Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It begins with an investigation of the electrical protection of microgrids followed by a study of the power converters used and the utilization of multi-objective optimization for the selection of component ratings. Subsequent chapters address peer-to-peer energy trading in microgrids, local district heating and cooling systems, neighborhood generators used to supplement the utility electricity supplies in Iraq, and regulatory impediments to micro-wind generation in the United States.",isbn:"978-1-78984-531-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-530-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-556-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90649",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"microgrids-and-local-energy-systems",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",bookSignature:"Nick Jenkins",publishedDate:"December 15th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1793,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 26th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 1st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55219/images/system/55219.jpg",biography:"Nick Jenkins leads the Centre for Integrated Renewable Electricity Generation and Supply (CIREGS) at Cardiff University, Wales. Before moving to academia, his career included fourteen years of industrial experience, five of which were in developing countries. When in industry, Mr. Jenkins worked on electric power systems as well as for manufacturers of wind turbines and photovoltaic equipment. While at the university, he has developed teaching and research activities in electrical power engineering and renewable energy. He is a fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering, Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and Learning Society of Wales.",institutionString:"Cardiff University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"756",title:"Power Electronics",slug:"power-electronics"}],chapters:[{id:"77871",title:"Protection of Microgrids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99149",slug:"protection-of-microgrids",totalDownloads:304,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The concept of microgrids goes back to the early years of the electricity industry although the systems then were not formally called microgrids. Today, two types of microgrids can be seen: independent and grid connected. The protection requirement of these two types differs as the protection needs of an independent microgrid are intended for protecting components and systems within the microgrid, whereas a grid connected microgrid demands both internal and external protection. The first part of this chapter is dedicated to independent microgrids. How protection devices such as residual current circuit breakers, miniature and moulded case circuit breakers, and surge protective devices should be selected for an example microgrid is discussed while referring to the relevant standards. In the next section, the protection of a grid connected microgrid is discussed. Particularly, micro-source protection, microgrid protection, loss of mains protection and fault ride-through requirements are discussed while referring to two commonly used distributed generator connection codes. An example with simulations carried out in the IPSA simulation platform was used to explain different protection requirements and calculation procedures. Finally, grounding requirements are discussed while referring to different interfacing transformer connections and voltage source inverter connections.",signatures:"Janaka Ekanayake",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77871",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77871",authors:[{id:"328170",title:"Prof.",name:"Janake",surname:"Ekanayake",slug:"janake-ekanayake",fullName:"Janake Ekanayake"}],corrections:null},{id:"79509",title:"Power Electronic Converters for Microgrids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101019",slug:"power-electronic-converters-for-microgrids",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Power electronic converters are indispensable building blocks of microgrids. They are the enabling technology for many applications of microgrids, e.g., renewable energy integration, transportation electrification, energy storage, and power supplies for computing. In this chapter, the requirements, functions, and operation of power electronic converters are introduced. Then, different topologies of the converters used in microgrids are discussed, including DC/DC converters, single-phase DC/AC converters, three-phase three-wire, and four-wire DC/AC converters. The remaining parts of this chapter focus on how to optimally design and control these converters with the emerging wide-bandgap semiconductors. Correlated tradeoffs of converter efficiency, power density, and cost are analyzed using Artificial Neural Networks to find the optimal design of the converters.",signatures:"Wenlong Ming",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79509",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79509",authors:[{id:"328358",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenlong",surname:"Ming",slug:"wenlong-ming",fullName:"Wenlong Ming"}],corrections:null},{id:"78384",title:"Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading in Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99437",slug:"peer-to-peer-energy-trading-in-microgrids-and-local-energy-systems",totalDownloads:339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading is an innovative approach for managing increasing numbers of Distributed Energy Resources in microgrids or local energy systems. In P2P energy trading, prosumers and consumers directly trade and exchange power and energy with each other. The development of P2P energy trading is described in five key aspects, that is, market design, trading platforms, power and ICT infrastructure, regulation and policy, and from a social science perspective. A general multiagent framework is established to simulate the behaviour of and interaction between multiple entities in P2P energy trading. A general evaluation index hierarchy is proposed to assess various P2P energy trading mechanisms. Finally, a residential community that is set in the context of Great Britain is studied using multiagent simulation and hierarchical evaluation methods. Both the technical and economic benefits of P2P energy trading are demonstrated.",signatures:"Yue Zhou and Jianzhong Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78384",authors:[{id:"328208",title:"Dr.",name:"Yue",surname:"Zhou",slug:"yue-zhou",fullName:"Yue Zhou"},{id:"424911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianzhong",surname:"Wu",slug:"jianzhong-wu",fullName:"Jianzhong Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"78400",title:"District Heating and Cooling Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99740",slug:"district-heating-and-cooling-systems",totalDownloads:223,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Decarbonisation of the energy sector is a crucial ambition towards meeting net-zero targets and achieving climate change mitigation. Heating and cooling accounts for over a third of UK greenhouse emissions and, thus, decarbonisation of this sector has attracted significant attention from a range of stakeholders, including energy system operators, manufacturers, research institutions and policy makers. Particularly, the role of district heating and cooling (DHC) systems will be critical, as these two energy vectors are central to our lives not only for comfort and daily activities, but also to facilitate productive workplaces and to run a variety of industrial processes. The optimal operation of DHC systems and the design of efficient strategies to produce heat and cold, store thermal energy, and meet heating and cooling demands, together with an increased integration of low carbon technologies and local renewable energy sources, are vital to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions alike. This chapter reviews relevant aspects of DHC systems, their main elements, automatic control systems and optimal management.",signatures:"Iván De la Cruz and Carlos E. Ugalde-Loo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78400",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78400",authors:[{id:"313450",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos E.",surname:"Ugalde-Loo",slug:"carlos-e.-ugalde-loo",fullName:"Carlos E. Ugalde-Loo"},{id:"427057",title:"Mr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"De la Cruz",slug:"ivan-de-la-cruz",fullName:"Ivan De la Cruz"}],corrections:null},{id:"78626",title:"Electricity Storage in Local Energy Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99350",slug:"electricity-storage-in-local-energy-systems",totalDownloads:222,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Traditionally, power system operation has relied on supply side flexibility from large fossil-based generation plants to managed swings in supply and/or demand. An increase in variable renewable generation has increased curtailment of renewable electricity and variations in electricity prices. Consumers can take advantage of volatile electricity prices and reduce their bills using electricity storage. With reduced fossil-based power generation, traditional methods for balancing supply and demand must change. Electricity storage offers an alternative to fossil-based flexibility, with an increase expected to support high levels of renewable generation. Electrochemical storage is a promising technology for local energy systems. In particular, lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy density and high efficiency. However, despite their 89% decrease in capital cost over the last 10 years, lithium-ion batteries are still relatively expensive. Local energy systems with battery storage can use their battery for different purposes such as maximising their self-consumption, minimising their operating cost through energy arbitrage which is storing energy when the electricity price is low and releasing the energy when the price increases, and increasing their revenue by providing flexibility services to the utility grid. Power rating and energy capacity are vitally important in the design of an electricity storage system. A case study is given for the purpose of providing a repeatable methodology for optimally sizing of a battery storage system for a local energy system. The methodology can be adapted to include any local energy system generation or demand profile.",signatures:"William Seward, Weiqi Hua and Meysam Qadrdan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78626",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78626",authors:[{id:"328166",title:"Dr.",name:"Meysam",surname:"Qadrdan",slug:"meysam-qadrdan",fullName:"Meysam Qadrdan"},{id:"427345",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Seward",slug:"william-seward",fullName:"William Seward"},{id:"427346",title:"Dr.",name:"Weiqi",surname:"Hua",slug:"weiqi-hua",fullName:"Weiqi Hua"}],corrections:null},{id:"74439",title:"Local Energy Systems in Iraq: Neighbourhood Diesel Generators and Solar Photovoltaic Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95280",slug:"local-energy-systems-in-iraq-neighbourhood-diesel-generators-and-solar-photovoltaic-generation",totalDownloads:278,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Iraqis experience interruptions of the public electricity supply of up to 18 hours a day. In response, private entrepreneurs and the Local Provincial Councils (LPCs) have installed an estimated 55,000–80,000 diesel generators, each rated typically between 100 and 500 kVA. The generators supply neighbourhoods through small, isolated distribution networks to operate lighting, fans and small appliances when power is not available from the public supply. A single radial live conductor connects each customer to the generator and payment for the electricity is based on a monthly charge per ampere. The operation and regulation of the neighbourhood diesel generator networks was reviewed through a comprehensive literature survey, site visits and interviews conducted with local operators and assemblers of the generator sets. The electricity is expensive, the generators can only supply small loads, have considerable environmental impact and the unusual single wire distribution practice is potentially hazardous. However, the use of the generators is likely to continue in the absence of any alternative electricity supply. The diesels and networks are poorly regulated and there is scope to enforce existing standards and develop a new standard to address the hazards of the connection practice. The chapter goes on to assess the possibilities of using small photovoltaic systems for power generation in Iraq.",signatures:"Ali Al-Wakeel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74439",authors:[{id:"327780",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Al-Wakeel",slug:"ali-al-wakeel",fullName:"Ali Al-Wakeel"}],corrections:null},{id:"78170",title:"Regulatory Impediments to Micro-Wind Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99688",slug:"regulatory-impediments-to-micro-wind-generation",totalDownloads:156,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent growth in the renewable energy industry has largely been driven by government support for alternative energy. Wind power in the United States is the second largest source of renewable energy, and has been heavily subsidized by state and federal government. There has also been an increasing interest in small scale environmental community projects, and this trend is expected to continue. Currently, there are 2 terawatt hours (TWh) of potential energy capacity through small- and micro-wind projects throughout the United States. Increased development of micro-wind energy could significantly impact America’s non-hydropower renewable energy generation. Micro-wind, the utilization of the flow of wind energy to produce electricity for a house, farm or other non-utility scale generation can be regulated at the federal level, as well as at the state and local/community level. We examine two cases of micro-wind energy production to explore the regulatory impediments these smaller projects face. We find that the level of complexity of the regulatory framework is discouraging for innovation and development, and that the benefits of installing energy-generation are often outweighed by the cost of implementation.",signatures:"Ryan M. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Every country in the world is experiencing urbanization in different dimensions. Urbanization has been defined as the increased concentration of people in cities rather than in rural areas [1]. Demographic Partitions [2] describes urbanization as the “process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin living and working in central areas”. It is the gradual increase in the number of people living in urban areas, with subsequent decrease in those living in rural areas [3].
