The chemical composition of CFA#2.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7824",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Numerical Modeling and Computer Simulation",title:"Numerical Modeling and Computer Simulation",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Information technologies have changed people’s lives to a great extent, and now it is almost impossible to imagine any activity that does not depend on computers in some way. Since the invention of first computer systems, people have been trying to avail computers in order to solve complex problems in various areas. Traditional methods of calculation have been replaced by computer programs that have the ability to predict the behavior of structures under different loading conditions. There are eight chapters in this book that deal with: optimal control of thermal pollution emitted by power plants, finite difference solution of conjugate heat transfer in double pipe with trapezoidal fins, photovoltaic system integrated into the buildings, possibilities of modeling Petri nets and their extensions, etc.",isbn:"978-1-83881-197-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-196-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-198-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77641",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"numerical-modeling-and-computer-simulation",numberOfPages:160,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"603fad5bcae90ad8484397ca63b0e2e7",bookSignature:"Dragan M. Cvetković and Gunvant A. Birajdar",publishedDate:"May 6th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7824.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5697,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 16th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 29th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 17th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 17th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101330/images/system/101330.jpg",biography:"Dragan Cvetković obtained a Ph.D. in Aeronautics from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, in 1997. To date, he has published sixty-five books, scripts, and practicums about computers and computer programs, aviation weapons, and flight mechanics. He has published many scientific papers as well. Dr. Cvetković became a full professor of Informatics and Computing at Singidunum University, Belgrade, in 2014. Since 2019, he has been the vice-rector for teaching at the same university.",institutionString:"Singidunum University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"Singidunum University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"191049",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunvant",middleName:null,surname:"Birajdar",slug:"gunvant-birajdar",fullName:"Gunvant Birajdar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191049/images/system/191049.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Birajdar earned a Ph.D. in Mathematics from Department of Mathematics, Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar\nMarathwada University, Aurangabad (M.S.) with a PhD thesis On Numerical Techniques in Nonlinear Fractional Partial Differential Equations and Applications. He is presently performing the role of a Assistant Professor at Tata Institute of Social Sciences (TISS), Tuljapur, Maharashtra since July 2013.",institutionString:"Tata institute of Social Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Tata Institute of Social Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"599",title:"Computer Simulation",slug:"numerical-analysis-and-scientific-computing-computer-simulation"}],chapters:[{id:"67468",title:"A Pilot Fortran Software Library for the Solution of Laplace’s Equation by the Boundary Element Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86507",slug:"a-pilot-fortran-software-library-for-the-solution-of-laplace-s-equation-by-the-boundary-element-meth",totalDownloads:781,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The boundary element method (BEM) is developed from the standpoint of software design. The Fortran language is used to produce a structured library for solving Laplace’s equation in various domain topologies and dimensions with generalised boundary conditions. Subroutines that compute the discrete Laplace operators, which are the core components for populating the matrices in the BEM, are developed. The main subroutines for solving Laplace’s equation in 2D, 3D and axisymmetric cases for open and closed boundaries are introduced. The methods are demonstrated on test problems.",signatures:"Stephen Kirkup and Javad Yazdani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67468",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67468",authors:[{id:"285334",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Kirkup",slug:"stephen-kirkup",fullName:"Stephen Kirkup"},{id:"297832",title:"Dr.",name:"Javad",surname:"Yazdani",slug:"javad-yazdani",fullName:"Javad Yazdani"}],corrections:null},{id:"68860",title:"Optimal Control of Thermal Pollution Emitted by Power Plants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88646",slug:"optimal-control-of-thermal-pollution-emitted-by-power-plants",totalDownloads:881,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The coastal areas near thermal or nuclear plants are subject to hot water discharges produced by cooling processes. These activities induce an increase of the temperature near the outlet vicinity, which can extend for miles. The temperature variation affects the metabolic rate of organisms and the level of dissolved oxygen. Cooling by cold water from an additional discharge can be considered in order to limit this thermal pollution. This paper present a methodology based on the implementation of a two-dimensional numerical model to study the dynamic of the temperature originated from the industrial discharges. Moreover the optimal injection rate of cold water is sought to keep the water temperature as close as possible to the survival of the ecosystem. Numerical simulations are performed to illustrate the efficiency approach.",signatures:"Lèye Babacar, Tine Léon Matar and Sy Mamadou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68860",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68860",authors:[{id:"271465",title:"Dr.",name:"Babacar",surname:"Leye",slug:"babacar-leye",fullName:"Babacar Leye"},{id:"294406",title:"Dr.",name:"Léon Matar",surname:"Tine",slug:"leon-matar-tine",fullName:"Léon Matar Tine"},{id:"294407",title:"Prof.",name:"Mamadou",surname:"Sy",slug:"mamadou-sy",fullName:"Mamadou Sy"}],corrections:null},{id:"67983",title:"Finite Difference Solution of Conjugate Heat Transfer in Double Pipe with Trapezoidal Fins",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82555",slug:"finite-difference-solution-of-conjugate-heat-transfer-in-double-pipe-with-trapezoidal-fins",totalDownloads:760,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A conjugate heat transfer problem on the shell side of a finned double pipe heat exchanger is numerically studied by suing finite difference technique. Laminar flow with isothermal boundary conditions is considered in the finned annulus with fully developed flow region to investigate the influence of variations in the fin height, the number of fins and the fluid and wall thermal conductivities on the hydraulic and thermal design of the exchanger. The governing momentum and energy equations have been solved by a finite difference-based numerical algorithm. The improvement in heat transfer rates, the exchanger performance and the optimum configurations are discussed.",signatures:"Ghazala Ashraf, Khalid S. Syed and Muhammad Ishaq",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67983",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67983",authors:[{id:"278475",title:"Ms.",name:"Ghazala",surname:"Ashraf",slug:"ghazala-ashraf",fullName:"Ghazala Ashraf"},{id:"278487",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Saifullah Syed",slug:"khalid-saifullah-syed",fullName:"Khalid Saifullah Syed"},{id:"279811",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Ishaq",slug:"muhammad-ishaq",fullName:"Muhammad Ishaq"}],corrections:null},{id:"71483",title:"Control Analysis of Building-Integrated Photovoltaic System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91739",slug:"control-analysis-of-building-integrated-photovoltaic-system",totalDownloads:686,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, a photovoltaic system integrated into the building is investigated. The studied structure includes also a battery energy storage system. The overall system is connected to a four-wire AC bus, with the possibility to supply single-phase and three-phase loads. Each equipment is interfaced with a dedicated power converter. This chapter examines the technical operation of all structure components and gives a detailed mathematical study of the DC/AC power converter control in case of two modes, namely, grid connected mode and standalone mode. The investigated control is based on resonant controller. The resonant controller parameters tuning, which is based on the generalized stability margin criterion, is detailed in this chapter. To prove the performance of the proposed control algorithm, several simulation tests developed under PSIM software were performed and then validated by experimental results.",signatures:"Marwa Ben Saïd-Romdhane, Sondes Skander-Mustapha and Ilhem Slama-Belkhodja",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71483",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71483",authors:[{id:"310277",title:"Dr.",name:"Marwa",surname:"Ben Said-Romdhane",slug:"marwa-ben-said-romdhane",fullName:"Marwa Ben Said-Romdhane"},{id:"313033",title:"Prof.",name:"Sondes",surname:"Skander-Mustapha",slug:"sondes-skander-mustapha",fullName:"Sondes Skander-Mustapha"},{id:"313034",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilhem",surname:"Slama-Belkhodja",slug:"ilhem-slama-belkhodja",fullName:"Ilhem Slama-Belkhodja"}],corrections:null},{id:"70026",title:"Computer Simulation and the Practice of Oral Medicine and Radiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90082",slug:"computer-simulation-and-the-practice-of-oral-medicine-and-radiology",totalDownloads:543,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The practice of Oral Medicine and Radiology has long been considered an art form. Collecting and collimating the enormous amount of information each patient brings has always tested the best of our abilities as diagnosticians. However, as the tide of smartphones, cheaper data access, and automation rises, it threatens to wash away all that we have held sacrosanct about conventional clinical practices. In this tussle between what is traditional and what is tantalizing, it is time to question, as diagnosticians, how much can we accede to the invasion of algorithms. How does computer simulation affect the practice of diagnosis in the field of Oral Medicine and Radiology?",signatures:"Saman Ishrat, Akhilanand Chaurasia and Mohammad Husain Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70026",authors:[{id:"231462",title:"Dr.",name:"Akhilanand",surname:"Chaurasia",slug:"akhilanand-chaurasia",fullName:"Akhilanand Chaurasia"},{id:"310505",title:"Dr.",name:"Saman",surname:"Ishrat",slug:"saman-ishrat",fullName:"Saman Ishrat"},{id:"312930",title:"Mr.",name:"M. Husain",surname:"Khan",slug:"m.