Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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In this version, the focus is on islet transplantation. In addition, interesting topics dealing with corneal and peripheral nerve transplantation and decellularization are covered. Unfortunately, clinical trials have not started in Japan, the USA, or Europe in the past 5 years. On the other hand, clinical trials were completed in many countries and so on (inventory of human xenotransplantation practices: IXA and HUG in collaboration with the WHO). In addition, in Japan, clinical trials related to cell transplantation have been initiated, and guidelines for xenotransplantation have been revised. In the near future, some clinical trials on xenotransplantation using genetically modified pigs or the microencapsulation of pancreatic islets will start.",isbn:"978-953-51-3356-8",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3355-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4741-1",doi:"10.5772/66234",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"xenotransplantation-new-insights",numberOfPages:192,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"903df77921b8704466248d0ff5cbcdd9",bookSignature:"Shuji Miyagawa",publishedDate:"July 12th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5952.jpg",numberOfDownloads:11391,numberOfWosCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 7th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 28th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 24th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 25th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 24th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"73965",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuji",middleName:null,surname:"Miyagawa",slug:"shuji-miyagawa",fullName:"Shuji Miyagawa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73965/images/system/73965.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Shuji Miyagawa is an associate professor of Surgery at the Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan. After graduating at Hokkaido University Medical School, he finished clinical training in the first Department of Surgery, Osaka University Medical School. \r\nHe obtained his Ph.D. degree in transplantation immunology from the same university in 1989. Dr. Shuji Miyagawa worked at the University of Texas Medical School in Houston as a research associate from 1988 to 1990. He became an assistant professor in 1995 and associate professor at Osaka University in 1998. His works have been presented in numerous international meetings, especially the International Xenotransplantation Association (IXA), and he held the IXA-2013 in Osaka as the president. \r\nHe was a councilor of IXA, 2013 to 2017, and now the president of Japanese Society for Xenotransplantation (JSX).",institutionString:"Osaka University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Osaka University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"980",title:"Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",slug:"tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"55891",title:"Introductory Chapter: The State of Xenotransplantation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69563",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-state-of-xenotransplantation",totalDownloads:1509,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Shuji Miyagawa, Akira Maeda, Hiroshi Eguchi, Rieko Sakai, Pei‐Chi\nLo, Hantang Wang, Chihiro Takakura, Tasuku Kodama, Rei\nMatsuura and Hiroomi Okuyama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55891",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55891",authors:[{id:"73965",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuji",surname:"Miyagawa",slug:"shuji-miyagawa",fullName:"Shuji Miyagawa"},{id:"210054",title:"Dr.",name:"Akira",surname:"Maeda",slug:"akira-maeda",fullName:"Akira Maeda"},{id:"210056",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroshi",surname:"Eguchi",slug:"hiroshi-eguchi",fullName:"Hiroshi Eguchi"},{id:"210062",title:"MSc.",name:"Pei-Chi",surname:"Lo",slug:"pei-chi-lo",fullName:"Pei-Chi Lo"},{id:"210063",title:"Dr.",name:"Tasuku",surname:"Kodama",slug:"tasuku-kodama",fullName:"Tasuku Kodama"},{id:"210064",title:"Dr.",name:"Rei",surname:"Matsuura",slug:"rei-matsuura",fullName:"Rei Matsuura"},{id:"210065",title:"BSc.",name:"Chihiro",surname:"Takakura",slug:"chihiro-takakura",fullName:"Chihiro Takakura"},{id:"210066",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroomi",surname:"Okuyama",slug:"hiroomi-okuyama",fullName:"Hiroomi Okuyama"},{id:"210069",title:"BSc.",name:"Hantang",surname:"Wang",slug:"hantang-wang",fullName:"Hantang Wang"},{id:"210070",title:"MSc.",name:"Rieko",surname:"Sakai",slug:"rieko-sakai",fullName:"Rieko Sakai"}],corrections:null},{id:"55970",title:"Current Status in Peripheral Nerve Xenotransplantation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69143",slug:"current-status-in-peripheral-nerve-xenotransplantation",totalDownloads:1285,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nerve grafts are used to repair segmental defects in peripheral nerves. However, autografts and even allografts are limited for clinical use. Xenotransplantation offers a potentially unlimited source for tissue transplantation. We have conducted a systematic review of the literature, aiming to clarify the latest and more appealing proposals and discoveries in nerve xenotransplantation. A total of 22 articles were retrieved, all of them experimentally controlled studies in animals. There are no current studies in humans. Fresh xenografts provoke an immune response that leads to graft rejection. Immunosuppressive drugs or pretreatment of the grafts are the preferred methods against immune rejection. Recently, investigative groups have proposed the use of acellular nerve xenografts, which do not elicit immune rejection while they do allow and promote axonal regeneration. The addition of human stem cells increases nerve growth. Limits to the analyzed studies are the absence of trials in humans and the short length of the nerve defects that have been successfully repaired. Further investigations and clinical trials are needed before nerve xenografting is accepted as a valid method of nerve repair.",signatures:"Jose M. Lasso and Esther Deleyto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55970",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55970",authors:[{id:"202890",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose M",surname:"Lasso",slug:"jose-m-lasso",fullName:"Jose M Lasso"}],corrections:null},{id:"55555",title:"Current Progress in Corneal Xenotransplantation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69144",slug:"current-progress-in-corneal-xenotransplantation",totalDownloads:1440,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Blindness is a devastating situation, and one of the common causes is corneal blindness. Corneal transplantation is the standard treatment for the corneal blindness. The lack of human donors demands the exploration of alternative treatments such as corneal xenotransplantation and bioengineered corneas. We review the researches regarding immunological and physio‐anatomical barriers of corneal xenotransplantation, recent progress of corneal xenotransplantation in nonhuman primate studies, and updates of regulatory guidelines to conduct clinical trials for corneal xenotransplantation. The current development of genetically-engineered and gene-editing technologies suggests that the promise much for the field of xenotransplantation. A clinical trial of xenotransplantation using a cellular porcine corneal stroma has already been conducted; however, safety concerns have not been reported so far. With regard to the regulatory aspects and preclinical efficacies, corneal xenotransplantation has become one of the clinically realistic options as human substitutes and progress in recent research is promising to advance corneal xenotransplantation field.",signatures:"Mee Kum Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55555",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55555",authors:[{id:"205374",title:"Dr.",name:"Mee Kum",surname:"Kim",slug:"mee-kum-kim",fullName:"Mee Kum Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"55433",title:"Immune Response Associated with Islet Xenotransplantation in Small and Large Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68999",slug:"immune-response-associated-with-islet-xenotransplantation-in-small-and-large-animal-models",totalDownloads:1259,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter will review studies that examine the immune response to porcine neonatal pancreatic cell clusters (NPCC) in small and large animal models; specifically, the immune mechanisms that lead to the rejection of transplanted islet cells in mice, nonhuman primates, and humans will be discussed. In addition, current research on the in vitro and in vivo human immune responses to porcine NPCC is also included. Research into the immune responses that lead to islet cell death posttransplant allows for further understanding of how to better protect transplanted porcine NPCC in humans. Furthermore, this chapter will examine immune‐related strategies that have shown to extend the life and/or function of porcine NPCC in vitro and in vivo, including techniques that work to modulate the immune system of the islet cell donor and/or the recipient. Finally, this chapter will identify future areas of research that have yet to be examined extensively in the literature, mostly pertaining to the human immune response to porcine NPCC in the clinical setting.",signatures:"Jennifer Croden, Wenlong Huang and Gina R. Rayat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55433",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55433",authors:[{id:"55624",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina R.",surname:"Rayat",slug:"gina-r.-rayat",fullName:"Gina R. Rayat"},{id:"202826",title:"Ms.",name:"Jennifer",surname:"Croden",slug:"jennifer-croden",fullName:"Jennifer Croden"},{id:"206126",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenlong",surname:"Huang",slug:"wenlong-huang",fullName:"Wenlong Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"56143",title:"Xenotransplantation for Islets from Clinical Side",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69233",slug:"xenotransplantation-for-islets-from-clinical-side",totalDownloads:1310,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Islet transplantation can eliminate severe hypoglycemia symptoms caused by conventional treatment, and has the advantages of less trauma and complications, which is considered as the most promising treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM). Regulatory guidance is needed for a standard pig source. In section 1, the regulation of medical grade designed pathogen free (DPF) donor pig for clinical xenotransplantation consists of five parts: genetic quality control, microbiological surveillance, formula feeds, specification of pathological diagnosis, and requirements of environment and housing facilities. In section 2, we present the current approach and progress in pig donor selecting, pancreatic digestion, isolation and preparation of porcine islet grafts, identification and quality assessment of final islet product in clinical trials. The liver is currently the most preferred site for islet transplantation, even though it is far from ideal. A large number of alternative sites have been used for islet transplantation in experimental animal models to provide improved engraftment and long-term survival. In Section 3, we introduce some commonly used sites in xenotransplantation. The benefits and drawbacks of each parameter above are discussed in an attempt to decide which is the most suitable for clinical use and to direct future research.",signatures:"Wei Wang, Qi Liang, Wei Nie, Juan Zhang and Cheng Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56143",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56143",authors:[{id:"202715",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",surname:"Zhang",slug:"juan-zhang",fullName:"Juan Zhang"},{id:"209930",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei",surname:"Wang",slug:"wei-wang",fullName:"Wei Wang"},{id:"210413",title:"Dr.",name:"Qi",surname:"Liang",slug:"qi-liang",fullName:"Qi Liang"},{id:"210414",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Nie",slug:"wei-nie",fullName:"Wei Nie"},{id:"210415",title:"MSc.",name:"Cheng",surname:"Chen",slug:"cheng-chen",fullName:"Cheng Chen"}],corrections:null},{id:"55868",title:"Pig-to-Nonhuman Primate (NHP) Naked Islet Xenotransplantation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69001",slug:"pig-to-nonhuman-primate-nhp-naked-islet-xenotransplantation",totalDownloads:1595,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Islet transplantation is an established therapy for selected type 1 diabetes (T1D) patients with severe hypoglycemic unawareness and glycemic liability despite of insulin treatment. However, the donor organ is limited. Porcine islets are the best alternative source to overcome this limitation, and pig-to-nonhuman primate (NHP) naked islet xenotransplantation studies are being performed worldwide. Several studies including our own have presented successful proof-of-concept results based on immunosuppression regimen including the anti-CD154 monoclonal antibody. Particularly, long-term control of diabetes by adult porcine islet transplantation has been demonstrated in five consecutive monkeys, and the longest survival was ~1000 days after transplantation. Currently, pig-to-NHP islet xenotransplantation based on clinically applicable immunosuppression regimen is being pursued. In this chapter, we will describe all the procedures of pig-to-NHP naked islet xenotransplantation: (1) the porcine islet isolation from designated pathogen-free (DPF) miniature pigs, (2) diabetes induction in monkeys, (3) transplantation procedure via the portal vein, (4) immune monitoring comprising humoral and cellular immunity after porcine islet transplantation, and finally (5) liver biopsy and subsequent immunohistochemical procedure in detail.",signatures:"Jun-Seop Shin, Jong-Min Kim, Byoung-Hoon Min, Jung-Sik Kim, Il-\nHee Yoon, Hyunwoo Chung, Won-Woo Lee, Hee Jung Kang and\nChung-Gyu Park",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55868",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55868",authors:[{id:"202853",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun-Seop",surname:"Shin",slug:"jun-seop-shin",fullName:"Jun-Seop Shin"}],corrections:null},{id:"55739",title:"Moving