Child mortality rate in Montalegre, Portugal, 1981–2001.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Since 1978, with the Declaration of Alma-Ata issued at the International Conference on Primary Health Care (PHC), the World Health Organisation (WHO) urgently recommended to the Ministries of Health (MH) in all countries, to organise their national health systems (NHSs) into two levels to protect and promote the health of all people of the world. First universal PHC services covering all populations in all territories, and then a secondary level of health care for more specialised interventions.
PHC was then defined as “essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology, made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community, through their full participation and at a cost that the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination”.
To attain the human right “health for all”, WHO’s member nations committed their governments to accept PHC as national policy [1].
In 2018, in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of Alma Ata, the Global Conference on Primary Health Care formulated the Astana Declaration on PHC, emphasising that “Strengthening PHC is the most inclusive, effective, and efficient approach to enhance people’s physical and mental health, as well as social well-being, and that PHC is a cornerstone of a sustainable health system for universal health coverage (UHC) and the health-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)” [2]. In 2019 WHO recommended that member countries’ governments harness new funds to achieve these goals [3].
As a medical doctor, our professional, politic, and philosophic perspective, since university, has been to work with low-income populations in rural areas, those with less access to health care services. This has been our foundation throughout 36 years of practice, in many different contexts in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Our practice included a strong component of individual and community health education using a holistic approach to improve population health and reduce health disparities [4].
This chapter summarises different interventions attempting to reduce disease burden in rural populations, comparing methods and health results from distinct cases.
In 1984, 10 years after the revolution (24 April 1974), the recently created NHS was expanding to cover all provinces and populations, even in isolated rural areas, developing the PHC system, based on family doctors, health centres and health posts. There were around 28000 medical doctors for 10 million inhabitants (average 1/357), but the majority was working in cities, many in private clinics, and family doctors were a small minority.
Portugal was a middle-income country, where infectious, contagious, and parasite diseases were the main problems. Coming out of 40 years of dictatorship, the rural population had no access to public health services, was poorly educated, and had little information regarding hygiene and nutrition. Since the creation of the NHS, the country has made impressive progress in health indicators, such as reducing infant mortality and increasing life expectancy by four years to 81.3 years (longer than the European Union average).
Montalegre administrative division (806 Km2), in the northern Portuguese region of Barroso, Trás-os-Montes province, on the frontier with Galicia (Spain), was a markedly isolated area, in the mountains, with one health centre (built in 1985) and nine decentralised health posts, covering around 30.000 people living in 35 villages. Ambient temperature ranges from negative 10 °C in winter to 38 °C in the summer. There were no industries, and the main activities were subsistence agriculture, cattle breeding, and forestry. Family houses had no running water, no indoor toilet or bathrooms, no sanitation and electricity had arrived only one year before in 1983. There was no public transportation, few roads and low accessibility to products and services.
We started working in Montalegre as a private General Practice physician and received family medicine (FM) speciality in the NHS from the Portuguese MH Institute of General Practice after four years. We worked at Montalegre’ s Health Centre (MHC), and at two other health posts, assisting an average of 577 families (1927 persons), in Cabril and Salto villages; emergency room coverage and wards rounds were done weekly, assisting a population around 14.000 persons at MHC.
During the last two years of our medical training at Louvain Catholic University, in Brussels, Belgium, with the help of professors in the disciplines of Tropical Medicine and Public Health, we developed a base line study about health issues in the Cabril administrative division, a mountain area in the Penêda-Gerês National Park (PGNP). The survey identified the main population health problems, high maternal mortality (with 92% of home deliveries) and child mortality (89 deaths per 1000 births), alcohol abuse (86% consumers with 31% abuse), and high prevalence of arthrosis (25%) in the older population. We then developed an implementation research project, aimed at improving these health indicators. The project included activities in health education and support, adolescent, and youth cultural and sport activities, and agricultural diversification to improve family income.
Daily practice: preventive medicine, diagnosis, treatment, rehabilitation, health education and promotion of healthy behaviours.
Implementation research: clinical and community health research, evaluation, and program interventions and adaptations.
Community health education programmes: interventions with local authorities to furnish running water; promote sanitation and organize a rubbish collection and treatment system; interventions with school boards to organize health fairs and student health extension activities in the villages; weekly radio broadcast on local health issues.
Alcohol abuse prevention programme: systematic screening and behavioural counselling; [5] focus group discussions with the families in the villages, with adolescents, pregnant women, and men, and in schools (primary and secondary) with pupils and teachers, male, and female.
A Cabril Youth Cultural and Sportive Association was established. This new institution edited and distributed a monthly newspaper in 17 villages, organized a small library and history museum, and produced a one-hour film about the history of the region.
Local screening of films along with debates, photography expositions, football championships, and swimming competitions, were implemented in the villages.
Theatre groups were trained and performed in primary and secondary schools.
Honey production was a traditional activity in most families (2 kg/year/beehive). With the PGNP support, we trained farmers on modern beekeeping. Within the cooperative equipment was acquired and distributed. One year after, farmers were collecting 25 kg/year/hive).
All families bread some cattle (average 2 cows, 3 pigs, 8 goats, 10 chicken). The local typical horse known as “
The magnificent landscape of PGNP (the only national park in Portugal), was perfect for developing tourism. The unpolluted environment boasts vast lakes of quiet clear water, a wide ecological diversity including eagles, wolfs, snakes, fish, medicinal plants, and alpine vegetation. There are several large dams providing hydroelectric power. The rich cultural heritage of the area was on display. There are ruins from the middle-ages, sacred religious monuments, and scattered granite sculptures. Story tellers, popular games, traditional theatre, and local wool and linen producers abound. Given all this it was decided to develop an eco-tourism cooperative.
Endemic outbreaks of tuberculosis, brucellosis, and rickettsia were stopped.
Family planning and contraception was used by 90% of women between 15–50 years of age.
By building a trusting and ongoing relationship with families, we saw all pregnant women went attending ante-natal visits and delivering at the maternity unit. All children were followed through family medicine visits, and the child mortality rate was zero in 2001 (Table 1). Maternal mortality (3.3 deaths/1000 livebirths) approached zero in 2006 [6].
Alcohol abuse behaviours diminished, notably in pregnant women.
Arthrosis was prevented with health education on weight carrying and viral infections prevention and treated with local medicinal plants.
The emphasis on the region’s typical culture and environmental quality increased population’ self-esteem and attracted many visitors.
Diversification of economic activities resulted in increased family income, along with better nutrition, housing and child and adolescent education.
Child mortality rates Year | 1981 | 1996 | 2001 |
---|---|---|---|
Deaths of children <1 year/1.000 live births | 18.1 | 10.5 | 0 |
Child mortality rate in Montalegre, Portugal, 1981–2001.
This was our contribution to improve health indicators in the rural communities of Cabril and Salto, Montalegre. We saved lives of mothers and children. At only a small increase in health costs we significantly raised the population’s quality of life.
But we observed a quick penetration of the modern consumer society model into the area. In came roads, money, television, and returning emigrants. The new NHS was tailored to the treatment of the infectious diseases burden and the hierarchy was resistant to adaptations or innovations. With this change in lifestyle, non-communicable diseases such as hypertension, obesity, diabetes, became prominent in this population, and there was not an efficient response from the NHS.
Between 2000 and 2017, the country reduced public health expenditure, thus preventing modernization of services. Private medical care was increased contributing to a loses of the public medical workforce. The NHS no longer meets the needs of a substantial part of the population [7].
Mozambique is a low-income country (gross domestic product - GDP per Capita 458 USD), [8] with a NHS reaching only 60% of the population (40% in rural areas), with a double burden of disease (infectious-contagious and non-communicable diseases, NCDs). In 2007, Mozambique had a high birth and fertility rate (42 births / 1000 inhabitants and 5.7 pregnancies /women, respectively), high maternal mortality rate (500 deaths / 100000 live births) and high child mortality rate (94 deaths/1000 live births), with an average life expectancy of only 51 years. The population was growing at 2.5% /year. To face these critical situations, the MH has been developing a country wide information and education campaign in health promotion [9]. They are targeting malaria prevention, maternal and child health, tuberculosis, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection.
The country has several ethnic groups, with over 10 languages and 30 dialects, though the population speaking the official language (Portuguese) is only around 30%; 50% have no school education. Most of the population live in rural areas (70%), with low access to media (10% with television, 50% with radio, 2% with internet). Running water reaches 34% of family homes, sanitation 46% and electricity 10%. Population density is low (25.3 inhabitants/Km2), and 47% has less than 14 years of age; 56% are Christian and 18% Islamic.