\n
Urbanization is a fundamental phenomenon of multidimensional transformation which rural societies go through in order to evolve into modernized societies from sparsely populated areas to densely concentrated urban cities. Urbanization is an ongoing trend in both developed and developing countries, including Nigeria which is the main focus of this chapter. Nigeria is the largest country in West Africa; classified as a low-middle income country despite the fact that it is the biggest oil exporter in Africa with the largest natural gas reserve in the continent. The Nigeria Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is $405.10 billion in 2016 [4]. However, the huge revenue derivable from oil and allied products have not positively impacted an average low income earners in the country, as they live below 1 dollar per day. The impoverishment of the citizens has also been largely worsened by the corrupt and wasteful handling of petrol dollars by successive governments in the country. Simply put, the huge money made from oil remains a noticeable paradoxical contradiction when viewed against prevailing endemic infrastructural deficit and abject poverty in the country.
\n
\n
\n
2. Urban development in Nigeria
\n
Prior to the colonial era, Nigeria had several cities of different sizes and importance. Examples of such cities are Lagos, Ibadan and Ilorin, in the south western region, Kano and Zaria, in the northern part, and Onitsha and Aba, in the eastern area, as well as Port Harcourt and Calabar in the south. The aforementioned are all with their distinctive socio-cultural identities even as they are locations occupied by the three major ethnic groups in Nigeria, plus the southern sub-ethnic group, respectively. The rate of movements of the people from rural areas to the cities during this era was low, as majority concentrated on agricultural occupation. In the post independence era, starting from 1960, people in Nigeria kept migrating at an increasing rate from the rural areas to the urban centres in pursuit of better living conditions. Like every other nation of the world, the migration has been causing rapid and extensive growth in the urban centres. The urban population in Nigeria has grown from 6.9 million, 15.4% of the total population of 45 million in 1960 to 99.9 million, which is 48.9% of the total population of 195.8 million today [5] (Figures 1 and 2).
\n
Figure 1.
Percentage change in population from 1960 to 2018. Source: adapted from Worldometer.info [5].
\n
Figure 2.
Percentage growth of urban population from 1960 to 2014. Source: adapted from Worldometer.info [5].
\n
Consequently, many more towns such as Akure, Osogbo, Bauchi and Sokoto have emerged, and they are fast turning into urban centres due to explosion induced by migration, both in numbers and sizes. There are 26 urban centres in the country, with a populations of approx. 500,000 in each urban centre (Table 1) [6]. Lagos, the former capital city, still remains the most urbanized city despite the movement of the country’s capital to Abuja. This may not be unconnected to the fact that Lagos still remains the commercial capital for Nigeria.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n
Urban centre
\n
Population
\n
\n
Urban centre
\n
Population
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1.
\n
Lagos
\n
13,910,000
\n
14.
\n
Ikorodu
\n
825,000
\n
\n
\n
2.
\n
Onitsha
\n
7,850,000
\n
15.
\n
Owerri
\n
815,000
\n
\n
\n
3.
\n
Kano
\n
3,875,000
\n
16.
\n
Maiduguri
\n
795,000
\n
\n
\n
4.
\n
Ibadan
\n
3,070,000
\n
17.
\n
Warri
\n
770,000
\n
\n
\n
5.
\n
Abuja
\n
2,605,000
\n
18.
\n
Enugu
\n
755,000
\n
\n
\n
6.
\n
Uyo
\n
2,230,000
\n
19.
\n
Zaria
\n
750,000
\n
\n
\n
7.
\n
Port Harcourt
\n
2,060,000
\n
20.
\n
Osogbo
\n
715,000
\n
\n
\n
8.
\n
Nsukka
\n
1,840,000
\n
21.
\n
Akure
\n
630,000
\n
\n
\n
9.
\n
Benin City
\n
1,445,000
\n
22.
\n
Sokoto
\n
620,000
\n
\n
\n
10.
\n
Aba
\n
1,290,000
\n
23.
\n
Lokoja
\n
570,000
\n
\n
\n
11.
\n
Kaduna
\n
1,140,000
\n
24.
\n
Bauchi
\n
560,000
\n
\n
\n
12.
\n
Ilorin
\n
935,000
\n
25.
\n
Abeokuta
\n
540,000
\n
\n
\n
13.
\n
Jos
\n
830,000
\n
26.
\n
Ogbomosho
\n
505,000
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Largest built-up urban centres in Nigeria with population of 500,000 and above (source: adapted from Demographia world urban areas [6]).
\n
\n
\n
3. Reasons for or factors that caused urbanization in Nigeria
\n
\n
3.1. Trade and politics (pre colonial era)
\n
Trade and politics are the two predominant causes of urbanization in pre-colonial era in Nigeria (before 1900). The existing urban centres serve as trade centres where goods, mainly agricultural produce, and traditional production of crafts commodities, like clothing and household utensils, are brought from their neighboring rural communities to be traded or stored for the purpose of exportation. They also serve as hubs for importation of merchandise from other countries. Consequently, there are massive concentrations of wealth, political power, prestige and the seats of regional governments with its attendant employment opportunities and the need to provide housing for the rich and powerful people; thereby attracting increased number of traders and migrants from their catchment areas and also from other regions and nations.
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Industrialization (colonial and post-independence era)
\n
At the advent of colonialism in Nigeria (1900–1960), the colonial masters and missionaries developed the urban centres into cities with good infrastructural facilities like electricity, good roads, rail networks, European style housing, educational, religious and recreational facilities for themselves and the Nigerian elites. Furthermore, new urban cities were built by them for the purpose of industry and improved trade centres. Industry, according to Anamgba, is “a collection of individual firms producing similar commodities” [7]. He further describes industry as “any commercial activity that provides goods and services”. Examples of such cities are Jos, with an established Tin mining industry, Enugu, known for coal mining, and Bida, with industries manufacturing glass and brass.
\n
Later, there came a shift from the old agricultural practices to the new mechanized agriculture for larger production outputs and increased employment opportunities. The era also witnessed the provision of social services and infrastructural facilities like electricity, potable water, education, public health care, banking, postal services and modern transportation: namely, rail, road and air. Consequently, an improved standard of living was ushered in, in terms of better housing, transportation, food production and health care. In addition, traditional attires were replaced with new formal white collar dresses, and sophisticated fashion products, which equally involved women enlightenment and empowerment.
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Movement of Nigeria Capital City from Lagos to Abuja
\n
After the amalgamation in 1914, Lagos was made the capital city, thereby becoming the seat of the national government and a centre of trade, commerce, industry and economic development. All these became pull factors, attracting rural dwellers to Lagos. Afterwards, the capital of Nigeria was moved to Abuja in 1991. Hence, the seat of the Federal government and all Federal government agencies were moved to Abuja. This development made a large number of people to migrate from Lagos and other parts of Nigeria, including the rural areas, into Abuja, the new Federal capital of Nigeria.
\n
\n
\n
3.4. Creation of new states and infrastructure
\n
The creation of new states in 1989 and 1991, led to the creation of new state capitals and new local government areas in different parts of the country. Consequently, many new Federal and States-owned Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education were also established. All these contributed, in no small measure, to urbanization. They have also encouraged mass expansion of other commercial and industrial establishments such as banking, construction and manufacturing industries, in these newly created states, resulting in the movement of more people into them [8].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Advantages and disadvantages of urbanization in Nigeria
\n
The rapid growth of urbanization in Nigeria has affected the society, both positively and negatively. The following are the advantages of urbanization in the country:
\n
Urbanization has induced modernization to a certain level which has enabled the use of the modern methods of construction and equipments in some areas of living and accomplishing day-to-day activities, both at work and at home; hereby enhancing the lives of the urban populace, from the rural to modern. It has also brought about an improved economic development in form of improvement in trades and industry which has in turn contributed to the gross domestic product (GDP) [4].
\n
With the establishment of industries, powered by mechanized equipment, workers required training on the technical mode of operating the equipment. This created learning and training opportunities for workers, which were often provided by the employing companies resulting in subsequent technological advancement, enlightenment and improvements for the workers generally. This also came with attendant growth of the literacy rate of the urban populace with the consequence of improved standards of living for the workers.
\n
Nigeria has experienced tremendous economic growth from independence to date as indicated by the GDP which was US$4.1 in 1960 and is presently US$405.10 billion. However, the GDP experienced its highest in 2014 with a GDP of US$568.49 billion [4], after which it started witnessing a decline. It is yet to regain an upward growth since then. Owing to the presence of industries in the urban centres, many of the dwellers are involved in the processing of staple foods, using agricultural products as raw materials. Commercial activities are in the increase due to urbanization, which encourages the establishment of shopping centres, markets and offices.
\n
Many of the urban centres are seats of the Federal, States and Local governments, thereby providing administrative and contract jobs for the people. Urbanization also encourages the establishments of educational institutions like universities, polytechnics, secondary and primary schools; places of worship like churches and mosques; relaxation centres like restaurants and hotels. As a result, these improve the socio-cultural interactions and development among the population. Conversely, urbanization also has some attendant disadvantages as described below:
\n
Overpopulation is a major setback of urbanization, as people keep migrating en masse from the rural areas to the urban centres without a commensurate increase in the existing social infrastructure. Decent accommodation is not always adequate, leading to overcrowding and slum life. Inadequacy of resources and acute shortage of land space as the density per km2 keep increasing with subsequent overcrowding and overburdening of the existing resources resulting in shortage of the resources.
\n
There is shortage of jobs as more people migrate to the urban centres in search of jobs to sustain their daily living without the government creating new job opportunities. This is more so as a result of some industries that shut down because of the downturn in the economy. There is also a shortage of the required job opportunities to adequately engage majority of the populace in the urban centres. Hence, there are a lot of people, especially the youths, without any jobs who find it difficult to make ends meet on a daily basis. Consequently, the rate of criminal activities within the urban centres is very high. The unending influx of youths and jobless able-bodied people into urban centres is posing a serious threat to the already precarious state of the country’s security challenges like kidnapping, robbery, ritual killings and so on.
\n
The cost of living in urban centres is relatively high, hence, making it difficult for the low income groups to maintain a decent standard of living. This can be gleaned from the huge number of people demanding for scarce or inadequate facilities such as houses, transportation facilities, foods, drugs and clothings. Needless to mention that the stiff competition for limited resources and facilities would engender contestatious living among the people.
\n
Another negative characterization of urban life is pollution. Air and water pollution may be caused mainly by either the release of greenhouse gases (GHG) and effluents from the industries into the environment or produced by exhaust emissions from vehicles used for transportation. It can also be caused by poor indoor air quality due to overcrowding and lack of proper waste disposal. Continuous release of these GHG, over time, has resulted in global warming. This is a critical issue which is affecting the world as a whole and every nation including Nigeria still face challenges in terms of finding a long-lasting solution to the predicament.