Islet Cell Xenotransplantation to the Clinic",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69379",slug:"moving-islet-cell-xenotransplantation-to-the-clinic",totalDownloads:1317,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The ultimate goal to provide a cure for all patients suffering from type-1-diabetes has remained out of the patients reach despite major advances in technologies. There has however, for a number of decades been a concerted effort to use various forms of porcine β-cells as a replacement transplant alternative to cadaveric human donors. This has seen major advances in the last decade with significant development of multi-transgenic donor pigs that now can potentially be used for xenotransplantation. This has been achieved with cellular transplants leading the way using porcine islet cell transplants as a form of β cell replacement in pre-clinical studies to treat diabetic non-human primates in various guises. These uniquely modified islet cells have the potential to offer an unlimited source of insulin-producing cells once we have solved all of the issues required to prevent loss of the xenotransplant. This chapter provides an in depth overview as to how the most recent advances have been achieved in regards to the genetic modification of donor pigs to provide protection from hyperacute rejection, instant blood mediated inflammatory reaction, xenoantibody and cellular responses to provide long-term functional islet cell xenotransplants to be able to move islet cell xenotransplantation to the clinic.",signatures:"Wayne Hawthorne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55739",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55739",authors:[{id:"204098",title:"Prof.",name:"Wayne",surname:"Hawthorne",slug:"wayne-hawthorne",fullName:"Wayne Hawthorne"}],corrections:null},{id:"56205",title:"Whole-Liver Decellularization: Advances and Insights into Current Understanding",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69487",slug:"whole-liver-decellularization-advances-and-insights-into-current-understanding",totalDownloads:1680,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Whole-liver decellularization comprises the removal of the antigenic cellular content, while maintaining intact 3D extracellular matrix architecture and the complex native vascular cues. As a result, it challenges the classical hurdles of xenotransplantation and hypothetically allows the production of bioengineered human-size liver constructs. The associated technique and understanding of the determinants of successful application evolved rapidly during the last decade. In this chapter, the authors offer a comprehensive walk-through, starting from the simplicity of the concept to the complexity of clinical application. Avoiding repetition, the chapter covers the fundamentals and advances of decellularization, recellularization, ex vivo perfusion culture, and sterilization techniques. The interplay between the main pivots of whole-liver decellularization, namely intrinsic matrix potentials, immune response, and vasculature is described. An effort was made to dissect the hurdles facing the whole-liver decellularization approach and to highlight the gaps in current literature. The authors also offer insights about some critical concepts including intra-scaffold flow dynamics, gradient zonation, critical cell mass/density, mechano-sensitivity, substrate modifications, nondestructive analysis, and the surgeon’s perspective, together with the discussion of published in vivo trials and large-scale production parameters.",signatures:"Ibrahim Fathi and Ahmed Eltawila",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56205",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56205",authors:[{id:"201090",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",surname:"Fathi",slug:"ibrahim-fathi",fullName:"Ibrahim Fathi"},{id:"205860",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Eltawila",slug:"ahmed-eltawila",fullName:"Ahmed Eltawila"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8093",title:"Xenotransplantation",subtitle:"Comprehensive Study",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"16d2b84272592afd80dd2575eff0546b",slug:"xenotransplantation-comprehensive-study",bookSignature:"Shuji Miyagawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8093.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73965",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuji",surname:"Miyagawa",slug:"shuji-miyagawa",fullName:"Shuji Miyagawa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1007",title:"Xenotransplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"45fde91777f91583197a5b5dfecb207a",slug:"xenotransplantation",bookSignature:"Shuji Miyagawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73965",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuji",surname:"Miyagawa",slug:"shuji-miyagawa",fullName:"Shuji Miyagawa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3348",title:"Tissue Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"39bb39271df3b373edb7d5e2cdeffb18",slug:"tissue-engineering",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3348.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3361",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fe914d49a96b3dcd00d27292ae23536e",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering",bookSignature:"Jose A. 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\r\n\tUnderstanding how cells interact with the extracellular environment through exocytosis and endocytosis remains among the most popular subjects in biology and biomedical research. These processes are very complex and necessary for a wide variety of cellular functions, including nutrition, communication, and pathogenesis. Different types of cells (neurons, cancer cells, plants, pathogens, etc) use these mechanisms of cellular transportation to achieve their vital activities. Endocytosis and exocytosis provide a transport system for compounds that require intracellular or extracellular delivery for their mechanism of action. Most recent studies have observed their critical importance in health and disease. Nowadays, these pathways are being studied for biomedical purpose in order to use natural patterns of the cell to design better health and medical applications. This book is focused on the physiological processes involving exocytosis and endocytosis, and the components involved and transported, such as proteins, nucleic acids, membranes, and organelle trafficking. The different techniques used for examining molecular machinery and biological significance of exocytosis and endocytosis in vitro and in vivo as well as their applications are highly relevant.
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\n
1. Introduction
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The Brundtland Commission defines sustainable development as development which keeps in check the present generation’s needs without neglecting the future generation’s capability to address their needs [1]. In the long run, sustainable development can provide a solution to how the world plans its economic activities and growth without damaging the environment and to ensure a safer habitat is maintained for the succeeding generations, to also build up their economies and societies without neglecting the environment. Apart from sustainable development fulfilling peoples’ needs without discouraging the chances of others, it covers a lot of more extensive issues like ecological, social, and financial advancement which are critical to the social prosperity of all [2, 3].
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While conceding that great advancement has been accomplished this far, yet its lopsidedness all-inclusive is as yet a stressing factor. Quick development in some developing nations has diminished high living standards and exacerbated poverty and inequalities. These inequalities sabotage the inclusiveness, social protection, and even sustainable development since it diminishes interests in health systems and training frameworks and counterbalances financial and political stability [4].
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Although fast-growing population dynamics can improve the labor market, it conjointly can expand inequalities in both developing and developed nations and globally contingent upon the readiness by the country being referred to. Expanded urbanization, population growth, and population aging may likewise rise thriving in certain countries, but it might likewise cause significant stress on national infrastructures and public finance, education, and health-care systems [5].
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To attend to these barriers globally and gain sustainable development positioning, there is a need to advance plans that encourage change the way governments are administered, the way products and services are delivered, employments creation, global consumption trends, and how the management of natural resources is done. Embracing the “business as usual” motto presents clear dangers because there is adequate proof that they are answerable for the worldwide megatrends that set as dangers to sustainability [6].
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2. Global trends for sustainable development challenges
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The challenges to sustainable development are influenced by socioeconomic, demographic, technological, and environmental trends which are seen to be the primary changes that transform society and considerably sway onto individuals. The formative advancement accomplished as of late combined with the unpredictable global economic changes have resulted in the following trends [4];
In a global financial crisis, the international community needs to put up development strategies to address impoverishment and sustainable development. If the socioeconomic progress stays lopsided, more costs are likely to be incurred because of environmental degradation.
The variety of socioeconomic, population, technology, and environment-driven trends causing the sustainable development challenges are inequality, globalization, environmental degradation, and population diversity.
These trends complement each other in manners which pose several challenges. Rapid urbanization in developing nations, financialization, and globalization are recipes for inequality and introducing nations to high food and nutrition risks, environmental degradation, and energy security because of high demand for land and water.
Since environmental degradation has so far reached a crucial stage, the casual business as usual approach is highly discouraged for transformative change to occur at a community level, country level, and even at a global level to attain sustainable development.
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3. Strategies for sustainable inclusiveness
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The outcome document of the UN Conference on Sustainable Development gives direction to accomplishing the progress to sustainable development as approaches for increasing the prosperity of current and future generations. Sustainable development strategies should be comprehensive and take extraordinary consideration of the requirements of the poor and vulnerable. Strategies should be goal-oriented, action- and community-based, considering distinctive national conditions [7].
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The strategies should systemically transform usage and creation structures and may include, inter alia, colossal value corrections, empower the protecting of typical blessings, lessen inequalities, and strengthen the fiscal organization. Such a strategy should restrain such use and creation that have negative externalities, while at the same time trying to expand the kinds of utilization and creation that make positive externalities. Examples of restricting negative externalities include a decrease of ecological contamination, while instances of positive externalities incorporate, for instance, innovation adjustment, a decrease of food waste, and improve overall nutritional value.
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Technology will positively assume a significant job in addressing the consumption patterns to drive the formation of innovations and advancements that are important for sustainability. Accomplishments in achieving these progressions will require a significant redesign of the economy and society and changes in ways of life. Economic and finance-related impetuses for the creation and reception of new technological advances will be required alongside innovative policy changes. The all-embracing objectives of the essential requirements for sustainable development comprise; combating poverty, unsustainable consumption and production, and ensuring that natural resources are well managed and protected.
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In today’s global world, climate and environmental protection need to be taken as a universal goal by all. The current trend of relocating the manufacturing sector and other services to developing nations demands that developed nations will also offer both technical and financial support to the developing nations.
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Sustainable development transformation entails, change involves, inter alia, noteworthy value redresses, a solid promise to safeguarding natural endowments, a decrease of inequalities, accounting for the environmental, public sector strengthening, and investment for development and profit-sharing, thereby improving poor people’s livelihood and socio-well-being.
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Sustainable development strategies in developing nations will keep on offering need to human development, with a focus on reducing impoverishment. While human development needs more notice taken to toward people’s quality of life and other issues at country-level, its achievement depends to a large degree on utilizing the open doors made by globalization and on restricting its contrary effects. In this circumstance, better organization of capital streams and macroeconomic guidelines may be indispensable and sufficiency between country-specific development strategies and global decision-making is significant. Overall organizations need to oblige the novel needs of developing countries, especially those of the creating countries. The global plan will similarly need to take as being of great importance to avoidance clashes, human rights abuse, guaranteeing that great administration wins and a decreased inequality.