-husain-khan",fullName:"M. Husain Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"70763",title:"Simulation and Parametric Inference of a Mixed Effects Model with Stochastic Differential Equations Using the Fokker-Planck Equation Solution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90751",slug:"simulation-and-parametric-inference-of-a-mixed-effects-model-with-stochastic-differential-equations-",totalDownloads:695,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is concerned with estimation method for multidimensional and nonlinear dynamical models including stochastic differential equations containing random effects (random parameters). This type of model has proved useful for describing continuous random processes, for distinguishing intra- and interindividual variability as well as for accounting for uncertainty in the dynamic model itself. Pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic modeling often involves repeated measurements on a series of experimental units, and random effects are incorporated into the model to simulate the individual behavior in the entire population. Unfortunately, the estimation of this kind of models could involve some difficulties, because in most cases, the transition density of the diffusion process given the random effects is not available. In this work, we focus on the approximation of the transition density of a such process in a closed form in order to obtain parameter estimates in this kind of model, using the Fokker-Planck equation and the Risken approximation. In addition, the chapter discusses a simulation study using Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation, to provide results of the proposed methodology and to illustrate an application of mixed effects models with SDEs in the epidemiology using the minimal model describing glucose-insulin kinetics.",signatures:"Bakrim Fadwa, Hamid El Maroufy and Hassan Ait Mousse",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70763",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70763",authors:[{id:"312014",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Bakrim",surname:"Fadwa",slug:"bakrim-fadwa",fullName:"Bakrim Fadwa"},{id:"315738",title:"Prof.",name:"El Maroufy",surname:"Hamid",slug:"el-maroufy-hamid",fullName:"El Maroufy Hamid"},{id:"315739",title:"Dr.",name:"Ait Mousse",surname:"Hassan",slug:"ait-mousse-hassan",fullName:"Ait Mousse Hassan"}],corrections:null},{id:"70323",title:"The Possibilities of Modeling Petri Nets and Their Extensions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90275",slug:"the-possibilities-of-modeling-petri-nets-and-their-extensions",totalDownloads:688,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is dedicated to several structure features of Petri nets. There is detailed description of appropriate access in Petri nets and reachable tree mechanism construction. There is an algorithm that describes the minimum sequence of possible transitions. The algorithm developed by us finds the shortest possible sequence for the network promotion state, which transfers the mentioned network state to the coverage state. The corresponding theorem is proven, which states that due to the describing algorithm, the number of transitions in the covering state is minimal. This chapter studies the interrelation of languages of colored Petri nets and traditional formal languages. The Venn diagram, modified by the author, is presented, which shows the relationship between the languages of the colored Petri nets and some traditional languages. As a result, it is shown that the language class of colored Petri nets includes an entire class of context-free languages and some other classes. The results obtained show that it is not possible to model the Patil problem using the well-known semaphores P and V or classical Petri nets, so the mentioned systems have limited properties.",signatures:"Goharik Petrosyan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70323",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70323",authors:[{id:"267376",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Goharik",surname:"Petrosyan",slug:"goharik-petrosyan",fullName:"Goharik Petrosyan"}],corrections:null},{id:"70096",title:"Line Impedance Emulator: Modeling, Control Design, Simulation and Experimental Validation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90081",slug:"line-impedance-emulator-modeling-control-design-simulation-and-experimental-validation",totalDownloads:663,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The variation of line impedance has always been a great concern for grid operators and industrial users. The problem is that the reliability and quality of the supplied power are influenced by this variation. Indeed, several standards and grid requirements fix strict rules and rigorous standards when connecting or disconnecting from the public grid. In this context, this chapter proposes a full study of a line impedance emulator, which includes the power design and the control. The line impedance emulator is useful for small scale laboratories that develop distributed energy generation. Developed line impedance emulator is based on a three-phase power converter. For these converters, different controls are applied, including proportional integral and resonant controllers. For the generation of voltage reference values that correspond to expected line impedance, two algorithms are studied, namely, trigonometric functions-based algorithm and voltage drop-based algorithm. 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by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"corrigendum-to-many-core-algorithm-of-the-embedded-zerotree-wavelet-encoder",title:"Corrigendum to: Many-Core Algorithm of the Embedded Zerotree Wavelet Encoder",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74512.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74512",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74512",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74512",chapter:{id:"70013",slug:"many-core-algorithm-of-the-embedded-zerotree-wavelet-encoder",signatures:"Jesús Antonio Alvarez-Cedillo, Teodoro Alvarez-Sanchez, Mario Aguilar-Fernandez and Jacobo Sandoval-Gutierrez",dateSubmitted:"May 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"August 22nd 2019",datePrePublished:"December 7th 2019",datePublished:"March 11th 2020",book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and 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2020",book:{id:"7623",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Coding Theory",slug:"coding-theory",publishedDate:"March 11th 2020",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7623.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"118717",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jesús Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Álvarez-Cedillo",fullName:"Jesús Antonio Álvarez-Cedillo",slug:"jesus-antonio-alvarez-cedillo",email:"jaalvarez@ipn.mx",position:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"305584",title:"Dr.",name:"Teodoro",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sanchez",fullName:"Teodoro 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\r\n\tWe are all surrounded by images and visual messages that often transmit more than words. The human body projected in the society has a certain social and cultural significance and is strongly influenced by the cultural standards of beauty. Women are always aiming at a slender version of themselves while men invest time and energy in body building. Dissatisfaction with overall physical appearance or certain body parts can lead to serious body and mental damages. The aim to an ultrathin or a superman beauty ideal can lead to a vicious cycle of weight loss and weight gain. In this diet cycle, eating disorders have also emotional consequences. Distorted self-body perception is often associated with insecure attitude, preoccupation, seeking reassurance in peer’s opinion, low self-esteem and even depression. A possible explanation for this constant preoccupation about losing weight is the body composition. A low percentage of muscle mass with a high density and an increased percentage of body fat could result in a normal body mass index, but also in a disharmonic body shape. Physical and health education can enhance the understanding and acceptance of one's own body as well as the body of others, and provide the cognitive constructs for setting and assuming realistic goals which we hope to cover in this book.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f170257aa44f8a689c7084c734f647ec",bookSignature:"Dr. Cristiana Lucretia Pop",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8473.jpg",keywords:"Weight, Body Composition, Eating Disorders, Self Esteem, Self-Perception, Body Image Distortion, Psychopathology, Cosmetic Surgery, Anxiety, Psychological Health, Healthy Weight, Lifestyle",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 21st 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 11th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 1st 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 30th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"196213",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristiana Lucretia",middleName:null,surname:"Pop",slug:"cristiana-lucretia-pop",fullName:"Cristiana Lucretia Pop",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196213/images/system/196213.png",biography:"Cristiana Pop, PhD, is currently Full Professor in the Physical Education and Sport Department at the Bucharest University of Economic Studies. In addition, professor Cristiana Pop worked as associated researcher in the Anthropology Institute of the Romanian Academy. She has a PhD in sport sciences and a Master’s in Economics.\nShe has over 30 years of experience in teaching and training, and over 70 publications: 11 books, 2 chapters, numerous articles in journals and proceedings. \nDr. Pop\\'s main research interest is the link between body image, body weight, body composition and their psychological effects, and her main activity is promoting a healthy life style, physical activities, and popular sports among students and overweight people. She is serving as an editorial and scientific board member, editor and reviewer of reputed journals in health, education and sports science field.",institutionString:"The Bucharest University of Economic Studies",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bucharest University of Economic Studies",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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It accounts for about 1% of all anal cancers [1]. Due to its rarity, it is often misdiagnosed as hemorrhoids, rectal adenocarcinoma and polyps. Its early diagnosis and treatment are important to improve the prognosis as it is an aggressive disease with high malignant potential. There are no standard guidelines for the diagnosis, staging and treatment of AM. In this chapter, we have discussed the epidemiological, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, treatment and prognosis of AM.