\n
Migrants who cannot afford the high rent of housing in the urban centres tend to develop make-shift houses in and around the cities where there are vacant and unclaimed parcels of land that are farther away from the core urban centres, thereby resulting in slums. A slum is defined by the UN Habitat as “a heavily populated urban area characterized by substandard housing and squalor” [9]. It further describes it as “the poorest quality housing, and the most unsanitary conditions; a refuge for marginal activities including crime, ‘vice’ and drug abuse; a likely source for many epidemics that ravaged urban areas; a place apart from all that was decent and wholesome” [9].
\n
These slums and shanties are not built in accordance with building regulations. None of the rules and regulations is considered from land use to permit and approval, to materials used to structural considerations. They are built with any material within the reach of the people, such as scrap wood, cardboards, bamboo, zinc roofing sheets, rammed earth, tarpaulin, to mention a few. Some are even occupied without basic features such as windows, doors or roofs; most of which are being substituted with used fabrics or polythene materials to protect them, however minimally, from the adverse weather conditions. These areas attract the urban poor, and thereby, they are usually overpopulated, thereby resulting in poor indoor air quality, poor ventilation and day lighting as well as lack of proper waste disposal/management, lack of potable water; without proper furniture leading to indecent and substandard way of living and inaccessibility to good public health care services and so on. All these lead to severe illnesses and sicknesses which could be acute or chronic and might lead to reduced life-span and increased morbidities and mortalities. Most urban centres are not spared from these unlawful settlements. Slum areas in Lagos include: Makoko, Ajegunle, Bariga, Mushin and so on. Likewise slum settlements in Abuja include: Nyanya, Lokogoma, Garki village, Gishiri, Lugbe to mention a few. Figures 3 and 4 are samples of slums in Lagos.
\n
Figure 3.
Makoko, a slum with part of its community built on stilts along the Lagos lagoon. Picture credit: CNN [10].
\n
Figure 4.
A slum in central Lagos. Picture credit: BBC [11].
\n
With increased and ongoing influx of people into the cities, there is a consequent increase in household waste. Most landfills, which are not located within the urban core but in and around the squatter settlements, are completely full and overflowing to the surrounding areas with open decomposition of wastes. This leads to the outbreaks of diseases, festered by insects and rodents like houseflies, rats, and cockroaches, which in turn take a negative toll on the swamp dwellers. In addition, there are inadequate sewage facilities in areas of unchecked rapid growth of slums and squatter settlements which are unlawfully developed by the urban poor who cannot afford the exorbitant rent within the cities. The result is a huge crisis of untreated sewage, which carelessly drains into the open environment and leaves behind either decomposed or dried-up elements causing eventual water and environmental pollution as it drains into the nearby streams, rivers and oceans.
\n
As evident from above, urbanization in the country results in poor health condition of many urban dwellers. This is a resultant effect of mainly slums and indecent settlements that are usually precipitated by urbanization. Urbanization also brings about environmental degradation. This is any change or disturbance that is harmful to the environment [12]. It is the destruction of the natural habitat or ecosystem through the depletion of natural resources such as air, water and soil. In comparison, Mason, states that urbanization “can, and in some cases does, contribute effectively to overall national economic growth and development”. Examples are China and Korea where urbanization is accompanied by income growth [13]. The UNFPA asserts that “no country in the industrial age has ever achieved significant economic growth without urbanization” [13]. It further argues that the urban centres have the capabilities of finding solutions to the challenges they face, claiming that “the potential benefits of urbanization far outweigh the disadvantages: The challenge is in learning how to exploit its possibilities” [14]. Thereby establishing a fact that urbanization in itself is not really bad, and if properly managed, it will result in socio-economic and environmental development of the nation.
\n
\n
\n
5. Solving problems of urbanization
\n
Problems of urbanization can simply be solved, among others, as follows:
Provision of sustainable affordable housing i.e. housing that is affordable in a sustainable way, with effective waste management for ensuring environmentally friendly cities. Such steps will also include effective planning of development activities.
Provision of essential infrastructural facilities and services for the urban residents such as potable water, constant electricity, access to education and public health services, good transportation and communication network and technology for the urban residents will make life in the urban centres easy for the inhabitants. Investing substantially in infrastructural facilities can help to eliminate urban slum and squatter settlements thereby creating decent living and working environments.
Provision of job opportunities, both skilled and unskilled labour, for the urban residents will boost their standard of living, self-reliance and subsequent self -dignity. This can help in reducing the rate of crime in the urban areas.
Embarking on an effective land policy will go a long way in reducing slum and squatter settlements. For instance, effective land use plan, zoning regulation and a reduction in land cost will promote easy accessibility to land by the low income urban dwellers.
\n
Out of all the negative impacts of urbanization, lack of adequate housing, which has resulted in discriminate development of slums and squatter settlements affects one of the three fundamental human rights and basic needs of life; that is, shelter [15]. As mentioned in 1 of 4.3 above, many of the problems relating to urbanization can be solved through effective planning of housing in the country. This is because most of the other disadvantages are relative to the development of slums and squatter settlements. The main aim of this chapter is to show that if this particular need of affordable housing, which is shelter, is met in the urban centres; it would go a long way in addressing most of the other negative impacts of urbanization in Nigeria.
\n
\n
\n
6. The need for affordable housing in Nigeria
\n
Housing, also referred to as shelter, is one of the three fundamental human rights, and it forms an essential part of human settlement with great impact on the health, welfare, productivity and quality of life of man [15, 16]. Coker et al. citing Fanning (1967), Macpherson (1979) and Riaz (1987) stated that “researchers have shown that housing can affect mental and physical health, both positively and negatively [17]; hence its provision for the people should be one of the primary concerns of every nation. The provision of adequate affordable housing for Nigerians will initiate a notable growth as it will provide shelter for the people and also, bring about lots of infrastructural development, thereby meeting some of the social needs of the populace. It will also generate an increase in the activities of the housing and building industry, thereby creating more job opportunities for both skilled and unskilled labour through the construction industry, resulting in increased productivity and a subsequent rise in the country’s GDP; thus improving its economic development. A well planned housing system will also promote environmental sustainability because the provision of adequate housing will go hand in hand with the provision of improved indoor air quality, potable water, good sanitary, sewage and waste management, improved and sustainable transportation network and consequent reduction in environmental pollution. This achievement would, overall, be a driver for the nation towards development in a sustainable way; indicating that housing has significant effects on all the three domains of sustainable development.
\n
To a nation such as Nigeria, housing is a very important and critical component in its social and economic framework [18] because it accommodates the smallest unit of its society, referred to as the family. Hence, housing is an indicator of a family’s standard of living or societal class [19]. Consequently, housing also signifies the living standards of a society [20]. However, the difference between the demand for housing and its supply in Nigeria and most developing countries is overly incongruent. With the high cost of building materials as a result of the cost of production and importation as adduced by Fasakin and Ogunseni [21], it may still be a very challenging situation for the government to solve the affordable housing problems, except something is done to cut down on cost [22, 23].
\n
Evidently, there is an increasing rise in the housing deficit which now stands between, 17 and 20 million housing units at a growth rate of 900,000 units per annum, due to the fast population growth and urbanization which will require at least 1000,000 housing units and approximately US$363 billion to curtail [24]. The Nigerian population is at 195,875,237 of which the urban population is 48.9% [5]. Over 90% of the country’s population are of the no/low-income groups [25]. The present Gross Domestic Product (GDP) equals US$405.10 billion presently nonetheless; the Per Capita Income is very low at US$2457.80 as lastly recorded in 2016 [26] which indicates clearly the fact that there is an unequal distribution of wealth as people’s income is not commensurate with the economic growth.
\n
The current cost of renting a standard 3-bedroom apartment is US$5000 per annum and the average purchase price of US$100,000 [24]. This simply implies, taking into account the present US$2457.80 Per Capita Income in Nigeria, that housing is not affordable as affordable housing should cost 30% or less of a household’s income [27]. This has left the population struggling with poverty, inequality and indecent form of housing that is not sustainable. The fast rate in population growth and urbanization infer an exponential rate of housing deficit, with 61.7% of the urban population being slum dwellers [24].
\n
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6.1. Factors influencing the limited supply of housing in Nigeria
\n
The reasons for the high demand for housing and its limited supply in Nigeria can be traced to the following factors namely: (1) high cost and lack of easy access to land [28, 29]; (2) high cost of building materials [30]; (3) high cost and long processing duration of property registration [28]; (4) inability of earlier policies and programmes to adequately resolve the backlog of housing problems [30, 31, 32]; (5) Absence of proper monitoring and evaluation of public housing policies and programs [31, 32]; (6) Absence of proper monitoring and evaluation of public housing policies and programs [31, 32]; (7) Absence of proper monitoring and evaluation of public housing policies and programs [31, 32]; low capacity of public housing agencies [32]; (8) poor government administration, inadequate funding, insufficient infrastructural amenities, as well as inadequate housing finance [33].
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Consequently, the need for an urgent solution of adequate and affordable housing supply to the population is imperative, if the problem of shortage of housing it to be solved. Further review of pertinent literature reveals that there had been several attempts made by both the Public and Private Sectors of the country to address the fast increasing housing demands, which have recorded very minimal success [29, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. There have been, and currently are, government strategies and efforts in form of housing policies and programmes to address the aforementioned problems/challenges. Nonetheless, these have also attained very little success. Housing policy is the act put up by a government for the purpose of managing and controlling homelessness and improving the quality of the housing stock of dwellings within its domain [39]. It could also mean government intervention in the housing provision with respect to the regulation of housing finance markets to influence activity in the national economy or restrictions on the amount paid in subsidy to low income households to encourage available incentives to work. The Housing Policies in Nigeria have evolved from the pre-colonial era to date.
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\n
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6.2. An overview of housing policy in Nigeria
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Before the colonial period in Nigeria (1928–1960), most communities engaged in a communal system of housing delivery. This is a situation whereby peer groups turn out collectively to assist any member to build his/her house on appointed days and the builder provides sumptuous meals for all in return [40]. This is alternated between all members, thereby enabling housing delivery.
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The evolution of housing policies dates as far back as 1928 by the government of Lagos Colony during the Bubonic Plague that lasted till 1929 [32] when the Lagos State Development Board (LEDB) was established. This era is tagged the Colonial Period between 1928 and 1960. It was basically for addressing the problem of housing at a national scale [37] and was targeted on the provision of quarters for expatriates and some selected indigenous civil servants [41] such as: the Armed Forces, Police, Marine and Railway workers in Lagos and other regional headquarters like Enugu, Ibadan and Kaduna. This approach to African Urban Housing by the Colonial Masters aimed at redeveloping ‘decaying core areas’, renewal of slums or squatter settlements and the construction of rental public housing estates. The Nigeria Building Society (NBS), which is similar to a mortgage institute with the intention of giving both workers in public and private sectors opportunities to have their own houses, was founded after the World War II.