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4. Global challenges for sustainable development
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Today, it is imperative to take note of that sustainable development is similarly substantial in developing and developed nations, despite them managing polarly inverse sides of the range. Although developed nations might be developed, that does not infer that they are sustainable. However, the primary objective of these nations should be to free their general public of issues like social inequalities, poor waste management and poor environmental management [4].
Having poor or no capital budget to plan and complete economic activities.
Having a business climate which is characterized by civil war makes sustainable development difficult because of misplaced priorities.
Natural calamities, like earthquakes, tremors and floods, can present a danger to sustainability because they can affect the flow of water and even cause damage to infrastructure or disturb arable land or habitable land. In Ramche, a rural settlement in Nepal, an earthquake struck the river that supplied water, leaving Ramche in a water crisis that forces the villagers to use E-Coli infected water. Similarly, in Canada, E. coli water contamination forced a 10-year evacuation plan of the Kashechewan area. This forced people to drink and cook out of desperation [8, 9]. For instance, the 2004 tidal waves in South East and Eastern Asia danged a lot of infrastructures and claimed close to 226,000 lives in Africa and Asia. For instance, the damage of Japan’s open-vehicle approach is a good example [10].
The prevalence of clashes between long-term sustainable investment and immediate gains or profits with governments is a source of concern and worry. Although politically motivated to win votes in south Poland, a legislative orders to finance sustainable energy resources for energy production in the mining sector is approved instead of promoting dirty coal power generation which currently accounts for about 80% of the generated power in Poland [11, 12].
Public goods abuse by public officers or any act of bribery that deviates from the acceptable standards of society for personal gains is corruption and one of the greatest barriers to sustainable development [13]. Nepal’s foreign grants are mainly provided by the UK unraveled that because of corruption and bureaucratic systems in Nepal, the development projects by NGOs can never pass or be approved without bribing the government ministers alongside huge administration fees demanded by the Nepal government essentially hinders progress [14].
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In Africa, the UNECA reports that corruption impedes economic growth because it discourages foreign investments, distorts resource distribution public spending and market competition, increases the production costs. The consequence of these vices is that the quality of services and public infrastructure and the amount of tax returns are drastically reduced alongside a rising misappropriation and misallocation of scarce resources. Politically, it undermines the rule of law, human rights, accountability and transparency and this makes government wings weak [15].
Poor municipal service delivery. Poor municipal services which include sewerage and other waste management and disposal in the cities and rural areas poses a threat to human health.
Climate change is another enemy to sustainable development and needs frantic efforts to mitigate and adapt so that ecological systems are maintained to reduce the secondary effects like global warming, skin diseases, floods, drought and other extreme weather events.
While hunger and malnourishment, is an issue of the past in developed nations and diminishing in developing nations, it persists in some nations, and this presents a threat to food security.
The existing disparity in the per capita income within and outside inside nations is a source of possible tension and conflict.
The rapid urbanization experienced in developing nations has posed large pressure on municipal services and this demands that infrastructure be improved in both public and private sectors of society.
As long as the current sustainable energy demands are not met at the household level, the future and projected demands will remain neglected which even increases the energy deficit.
The recurrence of global financial crises can reduce access to long-term development finance and sustainable investments.
Pandemics like the 2020 COVID-19 can also retard sustainable development because it can lead to reduced access to long-term development finance and sustainable investments.
Unsustainable consumption and production are a significant sustainable development challenge that has emerged and developed in developed nations, while the developing nations have progressively followed these unsustainable ways. This has made the per capita carbon emission levels in developed countries 20–40 times higher than would normally be appropriate for air steadiness or atmospheric stability and the per capita ecological footprints being 4–9 times higher than their bio-capacity in developed countries [4].
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In summary, developing nations have in actuality advanced sustainability actions which are more developed than those actualized in developed countries to date. For example, Ecuador and the Plurinational territories of Bolivia honor their nature to the extent of protecting it using the constitution [16, 17]. Currently, most developing countries are building up sustainable consumption ways, through optimistic model development. Drawing on their traditional know-how, many countries can leapfrog cleaner approaches of producing goods, thereby greening agribusiness and industry sectors. All nations globally should encourage the use of suitable approaches like the deployment of technology and all the innovation and services that come with it to make both developed and developing nations go into an upright pattern of participation and commitment among all stakeholders at individual, private and public, and international levels to achieve global sustainable development. One positive strategy to achieve this is the transformation toward sustainable cities and nations globally [18].
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5. A pathway to global sustainable cities
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Although urbanization creates employment and other opportunities to many people globally, it has also brought about poverty because rapid urbanization increases pressure on resources, especially food, water, energy and sanitation services and public services like education and health. More than 50% of the population globally lived in the urban cities in 2007 but this percentage is projected to be greater than 70% by the year 2050. Further, 80% of the global population ramp from urbanization is expected to occur in developing nations, particularly in urban cities in Asia and Africa [18, 19].
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Between 1950 and 2010, medium cities and large cities had added 632 million and 570 million people, respectively. This population ramp in cities over a 15- to 20-year period is worth noting because it has some significant policy implications. Since future rapid urbanization is expected to occur in developing nations, there is a need to prepare to boost resources, increase the developmental capacity for the municipalities to avoid being overwhelmed with the anticipated pressure. Some of the causes of this constant evolution in major cities include the individual’s mobility, a high birthrate, ecological changes, socioeconomic development alongside local, national and international policy reforms [18, 19].
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The cities in developing nations have inadequate public services like health care, clean water and sanitation and electricity and this is worsened by the lack of municipal capacities to improve access decent jobs, health systems and basic infrastructure that would help reduce vulnerability to contamination, environmental degradation, diseases, climate change and natural calamities.
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Although developed nations already have access to these amenities and most basic public services, they too still face challenges of sustenance and increased efficiency especially in the energy generation and water supply, which may require loss and waste management and recycling systems. Failure to manage these resource systems properly would increase the ecological footprints in cities.
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Most cities globally are vulnerable to climate change impacts and this puts pressure on the poor people’s capacity to adapt, regardless of whether that nation is highly industrialized or has a higher per capita income. The recurrence of global economic crises increases unemployment rates, especially among the educated young men and women in the cities. The prevalent inequalities between urban and rural areas and within urban communities are mainly persistent in developing nations. The growing disparities between rural areas and urban areas alongside high inequality rates in urban areas have continued to exist in developing nations with more than 1 billion people still live in the inner-city slums which lack clean water, sanitation facilities, health and education and basic infrastructure. On a more saddening note, from the current trends, it is estimated that 3 billion people will still live in slums by 2050 unless sustainable measures are taken to address this issue [18, 19].
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This points to the need to effectively manage the urban cities as a condition for sustainability using sustainable organization frameworks like the 360-organization sustainability model. The 360-organizational sustainability is not just an organizational performance tool and a public relations mode of disseminating organizational corporate social responsibility messages but also a vision that has a clear strategic plan with measurable employee performance objectives and shared values [20, 21].
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6. 360-organizational sustainability approach
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To meet the 360-organizational sustainability criteria, the management team of the organization must have “Yes” as an answer all the following series of questions [20, 21]:
Is the organizational development and exploitation of human resources done sustainably?
Are the worker’s socio-well-being incentives suitable for all?
Are the ways of life and aspirations of the workers sustainable and achievable considering the amount of time spent outside the firm?
Is the community, country or global society in which our organization operates, desirable and sustainable?
Is our organization environmentally neutral concerning all our operations in the supply chain network?
Is our organization achieving economic growth?
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This chapter proposes that implementing a 360-organizational sustainability approach is a highly desirable type of organization needed to bring about the transformation in cities, rural area and globally. It should be every government, firm, community or persons desire to deploy the 360-organizational sustainability model. Figure 1 shows the four main elements of the 360-organizational sustainability model as modified from Mark Hollingworth [20].
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Figure 1.
The 360-organizational sustainability model, adopted from Hollingworth [20].
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\nFigure 1 shows that the sustainability analysis elements are arranged into four categories, namely: (a) the biosphere, (b) internal and external human resources, (c) the community, and (d) the organization.
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The underlying response to being tested to thoroughly consider the focal point of the 360-organizational sustainability approach is to increase the phantom of the expanded expenses related to doing as such. Most likely, any endeavors to develop the 360-organizational sustainability will bring about higher monetary expenses to the firm. This might be valid on both a short and long-term basis. Notwithstanding, today, while we look to keep away from those possible costs, we incur, our firms, societies and the whole biosphere into a circular drive of non-sustainability, with an exceptionally strong block divider at its end which might occur any time [20, 21].
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Although being “environmentally green” implies that the firm would incur greater expenses at the inception of the concept of environmental sustainability, most leaders in firms like Interface and Bolthouse Foods have indicated that focusing on just the biosphere sustainability can really give you a sustainable upper hand—while expanding gainfulness and decreasing business risks. Simply envision what prizes anticipate associations accomplishing 360-organizational sustainability. Further, if the markets are viable, the achievement of sustainability is reflected in a firm’s worth or share value which in the long term will be considered to be lower than firms which are not sustainable [21].
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The business world is obviously deficient with regards to leadership in the area of sustainability, but the 360-organizational sustainability and former Anglican Arc-Bishop Desmond Tutu famous demands that everyone is in proximity to fill-up a leadership position in society [22]. This implies that a corporate shared value (CSV) norm is needed by those who intend to fill-up the existing leadership vacuum [23].
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7. Sustainable transformational research strategies
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By 2030, the two blocs—developing and developed nations will need to adopt the key transformational strategies toward developing sustainable socioeconomic frameworks and balanced ecosystem by reforming the policies and governance system; changing human behavior, societal norms, and beliefs; enhancing data analytics using machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI); and making communities aware of these key drivers of sustainability [24].
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Understanding the weight of addressing sustainability challenges worldwide requires coordinated investigations and integrating contradictory sectors of society like production and consumption with biodiversity and ecosystem services to build resilience at the expense of inequality. Achieving this will need an integrated strategy that brings all these sectors together. Figure 2 shows synergies across seven key driving sectors to facilitate the development of systems approach sustainability.
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Figure 2.
Primary societal drivers and secondary pressures for sustainable transformations, adopted from IIASA [25].