Mucosal melanoma (MM) accounts for 1–2% of all melanomas with incidence of 2–2.6 cases per million people/year [2]. The most common sites of MM are head and neck followed by anorectal region [3]. AM is the most common type of gastrointestinal melanoma and the third most common type of melanoma [3]. AM accounts for 16.5% cases of mucosal melanomas [4]. The annual incidence rate of AM is 0.259 in males and 0.407 in females according to Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) analysis and, the incidence has been steadily increasing over the years [5, 6]. However, the exact reasons for rising incidence are poorly understood. The prevalence of AM is 1.6 to 2.3 times higher in females than males and two times higher in Caucasians than African Americans [7, 8].
Melanocytes are derived from the neural crest cells. They migrate to the cutis and mucocutaneous junctions during the embryonal life. The chief function of melanocytes is their antioxidant activity, which helps to counteract the free radicals generated by the ultraviolet rays. Additionally, they contribute to the regional immune response [9, 10]. It has been postulated that the malignant transformation of melanocytes occurs due to oxidative stress and/or immunosuppression [9]. Other theories on AM suggest that they may be derived from Schwann cells of autonomic nervous system or the cells of the amine-precursor uptake and decarboxylation (APUD) system of the gastrointestinal tract [11]. Ultraviolet rays play a central role in the development of cutaneous melanoma (CM) unlike mucosal melanoma (MM). Hence, other pathways are involved in the development of MM which are poorly understood.
MM have different mutation profile compared to cutaneous melanomas [12]. BRAF mutations are infrequent, with an increased rate of c-KIT overexpression [13]. The incidence of BRAF, NRAS and c-KIT mutations are 5–16%, 14–18% and 11–15% respectively [14, 15, 16]. The mutation profiles of mucosal melanomas indicate that they have potential sensitivity to CDK4/6 and MEK inhibitors [16]. A study by Newell et al. have identified various mutational signatures in mucosal melanomas [16]. They found that mutations for melanoma in facial sites are different from that found in lower body sites. For example, SF3B1 hotspot mutations are common in AM and vulvovaginal melanomas, unlike other sites. Another study by Donizy et al. found that high poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP-1) expression alone and along with high indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO-1) expression in mucosal melanomas was associated with worse overall and disease-specific survival [17]. Some studies have speculated that some viruses such as human papilloma virus (HPV) and human herpes virus (HHV-8) could be involved in the development of primary MM [11]. However, HPV DNA and HHV-8 DNA could not be detected in cases with AM [18, 19].
The clinical features of AM mimic that of benign anorectal disorders leading to delay in diagnosis. The main clinical symptoms include bleeding per rectum, perianal pain, pruritus ani, tenesmus, perianal mass, inguinal mass (Figure 1). It is more frequent in females than males (1.7:1). It is most frequently observed in 6th and 7th decade of life [5]. The most important aspect of clinical diagnosis is a careful perianal and per-rectal examination. AM appears as an ulcerated or nodular lesion with an irregular surface showing brown or black pigmentation (Figure 1). Moreover, these are vascular lesions which bleed on touching. Frequently, in about 20% cases, the pigmentation may be absent. In small lesions, a high index of suspicion is required for timely diagnosis due its appearance similar to hemorrhoids. Hence, whenever in doubt, incisional or excisional biopsy should be performed for histopathological examination to diagnose AM. Another important clinical finding in cases of AM is the presence of inguinal lymphadenopathy. Inguinal lymph nodal metastases are usually seen in cases of anal melanoma. In cases with inguinal lymphadenopathy, fine needle aspiration and cytological examination for the enlarged lymph nodes can help in making the diagnosis.
Perianal examination showing the ulcerated mass in a patient with locally advanced anorectal melanoma.
Serum markers can aid in the diagnosis of AM. However, they are elevated in advanced cases of melanoma and often used as an adjunct to the other investigations for diagnosis. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a commonly used marker for the detection of distant metastases in patients with melanoma [20]. Other markers include S-100B, melanoma inhibitor activity (MIA) protein, enolase and YKL-40 [21, 22, 23, 24]. Elevated levels of these markers have been associated with a poor prognosis.
The main role of radiological investigations is to determine the extent of the disease. Chest radiograph can detect obvious pulmonary metastases while abdominal ultrasound can detect liver metastasis [25]. Computed tomography (CT) is helpful in accurate staging of the disease (Figure 2). On CT, the liver lesions show late arterial enhancement and hypoattenuation of liver parenchyma in the portal venous phase [26]. The pulmonary metastases on CT chest appear as multiple end-arterial nodules with tree-in-bud appearance [25]. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a good imaging modality for accurate assessment of the local invasion of the tumor as well as for the detection of metastatic lesions in the liver (Figure 2) [27]. PETCT is the recommended imaging for the staging and response assessment of metastatic melanoma [20]. Melanoma cells have higher FDG avidity compared to normal tissues due to high metabolic rate [20].
Anorectal melanoma appeared as a heterogeneously enhancing polypoidal mass (arrow) on contrast enhanced CT (A) and MRI (B, C).
For deeply located AM, especially rectal melanoma, endoscopy is very useful to visualize the lesions and take biopsies for histological examination. On endoscopy, the lesions appear as black or brownish plaques, ulcers or polyps due to the melanin pigment. The accuracy of endoscopic biopsy ranges from 50 to 100% [28]. The accuracy is low for lesions with atypical endoscopic characteristics. Endoscopic ultrasound is helpful in determining the depth of the lesions especially the extent of anal sphincter involvement and to look for perirectal lymphadenopathy. The lesions appear hypoechoic with uneven internal echoes [28].
As none of the clinical features are unique to AM, histological examination of the suspected lesions should be performed for the definitive diagnosis of AM. The main cytological features of AM are highly cellular smear, presence of binucleated or multinucleated cells, and cytoplasmic melanin pigment. However, melanin pigment is found in only about 27% cases [29].