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Nigeria was divided into three regions within this era and all the regions established housing corporations in 1964 respectively with a vision of developing housing estates. These are meant to provide mortgage for people so they can build their own houses and pay back over a long duration of time. However, only the capital cities of these regions were impacted by this programme. An example is Bodija Estate developed by the defunct Western Regional government [42]. The Federal Government made a direct effort on the housing sector by establishing the National Council on Housing in 1971. The NBS was renamed by the Federal Government to Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN) in 1973. This was when it took over its ownership through the indigenous Act with the aim to expand mortgage lending services to all segments of the population. It started with a capital base of 20 million Naira and this was increased in 1979 to one 150 million Naira. FMBN functions as a secondary mortgage market and hence, primary mortgage market was made opened to the private sector giving rise to another problem of how to fund the Primary Mortgage Institutions (PMI). Consequently, every Nigerian earning up to 3000 Naira per month were mandated to contribute 2.5% of monthly salary to the National housing Fund (NHF), [43] with the benefit of borrowing money from the fund through the PMIs after 6 months for the purpose of housing. This also not productive as majority of the workers could neither access the fund to get loans nor recover their saved money.
\n
Before the colonial period in Nigeria (1928–1960), most communities engaged in a communal system of housing delivery. This is a situation whereby peer groups turn out collectively to assist any member to build his/her house on appointed days and the builder provides sumptuous meals for all in return [40]. This is alternated between all members, enabling housing delivery.
\n
The evolution of housing policies dates back as far as 1928 by the government of Lagos Colony during the Bubonic Plague that lasted till 1929 [32] when the Lagos State Development Board (LEDB) was established. This era is tagged the Colonial Period between 1928 and 1960. It was basically for addressing the problem of housing at a national scale [37] and was targeted on the provision of quarters for expatriates and some selected indigenous civil servants [41] such as: the Armed Forces, Police, Marine and Railway workers in Lagos and other regional headquarters like Enugu, Ibadan and Kaduna. This approach to African Urban Housing by the Colonial Masters aimed at redeveloping ‘decaying core areas’, renewal of slums or squatter settlements and the construction of rental public housing estates. The Nigeria Building Society (NBS), which is similar to a mortgage institute with the intention of giving both workers in public and private sectors opportunities to have their own houses, was founded after the World War II.
\n
Nigeria was divided into three regions in within this era and all the regions established housing corporations in 1964 respectively with a vision of developing housing estates. These are meant to provide mortgage for people so they can build their own houses and pay back over a long duration of time. However, only the capital cities of these regions were impacted by this programme. An example is Bodija Estate developed by the defunct Western Regional government [42]. The Federal Government made a direct effort on the housing sector by establishing the National Council on Housing in 1971. The NBS was renamed by the Federal Government to Federal Mortgage Bank of Nigeria (FMBN) in 1973. This was when it took over its ownership through the indigenous Act with the aim to expand mortgage lending services to all segments of the population. It started with a capital base of 20 million Naira and this was increased in 1979 to one 150 million Naira. FMBN functions as a secondary mortgage market and hence, primary mortgage market was made opened to the private sector giving rise to another problem of how to fund the Primary Mortgage Institutions (PMI). Consequently, every Nigerian earning up to 3000 Naira per month were mandated to contribute 2.5% of monthly salary to the National housing Fund (NHF), [43] with the benefit of borrowing money from the fund through the PMIs after 6 months for the purpose of housing. This also not productive as majority of the workers could neither access the fund to get loans nor recover their saved money.
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The Federal Housing Authority was inaugurated in 1973 through the promulgation of Decree No. 40 of 1973 and begins formal operation in 1976. Its main objectives were: (1) to make proposals to the Federal Government on Housing and ancillary infrastructural services; and (2) to implement those approved by the government. During this period, the first low cost housing estate, Festac Town was developed in preparation for the first all African Festival of Arts and Culture (FESTAC) slated for 1977. Another government housing scheme was the Ipaja Town followed by the Amuwo Odofin Phase 1 estate and more low cost housing estates in 11 state capitals. This era marked the first major Federal Government effort in providing affordable housing to the citizens on long term mortgage repayment arrangement. The FMBN had plans to deliver 202,000 housing units but because it was solely dependent on government, it could not pass the test of time; out of the 202,000 houses planned to be provided, only 28,500 units were realized which amount to just 14.1% [32]. The National Housing Programme was later instituted to provide 350 medium and high income housing units by the FHA during the 1981–1985 post colonial era. This is in addition to the national low income housing programme known as Shagari Low Cost Housing in each of the then 19 states of the federation [44]. In addition, the NHP targeted 200,000 units of which just 47,500 (23.75%) units were constructed [45]. Afterwards, a period known as “A Period of Consolidation” between 1986 and 1993 was ushered in. Emphasis was shifted from founding more new housing schemes to the completion of the many suspended and abandoned housing projects that resulted from the past unsuccessful housing schemes [43].
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The military government established a different housing policy tagged “Housing for all by the year 2000”. This was meant to provide decent and affordable housing for all before the end of the year 2000. It estimated 700,000 housing units per year with 60% built in urban areas by providing housing loans to individuals and corporate bodies through the FMBN and other mortgage institutions which collect, manage and administer contributions to the National Housing Fund (NHF). This era marked a huge success in the provision of housing for the population. Although the housing provided cannot be termed affordable as the housing cost more than 30% of their income.
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As development increases in the urban centres, the rate of urbanization also increases; meaning more people moving in from the rural areas in search of better lives. Subsequently, there is more deficit in housing as the available housing supply could not meet its demands. In 1991, the National Housing Policy was promulgated in order to propose possible solutions to housing problems. A pool of funds was established for this purpose called the NHF in 1992. The NHF was based on realistic standards affordable to the owners to encourage every household to own its own house; through the provision of more credit and fund. Thus, giving priority to housing programmes intended for the low income group [36]. The number of housing units to be delivered by NHF in 1994 was 121,000 but only 5% were achieved. This implies that the NHF was ineffective as it could not meet its target and the success rate was too low. Meanwhile the movement of people from the rural to the urban cities kept increasing, thereby aggravating the problems that come with urbanization.
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Between 2000 and 2004 the Federal Government established the Federal Ministry of Housing and Urban Development. During this period, the federal government only concerned itself with the provision of basic infrastructures leaving the provision of affordable housing delivery to the private sector [32] which seems to be the main solution to shortage of housing in the country [45] as most of the government efforts have failed. In 2004, the Federal Government declared its willingness to adequately fund researches that have to do with the use of local materials in the housing sector with a target of 40,000 housing units of at least 1000 houses per state before the year 2007 [32, 46] with the assistance of the Nigeria Building and Road Research Institute, NBRRI. Another version of the National Housing Policy, NHP 2012 was adopted with an improvement on the NHP 1999. The main purpose of the NHP 2012 is to ensure not just the provision of housing units but also ushers in the need for affordability in housing by the year 2020 [25]. The generally acceptable definition of Affordable Housing is ‘housing which cost no more than 30% of the income at each income level’ [27, 47, 48]. It is the capability of households to meet their housing needs and at the same time maintaining the capability of meeting other basic costs of living. Aribigbola 2011 citing MacLennan and Williams 1990 defined housing affordability as the ability to assure some “given or different standards of housing at a price or rent which does not impose an unreasonable burden on household incomes, assessed by the ratio of a chosen definition of household costs to a selected measure of household income in a given period” [48] and usually defined by the income of the population served [49]. Approximately 50% or more of household income spent on housing is described as “severe burdens” [47].Another good thing that comes with housing provision is the infrastructural development. Such as: good transport communication network, potable water, planned waste management systems, job opportunities especially within the construction and property sector. With all these in place, good health, reduced pollution and environmental degradation will also be achieved.
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Table 2 shows the take home of the no-income, low-income and medium low-income groups in Nigeria. It also illustrates the level of poverty and the severe burdens most households are subjected to in order to meet with its housing needs as well as the reason why there would be a continuous increase in the development of slums and unlawful settlements within the urban areas of the country if nothing is done to improve the delivery of housing. Thus, it is clear that these three income groups are under a ‘severe burden’ and incapable of meeting their housing needs as the cost of renting a 3-bedroom apartment in ranges from US$5000 per annum and the average purchase price of US$100,000 [24]. This has resulted in about 68 million i.e. about 36% of the population remaining homeless [50] or living in houses that are not affordable.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
S/N
\n
Income group
\n
Annual income with respect to NMW*
\n
Actual annual income (N)
\n
Actual annual income (US$)
\n
30% of annual income for housing (US$)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
1.
\n
No income
\n
Less or equal to 25% of N216,000
\n
0–54,000
\n
Less or = 150
\n
0 – Approx. 45
\n
\n
\n
2.
\n
Low income
\n
More than no-income but not more than NMW
\n
54,001–216,000
\n
150–600
\n
Approx. 45.3 - Approx. 180
\n
\n
\n
3.
\n
Lower-medium
\n
More than NMW but does not exceed 4 × NMW
\n
216,001–864,000
\n
600–2400
\n
Approx. 180 – Approx. 720
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
An overview of the take home of the no-income, low-income and medium low-income groups in Nigeria (source: adapted from NHP 2012 [25]).
NMW – Annual National Minimum Wage in Nigeria = 216,000.
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However, this policy, so far like the others, has been rendered ineffective. This is because of the persistent increase in the cost of building materials, stringent loan conditions from mortgage banks, deficiency of proper housing finance arrangement, high cost and lack of easy access to land, high cost and long processing duration of property registration amidst other problems [51]. All these imply that the policy has not been properly implemented, and until something is done to ensure the implementation of these policies, as brilliant as they might be, Nigeria will not be able to enjoy the positive impacts of urbanization.
\n
Furthermore in 2014, the Federal Government inaugurated an independent company, Nigeria Mortgage Refinance Company (NMRC), with the intent of finally increasing the opportunities for Nigerians to ‘own homes at affordable prices’ through mass housing [52]. Mass housing is housing that is funded publicly and given out to low-income families. This is the latest programme of the Federal Government on housing towards the provision of affordable housing for the Nigerian population. There is a rapid emergence of housing development by the NMRC but majority are neither affordable nor accessible to the no-income/low-income/lower-medium families because of their exorbitant prices. Nonetheless, the urban rich, who could afford more than needed for their families purchase many of these housing units and in turn sublet them to the lower income group at high cost and those who cannot afford the rent have no other option but to go to the slums or remain homeless. This takes us back to the cycle of the negative impacts of urbanization within the country. It is evidently clear that it would end up like the others if nothing is done to ensure fairness in its implementation. For urbanization to deliver a socio-economic and environmental development in Nigeria, then the government and all stakeholders must see the provision of affordable housing as a very critical and crucial subject of concern and make it their utmost priority.