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\nFigure 2 shows the primary and secondary drivers of sustainability. While an adaptable multi-model approach at primary level that is concerned with conventional organizational system models, governments are expected to adapted models for theory testing, predictability models to investigate the soundness of societal system dynamics and policy assessment before deployment. Further, at a higher level, the approach may integrate the secondary pressures like equity and resilience, biodiversity and ecosystems and production and consumption to achieve total sustainability. In more detail, all the seven societal drivers that are necessary to help develop cutting-edge model approaches that are country-specific and capable of resolving the sustainability issues.
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7.1 System approaches for sustainability
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7.1.1 Primary approaches
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7.1.1.1 Governance and institutional establishment
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Although the world does not view the prevalent governance and administration frameworks as inappropriate for combating the challenges that are related to the climate and the environmental pressures, it is an effective approach, as long as exceptional changes concerning scale, degree, and speed in all system characteristics are made. These characteristics or attributes include; social conduct; administrative, authoritative, and bureaucratic systems; monetary organizations and incentives; and technical or biophysical frameworks. It is evident that our current administration structures of covering and settled establishments, rules, shows, procedures, and systems by which choices are made and actualized are deficient or have been mistranslated and therefore cannot drive the necessary changes, at the national or global level [26, 27].
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This acknowledgement is provoking the academic world to take part in a significant reconsideration of its logical approaches, its strategies for science communication and commitment, and its apparent job in the public arena—offering rise to the new space of “transformative science.”
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7.1.1.2 Innovation and technology development
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New innovations and technological development, including digitalization, are now having significant effects across different thematic areas of the economy around the world. They are not just affecting equity, work, production, recreation, conduct, education, and governance, but on the other hand, are expanding cultural and social partitions. Seeing how new technologies converge with and are utilized by society, and the ensuing ramifications of this is basic to outfitting advances to assist social orders and the prosperity of residents. The key challenge is how policies can create possible advantages of innovation and technological advancement as the world transform toward total sustainability [28].
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7.1.1.3 Economy and society
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Modern society is concerned with how social orders sort out their economic activities and how significant this process is for sustainable transformation. The socioeconomic framework is straightforwardly embroiled in supporting a worldwide challenge as inescapable and developing societal disparities, prevalent impoverishment, and diminished social and cultural flexibility. Additionally, the manner in which the social sector designs and boosts its economic activities has solid ramifications for the change toward dematerialized production and consumption designs, just as the sustainable utilization of land, water, and natural resources [29].
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The economy is profoundly inserted in both social and biophysical frameworks and consequently are examined in an integrated manner. This requires a systems examination approach and interdisciplinary exploration structures, containing a scope of different logical approaches and techniques to portray, comprehend, and clarify socioeconomic, political, and environmental progress. Given the current social issues that are driven by current predominant economic frameworks and structures, it is pivotal to find new answers for these issues and show the capability of system thinking in accelerating other socioeconomic points of views and options [29].
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7.1.1.4 Population and behavioral change
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The socioeconomic and technological improvement over the previous decades has contributed significantly to improving human living standards and prosperity. In any case, these advantages are not uniformly distributed across nations, locales and communities, and populace groups. Such disparities obstruct economic development, economic growth, and subsequently, the accomplishment of sustainability. Besides, a lot of the new difficulties we face today are the outcomes of past pursuit to enhance and improve the human condition. Not exclusively did socioeconomic advancement lead to declining birth rates and expanding life span bringing about populace aging; it likewise prompts ways of life and dietary changes bringing about upward or downward shifts of mortality rates from chronic, non-transmittable, and degenerative sicknesses. Such changes in way of life and consumption exacerbate global climate change, while environmental change thusly influences human and social prosperity [4].
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Transformations in the economic and social structures require personal conduct change, which offers impressive potential for moving toward sustainability in cost-effective ways, wider and emerging technological advancement like those from the COVID-19 pandemic. Apparently, the best way to confront such changes is to find out how to inspire the vital wide-scale and predominant behavioral change is to explore integral and blended ways that incorporate social sciences, natural sciences and engineering [4].
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7.1.2 Secondary approaches
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7.1.2.1 Equity and resilience
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People are both the reason for most changes worldwide and are conjointly affected by these changes. This affirms the existence of system risks that are probably going to course across interconnected socioeconomic systems and force insufferable weights that are normally borne excessively by the poor and vulnerable individuals. These risks may emerge from extreme climate weather conditions, forced human movements, food and water deficiencies, pandemics, sea and air contamination, biodiversity loss, and financial disturbances that may cause a financial crisis. Projections indicate that these risks will increment considerably, and likely to bring about a foreseen decrease in societal resilience [6].
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Based on this background, it is important to see how populace and socioeconomic pressures, individual and group activities (i.e., values, beliefs, norms, and cultures), and the community diversity (e.g., rural and urban) influence potential intercessions to improve versatility, equality, and the manageability of human societies. It is additionally generally perceived that the polarization of societies mostly brings about policy check or reformulation, a situation that must be resolved by improved collaborations between socioeconomic systems and governance systems [6].
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7.1.2.2 Production and consumption
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The patterns of resource consumption and production of goods are characterized by inequality and unsustainable consumption. The test for societies is to change the current way of producing goods and consumption of goods makes the economy to decouple the economic growth and social well-being for people from the degradation of the environment, yet in addition, diminishes the earth’s resources. This requires a principal pull together by the executives of public and private. Patterns like digitalization can positively or negatively contribute to sustainability, by making the production, transport, and trade sectors increase productivity or increase resource demand. It is important to improve the designs of end-users at large-scale worldwide. There is a need to deploy more integrated tools to cultivate circular economies that are characterized with utilizing less raw materials, components and products to reduce costs and possibly adopt renewable resources [4].
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7.1.2.3 Biodiversity and ecosystems
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In the specter of changing climate and high resource consumption pressure by humans and animals especially on food, fiber, fodder and other bio-products, the present-day unsustainable land use and water consumption are reducing the quality and levels of fresh-water and ground-water levels, compounding into land degradation, losses in biodiversity, unbalanced ecosystems and contributing 25% of the global greenhouse gas emissions. In the course of the most recent 40 years, both warm- and cold-blooded animals on land and in water have decreased by about 60% and may face extinction. Further, in excess of 800 million individuals are still malnourished and need access to clean water. The United Nations appraises that food creation should increment by half to fulfill the needs of anticipated populace development by 2050, which will likewise build the worldwide demand for water by over half. Creating supportable pathways to land, water, food, and biodiversity the board over all areas and strategy levels are key to overcoming the climate change-related issues that result from losses in biodiversity and ecosystems [30, 31, 32].
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8. Sustainability drivers from leading firms: insights from stakeholder interviews
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Some driving factors that influence sustainability in a firm include; politicking and governance issues, rapid urbanization, high population growth, societal and cultural norms and beliefs and climate change. These factors subsequently take a tore on the global socioeconomic and environmental objectives and interest to sustainably use and preserve natural resources. To successfully manage these driving factors there is need to engaging in stakeholder dialog while creating new reaction options and situations that help analyze the patterns of achieving sustainability. Figure 3 shows the driving factors of sustainability dynamics model.
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Figure 3.
Driving factors for sustainability dynamics, adopted from FAO [33].
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From the stakeholder interviews by Ernst and Young audit firm on a global audience of 1661 leaders and practitioners from 69 countries using a conference survey Approach showed that the trends that influential to sustainability include (a) insufficient gains from resource productivity, (b) extension of clean technologies approaches, (c) stiffer guidelines, (d) evaluating financial risks, (e) digitalization, (f) varying demands of clients, (g) war for ability, and (e) climate change, as assumed in Figure 3 [34]. To reduce the financial risks to sustainability, there is a need to improve financing mechanisms for sustainable development.
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9. Financing for sustainable development: new approach and commitment
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Financing for sustainable development entered another era in July 2015, when the world consented to the Addis Ababa Action Agenda, a system and set of duties for financing the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Since this will require unquestionably more capital funds than help, in form of grants, the World Bank Group, along with other multilateral banks and the International Monitoring Fund (IMF), resolved to utilize billions in investment financing, aid and grants, in inventive approach to catalyze trillions in financing development programs. In 2017, in Hamburg, the world’s G20 nations strengthened the task of catalyzing development finance by Multilateral Development Banks (MDBs), alongside public-private partnerships (PPPs) to newer forms of finance, including blended finance, as well as new bond instruments such as green bonds (GBs), social impact bonds (SIBs), and development impact bonds (DIBs). These new budgetary instruments are planned for expanding the flexibly of private cash-flow to developing countries and offer the critical potential to close the financing gap that right now exists in the developing countries. Specifically, mixed-finance is probably going to turn into a key segment in the financing for developed strategy and one of the primary mainstays of the global financing system created to help the post-2015 sustainable development agenda [35]. The Official Development Assistance (ODA), then again, is probably going to still be very important for developing nations since it gives 40% of money financial resource and, truth be told, the largest financer [36].
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Notwithstanding worldwide public resources as ODA providing an essential input, nations have the essential obligation to progress and self-finance their own development. Nations must add to the progressions of Domestic Resource Mobilization (DRM)—as expenses, taxes, or other accessible assets—and guarantee that local policies like (legal, tax, institutional, economic, regulative, etc.) upgrade the viability of DRM, to maximize the utilization of this subsidy through national, provincial, at the city level, and down to municipal councils.
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Further, to move from the “billions” in ODA to the “trillions” required for the implementation of the SDGs, the communities worldwide and especially in developing nations need to use various types of investment—including private, public, country, and international—and exploit the particular qualities and strengths of all the sources [35]. The following seven steps can serve as key enablers of the financing for development [37]:
Financial Resource Mobilization for increased impact using integrative thinking and creative approaches.
Leveraging public finance by using scarce financial international and domestic resources where they have the greatest impact and this catalyzes other domestic financial resources.
Overcrowding the private sector finances for development can help improve investment capacity to drive innovative programs and their delivery.
Strengthening the multilateral development banks (MDBs) by utilizing their accounting reports and financial platforms catalyze private capital and other financial flows.
Technology and innovative business models offer extraordinary opportunities to rethink and quicken ways to development by making conceivable, a world with all-inclusive access to financial services and government services and global financial markets.
Improving investment information, using big data, and innovative diagnostic devices are capable of evaluating investment risks and investment returns in developing countries.
Enhancing development finance associations and building multi-partner forums. Another degree of joint effort is required over a scope of partners to address financing challenges.
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10. How to operationalize countries with integrated financing models?
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The four main stages for the design and operation of financing models comprise (a) evaluation and diagnostics, (b) the financing procedure, (c) monitoring and review, and (d) governance and coordination. Figure 4 shows the stages of operationalizing financing mechanisms. Figure 4 shows the stages of operationalizing financing mechanisms.