On gross examination, the lesion appears as polypoidal or ulcerated lesion with or without brown-black pigmentation (Figure 3). The histological description includes cell type, degree of melanin pigmentation and mitotic index (Ki-67) [20]. Typically, AM consists of spindle-shaped (Figure 4) or epitheloid cells with high nuclear pleomorphism and presence of cytoplasmic melanin granules (Figure 5) [30]. About 20% cases are truly amelanotic on histology [31]. Four subtypes of AM based on histology are epitheloid, spindle cell, lymphoma-like and pleomorphic [32]. In the absence of melanin pigments, the tumor morphology can mimic lymphoma and gastrointestinal stromal tumors. Immunohistochemistry helps in differentiate AM from other tumors. Melanoma antigens such as S-100, HMB-45 and vimentin are positive in 78, 94 and 100% cases (Figure 6) [31]. The characteristic marker of gastrointestinal stromal tumor, c-Kit is positive in about three-fourth cases of AM (Figure 4) [32]. In some cases, the tumor cells may show positivity for CEA, CD30 and CD68 similar to colorectal adenocarcinoma and other tumors [33]. Hence, a panel of markers should be tested to confirm the diagnosis of AM in doubtful cases. Some unique markers for melanoma with high specificity and low sensitivity include Melanin A, Mart-1 antibodies [20]. Interestingly, Ki-67 and proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) immunostains have been found to predict survival in patients with AM [31].
Gross examination of the specimen after abdominoperineal resection showing the pigmented polypoidal hard growth (arrow) of about 3 cm reaching up to the outer surface (A) and involving the anorectal junction (B).
Histological examination of anorectal melanoma showing the diffuse infiltration of the tissue by spindle-shaped cells with dense eosinophilic cytoplasm and pleomorphic nuclei: (A) H&E x10, (B) H&E x 20, and (C) H&E x 40. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed positive staining with c-KIT (D) and Melan A (E).
Microscopic examination of the tumor showing diffuse infiltration of the anorectal region by large epitheloid cells with vesicular and prominent nuclei (A) H&E x 10 and (B) H&E x 40.
Immunohistochemical analysis of the anorectal melanoma showing positivity for HMB 45 (A), Melan A (B) and SOX 10 (C).
Tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) provide a reflection of the tumor microenvironment. Presence of TILs in high concentration is associated with high programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) [34]. High PD-1 expression indicates better prognosis for patients with AM due to good response to targeted therapies. TILs can be seen on hematoxylin and eosin stains and also with immunohistochemistry. The majority of these TILs are CD8-positive cells. In a study of 43 AM patients, TILs were present in 55% cases [35].
As CM and MM are known for early hematogenous spread, secondary gastrointestinal melanomas are not rare. Hence, for differentiation between primary and secondary melanoma, the following criteria must be satisfied: absence of melanoma at any other cutaneous or mucosal sites confirmed by thorough clinical including genital, oropharyngeal, ophthalmological and endoscopic examination; no past history of melanoma and presence of atypical melanocytes in the basal epithelium of the tissue sample [36].
There is no formal staging system for AM. However, the most commonly described system for AM in previous studies is the Ballantye clinical system which has three stages as follows: Stage I – localized disease, Stage II – presence of inguinal or pelvic lymph nodes and stage III – distant metastasis [37, 38, 39]. Interestingly, a recent study by Nagarajan et al. involving 160 AM patients found that the clinical American Joint Cancer Committee (AJCC) staging system (8th edition) for CM significantly stratified disease-specific survival of AM patients. Moreover, the authors recommended slight modifications in the AJCC ‘T’ category criteria of staging for better stratification [40]. Hence, either of the two staging systems can be used to prognosticate the disease in patients with AM.
The main treatment options for AM are surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy and targeted therapies. According to a study which analyzed data of 1333 AM patients from National Cancer Database from 2004 to 2015, the authors found that surgery alone (48.7%) was the most common treatment given to the AM patients [6]. The use of chemotherapy and radiotherapy was similar throughout the study period but there has been a rapid increase in the use of targeted therapies for AM in the last few years. In Figure 7, we have provided an overview of the management of patients with AM.
A suggested algorithm for the management of anorectal melanoma. (WLE—Wide local excision, APR—Abdominoperineal resection, systemic therapy—Chemotherapy, targeted therapies).
Surgery remains the mainstay of treatment. Most of the previous studies recommend surgical excision for Stage I and II AM. However, the benefit of lymph node dissection in AM has not been established. Unlike rectal adenocarcinoma and CM, lymph nodal metastasis has no significant impact on the long-term survival [41, 42]. The systemic dissemination of the disease occurs early in the course of the disease even before lymph nodal metastasis [43]. The 2020 UK National guidelines recommend R0 surgical resection in the least radical fashion [44]. Lymphadenectomy should be performed in cases with metastatic regional lymph nodes.
The main procedures for AM include: (1) function-preserving procedures such as endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR), wide local excision (WLE); (2) radical procedures such as low anterior resection (LR), abdominoperineal resection (APR). In a meta-analysis of 31 studies [43], 7 studies found APR to be superior to WLE [45, 46, 47], 11 studies found WLE to be better than APR [41, 48, 49] while 10 studies reported similar survival outcomes between the two procedures [42, 50, 51]. However, the local recurrence rate was significantly higher in WLE group (57% vs. 21.6%). The most recent study of 305 AM patients treated from 2004 to 2015 found no difference in overall survival (OS) between local and transabdominal resection (2.54 vs. 1.86 years, p = 0.77) [52]. Another recent meta-analysis found no significant difference in OS, disease-free survival (DFS) and local recurrence rates between WLE and APR on analyzing of data from 23, 7 and 19 studies, respectively [53]. So, we believe that WLE with regular surveillance should be the preferred approach. If WLE is not feasible or there is local recurrence without distant metastasis, then APR should be considered [39].
There is no standard chemotherapy regimen for AM due to the rarity of the disease. However, dacarbazine in combination with high-dose interferon and interleukin-2 was found to be effective in 10–20% cases of mucosal melanomas [54]. In a Turkish study of 6 AM patients, all patients received APR followed by adjuvant chemo- and radiotherapy [55]. The adjuvant chemotherapy included dacarbazine and temozolomide. In addition, two patients received ipilimumab, and one patient received interferon therapy. At the mean postoperative follow up of 12.5 months (6–26 months), 4 patients died due to extensive distant metastases while two patients were disease free [55]. In another study of 22 patients with metastatic AM, six patients received dacarbazine while one patient received temozolomide and thalidomide. The median survival in these patients was 9 months [56].
Radiation therapy has been used for palliation or in the adjuvant setting after organ preserving surgery such as wide local excision to reduce the chances of local recurrence. A study by Kelly et al. of 54 patients treated by WLE followed by hypo-fractionated radiotherapy reported good local control in 82% cases but the 5-year OS was only 30% [57].
Immune checkpoint inhibitors have become the standard of care in the treatment of metastatic CM. However, their role in MM is still under investigation. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen (CTLA-4) and programmed-death (PD1) protein are the most common immune checkpoint targets expressed on activated T-cells with immunosuppressive effects. Ipilimumab is a fully human monoclonal that blocks the binding of CTLA4 with CD80 and CD86 ligands. It was the first agent approved for the treatment of advanced melanoma. It has an indirect effect on the T-cell mediated antitumor immune response. It prolongs survival in about 20% patients [58].
