\r\n\t- BMD measurement technology \r\n\t- Osteoporosis and fracture risk \r\n\t- Bone growth and remodeling
\r\n
\r\n\t \r\n\tThe submission is also open to any other original study related to these research topics.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-015-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-014-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-016-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"db1790f61fd55a35e85e10e8ed9cf756",bookSignature:"Dr. Abdelwahed Barkaoui",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11695.jpg",keywords:"Bone Densitometry Techniques, Computerized Tomography, Quantitative Ultrasound, Magnetic Resonance Imaging MRI, Bone Biomechanics Behavior, Testing and Modeling of Bone Fracture, Fracture Risk Assessment Tool, Mechanobiology of Bone Remodeling, Modeling of Bone Remodeling, Bone Mineral Density Evolution, Bone Growth, Bone Strength",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 24th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"17 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Barkaoui is the assistant director of the LERMA laboratory and coordinator of the Modelling & Simulation in Biomechanics & Biomaterials (MS2B) team. He was a member of the editorial board of several international scientific journals such as Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology “Biomechanics” (IF=5,9), BMC Musculoskeletal Disorders (IF:2.6), BMC Biomedical Engineering, a Series on Biomechanics. He is also the author of more than 60 publications in international journals, books, and conferences.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"320631",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelwahed",middleName:null,surname:"Barkaoui",slug:"abdelwahed-barkaoui",fullName:"Abdelwahed Barkaoui",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/320631/images/system/320631.jpg",biography:"Abdelwahed BARKAOUI is an Associate Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the International University of Rabat. 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1. Introduction
Although ultrasounds (US) were discovered in the 18th Century due to their use in animal kingdom, they were not manufactured until the 19th Century, when certain devices facilitating the reproduction of these non audible for human sounds were developed. They constitute rare frequencies with several properties. First of all they were developed for their use in navy and in medicine. In the 20th Century it was noticed that they could have uses in dentistry, so the first applications for calculus removal were initiated, taking advantage of their mechanical energy and cavitation effect. The different possibilities achieved by conventional US together with those of sonicators, of lower frequency but with similar effects, resulted in a fast development of these technologies.
Since Michigan longitudinal studies demonstrated that the open flap radicular instrumentation techniques were in a long term as effective as the closed ones, the latter were developed, so treatment of periodontitis suffered a change of paradigm. From that moment on, periodontal treatment involved less open flaps and more mechanical treatments, limiting surgeries to very concrete cases, in order to enable access to the deepest pockets and furcations. The result was a reduction in discomfort for patients and a better long term prognosis. Prevention gained more importance and supportive periodontal therapies were regularly done adjusting them to the individual necessities of each patient, depending on the type of periodontitis and the severity of the case. To reduce the number of surgeries, it was crucial to develop instruments able to reach deep pockets. Small curettes and microcurettes were developed, and later on special ultrasonic tips which allowed the instrumentation of pockets of difficult access for Gracey and Universal curettes. Even when effectuating periodontal surgery, clinicians preferred US rather than curettes for the narrow furcations´ instrumentation. The fewer fatigue of the professional and the efficacy of the results have favoured the great development of these instruments during the last years.
A new progress occurred in dentistry with the introduction of piezoelectric US. These US produced less discomfort in patients, and with the development of special tips imitating microcurettes, deep and narrow pockets instrumentation was possible without doing surgery. With the important development of implant rehabilitations during the last twenty years and the subsequent peri-implantitis, the necessity of new instruments has arisen, as traditional and teflon curettes are not suitable for this purpose. To solve this problem, tips of teflon and other materials have emerged to facilitate the elimination of deposits settled over the irregular implants´ surface, with controversial results.