\nFigure 4 shows the operationalizing financing mechanisms that vary by nation, reflecting national limits and preferences. For instance, vulnerable nations may underscore the significance of possible financing choices to have the option to react to financial stuns or shocks. Nations increasingly dependent on the arrangement of concessional funding may address arrangement of the development collaboration with country-specific needs. Nations with limited capacity may need to give priority to steps to reinforce their essential institutional capacities in key financing sectors, before attempting to actualize progressively to more complex tools. Expanding domestic resource mobilization is supposed to be every nation’s priority, however, the approaches deployed are likely to vary to reflect the existing capacities and constraints [37, 38].
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The stage of integrating the national finance models should be created iteratively, with each progression advising the others. The preferences communicated in the sustainable development financing procedures give the premise to the need’s evaluation. Worth noting is that this evaluation is affected by the kind of financing. For instance, the expenses of private and public finance vary, because of having different rates of financing. Likewise, the financing system also affects the requirements for evaluation. For instance, policies that enhance economic activities may raise public resources, and this helps to bring down the financing gap. The monitoring and review sector give feedback, that can educate the evaluations and lead to various preferences. Then again, feeble monitoring and review can lead to policies becoming ineffective, increased need for financing and consequently influencing future policymaking. Further, this also leaves unlearned lessons. Finally, strong and good governance is significant because it offers a coordination instrument that manages this procedure all through the entirety of its stages [37, 38].
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11. Conclusions
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As the world faces several difficulties within the economic, social, and environmental sectors, the number of people who are still impoverished exceeds 1 billion. As if this is not enough, inequality, unsustainable consumption, and production have also been on the increase, and this has led to large economic and social costs that pose a threat to human and plant life on earth. Accomplishing global sustainable development requires the world to act toward the global goal to drive socioeconomic development strategically through enhanced financing and business opportunities that enhance economic growth and create more employment opportunities, while emphasizing the reinforcement of environmental protection.
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The strategies toward sustainable social-economic and environmental systems through drivers and pressures, such as insightful policy reforms in institutions and governance systems, changing human behavior and societal norms, having strong data innovations and systems analytic capabilities, and changing ways of consumption and production, as well as widespread societal awareness building and mobilization should be highly upscaled globally to transform toward sustainability and achieve sustainable development. Sustainable development should be comprehensive and take into consideration the needs of vulnerable and poor people. The strategies developed or deployed should be goal-oriented and community-oriented to manage various degrees of development. They should fundamentally change their consumption and production patterns, inequality, and reinforce biodiversity restoration programs and this may involve, among other things, huge price/cost adjustments, safeguarding natural resources, decreasing existing disparities, and strengthening economic growth and improved governance systems using financing models for development. This points to Environmental Social Governance (ESG) investment approach as a powerful strategy for sustainable development investment. Recently, the Environmental Social Governance investing has gained traction and entails researching and factoring in environmental, social, and governance issues in addition to the usual financials because it reduces portfolio risk, generates competitive investment returns, and makes investors feel secure about their stocks in both developing and developed nations. It is recommended that ESG, financing for development, and 360-organizational sustainability should be adopted as core strategies by global investors and countries, respectively, to cultivate corporate shared values (CSVs) among all stakeholders and desist from the “business as usual” approach, which works against sustainable development.
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In summary, it can be stated that for an organization to be sustainable and meet their objectives profitably, they should adopt the mid-path that ensures an adequate balance between profitability and sustainability. Thus, companies must be innovative and agile to changes. For this, a clear set of sustainability and resilience criteria will help the companies to improve, while leaving room to respond to these pressures with different options and sustainable models. The significance of these models is that they provide insight to policymakers to achieve sustainable development change using development financing models that enhance acceptable attitudes, sustainable production and consumption, and a clean environment while ensuring that companies still operate profitably.
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Acknowledgments
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I recognize and acknowledge Professor Valerie M. Thomas of Georgia Institute of Technology, USA, and the African Centre of Excellence in Energy for Sustainable Development at the University of Rwanda for their support.
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Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"organization, sustainable development, models, challenges, innovation, technology, good governance, developing and developed nations",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73366.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73366.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73366",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73366",totalDownloads:855,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:89,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 1st 2020",dateReviewed:"August 26th 2020",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"February 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"September 29th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"While developed nations can fully explore various sustainable business models to achieve sustainability, this might not be easy for developing nations because of poor governance systems, characterized by inequality, patronage, and corruption and other challenges. This chapter evaluates organizations as developing and developed nation blocs by first providing insights on how organizations can contribute to the social and environmental sustainability, and second, by highlighting the challenges and approaches for sustainable development. The chapter further unravels the potential for both blocs to grow and achieve sustainability through technology and innovative strategies alongside the opportunities offered by having fast-growing populations and natural resources. To achieve sustainability, a twofold approach comprising the 360-organizational sustainability approaches and advanced sustainability system analysis approach is used. The key societal driving forces in both blocs for exploiting sustainable business practices are governance and institutions, technology and innovation, economy and society, population and behavior, and financing for development which can unlock sustainable business opportunities for sustainable development. To address the business climate challenges, it is inferred that organizations can achieve global sustainability by integrating sustainable production and consumption, biodiversity and ecosystem services, equity and resilience sectors to attain an environmentally and socially governed systems globally.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73366",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73366",book:{id:"10421",slug:"sustainable-organizations-models-applications-and-new-perspectives"},signatures:"Katundu Imasiku",authors:[{id:"322704",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Katundu",middleName:null,surname:"Imasiku",fullName:"Katundu Imasiku",slug:"katundu-imasiku",email:"katunduimasiku@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Global trends for sustainable development challenges",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Strategies for sustainable inclusiveness",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Global challenges for sustainable development",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. A pathway to global sustainable cities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. 360-organizational sustainability approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Sustainable transformational research strategies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"7.1 System approaches for sustainability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"7.1.1 Primary approaches",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"7.1.1.1 Governance and institutional establishment",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"7.1.1.2 Innovation and technology development",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"7.1.1.3 Economy and society",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"7.1.1.4 Population and behavioral change",level:"4"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"7.1.2 Secondary approaches",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_4",title:"7.1.2.1 Equity and resilience",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13_4",title:"7.1.2.2 Production and consumption",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_4",title:"7.1.2.3 Biodiversity and ecosystems",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Sustainability drivers from leading firms: insights from stakeholder interviews",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"9. Financing for sustainable development: new approach and commitment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"10. How to operationalize countries with integrated financing models?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"11. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_22",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nBrundtland Commission. Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. UN Documents Gathering a Body of Global Agreements. New York: Oxford University Press; 1987\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nDepartment of Agriculture Water and the Environment – Australia. Ecological Sustainable Development. 1992. Available from: https://www.environment.gov.au/about-us/esd [Accessed: 23 July 2020]\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nFreedman B. Ecologically sustainable development. In: Environmental Science Subtitle: A Canadian Perspective. Ontario: Open Library Publishing Platform; 2018\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nUnited Nations. World Economic and Social Survey 2013 Sustainable Development Challenges. New York: United Nations; 2013\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nSoyka PA. Creating a Sustainable Organization: Approaches for Enhancing Corporate Value through Sustainability. New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing; 2012\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nJütting JP, de Laiglesia JR, editors. Is Informal Normal? Towards More and Better Jobs in Developing Countries. Paris: OECD; 2009\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nSustainable Development Goals Platform. United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, Rio+20. 2012. Available from: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/rio20. [Accessed: 23 July 2020]\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nGovernment of Nepal - National Planning. Post Disaster Needs Assessment. Ontario, Canada: Western University in London; 2015. Available from: https://iveybusinessjournal.com/publication/building-360-organizational-sustainability/\n\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nCultural and Survival. Water Crisis Forces Government Action. 2018. 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Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/thebakersinstitute/2018/03/28/explaining-polands-coal-paradox/#6abd71f04867 [Accessed: 21 July 2020]\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nAndvig JC, Odd-Helge F, Amundsen I, Sissener T, Søreide T. Corruption: A Review of Contemporary Research. Bergen: Norwegian Institute of International Affairs; 2001. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/11250/2393361\n\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nUKaid. Development Tracker. 2020. Available from: https://devtracker.dfid.gov.uk/countries/NP [Accessed: 23 July 2020]\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nUNECA. Combating Corruption, Improving Governance in Africa. Addis Ababa: UNECA; 2016\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nRapid Translation Alliance. Buen Vivir: The Rights of Nature in Bolivia and Ecuador. 2018. Available from: https://www.rapidtransition.org/stories/the-rights-of-nature-in-bolivia-and-ecuador/ [Accessed: 25 July 2020]\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nHammond JL. Indigenous community justice in the Bolivian constitution of 2009. Human Rights Quarterly. 2011;33(3):649-681\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nCedric P. Sustainable Cities in Developing Nations: Theory and Practiceatthe Millennium. London: Earthscan PublicationsLtd; 2000\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nPeris-ortiz M, Bennett DR. Sustainable Smart Cities: Creating Spaces for Technological, Social and Business Development. Valencia: Springer; 2017\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nMark H. Building 360 organizational sustainability. Product Number: 9B09TF07. Ivey Business Journal. 2000:1-10. Available from: https://iveybusinessjournal.com/publication/building-360-organizational-sustainability/ [Accessed: 11 January 2009]\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nMelkonyan A, Gottschalk D, Vasanth KV. Sustainability assessments and their implementation possibilities within the business models of companies. Sustainable Production and Consumption. 2017;12:1-15\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nRensburg R. Archbishop Desmond tutu as moral sage and servantleader: A compassionate zealot. 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Sustainable Development Goals: Harnessing Business to Achieve the Sustainable Development Goals through Technology, Innovation and Law Reforms. Wiley, New Jersey: Sussex; 2019. pp. 1-432. ISBN: 978-1-119-54180-6. Available from: https://books.google.rw/books/about/Sustainable_Development_Goals.html?id=UKCkDwAAQBAJ&redir_esc=y\n\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nFilho WL, de Brito PRB, Fernanda F, editors. International Business, Trade and Institutional Sustainability. Cham, Switzerland: SAGE; 2019\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nFAO. State of the World’s Forests and Agriculture: Land-Use Challenges and Opportunities State of the World’s Forests. Rome: FAO; 2016\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nFAO. World Deforestation Slows down as More Forests Are Better Managed. 2016. Available from: http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/326911/icode/ [Accessed: 24 July 2020]\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nAlcamo J et al. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: A Framework for Assessment. Washington, DC, London, Covelo: Island Press; 2003. ISBN 1-55963-403-0\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nFAO. Food and Agriculture Organization: Driving Action across the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Rome: FAO; 2017. p. 2020. Available from: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i7454e.pdf [Accessed: 01 July 2017]\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nErnst and Young. Sustainability Reporting — The Time Is Now. London: Ernst and Young; 2014\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nOECD. Blended Finance Vol. 1: A Primer for Development Finance and Philanthropic Funders. Cologny: OECD; 2015\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nUnited Nations. Report of the Intergovernmental Committee of Experts on Sustainable Development Financing, See Note 5, 14. United Nations; 2014\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nWorld Bank. Financing for Development at the World Bank Group; 2018\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nUnited Nations. Financing for Sustainable Development Report. United Nations; 2019. p. 2019\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Katundu Imasiku",address:"katunduimasiku@gmail.com",affiliation:'
University of Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda
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1. Introduction
Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer and the fourth leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide [1]. Especially, rectal cancer accounts for 30–40% of colorectal cancer, and the treatment strategy is different and more complicated compared to colon cancer because of its anatomical features. Although the treatment outcome of rectal cancer has greatly improved with the development of multimodality treatment including neoadjuvant radiotherapy, cytotoxic chemotherapy, and target agents, surgery remains the mainstay of therapy. Since the concept of total mesorectal excision (TME) was first described by Richard Heald in 1979, this procedure became the gold standard technique for rectal cancer surgery until now [2]. The fundamental principle of TME is en bloc resection of the rectum with its surrounding fatty tissue complex which contains the blood vessels and lymphatics down to the pelvic floor. To achieve complete TME and sphincter preserving surgery in low-lying rectal cancer, knowledge for regarding the pelvic fascia (mesorectal, parietal) and autonomic nerves, a thorough understanding of the pelvic floor anatomy is essential.