The ligands of PD1, PDL1 (B7H8) and PDL2 (B7DC) are expressed on tumor cells and other cell types. The immunosuppression of PD1 receptor is due to the interaction between T lymphocytes and tumor cells. PD1 blockage seems to be more effective toward t-cell activation than CTLA-4 inhibition. Nivolumab and pembrolizumab are humanized monoclonal antibodies against PD1. In a study of 44 MM patients having metastasis including 14 patients with AM, pembrolizumab was found to be more effective than ipilimumab in prolonging the PFS [59]. Another study reported the objective response rate of 23% and 37% in MM patients receiving nivolumab alone and in combination with ipilimumab respectively [60]. A study of eight patients treated by immunotherapy, one patient on PD-1 based combination therapy had stable disease and one patient with PD-1 monotherapy had complete response while rest of the six patients had progressive disease [35].
Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway plays an important role in the cell survival, multiplication and differentiation. Overactivation of this pathway has been detected in various human cancers. Through this pathway many enzymatic kinases are expressed that are part of phosphorylation cascade including RAS, RAK, MEK and ERK kinases [61]. Overactivation of BRAF is one of the most common cause of abnormal MAPK signaling seen in cancers [62]. The MAPK pathway is activated in 40–50% cases of metastatic melanomas [63]. Hence, various BRAF and MEK inhibitors have been used for the treatment of metastatic melanoma.
Dabrafenib is a competitive reversible ATP inhibitor with selective BRAF inhibition. It has been found to be effective in 50–70% cases of melanomas with BRAF V600E or V600K mutations [64, 65]. Additionally, use of MEK inhibitors in combination with BRAF inhibitors such as vemurafenib plus cobimetinib or dabrafenib plus trametinib have prolonged PFS and OS of melanoma patients.
KIT kinase inhibitors such as sorafenib, imatinib, dasatinib, have been found to be very useful in the treatment of gastrointestinal stromal tumors. But they have not been very successful in the treatment of melanomas. However, some studies on KIT-mutated metastatic MM have shown good response to these KIT kinase inhibitors [66, 67, 68, 69].
NRAS mutations are present in 15–20% cases of melanoma [70]. Tumors with NRAS mutations have aggressive tumor biology and show poor response to immune check point inhibitors [70]. MEK inhibitors especially binimetinib has shown promising results in phase II/III studies [71]. Several phase I/II trials testing the role of MEK inhibitors in combination with PI3K/AKT inhibitors are underway mainly including metastatic CM patients [70].
In summary, patients with AM, unlike CM, have poor response to targeted therapies. Also, the type of targeted therapy to be used depends upon the mutation analysis of the tumor as highlighted in Figure 8. However, the response rates with targeted therapies are better than conventional chemotherapy and are being increasingly used in clinical trials and oncology practice. Some immune checkpoints inhibitors and BRAF inhibitors are being used as adjuvant therapies in the ongoing clinical trials to reduce the recurrence rate after complete surgical excision.
A flow chart outlining the use of various targeted therapies for the patients with anorectal melanoma (molecular testing—Mutation testing can be done by immunohistochemistry or next-generation or high-throughput sequencing (NSG); BRAF inhibitors—Dabrafenib, vemurafenib, encorafenib; MEK inhibitors—Trametinib, cobimetinib, binimetinib (MEK162); KIT inhibitors—Imatinib, sunitinib, nilotinib; immune checkpoint inhibitors—Ipilimumab, nivolumab, pembrolizumab).
Studies have found alfa-interferon to improve relapse-free survival and overall survival in patients with CM. In CM, particularly in patients with positive nodal involvement, α-interferon at the dose of 20 MU/m2/day intravenously 5 day weekly for 4 weeks, followed by 10 MU/m2/day subcutaneously three times weekly for 4–8 weeks had demonstrated a significant prolongation of DFS and OS [72]. However, their role in AM is not clear.
The 5-year survival rate of colorectal melanoma ranges from 4.3% to 17.4% [73]. The median survival of AM has been reported as 21 months [95% CI: 11–30] [15]. The 5-year OS rates of Stage I, II and III are 26.7%, 9.8% and 0% respectively [35].
A recent study by Menon et al. of 209 nonmetastatic AM patients found no significant difference in the median overall survival with chemotherapy (1.41 vs., 2.24 years, p = 0.16), radiotherapy (2.55 vs. 1.96 years, p = 0.31) and targeted therapy (2.07 vs. 1.96 years, p = 0.95) [52]. This study also found no benefit of adjuvant therapy in nonmetastatic AM cases after surgery. On the other hand, in 116 patients with metastatic disease, targeted therapy showed a trend toward higher survival (1.33 vs. 0.55 years, p = 0.06). On multivariate analysis, younger age, urban location of the patients and surgery were associated with better OS [52]. Other studies have found that age, tumor thickness, presence of ulceration, lymphovascular invasion, perineural invasion and tumor AJCC stage are the main predictors of survival [15, 39, 40].
The reported 1-,2-,3-,4-OS rates have been 67,40,40 and 32% in APR group and 100,100,67, and 67% in WLE group [39]. The median survival in WLE and APR groups were 36 and 13 months respectively [3]. In another study by Bello et al., no significant difference was found between WLE (n = 81) and APR (n = 14) provided the resection margins were tumor-free [74].
The site of origin of melanoma affects the prognosis as seen in cutaneous and mucosal melanoma. Whether the location of the tumor such as anal, rectal or anorectal affects the prognosis is not clear. In a study of 120 AM patients by Bello et al., the authors divided the patients in to three groups: anal (tumor below dentate line), anorectal (tumor at or traversing dentate line) and rectal (tumor above the dentate line). They found no significant difference in the DFS (23 vs. 28 vs. 27 months, p = 0.887) and OS (22 vs. 28 vs. 27 months, p = 0.696) between the three groups [74]. Additionally, they found no survival benefit with adjuvant radiation or systemic therapy.
In the largest study of 60 Asian patients with AM, the authors found age > 70 years, tumor size more than 5 cm, tumor thickness more than 10.5 mm, lymph nodal metastasis, tumor invasion beyond deep muscular layer to be associated with poor disease-specific survival on univariate analysis. Among these parameters, only age > 70 years and depth of tumor invasion were independent predictors of low disease-specific survival [75].
AM is an uncommon malignancy of the anorectal region with high malignant potential. Early diagnosis and treatment are required to achieve good long-term results. Surgical excision remains the mainstay of curative treatment. AM shows poor response to radiotherapy and conventional chemotherapy. Targeted therapies, in the recent years, have shown promising results. Future studies with the use of a combination of chemotherapy, immune check point inhibitors, BRAF inhibitors, and MEK inhibitors are required to improve the long-term survival.
The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
As one of the dominant industries in Georgia, USA, the pulp and paper industries consume huge amounts of fresh water and a wide variety of chemicals during pulp production processes. A significant amount of water and these chemicals are released as high pollutant load with intense color effluent into surface water bodies [1]. Pulp and paper mill effluents (PPMEs) transport high concentrations of organic/inorganic pollutants and color compounds like lignocellulosic compounds, tannins, hemicelluloses, pectin, resin acids, unsaturated fatty acids, carboxylic acid, and other substances [2]. These untreated effluents are responsible for increasing the levels of chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total organic carbon (TOC), adsorbable organic halides (AOXs), toxic contaminants, and heavy metals in the water ecosystem [3]. Therefore, PPMEs must be treated before they are discharged into receiving water bodies.
