbance at high altitude. Poor sleep quality impairs cognition and executive abilities at high altitude though it may largely be improved after full time of acclimatization. Evidence-based choices for clinicians to treat sleep disorder at high altitude are relatively scarce at present. Supplemental oxygen and dietary nitrate are effective in alleviating nocturnal hypoxia. There is strong evidence supporting the efficacy and safety of acetazolamide and nonbenzodiazepines in minimizing periodic breathing and improving sleep quality at high altitude.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67469",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67469",signatures:"Fanyi Kong",book:{id:"7076",type:"book",title:"Updates in Sleep Neurology and Obstructive Sleep Apnea",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Updates in Sleep Neurology and Obstructive Sleep Apnea",slug:"updates-in-sleep-neurology-and-obstructive-sleep-apnea",publishedDate:"September 15th 2021",bookSignature:"Fabian H. Rossi and Nina Tsakadze",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7076.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-030-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-029-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-031-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"158927",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabian H.",middleName:null,surname:"Rossi",slug:"fabian-h.-rossi",fullName:"Fabian H. Rossi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"285948",title:"Dr.",name:"Fanyi",middleName:null,surname:"Kong",fullName:"Fanyi Kong",slug:"fanyi-kong",email:"kfy9989@hotmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Breathing disturbance during sleep at high altitude",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Poor subjective sleep quality at high altitude",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Evaluation and prevalence of poor sleep quality at high altitude",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Sleep quality and severity of mountain sickness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Variation of sleep architecture at high altitude",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Differences in sleep architecture between lowlanders and native highlanders at high altitude",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.1 Sleep patterns of high-altitude natives",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.2 Sleep architecture in partially acclimatized lowlanders",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Is sleep disorder an altitude-related illness?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Treatment of HASD",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"7.1 Supplemental oxygen",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.2 Diet therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.3 Pharmacological agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"7.3.1 Acetazolamide",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"7.3.2 Non-benzodiazepines",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"7.3.3 Benzodiazepines",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"7.3.4 Others",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"7.4 Recommendations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Davis PR, Pattinson KT, Mason NP, Richards P, Hillebrandt D. 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Besides, these parts are not only about cutting-edge technologies, but also related with conventional methods and their new applications in colored wastewater treatment area briefly.",book:{id:"5086",slug:"textile-wastewater-treatment",title:"Textile Wastewater Treatment",fullTitle:"Textile Wastewater Treatment"},signatures:"Serkan Arslan, Murat Eyvaz, Ercan Gürbulak and Ebubekir Yüksel",authors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"},{id:"176699",title:"Dr.",name:"Ercan",middleName:null,surname:"Gürbulak",slug:"ercan-gurbulak",fullName:"Ercan Gürbulak"},{id:"176700",title:"MSc.",name:"Serkan",middleName:null,surname:"Arslan",slug:"serkan-arslan",fullName:"Serkan Arslan"},{id:"176701",title:"Prof.",name:"Ebubekir",middleName:null,surname:"Yüksel",slug:"ebubekir-yuksel",fullName:"Ebubekir Yüksel"}]},{id:"42001",doi:"10.5772/53777",title:"Cyclodextrins in Textile Finishing",slug:"cyclodextrins-in-textile-finishing",totalDownloads:5486,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Bojana Voncina and Vera Vivod",authors:[{id:"33838",title:"Prof.",name:"Bojana",middleName:null,surname:"Voncina",slug:"bojana-voncina",fullName:"Bojana Voncina"}]},{id:"41409",doi:"10.5772/53911",title:"Surface Modification Methods for Improving the Dyeability of Textile Fabrics",slug:"surface-modification-methods-for-improving-the-dyeability-of-textile-fabrics",totalDownloads:7061,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Sheila Shahidi, Jakub Wiener and Mahmood Ghoranneviss",authors:[{id:"58854",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Shahidi",slug:"shahidi",fullName:"Shahidi"}]},{id:"68157",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87968",title:"Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes",slug:"introductory-chapter-textile-manufacturing-processes",totalDownloads:4473,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"8892",slug:"textile-manufacturing-processes",title:"Textile Manufacturing Processes",fullTitle:"Textile Manufacturing Processes"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68157",title:"Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes",slug:"introductory-chapter-textile-manufacturing-processes",totalDownloads:4488,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"8892",slug:"textile-manufacturing-processes",title:"Textile Manufacturing Processes",fullTitle:"Textile Manufacturing Processes"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"41411",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20676,totalCrossrefCites:101,totalDimensionsCites:320,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"49647",title:"Fiber