2. Pelvic anatomy
2.1 Basic anatomy of the rectum and mesorectum
The rectum is the most distal part of the large intestine that exists from the sacral promontory level to the anorectal ring. The anterior and lateral portion of the upper one-third of the rectum is covered with peritoneum, and the middle one-third of the rectum is covered with peritoneum on its anterior portion. The lower one-third cannot be observed in the intraperitoneal space because it is located in the extraperitoneal space. The taenia coli disappears in the rectum, forming one longitudinal muscle layer surrounding the rectum. The length of the rectum is approximately 12-15 cm and has three curvatures, which is related to Houston’s valves. The upper and lower part are convex to the right, and the middle portion is convex to the left. The middle valve is the most prominent and is located approximately equal to the level of peritoneal reflection [3].
The rectum is surrounded by a fatty tissue complex called the mesorectum, which corresponds to the mesentery of the rectum. Mesorectum contains abundant blood vessels, lymphatics, and lymph nodes, and it is enveloped by thin visceral pelvic fascia [4]. It is developed thickest in the posterolateral side and the anterior part is formed relatively thin. In addition, the volume of the mesorectum decreases as it approaches the pelvic floor, and disappears approximately 2 cm above the levator ani muscle (Figure 1). A number of studies have revealed that the mesorectum is an important structure for tumor spreading, and en bloc resection through sharp dissection of mesorectum is very important in improving treatment outcomes [2, 5, 6].
Figure 1.
Anatomy of the rectum and mesorectum. (a) Structures around the rectum. The rectum is surrounded by mesorectum, and the rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum. (b) Total mesorectal excision (TME). En bloc resection of mesorectum is important.
2.2 Fascia structures around the rectum
Dissecting the correct anatomical plane can lead to good oncological outcomes and preserve the autonomic nerves to prevent postoperative urinary, sexual, and defecatory dysfunction. If pelvic dissection is performed along the exact embryologic fascial plane, the operation can be done without bleeding. To perform precise total mesorectal excision, a thorough understanding of the fascia around the rectum and pelvic cavity is essential. Figure 2 shows the anatomical relationship of the fascia around the rectum.
Figure 2.
Anatomy of fascia around the rectum. The fascia propria of the rectum covers the rectum and mesorectum. The presacral fascia covers the anterior surface of the sacrum. It combines with the fascia propria of the rectum at the S4 level (recto-sacral fascia = Waldeyer’s fascia). Denonvilliers’ fascia is a dense membrane between the rectum and seminal vesicles.
2.2.1 Fascia propria of the rectum and presacral fascia
The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum, also called as mesorectal fascia. The mesorectal fascia corresponds to the visceral fascia of the rectum. Caudally, it ends at the internal sphincter and laterally ends at the internal iliac artery, and is connected to the parietal pelvic fascia [7]. A magnetic resonance image scan (MRI) can clearly show the boundaries of these mesorectum and mesorectal fascia (Figure 3). During total mesorectal excision, it is important to completely excise this mesorectal fascia without damage to obtain optimal oncologic outcome [6, 8, 9].
Figure 3.
Magnetic resonance image scan. Magnetic resonance image scan (MRI) can clearly show the boundaries of these mesorectum and mesorectal fascia. (a) T2 weighted image on MRI. Axial view. The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the fascia propria of the rectum (mesorectal fascia). (b) T2 weighted image on MRI. Coronal view. Mesorectum, mesorectal fascia, and puborectalis muscle.
The presacral fascia, also called as parietal pelvic fascia, covers the anterior surface of the sacrum and encloses the sacral vessels and nerves. It combines with the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level and became part of the anococcygeal ligament at the level of anorectal junction. The presacral venous plexus is formed by the two lateral sacral veins, the middle sacral vein, and the communicating veins, and it runs underneath the presacral fascia. If the dissection plane is too deep to damage the presacral fascia during the posterior dissection, life-threatening massive bleeding can occur and it often is difficult to control. Therefore, dissection should be done along with the space between the mesorectal fascia and the presacral fascia until the recto-sacral fascia is encountered [10, 11].
2.2.2 Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia)
Recto-sacral fascia, also known as Waldeyer’s fascia, is a dense connective tissue linking the presacral fascia to the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level. As the posterior dissection proceeds down along the plane between the mesorectal fascia and the presacral fascia, a dense, tough recto-sacral fascia is identified. To enter the retro-rectal space and reach the pelvic floor, this fascia must be incised and dissected further caudally. This fascia has a different thickness from individuals, it is not visible when it is too thin. Because the presacral artery and venous plexus and autonomic nerves pass behind this fascia, it is important to perform sharp division to avoid excessive bleeding due to presacral vein injury (Figure 4) [8, 12].
Figure 4.
Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia). Recto-sacral fascia (Waldeyer’s fascia) is a dense connective tissue linking the presacral fascia to the mesorectal fascia at the S4 level. It is important to perform sharp dissection [11].
2.2.3 Denonvilliers’ fascia
During the anterior dissection of the rectum, a thin, dense connective tissue layer known as the Denonvilliers’ fascia presents between the seminal vesicles and rectum [13]. The rectum can be separated from the seminal vesicles and prostate by opening this membrane at the level of anterior peritoneal reflection. After incising the fascia and entering the embryologic plane between the rectum and the seminal vesicles, the dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia [14]. It is because there were neurovascular bundles running from the pelvic plexus to the ventral side of the Denonvilliers’ fascia, especially in the directions of 10 and 2 o’clock, and these neurovascular bundles were related to urogenital function (Figure 5) [15]. However, if the deeply infiltrative tumor is located on the anterior wall of the rectum, the dissection should be performed in front of the Denonvilliers’ fascia for curative resection. In females, there is a thin membranous structure that separates the rectum and vagina, which is called the rectovaginal septum. Although Denonvilliers reported that the Denonvilliers’ fascia was not present in females, many researchers considered that the rectovaginal septum was consistent with the Denonvilliers’ fascia in males (Figure 6) [16, 17, 18, 19]. During the anterior dissection of the rectum in female, care must be taken not to perforate the vagina since this septum is very thin.
Figure 5.
Denonvilliers’ fascia. During anterior dissection of the rectum. The dense connective tissue between rectum and seminal vesicles can be seen. The dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia.
Figure 6.
Rectovaginal septum. In female, the rectovaginal septum was consistent with the denonvilliers’ fascia in male.
2.3 Anal canal
The rectum enters the pelvic floor and becomes the anus. The anal canal is defined as from the dentate line to the anal verge by anatomists, but most surgeons consider the anal canal from the anorectal ring to the anal verge [20]. The anorectal ring is where the rectum enters the pelvic floor and is angled by the puborectalis muscle. This ring can be palpated by a meticulous digital rectal exam. The dentate line, which divides the upper two-thirds and lower third of the anal canal, is an anatomically important landmark of the anal canal, and there are 6–14 longitudinal folds on the dentate line known as columns of Morgagni (Figure 7). The upper and lower part of the anal canal differs in venous and lymphatic drainage, innervation, and the epithelial surface based on the dentate line. Above the dentate line, the blood drains into the portal venous system, and lymphatics drains to the superior rectal and iliac lymphatic chains. Below the dentate line, the blood drains into the caval system, and lymphatics drain into the inguinal lymph nodes.
Figure 7.
Anal canal and anal sphincter complex. (a) The dentate line divides the upper two thirds and lower third of the anal canal, and there are longitudinal folds known as columns of Morgagni. The external sphincter consists of three separate parts: Subcutaneous, superficial, and deep part [21]. (b) External anal sphincter. Lt. Hemipelvis.
There are two sphincter muscles surrounding the anus, the internal sphincter and the external sphincter. The internal sphincter is connected from the inner circular smooth muscle of the rectum and descends to 1–1.5 cm below the dentate line. Its length is about 2.5–4 cm and the mean thickness is about 0.5 cm. It is an involuntary smooth muscle and plays an important role in the maintenance of fecal incontinence because it contributes a majority of the resting pressure of the anal canal. The outer longitudinal muscle of the rectum conjoins the fibers from the puborectalis muscle and is located between the external and internal sphincter. The external sphincter muscle is a striated muscle surrounding the internal sphincter in the shape of a cylinder, and it extends slightly below the internal sphincter. The external sphincter consists of three separate parts: subcutaneous, superficial, and deep part. The subcutaneous external sphincter attaches to the perianal skin encircling the anus. The external anal sphincter is innervated by the rectal branch of the pudendal nerve and is under voluntary control [20, 22, 23]. The intersphincteric groove between the internal and external sphincter is an important landmark in surgery for patients with distal rectal cancer such as intersphincteric resection (ISR) [24].