Physical treatment can efficiently remove 80% of suspended solids (SS) from pulp mill effluents (PMEs) [4]; Aerobic lagoon and anaerobic treatment studies showed potentially removing 50% color and 60% COD from PMEs [4, 5]. However, these fungal treatment studies are still ongoing and in the early stage of industrial implementation [6]. The coloration of receiving water bodies from PMEs causes negative impacts including an unpleasing esthetic appearance, reduction of dissolved oxygen (DO) level, and reduction of sunlight transmission into bodies of water which may adversely affect aquatic life. Additionally, insufficient sunlight reduces photosynthetic activity, therefore, making it difficult to remove organic pollutants and causing an increase of water/wastewater treatment costs downstream [7, 8]. Hence, tertiary treatment is essential for the further treatment of PMEs.
Adsorption, a proven and widely used treatment process, removes a variety of contaminants from industrial wastewater. Activated carbon, the most common adsorbent, is widely used to remove contaminants from industrial wastewater for a long time [9, 10]. However, the high production costs of activated carbon have motivated researchers to explore alternative low-cost adsorbents like coal fly ash (CFA), rice husk ash (RHA), bagasse fly ash (BFA), etc. industrial for wastewater treatment.
Energy sector is another dominant industry in Georgia, USA. It produced 6.1 million tons of CFA as byproducts in 2011 and 60% of CFA were disposed of in ash ponds. Investigating other beneficial uses of CFA in environmental engineering is necessary. The results from our Batch Studies have shown that CFA can effectively remove color from PME as a low-cost adsorbent [11]. However, these results were achieved in a batch operation using the powdered CFA samples, which are rarely used in a column in practice for a continuous operation due to their low permeability.
Therefore, the objectives of this study were to explore the cost-effective immobilization processes of powdered CFAs with water and addition of binders, to produce the CFAs beads with strength and high adsorption capacity for color removal from PME, and to use these CFA beads in column studies to remove color from the PME under a continuous operation.
Three (3) raw CFA samples were obtained from three individual coal-based power plants units of Georgia Power Company and labeled as CFAs #1 - #3. The first one was Class “C” subbituminous ash, whereas the last two were Class “F” bituminous ashes. These CFAs were stored in plastic containers at room temperature (20 ± 10°C) in the Water and Environmental Research Lab (WERL) at Georgia Southern University (GSU) for further study. The chemical composition of CFA#2 is summarized in Table 1.
Chemical compositions | % w/w |
---|---|
Silicon dioxide (SiO2) | 50.96 |
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) | 21.00 |
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) | 1.11 |
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) | 14.32 |
Calcium oxide (CaO) | 4.39 |
Magnesium oxide (MgO) | 0.9 |
Potassium oxide (K2O) | 2.49 |
Sodium oxide (Na2O) | 1.07 |
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) | 1.94 |
Loss on ignition | 1.82 |
Total | 100% |
The chemical composition of CFA#2.
For this study, three (3) biologically treated secondary PMEs samples were collected from three different pulp mill factories from surrounding areas in Georgia, USA. They were labeled as PMEs #1 - #3, respectively. All these PMEs were collected from secondary clarified effluent outlets. These PMEs were stored in plastic container in a refrigerator at temperature of 4 ± 1°C in the WERL at GSU for further study. The primary properties of these PMEs are summarized in Table 2.
PMEs | Received date | Number of buckets | Color | pH | COD | TOC |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(mg/L (Pt-Co) Color Units) | (mg/L) | (mg/L) | ||||
PME 1 | 16-Mar-15 | One (1) 5 – gallon | 157 | 6.92 | 255 | |
9-Jun-16 | Two (2) 5 – gallon | 182 | 5.62 | 222 | 164.9 | |
PME 2 | 26-Aug-15 | One (1) 5 - gallon | 355 | 8.21 | 86.6 | |
17-Jun-16 | Two (2) 5 – gallon | 834 | 6.39 | 135.5 | 90.8 | |
PME3 | 1-Jan-16 | Three (3) 1 – gallon | 723 | 7.51 | 248 | |
12-Oct-16 | Three (3) 1 – gallon | 968 | 5.89 | 298.5 | 110.5 |
The primary properties of the three (3) PMEs.
For immobilization process, N type hydrated lime was collected from the Material Laboratory at GSU.
The immobilization study of powdered CFAs was started by operating the key equipment of pelletizer (DP-14 Agglo-Miser Disc Pelletizer supplied by Mars Mineral) with each of the three CFA samples and water only without adding any binders. Multiple immobilizing parameters, such as RPM and the vertical angle of the pan of the pelletizer, and the ratio of CFA sample to water, as well as optimum curing conditions on humidity and duration, were investigated. The optimal rotational speed of pelletizer and vertical angle of the pan were found 32 RPM and 45 degree, respectively, and they were maintained the same during the whole immobilization process. For each batch, 2500 gm of CFA powder was pelletized by adding hydrated lime or Class “C” type CFA directly while water was added using spraying bottle. After palletization, the fresh pellets had to be cured with thin layer covered by wet cloth at room temperature (20 ± 1°C) in the WERL at GSU for two weeks and exposed to atmosphere for air dry for one week before being used in column studies (12).
For each column study, the fixed-bed column was set-up using a glass column with a 15 mm internal diameter and 750 mm bed height and a peristaltic pump with medium flow range (1 mL/min). The schematic diagram of the fixed-bed column system is illustrated in Figure 1. For each column study, the column was packed by 2–4 mm diameter CFA beads, one type at a time. The mass of the CFA beads typically varied in a range of 50–75 g with a varied height of the bed of CFA beads in a range of 505–655 mm, which is dependent on the size distribution of the CFA beads produced from the above immobilization process. A layer of washed sand with a height of 25 mm was placed at the bottom of the CFA beads to protect any loss of beads as well as give mechanical support in the fix-bed column system. The top of the bed of CFA beads was submerged at least 50 mm below the water surface of the PME sample in the column by maintaining a high position of the outlet in treated effluent tubing (inverse “U” shape) shown in Figure 1.
A schematic diagram of column.
All of these column studies were performed at room temperature (20 ± 1°C) at the WERL at GSU and the treated PME samples were collected at different intervals: every 1 h from the 1st hour to 12th hour, every 2 hours from the 13th hour to 24th hour until the column of the CFA beads was exhausted. These samples were analyzed for color. Meanwhile, all the treated PME samples were collected in the treated PME container as an accumulated sample and its color was tested in the end of a column study. The treated PME sample was separated by vacuum-filtering the mixture through a Supor-450 47 mm 0.45 μm membrane paper. Immediately after filtration, the filtrated samples were collected to test color. Duplicate flasks with identical CFA and effluent mixtures were used to represent each sample. The average reading of color and pH measurements between the two duplicate samples were documented. The color of PME samples was measured using HACH DR 5000 Spectrophotometer and HACH Method 8025.
Color removal efficiency of CFA can be calculated using following equation:
where
The effluent volume (
Where,
The area under the breakthrough curve (
Total amount of color,
Where,
The fixed-bed column system color removal efficiency with respect to the flow volume can be calculated by following equation:
In each batch trial during the immobilization process, CFA beads were produced with small spherical shape and maintained CFA grayish original color. It was observed that the RPM and inclined vertical angle of the pan of pellitizer, and water mixing ratio with CFAs were important factors that affected beads size distribution. In the immobilization process, at high RPM of the pan reduced the size of CFA beads while at low RPM beads diameters were increased. The optimal rotational speed of pelletizer and vertical angle of the pan were found to be 32 RPM and 45 degree, respectively, and were maintained the same during the whole immobilization process. It is also found out that CFA1 (Class “C”) or hydrated lime can be used as binder to produce CFA beads. The combination of hydrated lime and CFAs required more water while the combination of CFA1 with CFA2or CFA3 required less.