In 2020 there were only around 4000 physicians for 30 million inhabitants (average 1/7500), but half of them practice in the capital (Maputo) and in the country’ biggest city near-by (Matola). Many districts with more than 100000 inhabitants have only one doctor, and the PHC system depends almost exclusively on medical technicians and nurses with just three years of training.
PHC Mozambican interventions followed three phases.
The first (2006–2007), in a rural area of Matola district, in the South, was implemented as a health promotion campaign. Most of these families had little formal education, no regular employment income, and were living from subsistence agriculture and informal small business. During 2006–2007, in association with a local non-governmental association (NGO), ADEL Maputo, a local economic development association, funded by the Galician Government (Spain), we used a participatory action approach with the community to get an idea of what health issues were present. We then built, equipped, and furnished the consumables for the first Health Promotion Centre in Mozambique. It had a water reservoir, meeting room, two offices, and WC.
Then we trained a group of 50 adolescent and youth boys and girls, in basic health research. This included design and application of questionnaires, along with management of health promotion and disease prevention activities. The activities included hygiene, nutrition, food security, fruit trees culture, and sexual transmitted infections (STIs). This group implemented an information and screening campaign on the street. It included malaria, HIV, malnutrition, obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and STIs. They visited families delivering health promotion key messages and gave five fruit trees (three rich in calories, two rich in vitamins and minerals) to each of 1075 families, in the rural area of
The second phase from 2007–2010 was in the 16 rural districts of Zambézia province, in central Mozambique. It aimed to reduce HIV incidence through expansion of antiretroviral treatment (HAART). This intervention was an initiative of the Vanderbilt University Institute for Global Health (Nashville, USA) funded by the President’s Emergency Plan for Acquired Immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) Relief (PEPFAR). Working initially as a family doctor consultant, later as a clinical site coordinator and district clinic advisor, and ultimately as a clinical program manager, we contributed to the design of a base line study, which surveyed the health facilities, the health professionals (HPs), and reviewed some of NHS data. Subsequently, an implementation plan was designed. It targeted primary HIV prevention, testing, patient’s treatment (expanding HAART) and follow-up. It also included up-grading health facilities and laboratory support, training of HPs and research. Team building for project’s field implementation was multicultural and interdisciplinary. Activities were varied:
AIDS and HIV literature review, cultural research, summary of national official and social impact and response to HIV.
Research and discussion on methods and strategies for health systems and program development.
Establishing partnerships and coordinating with the MH, local administration, and international NGO’s.
Health infrastructure and laboratory planning, development, implementation, and evaluation.
Design of teaching tools for health workers in PHC and health promotion.
Constitution of a new local NGO (FGH, Friends in Global Health, LLC), modelling appropriate team management, evaluation tools, social interventions, partnerships, communication, information systems, and community mobilization.
Planning, coordination, implementation and evaluation of the participatory action derived community information and operational research done in community health. We stressed use of evidence-based medicine, family epidemiology, and various types of sampling methods.
Planning, coordination and evaluation of health and health promotion education programs, including resources preparation, identification of sources, institutional partnerships, economic management, action plans and reports, risk assessment.
Planning and execution of training activities for HPs on HIV/AIDS/HAART/opportunistic infections (OI), principles of FM, prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT), volunteer counselling and testing (VCT), tuberculosis (TB) and STIs, including counselling and therapeutic adherence.
Counselling in health care systems management and development and HAART expansion techniques was given to AIDS care in six rural Zambezian under resourced districts. This was done in partnership with MH, local administration as well as local, national, and international NGO’s. The initial target population was 1250000 patients, later in 12 districts with a target population of 2350000 and most recently in 18 health centres.
The third phase (2011–2020), was in Lúrio University (UniLúrio), Nampula province in northern Mozambique. It was aimed at implementing a FM residency training program and improving health extension in peri-urban and rural populations. The Faculty of Health Sciences (FHS) is the oldest (14 years) and bigger faculty in this public university, and the board recognised the need to broadly implement the PHC system with family doctors, to change the country health paradigm towards UHC. As assistant lecturer at UniLúrio we developed several activities:
Preparation and proposal approved for the specialisation of Mozambique general practitioners in Family and Community Medicine by Mozambican Medical College and the MH.
Development of proposals for curriculum in Community Health and Scientific Research Methodology.
Development of the One Student One Family Program (1-EF) for all the FHS courses (Medicine, Dentistry, Pharmacy, Nutrition, Nursing, Optometry), and organising a medical records database system. This program links every new student entering the FHS (200/year), to a family living in rural Natikiri (around the Campus). The student will visit periodically during a full term, and every term right from the first year, for health education extension and occasional referrals of acute or chronic cases to the NHS.
Training of FHS lecturers and students in operational and implementation research methods, and bioethics.
Health emergencies strategies (human and natural catastrophes) design and training for private initiative, students, and lecturers.
Faculty board counselling, pedagogic assessment and development, quality assessment and development, member of evaluation boards (candidate lecturers, Nutrition, Optometry and Pharmacy degrees).
Lecturing on Family and Community Medicine concepts to the 2nd, 4th and 5th year of Medicine students and overseeing rural medical internships (6th year). (Note that students enter the Medical degree program directly from high school).
Planning and execution of operational and implementation research (Maternal and child health, Hansen disease, tuberculosis, cholera, HIV, mental health).
FHS Scientific Committee work which included development and implementation of a research policy, reviewing lecturers’ and students’ research protocols and manuscripts.
Health promotion and education of rural populations was achieved on the three phases, but at different locations and times, using different methods, producing several outputs. Below is a summary of the main results.
10000 persons were interviewed, screened, and given the health promotion key messages: 24% were positive for malaria, 16% had dermatologic diseases, 13% were positive for HIV, 10% had cholera, 8% TB, 8% hypertension, 7% diarrhoea, 4% STI and 4% arthrosis. Those with these issues were informed about specific prevention activities, about treatment methods, and referred to the NHS services.
Using the local language, 2121 participants in community health extension activities, were reached in 37 interventions (27 local communities, 6 primary schools, 3 markets, 1 pre-school nursery).
1075 rural families received, planted, and farmed 5375 fruit trees in their courtyards, serving around 6000 people.
The first Health Promotion Centre in Mozambique was built, equipped, and staffed with a trained team and in cooperation with MH, a new health post for disease screening and reference to NHS was launched.
Health infrastructure evaluation and development in 36 health centres and hospitals in 16 rural districts of Zambézia, providing water, power, installation of prefabricated health units and laboratory equipment [10].
The working team in the 16 districts reached 263 people, supporting their families (1315 persons), and innovating with three new positions in the NHS: social assistant, case manager, data manager.
HPs trainings on HIV, counselling, TB, PMTCT, OI reached 350 NHS workers and 210 HP students.
Patient followed with a positive HIV result increased from 9000 to 46000, and those on HAART increased from 3000 to 8000 (Table 2).
HIV | Year | Progress | |
---|---|---|---|
2006 (n) | 2008 (n) | % | |
HIV+ | 9310 | 46202 | 496 |
Initiating HAART | 400 | 2702 | 676 |
Total in HAART | 2979 | 7722 | 259 |
High Activity Antiretroviral Treatment services expansion, in rural districts of Zambézia province, Mozambique.
n – number of participants; % - percentage.
Testing pregnant women for HIV to prevent mother to child transmission (PMTCT) increased from 2000 to 60000 thousand, and their HIV prevalence reduced 8% (Table 3).
PMTCT | Year | Progress | |
---|---|---|---|
2006 (n) | 2009 (n) | % | |
Pregnant women tested for HIV | 1995 | 60697 | 3042 |
Pregnant women HIV+ | 338 | 5655 | 1673 |
HIV prevalence | 16.9 | 9.3 | 55 |
Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV services expansion, in rural districts of Zambézia province, Mozambique.
n – number of participants; % - percentage.
Local traditional healers were trained and engaged in research, preventive health activities, and health promotion.
Social local organizations entrepreneurship training was delivered to 75 male and female rural youth in the 16 rural districts.
Quality of students’ research protocols and manuscripts improved.
Number of students completing health studies increased.
Number of student presentations of health research studies increased.
FHS scientific publications rose by 300%.
Health education teaching by students with rural families increased in number, and targeted major local health problems [11].
The implementation research on maternal and child health, Alert Community to a Prepared Hospital (ACPH) project (an international collaboration with a team from Canada), improved several indicators in Natikiri rural population (Table 4) [12].