2.4 Pelvic floor
The pelvic floor is a structure that forms the bottom of the pelvis, and plays an important role in supporting the pelvic organs. In the past, pelvic floor muscles could not be visualized clearly, however, the development of magnetic resonance imaging assessments and improvements in minimally invasive surgery techniques such as laparoscopy and robotic surgery can clearly show the anatomy of this region It is mainly composed of the levator ani muscle complex: pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle. The levator ani muscle received direct innervation from sacral nerve roots (S3-S5) and play an important role in cooperative action through coordinated contraction and relaxation during defecation [25]. The pubococcygeus is located in the most anterior portion of the levator ani muscles, and from both pubic bone to the coccyx. The iliococcygeus is the posterior part of the levator ani muscle and extends from the ischial spine to the anococcygeal raphe and coccyx. The puborectalis muscle, which is located below the pubococcygeus, forms a U-shaped ring around the rectum and makes an anorectal angle to prevent fecal incontinence. The coccygeus muscle, which is also a part of the pelvic floor, is located posterior portion of the levator ani muscle and reinforces the posterior pelvic floor (Figure 8) [20]. The pelvic floor has two hiatuses: the urogenital hiatus and the rectal hiatus. The rectal hiatus is located in the posterior of the pelvic floor through which the anal canal passes. The perineal body, a pyramidal fibromuscular mass, is located between the urogenital hiatus and the anal canal, strengthens the pelvic floor [26]. During distal rectal cancer surgery for sphincter preservation such as ISR, the intersphincteric space between the puborectalis muscle and the rectal wall should be identified, and the dissection continues down to the deep part of the anal canal through the intersphincteric space (Figure 9) [24]. On the other hand, during an abdominoperineal resection, the levator ani muscles must be cut [27].
Figure 8.
Anatomy of the pelvic floor. (a) Inferior view. The levator ani muscle consists of pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle [21]. (b) Pelvic floor muscles and anal sphincter complex [20].
Figure 9.
Levator ani muscles and intersphincteric space. (a) Puborectalis and pubococcygeus muscle. (b) Intersphincteric space between rectum and puborectalis muscle.
2.4.1 Anococcygeal ligaments
The anococcygeal ligament is a fibrous membrane, which extends between the coccyx and the margin of the anal canal. In an anatomical study, the anococcygeal ligament was divided into two layers. The ventral layer of the ligament was loose and rich in small and fragile vessels and extended from the presacral fascia to the conjoint longitudinal muscle layer of the anal canal. The dorsal layer of the ligament was thin and dense and extended between the coccyx and external anal sphincter (Figure 10) [28]. To fully mobilize the rectum from the pelvic floor at the final stage of total mesorectal excision, the anococcygeal ligament must be divided. If the anococcygeal ligament cannot be seen in the final step, it can be visualized after the mesorectum is completely mobilized from the pelvic floor.
Figure 10.
Anococcygeal ligament. (a) Anococcygeal ligament and pelvic floor. During posterior dissection of the rectum. (b) Anococcygeal ligament during cadeveric dissection. Lt. hemipelvis.
2.5 Surgical plane for very low-lying rectal cancer
In case of very low-lying rectal cancer, several surgical options can be considered (Figure 11). If the tumor did not invade the anal sphincter complex, the ultra-low anterior resection with coloanal anastomosis could be considered. If the tumors are located close to the dentate line, the intersphincteric resection (ISR) could be considered. The ISR is the partial or complete resection of the internal anal sphincter along the intersphincteric plane. However, if the tumor invades the external sphincter complex, the abdominoperineal resection (APR) should be performed. For invasive low rectal cancer which invades the levator ani muscle, extralevator APR (ELAPE) should be considered to achieve adequate resection margin. The ELAPE is the cylindrical anorectal excision and removes more tissue around the tumor including levator ani muscle (Figure 12). This procedure has the advantage of reducing the risk of tumor perforation during operation and acquiring sufficient safety resection margin, but there is still controversy about the long-term oncologic outcome [29]. In addition, the postoperative complications can be increased due to the wide resection range.
Figure 11.
Low-lying rectal cancer. (a) T2 weighted image on MRI. Coronal view. The low-lying rectal cancer invades internal anal sphincter. (b) T2 weighted image on MRI. Sagittal view.
In terms of quality of life, the importance of not only oncological outcomes but also functional outcomes such as urinary function, sexual function, and defecatory function after rectal cancer surgery have been emphasized. Urinary dysfunction after rectal surgery occurs in approximately 27%, and it includes difficulty emptying the bladder and incontinence [30, 31]. Sexual dysfunction for males consists of erectile dysfunction, absence of ejaculation, or retrograde ejaculation. For females, it causes sexual dysfunction such as impaired ability to achieve orgasm, decreased vaginal secretion, or dyspareunia [15]. The major cause of postoperative urogenital dysfunction is autonomic nerve damage that occurs during surgery. As minimally invasive surgery such as laparoscopy and robotic approach develops, meticulous nerve preserving surgery became possible with good visualization of the pelvic autonomic nerves [32, 33, 34]. To preserve the postoperative urogenital function, a thorough understanding of the anatomy of the pelvic autonomic nerve is crucial.
2.6.1 Superior hypogastric plexus and hypogastric nerves
The superior hypogastric plexus, which is a collection of sympathetic nerve bundles arising from T10-L3, forms a dense nerve plexus at the anterior area to the body of L5 and bifurcates into hypogastric nerves at the level of the sacral promontory (Figure 13). The superior hypogastric plexus runs around the inferior mesenteric artery. Therefore, this nerve can be damaged during dissection around the origin of the inferior mesenteric artery, and it results in retrograde ejaculation, urinary incontinence [35]. The hypogastric nerve crosses the left common iliac artery at the level of the first sacrum and descends to the pelvic cavity along the lateral pelvic wall.
Figure 13.
Hypogastric nerves. The hypogastric nerves run from the superior hypogastric plexus and descend to the pelvic cavity and meet the pelvic splanchnic nerves.
2.6.2 Pelvic splanchnic nerves
The pelvic splanchnic nerves are considered to be parasympathetic nerves that arise from the second to fourth sacral spinal nerves. These nerves enter the pelvis through the sacral foramen, posterior to the parietal fascia that covers the piriformis muscle and crosses the retrorectal space, to enter the visceral compartment through the visceral fascia about 4 cm from the midline. Small branches of the pelvic splanchnic nerves run medially and enter the mesorectum (Figure 14). These nerves regulate the emptying of the urinary bladder and influence erectile functions and motility of the rectum. Therefore, damage to these nerves causes erectile dysfunction and decreased blood flow to the vagina and vulva, which can reduce vaginal lubrication.
Figure 14.
Pelvic splanchnic nerves. The pelvic splanchnic nerves arise from the S2 to S4 spinal nerves. Small branches of the pelvic splanchnic nerves run medially and enter the mesorectum.
2.6.3 Inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus
The pelvic splanchnic nerves meet the hypogastric nerves and form the inferior hypogastric plexus at the lateral pelvic wall. It lies outside the fascia propria in the superficial layer of the parietal fascia. The inferior hypogastric plexus can be observed as a mesh-like structure at the posterolateral pelvic wall close to the prostate and seminal vesicles. Because the inferior hypogastric plexus consists of both sympathetic and parasympathetic efferent fibers, any damage to this plexus may cause severe disturbances in urogenital and sexual function including erection and ejaculation. It extends forward to form neurovascular bundles running down the seminal vesicle at 2 o’clock and 10 o’clock direction (Figure 15). These neurovascular bundles run through the posterolateral border of the prostate and continue to the periprostatic plexus, which supplies to the prostate, seminal vesicles, corpi cavernosi, and the vas deferens [15, 36]. Injury to the neurovascular bundles during anterior dissection may cause urinary and sexual dysfunction. Meticulous dissection is required because nerve damage may occur when surgery is performed along the wrong plane or excessive traction is performed.
Figure 15.
Inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus. The inferior hypogastric (pelvic) plexus is a network of sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers arising from the hypogastric nerves and the pelvic splanchnic nerves. It can be observed as a mesh-like structure at the posterolateral pelvic wall. It extends forward to form neurovascular bundles running down the seminal vesicle on both sides.
3. Conclusion
The rectum is surrounded by a fatty tissue complex called the mesorectum, which contains abundant blood vessels, lymphatics, and lymph nodes. The rectum and mesorectum are enveloped by the mesorectal fascia. During total mesorectal excision, it is important to completely excise this mesorectal fascia without damage. The mesorectal fascia conjoins with the recto-sacral fascia, which extends forward from the presacral fascia at the level of S4, and descends to the pelvic floor. To enter the retro-rectal space and reach the pelvic floor, this fascia must be incised and sharp dissection should be performed to prevent severe bleeding due to injury to the presacral plexus. During the anterior dissection of the rectum, it is important to recognize Denonvillers’ fascia located between the rectum and seminal vesicles, and dissection should be performed below the Denonvilliers’ fascia. The pelvic floor is a structure that forms the bottom of the pelvis and is mainly composed of the levator ani muscle complex: pubococcygeus, iliococcygeus, and puborectalis muscle. The levator ani muscle received direct innervation from sacral nerve roots (S3-S5) and play an important role in cooperative action during defecation. To reach the deep part of the anal canal, the dissection should be performed between the puborectalis muscle and the rectal wall. During the whole process of TME, surgeons should take care to identify and preserve the autonomic nerve in order to avoid postoperative urogenital dysfunction. Care should be taken not to damage the superior hypogastric nerve during IMA ligation, and not to damage the pelvic plexus during posterolateral pelvic dissection. In addition, during anterior dissection of the rectum, it is important to perform meticulous dissection so as not to injure small numerous neurovascular bundles running in the 2 o’clock and 10 o’clock directions of the seminal vesicle. Based on a sufficient understanding of pelvic anatomy, precise surgical techniques using advanced surgical tools will give favorable oncologic and functional outcomes for rectal cancer patients.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Notes/thanks/other declarations
None.