For each batch of immobilization process, cost effective blinders were used to produced relatively uniform and consistent size and shape. The newly produced beads were put into large foil tray with thin layer and covered with a soaked wet cloth at room temperature of 20
Type No. | Name of CFA beads | CFA samples | Cost-effective binders | Mass ratio of CFA to binder |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | CFA3 + Lime | CFA3 | Hydrated Lime | 4:1 |
2 | CFA3 + CFA1 | CFA3 | CFA1 | 1:2 |
3 | CFA1 | CFA1 | Water Only | 8.1:1 |
4 | CFA2+ Lime | CFA2 | Hydrated Lime | 4:1 |
5 | CFA2+ CFA1 | CFA2 | CFA1 | 1:2 |
Summary of the finalized cost-effective binders and a Total of five (5) types of CFA beads produced.
The five (5) types of CFA beads produced from the three (3) CFA samples are shown in Figure 2.
The five (5) types of CFA beads produced from the three (3) CFA samples (from left to right: 1 CFA3 + 2 CFA1; 1 CFA2 + 2 CFA1; 4 CFA3 + 1 Lime; 4 CFA2 + 1 Lime; and CFA1. Note: the numbers of 1, 2, and 4 are referred to mass ratios).
In these column studies, the raw PMEs samples were passed through 75 g of CFA1 only beads within the column. The flow rates of Q = 0.78–0.89 mL/min, empty bed contact time (a measure of the time during which water to be treated is in contact with CFA beads in a contact column), EBCT = 125 min with an operation time t = 12–24 h. During this operational period, almost 5–13 bed volumes of PMEs were treated in fixed bed column. Figure 3 shows the physical properties of PMEs and fixed bed column. At the end of each column study, the apparent color ratio of C/C0 reached up to 0.546, which corresponded to 45.4% apparent color removal.
Breakthrough of color column experiments using three different PME and CFA1 only beads. Experimental setup: Initial color concentration: PME1: 182; PME2: 834 and PME3: 968 (mg/L Pt-Co); bed height: 51 ∼ 61 cm; flow rate: 0.78 ∼ 0.89 mL/min; at room temperature.
In these column studies, the raw PMEs sample were passed through 50 ∼ 75 g of CFA2 + Lime (Mass Ratio of CFA2 to Lime = 4:1) and CFA2 + CFA1 beads with a height of 562–660 mm in the column, respectively. The flow rates of Q = 0.72–0.97 mL/min, EBCT = 125 min with an operation time t = 24 h. Figure 4 shows the physical properties of PMEs and fixed bed column. During this operational period, almost 6–12 bed volumes of PMEs were treated in fixed bed column. At the end of each column study, the apparent color ratio of C/C0 reached up to 0.27, which corresponded to 73% apparent color removal. The curve of CFA2 + Lime - PME1 shows a different characteristic compare with others. Color might be added due to leaching out of chemicals from the CFA beads and breakdown some chemical reagents present in PME1.
Breakthrough of color column experiments using three different PMEs, CFA2 and additive materials CFA beads. Experimental setup: initial color concentration: PME1: 182; PME2: 834 and PME3: 968 (mg/L Pt-Co); bed height: 56 ∼ 63 cm; flow rate: 0.72 ∼ 0.96 mL.
In these column studies, the raw PMEs sample was passed through 50 ∼ 75 g of CFA3 + Lime, and CFA3 + CFA1 beads with a height of 582–645 mm in the column, respectively. The flow rates of Q = 0.75–0.96 mL/min, EBCT = 125 min with an operation time t = 24 h. Figure 5 shows the physical properties of PMEs and fixed bed column. During this operational period, almost 6–14 bed volumes of PMEs were treated in fixed bed column. At the end of each column study, the apparent color ratio of C/C0 reached up to 0.473, which corresponded to 52.7% apparent color removal.
Breakthrough of color column experiments using three different PME and CFA3 and additive materials CFA beads. Experimental setup: initial color concentration: PME1: 182; PME2: 834 and PME3: 968 (mg/L Pt-Co); bed height: 58 ∼ 65 cm; flow rate: 0.75 ∼ 0.96.
The Adams-Bohart model is typically applied to check the dynamic behavior of the column which describes the relationship between
Where,
The column studies experimental data obtained from the five different combinations of CFA beads with PME1 were used for linear regression analysis and their corresponding parameters kinetic constant
Application of the Adams-Bohart model to the experimental data from column study for PME1.
The column studies experimental data obtained from the four different combinations of CFA beads with PME2 were used for linear regression analysis and their corresponding parameters kinetic constant
Application of the Adams-Bohart model to the column study experimental data for PME2.
The column studies experimental data obtained from the four different combinations of CFA beads with PME3 were used for linear regression analysis and their corresponding parameters kinetic constant
Application of the Adams-Bohart model to the column study experimental data for PME3.
Thomas model is one of the widely used models in fixed-bed continuous column operation. This model based on three assumptions: i) follows Langmuir Isotherm model; ii) obeys the second order reversible reaction kinetics; and iii) there is no axial depression of the adsorbent. The linear equation is expressed as follows
Where,
The experimental data obtained from the three selected combinations of three types of CFA beads with PME1 column studies were used for linear regression analysis and their corresponding Thomas rate constant
Application of Thomas model to the column study experimental data for PME1.
The experimental data obtained from the five selected combinations of CFA beads with PME2 column studies were used for linear regression analysis and their corresponding Thomas rate constant
Application of Thomas model to the column study experimental data for PME2.
The experimental data obtained from the four selected combinations of CFA beads with PME3 were used for linear regression analysis and their corresponding Thomas rate constant
Application of Thomas model to the column study experimental data for PME3.
Based on the significant results obtained from the column studies, the following conclusions can be reached:
From the immobilization studies, both hydrated lime and the Class “C” of CFA1 were found to be cost-effective binders for Class “F” CFA2 or CFA3 in addition to water, while water only was the cost-effective binder for Class “C” CFA1.
To produce CFA beads with strength and capability to removal color, the effective mass ratio of Class “F” CFA2/CFA3 sample to hydrated lime was 4:1 while that to Class “C” CFA1 was 1:2.
From column studies, the CFA beads were able to be packed into columns and used to remove color from the PMEs under continuous operation. They could hold the good shape after they contacted and submerged in PME samples for 12–24 h. The overall color removal efficiencies were in a range of 45–90% while the general throughput volume of treated PME was in a range of 10–14 bed volumes of CFAs beads in the columns.
From column studies, based on true color removal, for the three PMEs, the CFA3 + CFA1 and CFA2-CFA1 beads were good ones with high adsorption capacities.
The correlation coefficient of R2 value for each column study indicated that the Thomas model had a better fit with the observed data than the Adams-Bohart model did both for PME2 and PME3, whereas, the Adams-Bohart model fitted better than the Thomas model for PME1.
This study was funded by the Georgia Power 2014 GRAPE Program. The support from the Department of Civil Engineering and Construction at GSU is acknowledged. The representatives from Georgia Power and the three pulp mills in Georgia are thanked to obtain and arrange shipment of CFAs and PMEs samples.