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\n
\n
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7. Conclusion
\n
Nigeria, like other developing countries, is faced with increased rate of urbanization, with different urban centres emerging as a result. There are both positive and negative impacts of urbanization on the nation. Apparently, the negative ones outweigh those that are positive, and the former affect the urban populace than the positive variables. Nonetheless, most of them are hinged on the housing deficit which keeps increasing because it is not affordable to majority of the population. Hence, it has been identified that is pertinent to ensure the availability of affordable housing by giving a better commitment and attention to the delivery of housing facilities that are affordable and accessible to Nigerians, especially those within the no-income, low-income and lower medium-income groups. It has also been established that infrastructural development accompanies housing delivery; signifying the resolution of most of the negative impacts of urbanization. The authors believe that Nigeria does not need any new policy because the NHP 2012 is a brilliant instrument, with potentials for achieving success in housing delivery. We agree that the proposed outcomes of this policy are achievable, if effectively and fairly implemented by the successive governments of Nigeria. The chapter proposed that achieving affordable housing will raise home ownership to about 50%, improve the country’s Human Development Index (HDI) Ranking and contribute over 20% to its GDP. It will also expand the construction sector and the mortgage market. Furthermore, poverty will be significantly reduced in households; and at the same time as well as increase the productivity and quality of lives of the citizenry. Consequently, there will be a remarkable impact on the society and communities as it stimulates economic growth and job creation. The benefits of urbanization can then be enjoyed, not only by the urban rich but the poor as well. Hence, the NHP 2012 should be critically explored towards the delivery of affordable housing, as it will certainly and subsequently go a long way in solving urbanization issues in Nigeria.
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Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest concerning this chapter.
\n',keywords:"urbanization, housing needs, housing policy, affordable housing, Nigeria",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62021.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62021.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62021",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62021",totalDownloads:2681,totalViews:1935,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:10,totalAltmetricsMentions:3,introChapter:null,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:92,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"February 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 9th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 28th 2018",dateFinished:"June 8th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Urbanization is an ongoing trend in developed and developing countries. With particular reference to Nigeria, studies have shown that many urban centres have been experiencing rapid and continuous growth over the years, as people tend to migrate from rural areas to urban centres in order to better their living conditions. However, there has been an inadequacy of the necessary infrastructures to meet the needs of the increasing urban populace. Empirical studies have also shown that about 75% of the urban settlers live in slums and improper housing, which is antithetical to human dignity. Therefore, this study aims at exploring the causes, advantages, and disadvantages of urban slum dwelling in Nigeria, and similarly proper possible solutions to the prevailing urbanization challenges in the country. The authors agree that the policy can bring about an effective provision of affordable housing, thereby meeting the needs of housing and helping to solve most of the problems of urbanization in Nigeria. It is recommended that each element of an effective housing policy, as entrenched in the National Housing Policy 2012, should be critically explored towards the delivery of affordable housing, which would in turn go a long way in solving urbanization problems in Nigeria.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62021",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62021",book:{id:"7205",slug:"housing"},signatures:"Temi Oni-Jimoh and Champika Liyanage",authors:[{id:"245547",title:"Mrs.",name:"Temi",middleName:null,surname:"Oni-Jimoh",fullName:"Temi Oni-Jimoh",slug:"temi-oni-jimoh",email:"itemijim@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245547/images/6959_n.jpg",institution:null},{id:"245550",title:"Dr.",name:"Champika",middleName:null,surname:"Liyanage",fullName:"Champika Liyanage",slug:"champika-liyanage",email:"CLLiyanage@uclan.ac.uk",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Central Lancashire",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Cyprus"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Urban development in Nigeria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Reasons for or factors that caused urbanization in Nigeria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Trade and politics (pre colonial era)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Industrialization (colonial and post-independence era)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Movement of Nigeria Capital City from Lagos to Abuja",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4. Creation of new states and infrastructure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Advantages and disadvantages of urbanization in Nigeria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Solving problems of urbanization",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. The need for affordable housing in Nigeria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1. Factors influencing the limited supply of housing in Nigeria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.2. An overview of housing policy in Nigeria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'UN-Habitat. State of the World’s Cities 2006/2007. The Millennium Development Goals and Urban Sustainability: 30 Years of Shaping the Habitat Agenda. Nairobi: United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT); 2006. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/11292101_alt.pdf [Accessed: 2015-07-05]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Urbanization in 2013. Demographic partitions [Internet]. 2014. Available from http://demographicpartitions.org/urbanization-2013/ [Accessed: 2018-03-10]\n'},{id:"B3",body:'National Library of Medicine. Urbanization [Internet]. 2018. Available from: https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?name=Urbanization [Accessed: 2018-03-10]\n'},{id:"B4",body:'World Bank. World Bank National Accounts Data, and OECD National Accounts Data Files. 2018. 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School of Engineering, University of Central Lancashire, UK
School of Engineering, University of Central Lancashire, UK
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Generalization of classical calculus is known as fractional calculus, which is one of the fastest growing area of research, especially the theory of fractional order differential equations because this area has wide range of applications in real-life problems. Differential equations of fractional order provide an excellent tool for the description of many physical biological phenomena. The said equations play important roles for the description of hereditary characteristics of various materials and genetical problems in biological models as compared with integer order differential equations in the form of mathematical models. Nowadays, most of its applications are found in bio-medical engineering as well as in other scientific and engineering disciplines such as mechanics, chemistry, viscoelasticity, control theory, signal and image processing phenomenon, economics, optimization theory, etc.; for details, we refer the reader to study [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] and the references there in. Due to these important applications of fractional order differential equations, mathematicians are taking interest in the study of these equations because their models are more realistic and practical. In the last decade, many researchers have studied the existence and uniqueness of solutions to boundary value problems and their coupled systems for fractional order differential equations (see [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17]). Hence the area devoted to existence theory has been very well explored. However, every fractional differential equation cannot be solved for its analytical solutions easily due to the complex nature of fractional derivative; so, in such a situation, approximate solutions to such a problem is most efficient and helpful. Recently, many methods such as finite difference method, Fourier series method, Adomian decomposition method (ADM), inverse Laplace technique (ILT), variational iteration methods (VIM), fractional transform method (FTM), differential transform method (DTM), homotopy analysis method (HAM), method of radial base function (MRBM), wavelet techniques (WT), spectral methods and many more (for more details, see [9, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]) have been developed for obtaining numerical solutions of such differential equations. These methods have their own merits and demerits. Some of them provide a very good approximation. However, in the last few years, some operational matrices were constructed to achieve good approximation as in [39]. After this, a variety of operational matrices were developed for different wavelet methods. This method uses operational matrices, where every operation, for example differentiation and integration, involved in these equations is performed with the help of a matrix. A large variety of operational matrices are available in the literature for different orthogonal polynomials like Legendre, Laguerre, Jacobi and Bernstein polynomials [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Motivated by the above applications and uses of fractional differential equations, in this chapter, we developed a numerical scheme based on operational matrices via Bernstein polynomials. Our proof is more generalized and there is no need to convert the Bernstein polynomial function vector to another basis like block pulse function or Legendre polynomials. To the best of our knowledge, the method we consider provides a very good approximation to the solution. By the use of these operational matrices, we apply our scheme to a single fractional order differential equation with given boundary conditions as
where \n\nf\n\nt\n\n\n is the source term, \n\nA\n,\nB\n\n are any real numbers; then we extend our method to solve a boundary value problem of coupled system of fractional order differential equations of the form
where \n\nf\n\nt\n\n,\ng\n\nt\n\n\n are source terms of the system, \n\n\nA\ni\n\n,\n\nB\ni\n\n,\n\nC\ni\n\n,\n\nD\ni\n\n\n\ni\n=\n1\n\n2\n\n\n are any real constants. Also we compare our approximations to exact values and approximations of other methods like Jacobi polynomial approximations and Haar wavelets methods to evaluate the efficiency of the proposed method. We also provide some examples for the illustration of our main results.
\n
This chapter is designed in five sections. In the first section of the chapter, we have cited some basic works related to the numerical and analytical solutions of differential equations of arbitrary order by various methods. The necessary definitions and results related to fractional calculus and Bernstein polynomials along with the construction of some operational matrices are given in Section 2. In Section 3, we have discussed the main theory for the numerical procedure. Section 4 contains some interesting practical examples and their images. Section 5 describes the conclusion of the chapter.
\n
\n
\n
2. Basic definitions and results
\n
In this section, we recall some fundamental definitions and results from the literature, which can be found in [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
\n
\nDefinition 2.1.The fractional integral of order\n\nγ\n∈\n\nR\n+\n\n\nof a function\n\ny\n∈\n\nL\n1\n\n\n\n0\n1\n\nR\n\n\nis defined as\n
has a unique solution of the form \n\ny\n\nt\n\n=\n\nd\n0\n\n+\n\nd\n1\n\nt\n+\n\nd\n2\n\n\nt\n2\n\n+\n…\n+\n\nd\n\nn\n−\n1\n\n\n\nt\n\nn\n−\n1\n\n\n\n, where \n\n\nd\nk\n\n∈\nR\n\n and \n\nk\n=\n0,1,2,3\n,\n.\n…\n,\nn\n−\n1\n.\n\n.
\n
\nLemma 2.2.The following result holds for fractional differential equations\n
where \n\n\n\n\n\nm\n\n\n\n\ni\n\n\n\n\n=\n\n\nm\n!\n\n\n\n\nm\n−\ni\n\n\n!\ni\n!\n\n\n,\n\n which on further simplification can be written in the most simplified form as
Note that the sum of the Bernstein polynomials converges to 1.