The use of US in endodontics was introduced later to clean and disinfect root canals. It is quite useful basically to make easier the access to the root canals in certain conditions, in endodontic retreatments and to clean before the sealing of the root canal. One of the latest US applications in dentistry is in surgery, as they avoid discomfort of rotary instruments while preserving the soft tissues. The cut precision allows their use in implants´ surgery, ostectomies and especially in those techniques where tearing of soft tissues could be produced due to their proximity, i.e., sinus lift procedures. These techniques are in continuous progress; they are linked to piezoelectric US and to those new materials allowing their use in favourable conditions.
The aim of this chapter is to revise the physical principles of US, the materials used and the historical evolution, their basic uses in perio and endodontics, as well as their efficacy when comparing with other techniques and finally the possibilities in maxilar surgery. Other less frequent applications are also mentioned.
2. History and physics of ultrasounds
Before 1700 man was unaware of ultrasounds because their frequency is below human´s audible frequency. In 1700, Spallanzani described their use by bats when flying and capturing their preys. Later on, it was demonstrated that other animal species had the same faculties, and in the 19th Century, with the discovery of Doppler effect about deformation of light waves in movement, it was observed that this property could also be applied to ultrasounds. In fact, they are sound waves that are not audible for men due to their high frequency (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Human audition and ultrasound frequencies in Hz
At the end of the 19th Century, the Curie brothers [1] described the piezoelectric effect (from greek piezein, mechanic pressure) of several crystals, property used later for the fabrication of ultrasonic devices with new characteristics. At this time, in 1883, Galton develops a high frequency whistle to find out the human hearing limit, and from that moment on ultrasounds (US) for different applications are developed. Although the first ultrasonic apparatus date from 1950, the first commercial application for dentistry was in periodontics in 1957 with Cavitron®, developed by Dentsply for doing prophylaxis and calculus removal. Its name comes from the cavitation effect produced by ultrasounds when working with water. When a liquid flows through a region where pressure is lower than its steam pressure, the liquid boils and produces vapour bubbles. The bubbles will be carried to a higher pressure area, where the steam returns immediately to the liquid phase, imploding the bubbles suddenly. Thus, a change from liquid to gaseous phase takes place, and again to liquid phase with water dissociation and formation of H+and OH-(Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Representation of cavitation effect
Cavitation is defined as the formation of submicroscopic cavities or vacuums as a result of the vibration of a fluid due to the high frequency alternating movement of the tip of an instrument. When these vacuums implode, shock waves which spread through the medium are generated and produce energy (heat) release [2].
The basis of the ultrasonic action consists of an electric generator transmitting vibrations to the tip of the device with frequencies of 25,000 to 30,000 Hz, whose shock waves generate pressures and depressions which detach the calculus and break water molecules by the cavitation phenomenon. To the effect of cavitation it adds an acoustic streaming, with a great cleaning and bactericidal action, which potentiates the bactericidal effect of cavitation, effect that can increase adding an antiseptic product to the irrigation fluid.
There are two types of ultrasonic devices: the classical ones, laminated or magnetostrictive, with elliptical oscillation of the tip, and the piezoelectric ones, of quartz with lineal oscillation. Laminated US are based on the Joule magnetostriction phenomenon. According to this phenomenon, several ferromagnetic materials get deformed when they go through a magnetic field. The deformation degree depends on the material employed, the magnetization strength, the previous treatment of the material and the temperature. The metallic sheets are situated in the handle, i.e. in the handpiece where the insert is placed (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Laminated US device and several ultrasonic inserts for Cavitron
Piezoelectric US (Figure 4) are based on quartz clock principles. When applying an alternating current to the ceramic/quartz discs, changes in polarity produce expansion and contraction trasmitting the oscillation to the tip, applicator or insert. The sound thus generated, presents the same intensity, frequency and wavelength than the material employed in its fabrication (quartz, zinc blende, sodium borate...). Nowadays, the most used crystals are ceramic zirconate discs, which are less sensitive to temperature and blows.
Figure 4.
Piezoelectric US for surgery. Modified from Variosurg (NSK) catalogue
Figure 5.