Adolescents | Adults | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Oct 2017 (n = 30) | Jun 2018 (n = 140) | Oct 2017 (n = 61) | Jun 2018 (n = 221) | |||
Knowledge (%) | ||||||
Sexual & Reproductive Health | 41 | 56 | 0.135 | 63 | 76 | 0.0425 |
ACPH key messages | 11 | 47 | <0.001 | 50 | 90 | ≤0.001 |
Attitude (%) | ||||||
Contraceptives access | 56 | 75 | 0.0361 | 63 | 83 | <0.001 |
Adult and adolescent sexual and reproductive health and family planning knowledge, and attitude, before and after the interventions.
Oct – October; Jun – June; n – number of participants.
The culturally adjusted and focused data collection methods used in this implementation research project, demonstrated that the ACPH project was an efficient extension tool in population health education, and in continuing education of HPs with vocational training [13].
Pregnant women attending ante-natal visits reported care improvements at the local NHS facilities (Table 5).
2017 (n = 100) | 2018 (n = 78) | 2019 (n = 131) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Question | Response (%) | Baseline | Post 4 trainings | Post 8 trainings | Evolution (%) | |
How do you evaluate your experience at ANV? | Great | 5.0 | 39.7 | 42.5 | +750 | <0.001 |
Good | 69.0 | 56.4 | 48.0 | −30 | ||
Not very satisfied | 26.0 | 3.8 | 8.7 | −66 | ||
Not satisfied | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.8 | (−) |
Users’ opinions about their ante-natal visits (ANVs) experience.
n – number of participants; % - percentage.
Local health facility indicators in maternal care showed a significant increase in access and quality (Table 6).
Indicator | 2016 | 2019 | Indicator | Number ANVs (standard deviation) | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1rst ANV | 1882 | 2393 | 1rst ANV (2016–2019) | 2.028 (253.7) | 1624.3–2431.8 | 0.001 |
4 ANVs | 405 | 1155 | 4 ANVs (2016–2019) | 780 (325.7) | 261.7–1298.3 | 0.017 |
Statistically significative improvement of antenatal visits indicators in Marrere Health Centre.
ANV – Ante-natal visits; CI – Confidence interval.
Family and Community Medicine training at UniLúrio in Nampula, a four-year residency program for accrediting Mozambican General Practitioners just implemented in 2021, is set to change the country’ health paradigm, from hospital care in cities to PHC reaching populations all over the country.
A variety of new PHC approaches have been implemented with good results. They need to be replicated and reinforced at all health facilities and in all communities, and in all the university health care programs.
With a population over 30 million (2019), a poorly resourced health system (low funding, few health professionals), and a double burden of diseases, [14] Mozambique, urgently needs to develop new approaches. This situation, though, has been aggravated by wars (north and centre), climate crises, and the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Though the country had an exceptionally low number of Covid-19 cases and deaths, access to public health services significantly decreased due to lockdowns.
Access to water and sanitation contribute to child and maternal mortality outcomes, and if the country is to seriously address the SDG of reducing child and maternal mortality, then improved water and sanitation accesses are key strategies [15].
Family planning (FP) is an efficient primary preventive intervention to reduce maternal mortality in developing countries, and this practice must be reinforced from its current low levels [16].
The MH must consolidate PHC by placing family doctors all over the country, supporting, motivating, and stabilising them and their HPs teams in rural areas [17]. A stronger commitment to PHC and FM is needed to change the actual unfavourable health paradig [18].
Rural populations are the most affected by health system and other inequalities. They suffer the greatest disease burden and have the least access to health services, in both low and middle-income countries (LMIC). Following the continuing importance of PHC strategies it is necessary to strengthen the commitment to PHC and its associated services to achieve a more efficient, effective, and equitable health care system [19].
All the interventions mentioned above benefited from a community based participatory action assessment and implementation method, especially including the target populations, from needs assessment, to intervention design, implementation method, and evaluation [20].
Forms of communication, adapted to local cultural contexts and language, through media campaigns, were strong and beneficial tools in all interventions.
HP training must be a recurrent and continuous exercise of update and spur innovation, motivating them to practice continuous professional development and higher levels of workplace and career satisfaction.
In LMIC, community health workers (including traditional healers), [21] are essential and are effective groups to reach rural populations and improve their health and social stability [22, 23].
FM in PHC has shown to be an efficient strategy to improve rural population health and their quality of life [24].
The burden of NCDs is growing, and must be approached with robust research, to provide locally relevant evidence, to organise preventative activities and deliver care [25]. The new orientations for PHC set out in the 2005 Declaration of Montevideo, are a response to the challenge of burgeoning communicable and chronic NCDs, with health services that remain generally underfunded [26].
The introduction of electronic clinical files by NHSs in PHC, will better health services and patient care [27, 28].
Research is an indispensable tool to monitor epidemiologic transitions, to tailor patient centred care, and to adapt health promotion interventions [29].
Governments must integrate their health policies with broader plans for poverty reduction, economic and sustainable development, [30] as well as increase NHS funding, [31] to achieve resiliency and greater efficiency and effectiveness [32].
Improved health services are possible with well-conceived and designed programs. Community based participatory assessment of health issues is essential to attain good implementation results to improve population health.
Multidisciplinary, simple, and complex interventions are necessary to improve rural population health. Widely varied types of rural populations and cultures are all ready to learn and to participate in health promotion and management, in cooperation with their NHSs.
Empowering rural populations on health issues and with decision making is an affordable strategy to better health indicators and services.
NHSs must innovate to respond to fast changing local and global contexts, like climate emergency, migration, and pandemics. Located, stable and well-trained HP teams are important to assure efficient PHC, and all-in collaboration with local health service education organizations, community-based groups, an NGOs.
FM is an excellent tool to extend effective PHC to all rural populations, aiming at UHC.
Reducing poverty and a strong investment in infrastructures (water, sanitation, health facilities, roads, and communications) is necessary to attain UHC.
A healthy population demands a continuous investment in information and education.
We acknowledge the contributions of David Zakus and Ronald Siemens, from Canada, reviewing English editing.
This manuscript had no external funding.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Alert Community to a Prepared Hospital Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Family medicine Gross domestic product High activity antiretroviral therapy Human immunodeficiency virus Health professional Hypertension Low- and middle-income countries Ministry of Health Montalegre health centre Non communicable disease Non-governmental organization National health system Opportunistic infection Penêda-Gerês National Park. Primary health care Prevention of mother to child HIV transmission Sustainable development goals Sexually transmitted infection Tuberculosis Universal health cover Lúrio University United States of America dollar. Volunteer counselling and HIV testing World Health Organization
Atmospheric aerosol pollution or more appropriately particulate matter (PM) is key subject for the human health and ecosystem stability. At present, more than 2000 papers are published per year addressing research topics related to atmospheric aerosols [1]. However, surprisingly little is known regarding the genesis, composition, or dynamics of the atmosphere’s microbial inhabitants, particle’s chemical composition, particle’s surface pollution, and their relation with the PM [2, 3]. In what concerns human health, the most harmful ones are the particles with sizes below 10 μm, standardized in terms of permissible concentration as PM2.5 and PM10. The fast pace of the information technology development in the first decade of twenty-first century created extraordinary possibilities for organizing systems for real-time monitoring of the atmosphere over urban areas. The implementation of such techniques requires the development of modern fast sensor systems, whose principle of operation, size, and convenient management ensures a problem-free functioning of the information systems without affecting the life in the particular urban area. The well-known techniques of PM monitoring include as a rule a small number of stations and the use of specialized algorithms for rapid assessment of the aerosol pollution’s spatial structure above the city. These approaches suffer from a number of drawbacks, such as limited spatial resolution as compared with the urban structure, the low temporal resolution from the viewpoint of the quick polluting processes, and following the PM proliferation, the use of non-calibrated devices, and the subjectivity in selecting the sampling sites. A major drawback of the techniques in question is the relatively slow determination of the pollution sources. Of particular interest in assessing the air quality in urban areas is the biological contamination transported by PM in the form of bioaerosols. According to [4], almost 25% of the total airborne PM above land surfaces contains biological materials in the form of pollens, fungal spores, bacteria, viruses, and fragments from plants, animals, or living organisms with a size ranging from 0.02 up to 100 μm [5, 6, 7, 8].