\n
\nLemma 2.3. Convergence Analysis:\nAssume that the function\n\ng\n∈\n\nC\n\nm\n+\n1\n\n\n\n0\n1\n\n\nthat is\n\nm\n+\n1\n\ntimes continuously differentiable function and let\n\nX\n=\n\n\nB\n\n0\n,\nm\n\n\n\nB\n\n1\n,\nm\n\n\n…\n\nB\n\nm\n,\nm\n\n\n\n\n. If\n\n\nC\nT\n\nΨ\n\nx\n\n\nis the best approximation of\n\ng\n\nout of\n\nX\n\n, then the error bound is presented as\n
is a finite dimensional and closed subspace. So if \n\nf\n∈\nH\n\n is an arbitrary element then its best approximation is unique in \n\nY\n.\n\n This terminology can be achieved by using \n\n\ny\n0\n\n∈\nY\n\n and for all \n\ny\n∈\nY\n,\n\n we have \n\n∥\nf\n−\n\ny\n0\n\n∥\n≤\n∥\nf\n−\ny\n∥\n.\n\n Thus any function can be approximated in terms of Bernstein polynomials as
where coefficient ci\n can easily be calculated by multiplying (4) by \n\n\nB\n\nj\nm\n\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\nj\n=\n0,1,2\n,\n…\nm\n\n and integrating over \n\n\n0\n1\n\n\n by using inner product and \n\n\nd\ni\n\n=\n\n∫\n0\n1\n\n\nB\n\ni\nm\n\n\n\nt\n\nf\n\nt\n\ndt\n,\n\n\nθ\n\ni\nj\n\n\n=\n\n∫\n0\n1\n\n\nB\n\ni\nm\n\n\n\nt\n\n\nB\n\nj\nm\n\n\n\nt\n\ndt\n,\n\ni\n,\nj\n=\n0,1,2\n.\n…\nm\n,\n\n we have
Let \n\n\nX\nM\n\n=\n\n\n\nd\n0\n\n\n\nd\n1\n\n\n.\n…\n\n\nd\nm\n\n\n\n,\n\n\nC\nM\n\n=\n\n\n\nc\n0\n\n\n\nc\n1\n\n.\n…\n\nc\nm\n\n\n\n,\n\n where \n\nM\n=\nm\n+\n1\n\n where M is the scale level and \n\n\nΦ\n\nM\n×\nM\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n\n0\n0\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n\n0\n1\n\n\n\n\n⋯\n\n\n\nθ\n\n0\nr\n\n\n\n\n⋯\n\n\n\nθ\n\n0\nm\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n\n1\n0\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n\n1\n1\n\n\n\n\n⋯\n\n\n\nθ\n\n1\nr\n\n\n\n\n⋯\n\n\n\nθ\n\n1\nm\n\n\n\n\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n\nr\n0\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n\nr\n1\n\n\n\n\n⋯\n\n\n\nθ\n\nr\nr\n\n\n\n\n⋯\n\n\n\nθ\n\nr\nm\n\n\n\n\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n⋮\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n\nm\n0\n\n\n\n\n\nθ\n\nm\n1\n\n\n\n\n⋯\n\n\n\nθ\n\nm\nr\n\n\n\n\n⋯\n\n\n\nθ\n\nm\nm\n\n\n\n\n\n\n,\n\n so
\nLemma 2.4.Let\n\n\nB\nM\nT\n\n\nt\n\n\nbe the function vector defined in (3), then the fractional order integration of\n\n\nB\nM\nT\n\n\nt\n\n\nis given by\n
It is to be noted in the polynomial function \n\n\nB\n\ni\n,\nm\n\n\n\n the power of the variable ‘\n\nt\n\n’ is an ascending order and the lowest power is ‘\n\ni\n\n’ therefore the first \n\n\n\nα\n−\n1\n\n\n\n terms becomes zero when we take derivative of order \n\nα\n.\n\n\n
\n
\nCase I: \n\n\n\ni\n<\n\nα\n\n\n\n\nBy the use of definition of fractional derivative
\nLemma 2.6.An operational matrix corresponding to the boundary condition by taking\n\n\nB\nM\nT\n\n\nt\n\n\nis function vector and\n\nK\n\nis coefficient vector by taking the approximation\n
Now using the approximation \n\n\nΔ\n\ni\n,\nm\n\n\nϕ\n\nt\n\n=\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n0\n\nm\n\n\n\nc\n̂\n\ni\n\n\nB\ni\n\n\nt\n\n=\n\nC\nM\ni\n\n\nB\nM\nT\n\n,\n\n and using Eq. (3) we get \n\n\nC\nM\ni\n\n=\n\nK\nM\ni\n\n\nΦ\n\nM\n×\nM\n\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\nB\nM\nT\n\n\n and using \n\n\nc\nj\n\n=\n\n∫\n0\n1\n\nϕ\n\nt\n\n\nB\nj\n\n\nt\n\ndt\n,\n\n\n
In this section, we are going to approximate a boundary value problem of fractional order differential equation as well as a coupled system of fractional order boundary value problem. The application of obtained operational matrices is shown in the following procedure.
\n
\n
3.1 Fractional differential equations
\n
Consider the following problem in generalized form of fractional order differential equation
\n
\n\n\n\n\n\nD\nα\n\ny\n\nt\n\n+\n\nAD\nμ\n\ny\n\nt\n\n+\nBy\n\nt\n\n=\nf\n\nt\n\n,\n\n1\n<\nα\n≤\n2\n,\n\n0\n<\nμ\n≤\n1\n,\n\n\n\n\nsubject to the boundary conditions\n\ny\n\n0\n\n=\na\n,\n\ny\n\n1\n\n=\nb\n,\n\n\n\n\nE37
\n
where \n\nf\n\nt\n\n\n is a source term; \n\nA\n,\nB\n\n are any real constants and \n\ny\n\nt\n\n\n is an unknown solution which we want to determine. To obtain a numerical solution of the above problem in terms of Bernstein polynomials, we proceed as
\nEq. (43) is an algebraic equation of Lyapunov type, which can be easily solved for the unknown coefficient vector KM\n. When we find KM\n, then putting this in Eq. (39), we get the required approximate solution of the problem.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Coupled system of boundary value problem of fractional order differential equations
\n
Consider a coupled system of a fractional order boundary value problem
where \n\n\nA\ni\n\n,\n\nB\ni\n\n,\n\nC\ni\n\n,\n\nD\ni\n\n\n\ni\n=\n1\n\n2\n\n\n are any real constants, \n\nf\n\nt\n\n,\ng\n\nt\n\n\n are given source terms. We approximate the solution of the above system in terms of Bernstein polynomials such as
which is an algebraic equation that can be easily solved by using Matlab functional solver or Mathematica for unknown matrix \n\n\n\n\n\n\nK\nM\n\n\n\n\nL\nM\n\n\n\n\n\n\n. Calculating the coefficient matrix \n\n\nK\nM\n\n,\n\nL\nM\n\n\n and putting it in equations
\n\nSolution:\nWe solve this problem under the following parameters sets defined as\n
\n
\n\n\n\nS\n1\n\n=\n\n\nα\n=\n2\n\n\nν\n=\n1\n\n\n\nc\n1\n\n=\n1\n\n\n\nc\n2\n\n=\n1\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\nS\n2\n\n=\n\n\nα\n=\n1.8\n\n\nν\n=\n0.8\n\n\n\nc\n1\n\n=\n10\n\n\n\nc\n2\n\n=\n100\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\nS\n3\n\n=\n\n\nα\n=\n1.5\n\n\nν\n=\n0.5\n\n\n\nc\n1\n\n=\n1\n/\n10\n\n\n\nc\n2\n\n=\n1\n/\n100\n\n\n,\n\nand select source term for\n\n\nS\n1\n\n\nas\n
\nWe solve this problem with the proposed method under different sets of parameters as defined in\n\n\nS\n1\n\n,\n\nS\n2\n\n,\n\nS\n3\n\n\n. The observation and simulation demonstrate that the solution obtained with the proposed method is highly accurate. The comparison of exact solution with approximate solution obtained using the parameters set S\n1is displayed in\n\nFigure 1\n\nsubplot (a), while in\n\nFigure 1\n\nsubplot (b) we plot the absolute difference between the exact and approximate solutions using different scale levels. One can easily observe that the absolute error is much less than\n\n\n10\n\n−\n12\n\n\n.\n\nThe order of derivatives in this set is an integer.\n
\n
Figure 1.
(a) Comparison of exact and approximate solution of Example 4.1, under parameters set S\n1. (b) Absolute error in the approximate solution of Example 4.1, under parameters set S\n1.
\n
\nBy solving the problem under parameters set S\n2\nand S\n3, we observe the same phenomena. The approximate solution matches very well with the exact solution. See\n\nFigures 2\n\nand\n3\nrespectively.\n
\n
Figure 2.
(a) Comparison of exact and approximate solution of Example 4.1, under parameters set S\n2. (b) Absolute error in the approximate solution of Example 4.1, under parameters set S\n2.
\n
Figure 3.
(a) Comparison of exact and approximate solution of Example 4.1, under parameters set S\n3. (b) Absolute error in the approximate solution of Example 4.1, under parameters set S\n3.
\n\nSolution: The exact solution of the above problem is\n\ny\n\nt\n\n=\nsin\n\n\n2\nt\n\n\n,\n\nwhen\n\nα\n=\n2\n\n. However the exact solution at fractional order is not known. We use the well-known property of FDEs that when\n\nα\n→\n2\n,\n\nthe approximate solution approaches the exact solution for the evaluations of approximate solutions and check the accuracy by using different scale levels. By increasing the scale level M, the accuracy is also increased. By the proposed method, the graph of exact and approximate solutions for different values of M and at\n\nα\n=\n1.7\n\nis shown in\nFigure 4\n. From the plot, we observe that the approximate solution becomes equal to the exact solution at\n\nα\n=\n2\n\n. We approximate the error of the method at different scale levels and record that when scale level increases the absolute error decreases as shown in\nFigure 4\nsubplot (b) and accuracy approaches 10\n−9, which is a highly acceptable figure. For convergence of our proposed method, we examined the quantity\n\n\n∫\n0\n1\n\n∣\n\ny\nexact\n\n−\n\ny\napprox\n\n∣\ndt\n\nfor different values of M and observed that the norm of error decreases with a high speed with the increase of scale level M as shown in\nFigure 4b\n.
\n
Figure 4.
(a) Comparison of exact and approximate solution of Example 4.2. (b) Absolute error for different scale level M of Example 4.2.
\n
\nExample 4.3.Consider the following coupled system of fractional differential equations\n
\nIn the given\nFigure 5\n, we have shown the comparison of exact\n\nx\n\nt\n\n,\ny\n\nt\n\n\nand approximate\n\nx\n\nt\n\n,\ny\n\nt\n\n\nin subplot (a) and (b) respectively.\n
\n
Figure 5.
Comparison of exact and approximate solution of Example 4.3 for different scale level M.
\n
\nAs expected, the method provides a very good approximation to the solution of the problem. At first, we approximate the solutions of the problem at\n\nα\n=\n2\n\nbecause the exact solution at\n\nα\n=\n2\n\nis known. We observe that at very small scale levels, the method provides a very good approximation to the solution. We approximate the absolute error by the formula\n
\nWe approximate the absolute error at different scale level of M, and observe that the absolute error is much less than\n\n\n10\n\n−\n10\n\n\n\nat scale level\n\nM\n=\n7\n\n, see\nFigure 6\n. We also approximate the solution at some fractional value of\n\nα\n\nand observe that as\n\nα\n→\n2\n\nthe approximate solution approaches the exact solution, which guarantees the accuracy of the solution at fractional value of\n\nα\n\n. \n\n\nFigure 6\n\n shows this phenomenon. In\nFigure 6\n, the subplot (a) represents the absolute error of\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\nand subplot (b) represents the absolute error of\n\ny\n\nt\n\n\n.