Oscillation of magnetostrictive US, piezoceramic US and sonicators
3. Biologic actions
US present several effects over the tissues which vary depending on the time, type of US and way of application. These effects are mechanical, thermal, biological, chemical, massage and placebo.
Mechanical effects. The most important, as vibration favours the removal of calculus, biofilm and of the cementum surface, damaged by bacterial toxins and sometimes contaminated by bacteria (Figure 6). Inside the root canals, US clean the pulpal detritus.
Figure 6.
Bacterial presence inside cementum in periodontitis. Original magnification SEM x3000. Bacteria can be identified supragingivally, in the epithelial junction and in apical areas of cementum
Thermal effects. US are a way of energy and thus, during their application, heat is generated. This heat can be useful, as it favours the cleaning of the treated area and the elimination of detritus, blood debris, biofilm and calculus; but if it is excessive it could burn the tissues, especially gingiva and periostium. This is the reason why it is crucial to control the irrigation system, checking for possible obstructions of applicator/insert.
Biological effects. US produce an increase in permeability of the cellular membrane, known as phonophoresis, which facilitates the cellular function, and thus the recuperation of the inflamed soft tissues.
Chemical effects. Ultrasonic vibration favours the chemical processes in the area in which they are applied. Biological exchanges among the treated tissues improve; in addition, an increase of the blood supply takes place, helping to reduce inflammation and to facilitate the arrival of blood cells and anti-inflammatory mediators, favouring tissue normality. It also produces oxidation and macromolecule depolymerization phenomena, due to the ions release.
The massage and placebo effects, also associated to US, are of less interest in our field, but they should not be forgotten.
Due to the cavitation effect and the acoustic micro-streaming produced by oscillatory movements of ultrasonic inserts, US are used in humans in different ways for diagnosis and treatment. In the oral cavity they are mainly used for root instrumentation in periodontics, and less in endodontics, ostectomy, and sinus lift procedures. There are also other less frequent applications that we shall describe.
4. US in periodontics and implants
It is well known that periodontal disease is based on the presence of a mature biofilm with more than 700 bacterial species, being only a fraction of them related to periodontitis. The progression of the disease depends on the periodontopathogens, but also on the patient´s immune system and its response to bacterial aggression. The elimination of bacteria, their toxins and calculus produced by saliva, is essential to keep under control the disease. Once local factors are removed, a strict hygiene is required, as well as a supportive periodontal treatment program, in order to eliminate calculus and subgingival biofilm, which is the main responsible of the bone and attachment loss and is formed shortly after its elimination.
Treatment was traditionally based on the mechanical elimination of plaque and calculus, which facilitate biofilm´s survival, mainly using hand instruments and US, directly or by an open flap procedure. Longitudinal studies of the decades of 70´s and 80´s, showed that even most periodontally advanced cases, well treated and maintained, remained stable through the years [3], versus those patients who did not receive any treatment, who suffered a considerable tooth loss and worsening of periodontal parameters [4].
Since Michigan longitudinal studies [5-7] demonstrated that the open flap radicular instrumentation techniques were in a long term as effective as the closed ones [7], the latter were developed, so treatment of periodontitis suffered a change of paradigm. From that moment on, periodontal treatment involved less open flaps and more mechanical treatments, limiting surgeries to very concrete cases, in order to enable access to the most deep pockets and furcations [8]. The result was a reduction in discomfort for patients and a better long term prognosis. Prevention gained more importance and supportive periodontal therapies were regularly done adjusting them to the individual necessities of each patient, depending on the type of periodontitis and the severity of the case.
To reduce the number of surgeries, it was crucial to develop instruments able to reach deep pockets. Small curettes and microcurettes were developed, and later on special ultrasonic tips which allowed the instrumentation of pockets of difficult access for Gracey and Universal curettes.