The present chapter discusses the capabilities of remote techniques of analyzing the pollution fields in conjunction with in situ sampling of bioaerosols and investigation of PM pollution as one of the promising approaches to raising the efficiency of systems of air monitoring over urban areas [9, 10, 11]. The light detection and ranging (LIDAR) techniques are considered as being among the ones best suited to real-time scanning and/or long-term monitoring of the pollution above large areas. Their advantages arise from several factors: (1) light wavelengths commensurate with or close to the PM size, (2) good resolution in terms of distance (5–30 m) and elevation angle (~1o), and (3) range of operation (20–30 km) [12]. In a scanning mode of operation, the LIDAR techniques allow one to construct LIDAR maps of the aerosol pollution distribution over large cities, which can be easily juxtaposed with the ground atmospheric monitoring networks. Special attention was paid here to the development of a specific LIDAR measurement schematic to be suitably combined with in situ bioaerosol sampling investigating its crystallo-chemical and surface structure, including the presence of bacteria and adsorbed nano- and micron-sized organic and inorganic contamination. The successful applicability of such combined methodology is demonstrated below by the results of a study of the РМ size distribution and genesis in two typical urban zones within a large city (Sofia, capital of Bulgaria, population of approx. 1.3 million), in places where the LIDAR monitoring had established previously a mass concentration in peak hours of vehicle traffic.
In the literature [13] one can find descriptions of various LIDAR techniques based on the interaction of laser radiation with bioaerosols, such as Mie, Rayleigh, and Raman [9, 10] scattering and laser-induced fluorescence of bioaerosols [14]. Depolarization LIDAR techniques are also employed, whereby measuring the laser light depolarization, and based on models of non-spherical aerosols, the latter’s origin can be distinguished, e.g., dust, smoke, pollen, including bioagents as anthrax, ricin, etc.
The Mie scattering-based LIDAR techniques of bioaerosol remote sounding allow one to use simple and inexpensive LIDAR equipment efficient in long-distance vertical and horizontal scanning. Moreover, these LIDARs easily provide long-distance operation exceeding 30–50 km [9, 10] and 25 km by our LIDAR system [11]. A drawback of this approach arises when one needs a more detailed aerosol fields’ characterization in terms of size distribution, non-sphericity or spectral properties of the particles. To satisfy such requirements, various more complex techniques had been developed. For example, UV laser-induced fluorescence allows one to assess the particles’ elemental composition based on their electron and rotational-vibrational spectra [15]. The Raman IR spectroscopy technique provides information on the rotational-vibrational spectra of the molecular compounds constituting the particles. The differential absorption LIDAR (DIAL) techniques are also used to determine the presence of gaseous species in the atmosphere based on the absorption of specific laser light wavelengths [16].
The high degree of informativeness of these complex techniques from the viewpoint of a detailed bioaerosol description cannot, unfortunately, be combined with other requirements of importance for their efficient inclusion in networks for air-quality monitoring of the low atmosphere in urban areas. Here we will point out just the more important constraints: (i) high technical complexity, size, and cost of the LIDAR systems; (ii) short operative distances (2–5 km), seriously limiting the possibility of implementing bioaerosol monitoring system in large cities; and (iii) using the laser radiation focusing on the aerosol particles, etc.
The purpose of our investigations described below was to explore experimentally the possibility to make use of Mie scattering in a relatively simple LIDAR configuration emitting horizontally the near-ground atmosphere, thereby sounding from a single point the territory of a large city with high angular and distance resolutions. We present successively the LIDAR and sampling equipment in their concurrent functioning, as well as the results of the structural and biological studies, thus proving the capabilities of the LIDAR biomonitoring technique functioning within an urban air-quality monitoring and information system.
The methodology for performing the combined LIDAR bio-measurements, capable to be applied in near real-time regimes, is illustrated in Figure 1. In general its operation is based on the use of two independent subsystems: (i) LIDAR long-distance sensing subsystem, containing scanning LIDAR for fast 3D mapping aerosol fields (distance, time, mass concentration), and (ii) aerosol sampling equipment of the aerosol particles, transporting bio-contaminations disposed near the LIDAR illuminated resolution volume. The sampled bioaerosol particles are then processed by different methods and algorithms for determination of the mass concentration and LIDAR calibration, bio-contaminant characterization by different techniques, etc. The fast processing of calibrated LIDAR data provides opportunities for well-timed decision-making for prevention of further spreading of bio-pollutants over the entire city area.
Schematic diagram of a LIDAR bioaerosol measurement system.
The LIDAR equipment is disposed in a single point (1). The laser beam is directed along specific paths (2) partly overlapping major city thoroughfares (3) with heavy traffic. These directions are selected on the basis of preliminary estimates (by, e.g., city monitoring network) of the presence of localized sources (4) emitting bio-contaminants that are subsequently transported in the near-ground atmosphere by PM. The PM sampling equipment (5) is placed close to the heavy-traffic spots, as explained below. In this schematic the scanning LIDAR capabilities could provide an effective coverage of too large areas of radius up to 25 km (1000 km2 and more).
LIDAR sensing subsystem for mapping the aerosol field above the sampling device (5) (Figure 1). An important point here is the contribution of the automobile traffic creating sufficiently strong backscattered LIDAR signals due to the PM, emitted by internal combustion engines. As these are formed at high temperatures, the possibility of its initially containing microorganisms is negligible. The hot PMs are then lifted up quickly in the air and enter the field of proliferation of bio-contaminants originating from the sources (4) (Figure 1). Thus, PM serves as a transport medium for the bioaerosols spreading over the city. In hours of heavy traffic, the backscattered LIDAR signal from bioaerosol-bearing PM is strong enough to allow remote sounding to distances of up to 10 km and more. After a fast computer processing, the LIDAR maps constructed can directly be used by the air-quality monitoring systems.
It is described in detail below when we analyze the bio-contaminants found in the LIDAR sounding zones. The sampling is independent of the LIDAR subsystem, but it is important to synchronize the sampling time and duration with the LIDAR sounding in the vicinity of the sampling site. The LIDAR map can be used (with the aid of specialized algorithms) to establish the probable locations of sources of PM and bio- and other pollutants. The sampling data allow us to calibrate the LIDAR signal in terms of mass concentration (see below), thus shortening the time of reaction to the appearance of PM and other pollutants based on LIDAR observations only. We should note here that the delay due to processing the results as compared with the time necessary to process the LIDAR data (nearly real time) will not cause problems in the functioning of the entire system together with the city monitoring system. The sampling data will be saved and documented and could thus be used at a later stage.
The LIDAR subsystem used in the experiments described here is of the scanning type with capability of scanning the entire hemisphere with an angular resolution of ~1o and is part of the EARLINET and ACTRIS LIDAR Station of Institute of Electronics—Вulgarian Academy of Sciences (IE-BAS) (see Figure 2a). It has been, and is, used in a large number of experiments of observation, monitoring, and mapping of the transport (including the transborder) of aerosol loadings over the city of Sofia [15]. The emitter is a CuBr vapor laser, with an output power of 2–4 W, pulse repetition rate of 5–10 kHz, and pulse duration of ~10 ns, the probing wavelength emitted being 510.6 nm. The receiving part operates in a photon-counting mode allowing sounding at distances up to
(а) Cu vapor LIDAR for atmospheric scanning; (b) LIDAR map of a vertical cross section of the atmosphere with origin at the IE-BAS LIDAR Station; (c) LIDAR map of the near-ground atmosphere of a city zone with high and low degree of PM pollution color-coded by brown and blue, respectively.
Figure 2b presents a vertical cross section of the atmosphere with origin at the LIDAR station and directed to downtown Sofia along the city’s main thoroughfare, Tsarigradsko Chaussee Blvd. One clearly sees the vertical structure of the atmospheric aerosol density (in terms of backscatter coefficient), comprising a well-expressed ground layer with a height of 500–600 m, together with other aerosol formations of limited size. The aerosol loading of the near-ground layer over the urbanized part of Sofia City Municipality is due to various sources (both local and transborder), with the main one being heavy automobile traffic, which is the subject of the present discussion. Figure 2c is a LIDAR map of part of the urban area, where one can see again well-defined zones of high (brown) and low (blue) MP pollution.
Analyzing the PM aerosol loadings formed in the vicinity of heavy-traffic urban areas and experimentally measured by the LIDAR technique schematically presented in Figure 2, we were able to draw the important conclusion that the mass concentration of the aerosol loading of hot PM emitted by internal combustion engines is a key parameter when one applies a LIDAR-based methodology to air-quality monitoring in a large city. We thus calibrated the two major LIDAR parameters, namely, the extinction coefficient
where
Figure 3a and b presents the calibration dependencies of the mass concentration in [mg/m3] of, respectively,
Calibration plots for direct calculation of the aerosol mass concentration by both the extinction (a) and backscattering (b) coefficients.