\n
Figure 6.
Absolute error in approximate solutions at different scale level \n\nM\n=\n\n 3:7 for Example 4.3.
\n
\nExample 4.4.Consider the following coupled system\n
\nApproximating the solution with the proposed method, we observe that our scheme gives high accuracy of approximate solution. In\nFigure 7\n, we plot the exact solutions together with the approximate solutions in\nFigure 7(a)\n and \n(b)\nfor\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\nand\n\ny\n\nt\n\n\n, respectively. We see from the subplots (a) and (b) that our approximations have close agreement to that of exact solutions. This accuracy may be made better by increasing scale level. Further, one can observe that absolute error is below\n\n\n10\n\n−\n10\n\n\n\nin\nFigure 8\n, which indicates better accuracy of our proposed method for such types of practical problems of applied sciences.\n
\n
Figure 7.
Comparison of exact and approximate solution at scale level \n\nM\n=\n\n 3, 7 for Example 4.4.
\n
Figure 8.
Absolute error for different scale level \n\nM\n=\n\n 3:7 for Example 4.4.
\n
\nIn\nFigure 8\n, the subplot (a) represents absolute error for\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\nwhile subplot (b) represents the same quantity for\n\ny\n\nt\n\n\n. From the subplots, we see that maximum absolute error for our proposed method for the given problem (4.4) is below\n\n\n10\n\n−\n10\n\n\n.\n\nThis is very small and justifies the efficiency of our constructed method.\n
\n
\nExample 4.5.Consider the boundary value problem\n
\nTaking\n\nα\n=\n2\n,\nν\n=\n1\n\nand\n\nω\n=\n1,3,5\n,\n…\n,\n\nthe exact solution is given by\n
\n
\n\nx\n\nt\n\n=\ncos\n\nωπt\n\n−\n1\n.\n\n
\n
\nWe plot the comparison between exact and approximate solutions to the given example at\n\nM\n=\n10\n\nand corresponding to\n\nω\n=\n3.5\n,\nα\n=\n2\n,\nβ\n=\n1\n\n. Further, we approximate the solution through Legendre wavelet method (LWM) [47], Jacobi polynomial method (JM) and Bernstein polynomials method (BM), as shown in\nFigure 9\n.
\n
Figure 9.
(a) Comparison of exact and approximate solution at scale level \n\nM\n=\n10\n,\nω\n=\n3.5\n,\nα\n=\n2\n,\nν\n=\n1\n\n for Example 4.5. (b) Absolute error at \n\nM\n=\n10\n\n.
\n
From \nTable 1\n, we see that Bernstein polynomials also provide excellent solutions to fractional differential equations [48].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
\n\n\nω\n\n\n
\n
\nM\n
\n
\n\n\nα\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\nν\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n∥\n\nx\napp\n\n−\n\nx\nex\n\n∥\n\n at BM
\n
\n\n\n∥\n\nx\napp\n\n−\n\nx\nex\n\n∥\n\n at WM
\n
\n\n\n∥\n\nx\napp\n\n−\n\nx\nex\n\n∥\n\n at JM
\n
\n\n\n
\n
0.5
\n
10
\n
2
\n
1
\n
\n\n\n7.000\n\n\n−\n3\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n2.966\n\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n1.500\n\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
1.5
\n
15
\n
1.6
\n
0.9
\n
\n\n\n6.091\n\n\n−\n3\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n4.918\n\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n1.623\n\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
2.0
\n
20
\n
1.8
\n
0.8
\n
\n\n\n1.237\n\n\n−\n3\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n2.108\n\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n2.723\n\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n
\n
3.5
\n
25
\n
1.9
\n
0.7
\n
\n\n\n1.008\n\n\n−\n3\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n5.795\n\n\n−\n2\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n\n1.813\n\n\n−\n3\n\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Comparison of solution between Legendre wavelet method (LWM) [47], Jacobi polynomial method (JM) and Bernstein polynomials method (BM) for Example 4.5.
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusion and future work
\n
The above analysis and discussion take us to the conclusion that the new method is very efficient for the solution of boundary value problems as well as initial value problems including coupled systems of fractional differential equations. One can easily extend the method for obtaining the solution of such types of problems with other kinds of boundary and initial conditions. Bernstein polynomials also give best approximate solutions to fractional order differential equations like Legendre wavelet method (LWM), approximation by Jacobi polynomial method (JPM), etc. The new operational matrices obtained in this method can easily be extended to two-dimensional and higher dimensional cases, which will help in the solution of fractional order partial differential equations. Also, we compare our result to that of approximate methods for different scale levels. We observed that the proposed method is also an accurate technique to handle numerical solutions.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This research work has been supported by Higher Education Department (HED) of Khyber Pakhtankhwa Government under grant No: HEREF-46 and Higher Education Commission of Pakistan under grant No: 10039.
\n
\n',keywords:"Bernstein polynomials, coupled systems, fractional order differential equations, operational matrices of integration, approximate solutions, 2010 MSC: 34L05, 65L05, 65T99, 34G10",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70922.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70922.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70922",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70922",totalDownloads:739,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 26th 2019",dateReviewed:"October 28th 2019",datePrePublished:"January 27th 2020",datePublished:"June 17th 2020",dateFinished:"January 27th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, we develop an efficient numerical scheme for the solution of boundary value problems of fractional order differential equations as well as their coupled systems by using Bernstein polynomials. On using the mentioned polynomial, we construct operational matrices for both fractional order derivatives and integrations. Also we construct a new matrix for the boundary condition. Based on the suggested method, we convert the considered problem to algebraic equation, which can be easily solved by using Matlab. In the last section, numerical examples are provided to illustrate our main results.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70922",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70922",signatures:"Kamal Shah, Thabet Abdeljawad, Hammad Khalil and Rahmat Ali Khan",book:{id:"7785",type:"book",title:"Functional Calculus",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Functional Calculus",slug:"functional-calculus",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Baver Okutmuştur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7785.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-008-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-007-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-904-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",email:"kamalshah408@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/231748/images/system/231748.png",institution:{name:"University of Malakand",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Basic definitions and results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The Bernstein polynomials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Applications of operational matrices",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.1 Fractional differential equations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.2 Coupled system of boundary value problem of fractional order differential equations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Applications of our method to some examples",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Conclusion and future work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nLakshmikantham V, Leela S, Vasundhara J. Theory of Fractional Dynamic Systems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Academic Publishers; 2009\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nEL-Sayed AMA, Bin-Taher EO. Positive solutions for a nonlocal multi-point boundary-value problem of fractional and second order. 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Waves in Random and Complex Media. 2014:393-404\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nHe JH. Some applications of nonlinear fractional differential equations and their approximations. Bulletin of Science and Technology. 1999;15(2):86-90\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nRehman M, Khan RA. The Legender wavelet method for solving fractional differential equation. Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation. 2011;10:4163-4173\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nKilbas AA, Marichev OI, Samko SG. Fractional Integrals and Derivatives (Theory and Applications). Switzerland: Gordon and Breach; 1993\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nMiller KS, Ross B. An Introduction to the Fractional Calculus and Fractional Differential Equations. New York: Wiley; 1993\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nPodlubny I. Fractional Differential Equations, Mathematics in Science and Engineering. New York: Academic Press; 1999\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nHilfer R. Applications of Fractional Calculus in Physics. Singapore: World Scientific; 2000\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nKilbas AA, Srivastava HM, Trujillo JJ. Theory and Applications of Fractional Differential Equations, North-Holland Mathematics Studies. Vol. 204. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2006\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nBenchohra M, R. Graef J, Hamani S. Existence results for boundary value problems with nonlinear fractional differential equations. Journal of Applied Analysis. 2008;87:851-863\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nRehman M, Khan R. A note on boundary value problems for a coupled system of fractional differential equations. Computers & Mathematcs with Applications. 2011;61:2630-2637\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nSu X. Boundary value problem for a coupled system of nonlinear fractional differential equations. Applied Mathematics Letters. 2009;22:64-69\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nIdrees Bhattia M, Bracken P. Solutions of differential equations in a Bernstein polynomial basis. 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Manchester Centre for Computational Mathematics; 1996\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nSun HH, Onaral B, Tsao Y. Application of positive reality principle to metal electrode linear polarization phenomena. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 1984;31(10):664-674\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nBaillie RT. Long memory processes and fractional integration in econometrics. Journal of Econometrics. 1996;73:5-59\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nMomani S, Odibat Z. Numerical approach to differential equations of fractional order. Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics. 2007;207:96-110\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nEl-Wakil SA, Elhanbaly A, Abdou MA. Adomian decomposition method for solving fractional nonlinear differential equations. Applied Mathematics and Computation. 2006;182:313-324\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nOdibat Z, Momani S. Numerical methods for nonlinear partial differential equations of fractional order. Applied Mathematical Modelling. 2008;32:28-39\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nErturk VS, Momani S. Solving systems of fractional differential equations using differential transform method. Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics. 2008;215:142-151\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nKhalil H, Khan RA. A new method based on legender polynomials for solution of system of fractional order partial differential equation. International Journal of Computer Mathematics. 2014;91(12):2554-2567\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nSweilam NH, Khader MM, Al-Bar RF. Numerical studies for a multi-order fractional differential equation. Physics Letters A. 2007;371:26-33\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nDas S. Analytical solution of a fractional diffusion equation by variational iteration method. Computers & Mathematcs with Applications. 2009;57:483-487\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nMomani S, Odibat Z. Homotopy perturbation method for nonlinear partial differential equations of fractional order. Physics Letters A. 2007;365:345-350\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nHashim I, Abdulaziz O, Momani S. Homotopy analysis method for fractional IVPs. Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation. 2009;14:674-684\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nArikoglu A, Ozkol I. Solution of fractional differential equations by using differential transform method. Chaos, Solitons & Fractals. 2007;34:1473-1481\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nArikoglu A, Ozkol I. Solution of fractional integro-differential equations by using fractional differential transform method. Chaos, Solitons & Fractals. 2009;40:521-529\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nErturk VS, Momani S, Odibat Z. Application of generalized differential transform method to multi-order fractional differential equations. Communications in Nonlinear Science and Numerical Simulation. 2008;13:1642-1654\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nOdibat Z, Shawagfeh N. Generalized Taylor’s formula. Applied Mathematics and Computation. 2007;186:286-293\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nSaadatmandi A, Deghan M. A new operational matrix for solving fractional-order differential equation. Computers & Mathematics with Applications. 2010;59:1326-1336\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nKumar P, Agrawal OP. An approximate method for numerical solution of fractional differential equations. Signal Processing. 2006;86:2602-2610\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nLiua F, Anh V, Turner I. Numerical solution of the space fractional Fokker-Planck equation. Journal of Computational and Applied Mathematics. 2004;146:209-219\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nYang W. Positive solutions for a coupled system of nonlinear fractional differential equations with integral boundary conditions. Computers & Mathematcs with Applications. 2012;63:288-297\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nDiethelm K. An algorithm for the numerical solution of differential equations of fractional order. Electronic Transactions on Numerical Analysis. 1997;5:1-10\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nDiethelm K, Walz G. Numerical solution of fractional order differential equations by extropolation. Numerical Algorithms. 1997;16:231-253\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nLi Y, Shah K. Numerical solutions of coupled systems of fractional order partial differential equations. Advances in Mathematical Physics. 2017;2017:14\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nShah K, Wang J. A numerical scheme based on nondiscretization of data for boundary value problems of fractional order differential equations. RACSAM. 2018;2018:1-18\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nRehman M. Boundary value problems for fractional differential equations: Existence theory and numerical solutions [PhD dissertation]. Islamabad, Pakistan: NUST University; 2016\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nDarania P, Ebadian A. A method for the numerical solution of the integro-differential equations. Applied Mathematics and Computation. 2007;188:657-668\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Kamal Shah",address:"kamalshah408@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Mathematics, University of Malakand, Pakistan