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\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:10201,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"40180",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66580,totalCrossrefCites:47,totalDimensionsCites:97,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4194,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:193437,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. 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It’s a beautiful fruit with smooth, shining skin. Yellow, red, and purple fruits are available. This fruit contains vitamins, minerals, fiber, and antioxidants. It has a very low-calorie count. Breeding focuses on fruit quality through selection, hybridization, and biotechnological treatments for plantation and post-harvest management. Diseases, pests, viruses, and physiological abnormalities can be treated with plant protection techniques. Like other fruits, it’s edible after harvesting. Made into juices, concentrates, jams, gelatins, and sweets. If processing facilities and transport are available, it can be exported as pulp or concentrate. The tamarillo can diversify sub-tropical fruit production as a high-value cash crop, with excellent fruits commanding premium prices in Europe, North America, and Japan.",book:{id:"11311",title:"Tropical Plant Species",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11311.jpg"},signatures:"Rafiq Ahmad Shah, Parshant Bakshi, Hamidullah Itoo and Gaganpreet Kour"},{id:"82491",title:"Heterologous Expression of Genes in Plants for Abiotic Stresses",slug:"heterologous-expression-of-genes-in-plants-for-abiotic-stresses",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105171",abstract:"Abiotic stresses are considered to be the major factors causing a decrease in crop yield globally, these stresses include high and low temperature, salinity, drought, and light stress etc. To overcome the consistent food demand for the ever-growing population, various genes from micro-organisms and non-plant sources have been expressed in transgenic plants to improve their tolerance against abiotic stresses. Gene expression in transgenic plants through conventional methods are time-consuming and laborious that’s why advanced genetic engineering methods for example Agrobacterium-mediated transformation and biolistic methods are more accurate, useful, and less time-consuming. This review provides an insight into various bacterial genes for example mtID, codA, betA, ADH, IPT, DRNF1 and ggpPS, etc. that have been successfully expressed in transgenic plants against various abiotic stress for stress tolerance enhancement and crop yield improvement which exhibited good encouraging results. Genes from yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) have been introduced in transgenic plants against drought and salinity stress. All these genes expressed from non-plant sources in plants can be very helpful to enhance crops for better yield productivity in the future to meet the demands of the consistently rising population of the world.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Shahzad Ali, Nadir Zaman, Waqar Ali, Majid Khan, Muhammad Aasim, Asmat Ali and Muhammad Usman"},{id:"83122",title:"New Perspectives on the Application of Chito-Oligosaccharides Derived from Chitin and Chitosan: A Review",slug:"new-perspectives-on-the-application-of-chito-oligosaccharides-derived-from-chitin-and-chitosan-a-rev",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106501",abstract:"The study of chitin and chitosan has stood out for many years due to their potential application in various areas such as the food industry, where they are either used as additives, prebiotics, or bio-conservatives; as to biomedical and pharmaceutical industries, where they function to treat diseases. Besides, in the agriculture field, it is known that they can cause a positive effect on the development of plants and optimize nitrogen fixation. In recent years, attention has been paid to their derivatives, chito-oligosaccharides which, unlike chitin and chitosan, they have different chemical characteristics, like their solubility, a characteristic that facilitates their use, contrary to chitin and chitosan. Moreover, the small size of chito-oligosaccharides can facilitate their entry into the cell. This review covers recent studies on the biological functions of chito-oligosaccharides and their impact on a priority area such as agriculture, where these compounds could be used to substitute the demand for chemical compounds that, until now, have generated serious health issues as well as environmental pollution.",book:{id:"11670",title:"Chitin-Chitosan - Isolation, Properties, and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11670.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Edgardo Regalado-Infante, Norma Gabriela Rojas-Avelizapa, Rosalía Núñez-Pastrana, Daniel Tapia-Maruri, Andrea Margarita Rivas-Castillo, Régulo Carlos Llarena-Hernández and Luz Irene Rojas-Avelizapa"},{id:"83015",title:"Acute Changes in Lipoprotein-Associated Oxidative Stress",slug:"acute-changes-in-lipoprotein-associated-oxidative-stress",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106489",abstract:"As inflammatory and oxidative stress are associated with cardiometabolic diseases, detection of abnormal fasting levels of inflammatory and oxidative biomarkers are indicative disease presence and may be too late for any preventive management. Metabolic flexibility refers to the ability of various metabolic processes to compensate for these acute changes and return all metabolites to baseline levels. By monitoring responses of key biomarkers to a standardized physiologic challenge, it is possible to assess the ability of the body to restore homeostasis, that is a measure of metabolic flexibility. Acute changes in lipoprotein-associated biomarkers of oxidative stress have been demonstrated following meal consumption. These include changes in circulating levels of oxidized low-density lipoproteins (LDL), levels of autoantibodies to malondialdehyde-modified LDL, as well as the oxidative susceptibility of isolated plasma LDL. These responses depend on the type and amount of dietary fats in the meal. Management with certain lipid-lowering drugs could also be shown to affect these meal-induced changes. However, plasma levels may be underestimated as we can demonstrate a spike in lipoprotein-associated biomarkers of oxidative stress resulting from the release oxidatively modified epitopes from the arterial wall by an intravenous bolus of heparin.",book:{id:"11671",title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg"},signatures:"Ngoc-Anh Le"},{id:"83041",title:"Responses of Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plant Stress",slug:"responses-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-to-plant-stress",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106590",abstract:"Global climate change has resulted in alterations in the biotic and abiotic conditions of the planet. This has led to changes in the agricultural system resulting from reduced water availability, increased temperature increase in the population and occurrences of pests and diseases. Plants are adversely affected when they experience any stress retarding their growth, development and productivity. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is an organelle that shows a tremendous response when subjected to stress conditions. Therefore, to explore and comprehend plants’ multidimensional interactions when subjected to stress conditions, an insight into the molecular stress signalling in the ER in response to the stress situation is discussed in this chapter.",book:{id:"11674",title:"Updates on Endoplasmic Reticulum",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg"},signatures:"Vishwa Jyoti Baruah, Bhaswati Sarmah, Manny Saluja and Elizabeth H. Mahood"},{id:"82624",title:"Protective Forests for Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) in the Alpine Space",slug:"protective-forests-for-ecosystem-based-disaster-risk-reduction-eco-drr-in-the-alpine-space",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99505",abstract:"Mountain forests are an efficient Forest-based Solution (FbS) for Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) by lowering the frequency, magnitude, and/or intensity of natural hazards. Technical protection measures are often poor solutions as stand-alone measures to reduce disaster risk limited by material wear and fatigue or financial resources and aesthetical values. Protective forests should therefore be considered as key elements in integrated risk management strategies. However, the definition of protective forests and the understanding and assessment of their protective functions and effects differ greatly among Alpine Space countries. In this chapter, we present a short introduction to the concept of Eco-DRR and companion terms and propose a definition of FbS as a specific case of Nature-based Solutions for an ecosystem-based and integrated risk management of natural hazards. That is, we guide the reader through the maze of existing definitions and concepts and try to disentangle their meanings. Furthermore, we present an introduction to forest regulations in the Alpine Space and European protective forest management guidelines. Our considerations and recommendations can help strengthen the role of protective forests as FbS in Eco-DRR and the acknowledgment of the key protective function they have and the crucial protective effects they provide in mountain areas.",book:{id:"10812",title:"Protective forests as Ecosystem-based solution for Disaster Risk Reduction (ECO-DRR)",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg"},signatures:"Michaela Teich, Cristian Accastello, Frank Perzl and Frédéric Berger"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:604},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. 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He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. 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Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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(Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). 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