The city of Sofia is located in a valley surrounded by several mountains, which determine the meteorological conditions characterized by reduced possibility of self-cleaning of the atmosphere. Near-ground temperature inversions occur very often in the winter-spring transition period, on windless days, and in a stable atmosphere, with negative ecological effects due to the retention layer formed leading to increased concentration of pollutants in the boundary ground layer. The weather particularities motivated our choice of period of experimental observations, namely, February-March 2018 and 2019.
The object of our studies was the air pollution on windless days at two typical urban area points. (i) Intensive traffic (IT)—Tsarigradsko Chaussee Blvd. is the busiest thoroughfare in Sofia city with grade-separated dual carriageway in almost its entire length of 11.4 km, running from the northwest to the southeast. The average intensity of the traffic according to Sofia Municipality is about 6000 vehicles per hour (Sofia Municipality Report 01.10.2017). The second sampling point was located at (ii) green area (GA) which was chosen at about 6.5 km (600 m ASL) from the LIDAR station on the roof of the Faculty of Biology of St. Kl. Ohridski University of Sofia; the building is located at a relatively busy thoroughfare, which forms a borderline between a green residential area and the largest city park.
Our LIDAR observation schedule complied with the generally accepted manner of measuring the aerosol mass concentration by air-quality monitoring systems. The sampling device pumps atmospheric air through the filter (typically a volume of 60–100 m3) for an interval of about a few hours. Thus, the laser beam was stationary and directed to pass above the aspirator at a height of
The series of figures below presents a set of such 3D LIDAR maps illustrating the aerosol loading space-time distribution within the region of LIDAR sounding and the aerosol sampler disposition. Figure 4a and b is a 3D LIDAR map of the backscatter coefficient distribution
(a and b) Hourly aerosol pollution loading (as 3D LIDAR maps) over the urban area with intensive traffic. LIDAR image (c) is overlapped in vertical position on the Google Maps (d) of the Sofia central part. Position of the LIDAR station is well seen. Such presentation is useful for simultaneous space-time tracing of the strong PM formation over the monitored area. (e) and (f) 3D LIDAR maps, demonstrating cases of complicated space-time dynamics of aerosol fields, transporting bioaerosol, emitted mainly by different local regions of the large city.
The backscatter coefficient
The images in Figure 4c illustrate a relatively small aerosol formation (as in Figure 4b), passing near the LIDAR station. The same image can be overlapped (in vertical disposition) on the Google Maps of the Sofia central part (Figure 4c) for better identification of the disposition of the emitted aerosol formation.
We should emphasize here the important point that the LIDAR maps can be used to follow the bioaerosol transport and to estimate the probable location of their sources. One could also draw the conclusion that, when the methodology discussed is employed, the sampling device location is not so critical in what concerns observing microorganisms in the air and establishing the contamination sources. The incorporation of the proposed LIDAR-based methodology into the city monitoring system could provide many additional advantages, such as forecasting the effects of selected bioaerosol loadings on the entire large city area, e.g., using modeling algorithms. The successful scanning by the LIDAR system in different directions (see Figure 1) could provide additional information for improving the local authorities’ decision-making process.
In the experiments presented, we directed the LIDAR beam to intense traffic area and green area to probe the near-surface atmosphere in a constant horizontal direction. The measurement time covered practically the entire period of the late afternoon traffic maximums, while maximums of the PM pollutions were clearly observed in the backscattered LIDAR signals, as received and processed by our system. The samples were taken in situ using a Hygitest 106 (Maimex), a high-efficiency portable device for sampling and concentration determination of PM in atmospheric aerosol. The apparatus allows simultaneously to take samples at four canals with a possibility to regulate the volume of air passing through the filters. The flow-rate of the aspirated air was measured by the sampling unit. The sampled volume was chosen to be smaller than the LIDAR resolution volume (typically ~250–300 m3). The dust was collected on a filter (borosilicon oxide) with #3 μm and #8 μm (FILTER-LAB, Material MCE, Lot.180509006 and 07). Also analytical filters #0.2 μm type FPP-15-2568-411-05795731-2008 were used, consisting of a layer of ultrathin threads (diameter of 1.5 μm) deposited on a piece of fabric and designed to collect aerosol particles of size exceeding 0.2 μm. Additionally, the material collected in situ on the filters after 3 h of aspiration during the LIDAR monitoring was studied by a number of methods: metal analysis (MA) has been carried out by devices and equipment—ICP-OES, PlasmaQuant PQ 9000 Elite (Analytik Jena), sample visualization, and PM morphological by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive and X-ray fluorescence systems (EDAX). Chemical composition, phase analysis, and particle size distribution were made using powder X-ray diffraction (XRD), photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and infrared (IR) spectroscopy. Phase identification was performed with the X-Pert program using ICDD-PDF2. Important tools for structural measurement was Mössbauer analysis which was made using apparatus Wissenschaftliche Elektronik GmbH, working with a constant acceleration mode: 57Co/Cr source, α-Fe standard. The sampling for investigation of microbiota in bioaerosols formed was achieved using a Hygitest 106 and aха replica technique on nutrient agar as well as Koch sedimentation method. Different elective media as nutrient agar; nutrient media for oligotrophs, actinomycetes, and fungi; blood agar; phenylethyl alcohol agar; MacConkey agar; and bacteria mobility-test medium [17] were used. Culturable bacteria isolated as pure cultures were identified by the methods of classical taxonomy [18] and the methods of the molecular taxonomy based on the PCR of 16S rDNA with universal eubacterial primers [20]. Molecular identification of the fungal strains was performed by PCR of the rDNA internal transcribed spacers (ITS) and primers ITS1 and ITS4 [21]. Positive PCR products were purified and sequenced (Macrogen Inc. Amsterdam, The Netherlands).
The natural aerosols are mixture of PM with highly varied crystallo-chemical structure bioaerosols, which are mixture from fungal spores, pollen, plant, etc. The particle research evaluation is a need for integrating the development of continuous monitoring technologies for determining both particle mass and chemical, physical, and biological methods for their identification. Such studies are of importance in determining the health and welfare effects of urban pollution and city transportation planning. As illustrated by Figure 4, we proved the possibility of a fast detailed remote analysis and monitoring of the air pollution over large urban regions, providing fast estimates of the air pollution transport over the city, as well as determination of pollution source location. Once a place of high PM concentration was localized by the LIDAR, samples were taken as described above. Initially, the particles were immobilized on single or multiple filters. This was followed by covering with a conductive carbon film deposited by sputtering of spectroscopically pure carbon in high vacuum. The experimental procedure allows for observing the particles’ morphology and determining their mean size (Figure 5a and b) by means of SEM, EDAX, and MA.
SEM images of the particles under different magnification; the fibers reveal the filter structure of (a) PM with size ≥ 3 μm and (b) PM with size between 0.2 and 3 μm.
The SEM images of the material collected on the filters after 3 h of aspiration during the LIDAR monitoring showed a large amount of particles larger than 2.5 μm and some amount of small particles (under 2.5 μm); most of the particles are included in quasi-aggregated structures, where nanosized particles could also be seen. Figure 5a illustrates the wide variety of quasi-spherical particles with an average size of about 2.5 μm. Figure 5b shows a typical shape of PM particles with sizes between 2.5 and 10 μm, which are agglomerates of hybrid origin.
Diameters of the PМ varied from 20 nm to a more than 10 μm for pollen or plant debris [22, 23, 24]. After selecting typical particle images based on 10 points on the filter’s surface, the percentage distribution of the particles with different sizes was obtained. The particles’ size distribution study was conducted following the technique of random lines crossing particles of various diameters on optical microscopy and SEM images of immobilized PM particles under different magnification.
The SEM images of the material collected on the filters after 3 h of aspiration during the LIDAR monitoring showed a large amount of particles. The airborne PM can be divided into three classes (Figure 6), fine PM particles 2.5 μm in diameter or smaller, coarse PM particles 2.5–10 μm in diameter, and PM ≥ 10 μm, which differ not only in size but also in source, chemical composition, physical properties, and formation process. Major sources of PM2.5 could be produced by motor vehicles, residential fireplace fossil fuel combustion by industry and wood stoves, vegetation burning, and smelting or other processes [25]. Our investigation for the period of 2 years showed that in the intensive traffic area, the majority of the particles are smaller than 10 μm as produced by automobile exhaust emissions, while in the green area, bigger particles appeared most probably from the wooded zone.