Department of Mathematics, University of Education Lahore, Pakistan
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Rahmat Ali Khan",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Mathematics, University of Malakand, Pakistan
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Besides, the prestigious Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Universidade Federal da Bahia, and Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil ranked him as the first global scientist in the field of oil spill detection and mapping during the last fifty years. Prof.Dr. Maged Marghany is currently a director of Global Geoinformation Sdn.Bhd. He is the author of 8 titles including Advanced Remote Sensing Technology for Tsunami Modelling and Forecasting which is published by Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, CRC and Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging Mechanism for Oil Spills, which is published by Elsevier, His research specializes in microwave remote sensing and remote sensing for mineralogy detection and mapping. Previously, he worked as a Deputy Director in Research and Development at the Institute of Geospatial Science and Technology and the Department of Remote Sensing, both at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Maged has earned many degrees including a post-doctoral in radar remote sensing from the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, a Ph.D. in environmental remote sensing from the Universiti Putra Malaysia, a Master of Science in physical oceanography from the University Pertanian Malaysia, general and special diploma of Education and a Bachelor of Science in physical oceanography from the University of Alexandria in Egypt. Maged has published well over 250 papers in international conferences and journals and is active in International Geoinformatics, and the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS).",institutionString:"Syiah Kuala University",institution:{name:"Syiah Kuala University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"99269",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Pepe",slug:"antonio-pepe",fullName:"Antonio Pepe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99269/images/system/99269.png",biography:"Antonio Pepe received the Laurea degree (equivalent Master of Science) in Electronics Engineering and the Ph.D. degree in Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering from the University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy, in 2000 and 2007, respectively. In 2001 he joined the IREA-CNR where he is a permanent researcher. He was a Visiting Scientist at the University of Texas, Austin, in 2005, at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Caltech, Pasadena in 2009, and at the East China Normal University, Shanghai from 2014 to 2016 (one monthly visit per year).\r\nDr. Pepe acts as a reviewer for several peer-reviewed international journals. From 2012 to 2016 he was also an Adjunct Professor of Signal Theory at the Università della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy, and in 2017 he was Visiting Professor of Systems of Wireless Communications at the University of Naples, Italy.\r\nHe was the recipient of the 2014 Best Reviewer mention of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters. \r\nHis main research interests include the development of advanced DInSAR algorithms aimed at monitoring surface deformation phenomena induced by subsidence, volcano activities, and earthquakes, with a particular interest toward the phase unwrapping problems. More recently, he has developed research activities for the generation of DInSAR products through the new generation SAR instruments, for the generation of hybrid scanSAR-to-stripmap DInSAR analyses, and for the integration of SAR and optical images.",institutionString:"Institute for the Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"99542",title:"Mr.",name:"Tao",surname:"Yu",slug:"tao-yu",fullName:"Tao Yu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"102245",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ryo",surname:"Natsuaki",slug:"ryo-natsuaki",fullName:"Ryo Natsuaki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/102245/images/7729_n.jpg",biography:"Ryo Natsuaki received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, in 2009, 2011, and 2014, respectively.\nHe was an Aerospace Project Research Associate of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tokyo, from 2014 to 2017. He is currently a Lecturer with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Systems, The University of Tokyo. He is also a Guest Scientist with German Aerospace Center (DLR) by JSPS Overseas Research Fellowships from 2018 to 2020.\nHis research interests include active remote sensing with synthetic aperture radar. Dr. Natsuaki is a member of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society (GRSS) and the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers (IEICE). He currently serves as an Assistant Secretary of the IEICE Technical Committee on Space, Aeronautical, and Navigational Electronics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"102811",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Kaplonek",slug:"wojciech-kaplonek",fullName:"Wojciech Kaplonek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Koszalin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"104428",title:"Prof.",name:"Dahi",surname:"Abdelsalam",slug:"dahi-abdelsalam",fullName:"Dahi Abdelsalam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Standards and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"108524",title:"Prof.",name:"Czeslaw",surname:"Lukianowicz",slug:"czeslaw-lukianowicz",fullName:"Czeslaw Lukianowicz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Koszalin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"109980",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai",surname:"Li",slug:"hai-li",fullName:"Hai Li",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Civil Aviation University of China",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"110026",title:"Prof.",name:"Renbiao",surname:"Wu",slug:"renbiao-wu",fullName:"Renbiao Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Civil Aviation University of China",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"about-open-access",title:"About Open Access and Open Science",intro:"
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Carlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\\n\\n
OAI-PMH
\\n\\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\n
License
\\n\\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\n
Peer Review Policies
\\n\\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\n
OA Publishing Fees
\\n\\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\\n\\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\n
Open Science
\\n\\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\n
Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
\\n\\t
Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
\\n\\t
Reproducible research data and re-analysis
\\n\\t
Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\\n\\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\\n\\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\\n\\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\\n\\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\\n\\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
\\n
\\n\\n
We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
IntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\n
At IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n
“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\n
Open Access Standards followed by IntechOpen
\n\n
OAI-PMH
\n\n
As a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\n
License
\n\n
Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\n
Peer Review Policies
\n\n
All scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\n
OA Publishing Fees
\n\n
The Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\n
Digital Archiving Policy
\n\n
IntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\n
Open Science
\n\n
Open Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\n
Open Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\n
Open Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\n
\n\t
Promoting open and publicly accessible education tools
\n\t
Transparency in experimental methodology, observation, and collection of data
\n\t
Reproducible research data and re-analysis
\n\t
Public availability and re-usability of scientific data
\n\t
Public accessibility and transparency of scientific communication
\n\t
Transparent peer-review and publishing practices
\n\t
Using web-based tools to facilitate scientific collaboration
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between disciplines
\n\t
Supporting exchange of knowledge and research materials between scientific communities and industry.
\n
\n\n
We aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\n\n
\n\t
Open Access
\n\t
Open Data
\n\t
Open Metrics and Impact
\n\t
Open Source
\n
\n\n
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It is present in different machines we use every day; in fact, technical systems in our homes and all the industries are hard to imagine today without these concepts. Moreover, the same theories can be used for modelling life processes as a collection of inputs, outputs, plants and control loops. Feedback is one of the main concepts behind control; in particular, several examples of physiological control mechanisms for regulating life aspects can be found in the human anatomy, for example, blood pressure, cholesterol levels, body movements, the equilibrium, etc. Those processes can be damaged by the aging effects, diseases, accidents or when the mechanism has been broken and cannot be recovered naturally; consequently, it will be required external assistance. A relative new field in control theory is related with developing technology for helping with physiological and medicals problems. However, in comparison with machines, those physiological processes are highly nonlinear, with delays and slow responses. Another problem is when human becomes the operators using their capacities of decision making to close the control loop, as they are prone to errors and mistakes. For those reasons, the biomedical system needs to be carefully designed and several aspects have to be considered. This chapter gives a small review of some internal and external control processes within the human body and discusses how to interact with them for designing biomedical devices. Under this design scheme, a practical application of a smart electric wheelchair for assisting persons with strong disabilities is presented. These assistive robotic systems are in close contact with the user, and thus, it is determinant to have a user-friendly relation between the human and the interface. Therefore, intuitive interfaces were included in the design and an intelligent navigation assistant to guarantee a collision-free path.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"David Balderas and Mario Rojas",authors:[{id:"183076",title:"M.Sc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Balderas Silva",slug:"david-balderas-silva",fullName:"David Balderas Silva"},{id:"184877",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas",slug:"mario-rojas",fullName:"Mario Rojas"}]},{id:"51070",title:"Fuzzy PD Controller in NAO System's Platform",slug:"fuzzy-pd-controller-in-nao-system-s-platform",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Humanoid robotic platforms rarely achieve the desire trajectory because of the deviation generated during the robot walking. This problem is due to different circumstances such as robot manufacturing, wear and tear of mechanic parts, or variations of floor flatness. Currently, one of the humanoid robots on the market is the robotic platform developed by Aldebaran Robotics called NAO robot, and it is used for different purposes where the robot needs to navigate into controlled spaces. NAO presents the issue of deviation during walking; therefore, a Fuzzy PD Controller is developed and implemented for this platform to reduce the orientation error and to ensure reliability during navigation. Inertial sensors are used to get the orientation reference and for feedback of the closed-loop control. Consequently, a robust control was implemented and tested in different conditions of floor and velocity during the robot’s navigation such as robot races and maze resolution. Experimental results show that fuzzy controller achieves significant improvements in the trajectories of NAO.",book:{id:"5238",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",title:"Automation and Control Trends",fullTitle:"Automation and Control Trends"},signatures:"Edgar Omar López‐Caudana and César Daniel González Gutiérrez",authors:[{id:"26464",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Lopez-Caudana",slug:"edgar-lopez-caudana",fullName:"Edgar Lopez-Caudana"},{id:"185936",title:"Mr.",name:"César Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"González Gutiérrez",slug:"cesar-daniel-gonzalez-gutierrez",fullName:"César Daniel González Gutiérrez"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"257",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo, Ph.D., is a professor in the Department of Engineering, University of Naples “Parthenope,” Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino and Southern Lazio, Italy. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plants, logistics, manufacturing, and safety. She serves as an associate editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process and is an editorial board member for several other journals. She is also a member of the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) Academy.",institutionString:"Parthenope University of Naples",institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the 'new normal'. Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:{name:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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