Selection for the Production of Nonwovens",slug:"fiber-selection-for-the-production-of-nonwovens",totalDownloads:10568,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"The most significant feature of nonwoven fabric is made directly from fibers in a continuous production line. While manufacturing nonwovens, some conventional textile operations, such as carding, drawing, roving, spinning, weaving or knitting, are partially or completely eliminated. For this reason the choice of fiber is very important for nonwoven manufacturers. The commonly used fibers include natural fibers (cotton, jute, flax, wool), synthetic fibers (polyester (PES), polypropylene (PP), polyamide, rayon), special fibers (glass, carbon, nanofiber, bi-component, superabsorbent fibers). Raw materials have not only delivered significant product improvements but also benefited people using these products by providing hygiene and comfort.",book:{id:"5062",slug:"non-woven-fabrics",title:"Non-woven Fabrics",fullTitle:"Non-woven Fabrics"},signatures:"Nazan Avcioglu Kalebek and Osman Babaarslan",authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan"},{id:"175829",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazan",middleName:null,surname:"Kalebek",slug:"nazan-kalebek",fullName:"Nazan Kalebek"}]},{id:"41409",title:"Surface Modification Methods for Improving the Dyeability of Textile Fabrics",slug:"surface-modification-methods-for-improving-the-dyeability-of-textile-fabrics",totalDownloads:7063,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Sheila Shahidi, Jakub Wiener and Mahmood Ghoranneviss",authors:[{id:"58854",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Shahidi",slug:"shahidi",fullName:"Shahidi"}]},{id:"55424",title:"Textile Reinforced Structural Composites for Advanced Applications",slug:"textile-reinforced-structural-composites-for-advanced-applications",totalDownloads:3876,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"Textile-reinforced composites are increasingly used in various industries such as aerospace, construction, automotive, medicine, and sports due to their distinctive advantages over traditional materials such as metals and ceramics. Fiber-reinforced composite materials are lightweight, stiff, and strong. They have good fatigue and impact resistance. Their directional and overall properties can be tailored to fulfill specific needs of different end uses by changing constituent material types and fabrication parameters such as fiber volume fraction and fiber architecture. A variety of fiber architectures can be obtained by using two- (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) fabric production techniques such as weaving, knitting, braiding, stitching, and nonwoven methods. Each fiber architecture/textile form results in a specific configuration of mechanical and performance properties of the resulting composites and determines the end-use possibilities and product range. This chapter highlights the constituent materials, fabric formation techniques, production methods, as well as application areas of textile-reinforced composites. Fiber and matrix materials used for the production of composite materials are outlined. Various textile production methods used for the formation of textile preforms are explained. Composite fabrication methods are introduced. Engineering properties of textile composites are reviewed with regard to specific application areas. The latest developments and future challenges for textile-reinforced composites are presented.",book:{id:"5921",slug:"textiles-for-advanced-applications",title:"Textiles for Advanced Applications",fullTitle:"Textiles for Advanced Applications"},signatures:"Nesrin Sahbaz Karaduman, Yekta Karaduman, Huseyin Ozdemir\nand Gokce Ozdemir",authors:[{id:"175839",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Sahbaz Karaduman",slug:"nesrin-sahbaz-karaduman",fullName:"Nesrin Sahbaz Karaduman"},{id:"201620",title:"Dr.",name:"Yekta",middleName:null,surname:"Karaduman",slug:"yekta-karaduman",fullName:"Yekta Karaduman"},{id:"201621",title:"Dr.",name:"Hüseyin",middleName:null,surname:"Özdemir",slug:"huseyin-ozdemir",fullName:"Hüseyin Özdemir"},{id:"201622",title:"Dr.",name:"Gökce",middleName:null,surname:"Özdemir",slug:"gokce-ozdemir",fullName:"Gökce Özdemir"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1376",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. 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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",middleName:null,surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard Tissue, Peri-implant Soft Tissue, Restorative Materials, Prosthesis Design, Prosthesis, Patient Satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"
\r\n\tThe success of dental implant treatment is not solely dependent on the osseointegration around the implant. Aside from the criteria used to describe the hard tissue response at the implant level, the success criteria in implant dentistry include three additional aspects: peri-implant soft tissue, prosthesis, and patient’s satisfaction.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry topic will provide readers with up-to-date resources on the prosthodontics factors such as aesthetics, restorative materials, the design of prosthesis, case selection, occlusion, oral rehabilitation, among others, all of which play an important role in determining the success of a well osseointegrated implant. With the help of digital dental technology, these can now be accomplished more predictably.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe end goal of prosthesis is always considered when planning successful implant placement. The readers in this field will be able to learn more about taking a holistic approach when treating their dental implant cases.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",issn:"2631-6218"},editorialBoard:null},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/137215",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"137215"},fullPath:"/profiles/137215",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()