Particle size distribution in two points in the urban area of Sofia City (for period of investigation February–April 2018 and 2019).
The studies conducted during the winter-spring transition period of 2018 and 2019 highlighted the alarming trend of increased content of the Cu, Fe, and Zn metals over the permissible concentration values [25]. Figure 7 presents summarized data for two of the locations (blue is limited value, red dot is intensive traffic, and green dot is green area) that were objects of our studies considered here.
Metals with concentrations exceeding the permissible limiting values (LV); the blue bars indicate the LV (annual average of mg/m3), and the red and green bars indicate the average concentrations in an intensive traffic (IT) and a green area (GA), respectively, as estimated by our LIDAR measurements.
The above results were confirmed by EDAX measurements of PM collected by the functional filters. Figures 8 and 9 demonstrate the presence of Cu and Fe. Less frequently, the presence of Pb was also noticed, again exceeding the permissible concentration values (Figure 8).
EDS spectrum of element analysis and the insert presents SEM image of the element’s distribution on the fixed particle adsorbed on the filters from IT zone (23.03.2019).
EDS spectrum of element analysis and the insert presents SEM image of the element’s distribution on the fixed particle adsorbed on the filters from IT zone (23.03.2019).
Great attention in the physicochemical characterization of investigated PM samples was paid to compounds related to the observed overconcentrations of certain elements (Figure 5). The chemical elements are varying from main component level to trace elements. Figure 10 shows the representative powder X-ray diffraction patterns of studied PM samples originated from different areas (IT and GA). The existence of low intensity and broad X-ray diffraction peaks laid on nonselective background in all registered patterns was observed. The main crystallite phases detected in X-ray diffractograms are silicates and aluminosilicates and carbonates. Lesser amounts of different sulfates were found also. Registered X-ray amorphous halos and nonselective background together with small intensity and high width of diffraction peaks of all registered crystallite phases indicate nearly amorphous structure, small particle size, and low crystallinity degree of PM material from both studied locations. The observations are in good consideration with obtained elemental composition and SEM analysis of studied materials. Regarding both analyses it could be concluded that PM greatly vary in size from nanometers to several tenths of micrometers. However, most of the particles on SEM images are aggregates of smaller particles (Figure 8).
Representative X-ray diffraction patterns of studied powder PM originated from IT (A) and GA (B).
Based on the obtained big iron content in studied PM, 57Fe Mössbauer spectroscopy was applied to investigate samples. It allows to go deeper into the PM characteristics and to make more clear conclusions about the presented iron-bearing chemical compounds, their quantity, and dispersion. Represented Mössbauer spectra of samples can be seen on Figure 11. Sextet and doublet components were obtained after spectrum evaluation. They have the characteristic parameters of phases presented on the respective figures (Figure 11A and B). The main differences between studied PM from IT and GA could be regarded to quantity of presented phases and their particle size. After spectrum evaluation the sextet components with hyperfine parameters characteristic for spinel phase were resolved, highly non-stoichiometric magnetite Fe3−xO4 phase (or maghemite phase γ-Fe2O3) in all studied samples. Their quantity is much bigger in high-traffic area than in residence green area (29% vs. 12%). On the other hand, the calculated values of hyperfine effective fields of all registered magnetic phases (both spinel and hematite phase) are lower than the typical ones for the respective bulk phases. So it can be concluded that the particle size of these oxide phases is lower than 20 nm [26, 27]. Hematite phase dispersion is almost the same in IT and GA samples, but maghemite/magnetite phase particle size is smaller in IT area. It can be well seen on Figure 11 that the doublet components are the main part of all PM spectra. According to the calculated hyperfine parameters of these doublets and comparison with previous investigations, it can be concluded that the majority of Fe-bearing compounds in IT PM are superparamagnetic (SPM) phases with nanometric size (oxides or hydroxides). Fe3+ in paramagnetic phases as glass phases, sulfates, clay minerals, etc. is also presented in both locations (also in this component) [28]. Fe2+ was found in paramagnetic component indicative for the presence of aluminosilicate glass, ankerite, iron-containing carbonates or clay minerals, etc. [29]. The last component is the largest component in GA Möessbauer spectrum (see Figure 11B).
Representative Mössbauer spectra of studied powder PM originated from IT (A) and GA (B)
Comparative analysis of registered FTIR spectra of PM reveals appearance and increasing of bands typical for the organic compounds and inorganic salts (mainly sulfates and phosphates) typically presented on the surface of studied particles [30]. Obtained results indicate that silicates contributed to the highest percentage of total analyzed IR spectra signal for particles at both locations. Organic compounds are hydrocarbons and substituted hydrocarbons, adsorbed CO, etc. They could be regarded to partially oxidized products of fuel combustion. Registered X-ray photoelectron spectra of samples gave additional information for presented surface elements and their concentrations and chemical state. C, O, Si, Al, Ca, N, Na, and S have been detected on the PM surface. The determined binding energies are typical for Si-O, Al-Si-O, Ca-CO3, C-H-N, C-H-NOx, C-H-N-Cl, Na-C-H-N-Cl, Cu-Cl-C-N-H-O, and Cu-O bonding, respectively [31]. Trace levels of Fe, Cu, Zn, and Cl were also found, and this could be related to automobile exhaust emissions and to brakes and tire wear. So, the analysis shows that the surface of investigated PM sample consists mainly of silicate and aluminosilicate compounds, as well as of different organic and inorganic carbon phases/carbonaceous species. XPS showed the presence of carbon black, which was attributed to the oxidative wear and subsequent deposition from related volatiles, as well as of graphitic particles emitted as a result of abrasive wear. The last one was registered in XRD patterns also. According to the literature data, most of the surface carbon comes from burning of fossil fuels, which is not surprising as all the samples were collected in winter period [32].
The analysis of obtained results using different characterization methods—XRD, Mössbauer, IR, and XPS—allows us to make conclusions about chemical composition of studied airborne PM, as well as about the quantity, crystallinity degree, and dispersion of compounds. The main phases registered in samples from both IT and GA are silicate, aluminosilicate, clay minerals, and sulfate compounds, as well as organic and inorganic (carbonate and coal) carbon phases. Elemental analysis showed that the Fe is the dominated metallic content in high-traffic area. The obtained bigger than usual content of iron in PM could be regarded to the airborne particles produced by transport and mainly by car engine performance [33]. This also explained the observation of higher iron content in IT samples compared to those from GA. On the other hand, Fe, Cu, Zn, Pb, and S in relatively high concentrations in all measured airborne PM (see Figure 7) could be regarded to abrasion of car brake lining material. Although the Pb is having been replaced in modern brake linings, the presence of cars older than 15–20 years is probably the explanation of registered Pb content in studied PM. This is an important issue for further regulations. Smaller quantity of other metals as Ba, Mg, Ni, and K has been found, which also could be considered as a result of car lining wear. Fe domination among trace elements was attributed to the easiest fragmentation of Cu, Zn, and Sn due to their lower mechanical properties, as well as their lower melting points, compared to steel and cast iron. Therefore, car braking could be considered to be one of the major sources of nonexhaust traffic-related emissions in all urban locations. The main source of silicate and aluminosilicate compounds could be considered to be mostly natural (silicate, aluminosilicate, clay minerals). The anthropogenic factors in PM formation are connected with street and house reparation activities. The noticeable concentrations of organic substances and elemental carbon have been recognized as a result of incomplete fuel combustion, lubricant volatilization during the combustion procedure, and residuals from the exhaust gases originating from power plants, small houses and different engines, road surface wear, etc. [34, 35, 36, 37].