\n',keywords:"rectal neoplasms, anatomy, colorectal surgery, autonomic nervous system, pelvic floor",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78676.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78676.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78676",totalDownloads:225,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 26th 2021",dateReviewed:"June 28th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 20th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"September 20th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Worldwide, colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer and one of the leading causes of cancer-related deaths. Currently, total mesorectal excision (TME) is considered as the gold standard surgical procedure for rectal cancer. To achieve a good oncologic outcome and functional outcome after TME in distal rectal cancer, exact knowledge regarding the pelvic anatomy including pelvic fascia, pelvic floor, and the autonomic nerve is essential. Accurate TME along the embryologic plane not only reduces local recurrence rate but also preserves urinary and sexual function by minimizing nerve damage. In the past, pelvic floor muscles and autonomic nerves could not be visualized clearly, however, the development of imaging studies and improvements of minimally invasive surgical techniques such as laparoscopic and robotic surgery can clearly show the anatomy of the pelvic region. In this chapter, we will provide accurate anatomy of the rectum and the anal canal, pelvic fascia, and the pelvic autonomic nerve. This anatomical information will be an important indicator for performing an adequate operation for distal rectal cancer.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78676",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78676",signatures:"Sanghyun An and Ik Yong Kim",book:{id:"10865",type:"book",title:"Current Topics in Colorectal Surgery",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Colorectal Surgery",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. John Camilleri-Brennan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10865.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83962-336-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-335-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-337-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"169437",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Camilleri-Brennan",slug:"john-camilleri-brennan",fullName:"John Camilleri-Brennan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. 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Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Notes/thanks/other declarations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Ferlay J, Colombet M, Soerjomataram I, Parkin DM, Pineros M, Znaor A, et al. Cancer statistics for the year 2020: An overview. International Journal of Cancer. 2021. DOI: 10.1002/ijc.33588'},{id:"B2",body:'Heald RJ, Husband EM, Ryall RDH. The mesorectum in rectal cancer surgery—the clue to pelvic recurrence? British Journal of Surgery. 1982;69:613-616. DOI: 10.1002/bjs.1800691019'},{id:"B3",body:'Engin O. Colon polyps and the prevention of colorectal cancer: Springer; 2015. 249 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-17993-3'},{id:"B4",body:'Culligan K, Walsh S, Dunne C, Walsh M, Ryan S, Quondamatteo F, et al. The mesocolon: a histological and electron microscopic characterization of the mesenteric attachment of the colon prior to and after surgical mobilization. Annals of Surgery. 2014;260:1048-1056. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000000323'},{id:"B5",body:'Bokey EL, Öjerskog B, Chapuis PH, Dent OF, Newland RC, Sinclair G. Local recurrence after curative excision of the rectum for cancer without adjuvant therapy: role of total anatomical dissection. British Journal of Surgery. 1999;86:1164-1170. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2168.1999.01216.x'},{id:"B6",body:'Silva-Velazco J, Stocchi L, Valente MA, Church JM, Liska D, Gorgun E, et al. The relationship between mesorectal grading and oncological outcome in rectal adenocarcinoma. Colorectal Disease. 2019;21:315-325. DOI: 10.1111/codi.14535'},{id:"B7",body:'Stelzner S, Heinze T, Nikolouzakis TK, Torge Mees S, Witzigmann H, Wedel T. Perirectal fascial anatomy: New insights into an old problem. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2021;64:91-102. DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0000000000001778'},{id:"B8",body:'Kim NK, Kim HS, Alessa M, Torky R. Optimal complete rectum mobilization focused on the anatomy of the pelvic fascia and autonomic nerves: 30 years of experience at Severance Hospital. Yonsei Medical Journal. 2021;62:187-199. DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2021.62.3.187'},{id:"B9",body:'Heald RJ, Santiago I, Pares O, Carvalho C, Figueiredo N. The perfect total mesorectal excision obviates the need for anything else in the management of most rectal cancers. Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery. 2017;30:324-332. DOI: 10.1055/s-0037-1606109'},{id:"B10",body:'Lou Z, Zhang W, Meng RG, Fu CG. Massive presacral bleeding during rectal surgery: from anatomy to clinical practice. World Journal of Gastroenterology : WJG. 2013;19:4039-4044. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v19.i25.4039'},{id:"B11",body:'Kim NK. Anatomic basis of sharp pelvic dissection for curative resection of rectal cancer. Yonsei Medical Journal. 2005;46:737-749. DOI: 10.3349/ymj.2005.46.6.737'},{id:"B12",body:'Açar Hİ, Kuzu MA. Anatomical planes in rectal cancer surgery. Turkish Journal of Colorectal Disease. 2019;29:165-170. DOI: 10.4274/tjcd.galenos.2019.2019-10-2'},{id:"B13",body:'Lindsey I, Guy RJ, Warren BF, Mortensen NJ. Anatomy of Denonvilliers\' fascia and pelvic nerves, impotence, and implications for the colorectal surgeon. British Journal of Surgery. 2000;87:1288-1299. DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2168.2000.01542.x'},{id:"B14",body:'Zhu XM, Yu GY, Zheng NX, Liu HM, Gong HF, Lou Z, et al. Review of Denonvilliers\' fascia: the controversies and consensuses. Gastroenterology Report. 2020;8:343-348. DOI: 10.1093/gastro/goaa053'},{id:"B15",body:'Nagpal K, Bennett N. Colorectal surgery and its impact on male sexual function. Current Urology Reports. 2013;14:279-284. DOI: 10.1007/s11934-013-0341-x'},{id:"B16",body:'Kim JH, Kinugasa Y, Hwang SE, Murakami G, Rodriguez-Vazquez JF, Cho BH. Denonvilliers\' fascia revisited. Surgical and Radiologic Anatomy : SRA. 2015;37:187-197. DOI: 10.1007/s00276-014-1336-0'},{id:"B17",body:'Kraima AC, West NP, Treanor D, Magee DR, Rutten HJ, Quirke P, et al. Whole mount microscopic sections reveal that Denonvilliers\' fascia is one entity and adherent to the mesorectal fascia; implications for the anterior plane in total mesorectal excision? European Journal of Surgical Oncology. 2015;41:738-745. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejso.2015.03.224'},{id:"B18",body:'Ludwikowski B, Hayward IO, Fritsch H. Rectovaginal fascia: An important structure in pelvic visceral surgery? About its development, structure, and function. Journal of Pediatric Surgery. 2002;37:634-638. DOI: 10.1053/jpsu.2002.31624'},{id:"B19",body:'Aigner F, Zbar AP, Ludwikowski B, Kreczy A, Kovacs P, Fritsch H. The rectogenital septum: morphology, function, and clinical relevance. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2004;47:131-140. DOI: 10.1007/s10350-003-0031-8'},{id:"B20",body:'Lee JM, Kim NK. Essential anatomy of the anorectum for colorectal surgeons focused on the gross anatomy and histologic findings. Annals of Coloproctology. 2018;34:59-71. DOI: 10.3393/ac.2017.12.15'},{id:"B21",body:'Richard L. Drake, A. Wayne Vogl and Adam W.M. Mitchell. Gray\'s Atlas of Anatomy, 5, 213-292'},{id:"B22",body:'Kim NK, Sugihara K, Liang J-T. Surgical treatment of colorectal cancer: Asian perspectives on optimization and standardization; : Springer Singapore 2018. 414 p. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-5143-2'},{id:"B23",body:'Fritsch H, Brenner E, Lienemann A, Ludwikowski B. Anal sphincter complex: reinterpreted morphology and its clinical relevance. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2002;45:188-194. DOI: 10.1007/s10350-004-6144-x'},{id:"B24",body:'Rullier E, Zerbib F, Laurent C, Bonnel C, Caudry M, Saric J, et al. Intersphincteric resection with excision of internal anal sphincter for conservative treatment of very low rectal cancer. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 1999;42:1168-1175. DOI: 10.1007/Bf02238569'},{id:"B25",body:'Eickmeyer SM. Anatomy and physiology of the pelvic floor. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America. 2017;28:455-460. DOI: 10.1016/j.pmr.2017.03.003'},{id:"B26",body:'Siccardi MA, Bordoni B. Anatomy, Abdomen and Pelvis, Perineal Body [Internet]. 2021. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537345/ [Accessed: 2021-04-01]'},{id:"B27",body:'Stelzner S, Holm T, Moran BJ, Heald RJ, Witzigmann H, Zorenkov D, et al. Deep pelvic anatomy revisited for a description of crucial steps in extralevator abdominoperineal excision for rectal cancer. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2011;54:947-957. DOI: 10.1097/DCR.0b013e31821c4bac'},{id:"B28",body:'Kinugasa Y, Arakawa T, Abe S, Ohtsuka A, Suzuki D, Murakami G, et al. Anatomical reevaluation of the anococcygeal ligament and its surgical relevance. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2011;54:232-237. DOI: 10.1007/DCR.0b013e318202388f'},{id:"B29",body:'Tao Y, Han JG, Wang ZJ. Extralevator abdominoperineal excision for advanced low rectal cancer: Where to go. World Journal of Gastroenterology : WJG. 2020;26:3012-3023. DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v26.i22.3012'},{id:"B30",body:'Kim NK, Kim YW, Cho MS. Total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer with emphasis on pelvic autonomic nerve preservation: Expert technical tips for robotic surgery. Surgical Oncology. 2015;24:172-180. DOI: 10.1016/j.suronc.2015.06.012'},{id:"B31",body:'Chew MH, Yeh YT, Lim E, Seow-Choen F. Pelvic autonomic nerve preservation in radical rectal cancer surgery: changes in the past 3 decades. Gastroenterology Report. 2016;4:173-185. DOI: 10.1093/gastro/gow023'},{id:"B32",body:'Luca F, Valvo M, Ghezzi TL, Zuccaro M, Cenciarelli S, Trovato C, et al. Impact of robotic surgery on sexual and urinary functions after fully robotic nerve-sparing total mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Annals of Surgery. 2013;257:672-678. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0b013e318269d03b'},{id:"B33",body:'Garbarino GM, Canali G, Tarantino G, Costa G, Ferri M, Balducci G, et al. Laparoscopic versus open rectal resection: a 1:2 propensity score-matched analysis of oncological adequateness, short- and long-term outcomes. International Journal of Colorectal Disease. 2021;36:801-810. DOI: 10.1007/s00384-021-03841-w'},{id:"B34",body:'Hur H, Bae SU, Kim NK, Min BS, Baik SH, Lee KY, et al. Comparative study of voiding and male sexual function following open and laparoscopic total mesorectal excision in patients with rectal cancer. Journal of Surgical Oncology. 2013;108:572-578. DOI: 10.1002/jso.23435'},{id:"B35",body:'Mari GM, Crippa J, Cocozza E, Berselli M, Livraghi L, Carzaniga P, et al. Low ligation of inferior mesenteric artery in laparoscopic anterior resection for rectal cancer reduces genitourinary dysfunction: Results from a randomized controlled Trial (HIGHLOW Trial). Annals of Surgery. 2019;269:1018-1024. DOI: 10.1097/SLA.0000000000002947'},{id:"B36",body:'Hollabaugh Jr RS, Steiner MS, Sellers KD, Samm BJ, Dmochowski RR. Neuroanatomy of the pelvis: Implications for colonic and rectal resection. Diseases of the Colon and Rectum. 2000;43:1390-1397. DOI: 10.1007/BF02236635'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sanghyun An",address:null,affiliation:'
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. 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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
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