Bioaerosols may contain pollen, bacteria, actinomycetes, fungal spores, and sneezing and cough drops, as well as endotoxins, mycotoxins, and allergens. A number of studies have shown that bacteria in the air most commonly coexist with particulate matter and are thus transported over long distances [38, 39]. The average residence time of bioaerosols in the atmosphere may be from day to several weeks, depending on their size and aerodynamic properties [40]. Larger bioaerosol particles are retained in the upper airways of the human (oral and nasal cavities), while smaller ones can reach the lower pathways in the lungs [41, 42]. They can have a different negative effect on humans (infectious diseases, toxic effects, allergies, and even cancers). Most commonly, the symptoms and diseases resulting from the inhalation of bioaerosols are related to the respiratory system. Causes of some human infections, such as measles or tuberculosis, can spread through bioaerosols containing infectious microorganisms [43, 44]. Fungal spores, as part of bioaerosol particles, are most often associated with asthmatic symptoms and are a risk factor for various respiratory problems. Pulmonary plague caused by
Eukaryotic microorganisms from genera
The concentration of bioaerosol particles varies greatly depending on the weather, location, and annual seasons. The wind, rain, solar radiation, and ozone are factors that influence the concentration of microorganisms in the air and may even have a bactericidal effect. The survival of bacteria in the air decreases with increasing temperatures as it begins to decrease when temperatures exceed 24°C [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52]. High relative humidity (RH) can significantly reduce the bactericidal effect of ultraviolet light and hence increase the survival of bacteria [53]. Quantitative composition also influences some pollutants in the air, for example, formaldehyde, acrolein, ozone, and sulfur dioxide, which have a negative effect on the viability of the bacteria [54]. Due to the strong influence of these factors, the quantitative composition of the air microbiota is unstable and depends on local sources of pollution. Statistics based on the results of the US Environmental Protection Agency study show that bacterial concentration in open spaces is higher than in indoor pools [55]. The average concentration of all bacteria isolated from outdoor air is 102 CFU/m3. Ninety-five percent of the culturable bacteria are mesophilic. In a study conducted in the United States, it has been found that the concentration of fungi is usually higher in open spaces than in the indoor. The highest concentration of fungi is measured in autumn and summer and the lowest in winter and spring. In open spaces, the concentration of fungi varies strongly from 1 to 8200 CFU/m3 of air, with an average count of about 540 CFU/m3 [56].
Fungi and their spores are more resistant to stress in the air environment than viruses and vegetative cells of the bacteria [44, 52]. Higher temperatures, wet substrates, and humidity provide favorable conditions for fungal development [57]. The quantitative analysis of the microbiome of air bioaerosols in the points tested reviled the presence of aerobic heterotrophic and oligotrophic microorganisms and fungi (Tables 1 and 2).
Microorganisms | Quantity of the detected microorganisms CFU/m3 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sampling January | Sampling May | Sampling August | Sampling November | |
Heterotrophic MO | 64,256 ± 2.1 | 36,343 ± 2.4 | 32,147 ± 3.1 | 50,382 ± 1.5 |
Oligotrophic MO | 56,950 ± 2.5 | 29,412 ± 1.8 | 27,876 ± 1.1 | 52,356 ± 2.3 |
Fungi | 3747 ± 1.1 | 5223 ± 2.1 | 5322 ± 1.7 | 3245 ± 1.2 |
Quantitative analysis of culturable microorganisms in the air of the intense traffic.
Microorganisms | Quantity of detected microorganisms CFU/m3 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Sampling January | Sampling May | Sampling August | Sampling November | |
Heterotrophic MO | 9741 ± 1.1 | 6182 ± 2.1 | 5932 ± 1.8 | 83,462 ± 1.3 |
Oligotrophic MO | 9086 ± 1.9 | 4777 ± 1.1 | 5323 ± 2.2 | 10,321 ± 2.1 |
Fungi | 2248 ± 1.7 | 8992 ± 1.3 | 6332 ± 0.9 | 4672 ± 1.1 |
Quantitative analysis of culturable microorganisms in the air of the point green area.
The analysis of the results obtained show that the quantities of the heterotrophic and oligotrophic microorganisms in the air of the first location mentioned are significantly higher. It is also obvious that the levels of these microorganisms in both points had a tendency to decrease during warm summer period, which correlated with lower urban traffic at this period. It must be noted that the quantity of fungi in the second location is significantly higher than the detected levels in the first one, but there is a tendency to increase during spring-summer period. The results are similar to those found by other authors [45, 46, 58, 59, 60]. Fifty-six pure cultures isolated from both points tested subjected to taxonomic investigation. More than 45% of the isolates are Gram-positive and belong to genus
The molecular analysis and sequencing confirmed these results.
Fungal isolates from both points investigated belong mainly to genera
The LIDAR monitoring methodology discussed opens up possibilities for rapid space-time identification and characterization of physicochemical and bio-pollution processes over the entire territory of large cities without affecting the normal living patterns of the city residents. Remote sensing allows one to locate the occurrence of pollution, which can be easily combined with in situ sampling. The experimental results described above clearly showed that at points of extreme pollution, the small-size particles (less than 2.5 μm) predominated in areas of heavy traffic, while nanosized PM were also found. Further, in intensive traffic areas, we observed metal particles, whose concentrations exceeded the maximal admissible levels. LIDAR sounding of “greener” areas revealed the predominant presence of particles with sizes ≥10 μm; the analyses conducted indicated their prevailing biological origin. The LIDAR maps created can be further used for tracing the full air-mass transport, carrying contamination from a number of pollution sources (chemical, biological, dust, etc.) distributed over the scanned region. Finally, we should emphasize the simplicity of the LIDAR and the aerosol sampling equipment used and, thus, the possibilities for its wide use in any populated region, where keeping the air quality within tolerable levels is problematic. We should once again note that methodology developed affects negligibly the residents’ lifestyle in urban regions. Therefore, it is our belief that it offers promising paths for wide application in air-quality monitoring in highly polluted large urban areas.
This work was financed in part by contract DН18/16 with the National Science Fund, Bulgaria, and included in the European Program of the COST Action CA16202. The scanning LIDAR system was developed as part of the EARLINET and ACTRIS-2, Horizon 2020 EU projects.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\\n\\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\\n\\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\\n\\nSara Uhac, COO
\\n\\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\\n\\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\\n\\nDr Alex Lazinica
\\n\\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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\n\nCo-founded by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic: “We are passionate about the advancement of science. As Ph.D. researchers in Vienna, we found it difficult to access the scholarly research we needed. We created IntechOpen with the specific aim of putting the academic needs of the global research community before the business interests of publishers. Our Team is now a global one and includes highly-renowned scientists and publishers, as well as experts in disseminating your research.”
\n\nBut, one thing we have in common is -- we are all scientists at heart!
\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco
\n\nAdrian Assad De Marco joined the company as a Director in 2017. With his extensive experience in management, acquired while working for regional and global leaders, he took over direction and control of all the company's publishing processes. Adrian holds a degree in Economy and Management from the University of Zagreb, School of Economics, Croatia. A former sportsman, he continually strives to develop his skills through professional courses and specializations such as NLP (Neuro-linguistic programming).
\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"40180",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66541,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:95,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4126,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"59402",title:"Robotic Harvesting of Fruiting Vegetables: A Simulation Approach in V-REP, ROS and MATLAB",slug:"robotic-harvesting-of-fruiting-vegetables-a-simulation-approach-in-v-rep-ros-and-matlab",totalDownloads:2807,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"In modern agriculture, there is a high demand to move from tedious manual harvesting to a continuously automated operation. This chapter reports on designing a simulation and control platform in V-REP, ROS, and MATLAB for experimenting with sensors and manipulators in robotic harvesting of sweet pepper. The objective was to provide a completely simulated environment for improvement of visual servoing task through easy testing and debugging of control algorithms with zero damage risk to the real robot and to the actual equipment. A simulated workspace, including an exact replica of different robot manipulators, sensing mechanisms, and sweet pepper plant, and fruit system was created in V-REP. Image moment method visual servoing with eye-in-hand configuration was implemented in MATLAB, and was tested on four robotic platforms including Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, NOVABOT, multiple linear actuators, and multiple SCARA arms. Data from simulation experiments were used as inputs of the control algorithm in MATLAB, whose outputs were sent back to the simulated workspace and to the actual robots. ROS was used for exchanging data between the simulated environment and the real workspace via its publish-and-subscribe architecture. Results provided a framework for experimenting with different sensing and acting scenarios, and verified the performance functionality of the simulator.",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",title:"Automation in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Automation in Agriculture - Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations"},signatures:"Redmond R. Shamshiri, Ibrahim A. Hameed, Manoj Karkee and\nCornelia Weltzien",authors:[{id:"182449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:"A.",surname:"Hameed",slug:"ibrahim-hameed",fullName:"Ibrahim Hameed"},{id:"203413",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond R.",middleName:null,surname:"Shamshiri",slug:"redmond-r.-shamshiri",fullName:"Redmond R. Shamshiri"},{id:"241193",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:null,surname:"Karkee",slug:"manoj-karkee",fullName:"Manoj Karkee"},{id:"241194",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornelia",middleName:null,surname:"Weltzien",slug:"cornelia-weltzien",fullName:"Cornelia Weltzien"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"5",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82476",title:"Joint Action of Herbicides on Weeds and Their Risk Assessment on Earthworm (Eisenia fetida L.)",slug:"joint-action-of-herbicides-on-weeds-and-their-risk-assessment-on-earthworm-eisenia-fetida-l",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105462",abstract:"Frequent and intensive use of similar modes of action herbicides increases selection pressure resulting in nature adapt and a number of herbicide-resistant weeds. The most effective methods to prevent and delay herbicide-resistant weeds are herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. This chapter intends to explain the advantages of herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. In addition, the models of estimated herbicide mixture interaction response have been explained. Although herbicide mixtures have benefits, they may present risks leading to soil pollution and affecting soil fauna such as earthworms. Therefore, we discussed the negative effect of mixture herbicides on Eisenia fetida. On the other hand, various models to calculate mixture herbicide toxicity on earthworms will be present in this chapter.",book:{id:"11610",title:"New Insights in Herbicide Science",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11610.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Taghi Alebrahim, Elham Samadi Kalkhoran and Te-Ming Paul Tseng"},{id:"82937",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-1",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105944",abstract:"Stress in plants refers to external conditions, which drastically affect the growth, development, or productivity of plants. Stress triggers a wide range of plant responses, such as altered gene expression, cellular metabolism, changes in growth rates, and crop yields. Some abiotic stresses, such as low or high temperature, deficient water, and ultraviolet radiation, make plant growth and development unfavorable, leading to a fall in crop yield worldwide. The following writeup incorporated the abiotic stress factors related to the growth and development of plants, such as temperature, drought, heat, cold, and many more. Abiotic stress factors are the nonliving factors influencing the metabolism, growth, and development of the plant tissues at that particular time when such abiotic stress affects them. As a result of such abiotic stresses, the plants have generated many stress tolerance factors. Various stress-responsive genes are thus being formulated in response to the abiotic stresses, so the plants can survive even in such extreme conditions as well. Henceforth, it can be concluded that the abiotic stress factors imposed on the plants adversely impact their growth and developmental procedures, and at the same time, they also produce some stress tolerance factors to minimize the damage.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Shubham Dey and Ayan Raichaudhuri"},{id:"82943",title:"Laboratory Diagnosis of Candidiasis",slug:"laboratory-diagnosis-of-candidiasis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106359",abstract:"The burden of Candidiasis continues to increase and so does the Candida species. Although Candida species are closely similar phenotypically, they differ from each other in terms of epidemiology, genetic characteristics, antifungal susceptibility and virulence profile. Therefore, reliable and accurate laboratory methods for identification of Candida species can determine the Candidiasis burden and enable the administration of the most appropriate antifungal drug therapy to reduce fungal mortality rates. Conventional and biochemical methods are often used in identification of Candida species. However, these techniques are specific and sensitive enough in detecting the non albicans candida (NAC) species. Molecular techniques have improved the laboratory diagnosis and management of Candidiasis due to improved sensitivity and specificity threshold. This chapter provides an overview of different laboratory methods for diagnosis of Candidiasis.",book:{id:"11608",title:"Candida and Candidiasis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11608.jpg"},signatures:"Benson Musinguzi, Obondo J. Sande, Gerald Mboowa, Andrew Baguma, Herbert Itabangi and Beatrice Achan"},{id:"82732",title:"Role of Microorganisms in Alleviating the Abiotic Stress Conditions Affecting Plant Growth",slug:"role-of-microorganisms-in-alleviating-the-abiotic-stress-conditions-affecting-plant-growth",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105943",abstract:"Agriculture is one of the main sectors that participate in building up world economy, and offers the main source of food, income, and employment to their rural populations. Despite the necessity of doubling agricultural production, quantitatively and qualitatively, to cope with the worsening increase in the global population and to meet the increasing humanitarian needs, the agricultural sector faces many abiotic stress conditions. Additionally, the great climate changes lead to an increase in the negative impact of these stressors. There are many conventional and nonconventional ways that could directly or indirectly mitigate the adverse effects of these stressors, each of them has its advantages and disadvantages. The biological tool is one of the promising methods; it depends on the effective use of beneficial microorganisms to alleviate stress conditions that affect plant growth, development, and therefore productivity. This method is economically inexpensive and eco-friendly toward the environment. Beneficial soil microorganisms such as PGPRs and AMF colonize the root zone of many plant species and help to enhance plant growth and development. Thus, this chapter is aiming to highlight the role of microorganisms in alleviating the abiotic stress conditions affecting in plant growth.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Talaat El Sebai and Maha Abdallah"},{id:"81786",title:"Mycotoxins … Silent Death",slug:"mycotoxins-silent-death",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104382",abstract:"There are many types of fungi that produce secondary metabolites called mycotoxins. These compounds are very dangerous to humans and animals, as exposure to them causes acute or chronic toxicity. Temperature, humidity and pH are important environmental factors in the production of mycotoxins. There are about 500 types of mycotoxins that are found in many agricultural products such as peanut, cereals, wines, fruit juice, dried fruits, feed, and other foodstuffs. Among the most important genera of fungi that produce mycotoxins are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Altenaria, Fusarium, and others. Some of them infect plants in the field and produce mycotoxin, while others infect agricultural crops, foodstuffs, and feed in the store and produce mycotoxin during storage conditions. Mycotoxins are divided into various groups according to the degree of their impact and danger, into highly toxic, low toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic. This is depends on the chemical composition of the different types of mycotoxins, which are an open hydrocarbon chain with low molecular weights ranging between 100 and 697 Da. The biological effects of mycotoxins include damage to living tissues, suppression of immunity, and neurological disorders. Aflatoxins are one of the most dangerous mycotoxins as they are the main cause of hepatocellular carcinoma and the fifth most common carcinogen in the world.",book:{id:"11023",title:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11023.jpg"},signatures:"Azhar A. Alhaddad"},{id:"82849",title:"Influence of Abiotic Stresses on Seed Production and Quality",slug:"influence-of-abiotic-stresses-on-seed-production-and-quality",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106045",abstract:"Climate change is exerting detrimental impacts on agriculture through various biotic and abiotic stresses. Abiotic stresses such as drought, flood, temperature extremes, salinity, chemicals, heavy metals, nutrient scarcity/toxicity, wind and light in combination more adversely affect the seed production and quality by hampering plant’s morphological, physiological, cellular, biochemical and molecular activities than alone, resulting in poor production of high-quality seeds. Deterioration of yield and quality arises also under abiotic stresses. Under abiotic stresses, plant activates its own defensive mechanisms by escaping, avoiding and tolerating stresses. Some of the plant’s defensive mechanisms include plant’s morphological, cellular, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes to adapt the stresses, synthesis of compounds such as ABA, proline, polyamines increasing the activities of ROS quenchers, expression of stress-resisting genes and activation of enzymes. Further, exogenous application of phytohormones, stress-alleviating compounds, modification of agronomic management, modern breeding strategies such as development of resistant varieties can also help to cope up with stresses and produce quality seeds. Financial and policy support of government or NGOs regarding development of infrastructure, research technologies and thereby, multi-locational trials as well as technology transfusion through extension activities are needed to curtail down the devastating impact of abiotic stresses on quality seed production.",book:{id:"11322",title:"Seed Biology Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11322.jpg"},signatures:"Rupa Das and Saikat Biswas"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:320},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Topics will include asset liability management, financial consequences of the financial crisis and covid-19, financial accounting, mergers and acquisitions, management accounting, SMEs, financial markets, corporate finance and governance, managerial technology and innovation, resource management and sustainable development, social entrepreneurship, corporate responsibility, ethics and accountability, microeconomics, labour economics, macroeconomics, public economics, financial economics, econometrics, direct marketing, creative marketing, internet marketing, market planning and forecasting, brand management, market segmentation and targeting and other topics under business and management. This book series will focus on various aspects of business and management whose in-depth understanding is critical for business and company management to function effectively during this uncertain time of financial crisis, Covid-19 pandemic, and military activity in Europe.
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Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:245,paginationItems:[{id:"196707",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa Numan",middleName:null,surname:"Bucak",slug:"mustafa-numan-bucak",fullName:"Mustafa Numan Bucak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196707/images/system/196707.png",biography:"Mustafa Numan Bucak received a bachelor’s degree from the Veterinary Faculty, Ankara University, Turkey, where he also obtained a Ph.D. in Sperm Cryobiology. He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. 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To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. 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