The first device used in periodontal prophylaxis was Cavitron®, introduced in 1957 by Dentsply (USA). With the important development of implant rehabilitations during the last twenty years and the subsequent peri-implantitis, the necessity of new instruments has arisen, as traditional and teflon curettes are not suitable for this purpose. Ultrasonic instruments are very comfortable to use, they produce less fatigue in the operator than curettes and allow the combination of different tips and products in order to improve the treatment efficacy. Several authors [9] even demonstrate better results when instrumentation is done with US instead of curettes.
During the 80´s, we demonstrated in several publications that prophylaxis done in vitro with US resulted at least equal or even more effective than with curettes [10, 11] (Figure 7).
Figure 7.
Cementum of the same tooth treated with curettes (left) and US (right). Original magnification SEM x352, x1136 and x3000
In Drisko´s 1993 review, it is suggested that a thorough radicular debridement can be achieved without overinstrumentation, using certain sonic and ultrasonic scalers. The evaluation of residual plaque and calculus after hand and mechanical instrumentation with sonic and ultrasonic scalers, shows that sonic and US instruments obtain similar, and in some cases, better results than those obtained with manual instrumentation. When comparing modified ultrasonic inserts with unmodified ultrasonic inserts and manual scalers, it is observed that the modified ones generate smoother surfaces, better plaque and calculus removal, less damage and better access to the bottom of the pocket, which together with a less operating time lead to a lower fatigue [12].
Several years later, another review of the same author shows that US, through their cavitation effect, are able to eliminate toxins from the cementum surface without damaging it. This, together with the irrigation action, improves healing, as it is not necessary an excessive instrumentation of cementum to achieve satisfactory results. The additional benefits of the chemical irrigation during ultrasonic instrumentation are the weakly attached subgingival plaque removal and a better access to difficult areas such as narrow and deep pockets, root grooves and furcations. Thus, microultrasonic tips, of smaller diameter, allow the penetration 1 mm farther than manual instruments [13].
In a position paper of 2000, US and sonicators were compared, reaching similar results than hand instruments in terms of plaque, calculus and endotoxins removal. Ultrasonic scalers used at medium power produced less damage in root surfaces than manual instruments or sonicators. Furcations seemed to be more accesible when using sonic or ultrasonic scalers than when using manual instruments. It was still not clear if root roughness was more or less pronounced when using US or curettes, and if the roughness produced in radicular cement affected long term wound healing. Although the aim of root instrumentation is the highest as possible elimination of calculus and toxins, it is necessary to preserve cementum. According to the reviewed papers, toxins remain in the root surface, thus being easily removed with US. One of the main problems of the intervention with US and sonicators is the aerosols production, which involves the risk of transmitting infectious diseases, therefore it is essential the use of barriers against aerosols. Concerning the use of chemical agents there is no evidence of their additional clinical benefit [14].
To avoid the potential damage of the cementum surface done by sonic and US instruments and curettes, and looking after an effective treatment of the root surface, a sonic instrument covered by teflon was introduced in order to compare it with the standard instrumentation and with Per-io-Tor in extracted teeth. Per-io-Tor and the mentioned sonic instrument seemed to be adequate for soft deposits´ elimination in the root surface, but not for calculus removal [15].
Another study compared in vivo the effect of two piezoelectric US, Vector scaler and Enac scaler, with a hand scaler. Instrumentation was completed until the obtaining of a hard surface. Roughness, amount of remaining calculus and loss of dental substance were examined by SEM. Vectorial US provided a smooth root surface with minimal dental substance loss [16].
Figure 8.
EMS piezoelectric US Piezon Master
The effects of US were described in 1969 by Clark [17]: they depend on the vibratory movement amplitude, the pressure applied, the instrument´s tip sharpness, and the tip´s application angle and time by surface unit. Their effects condition the way of use: they should be used at 40-50% of their power to avoid the metal fatigue and to favour the long-term duration of device and tip, they should be applied tangentially (parallel to the root surface) to avoid damage in the cementum surface (Figure 9), they should never be applied with the tip perpendicular to the cementum and the tip should be in a continuous movement (Figure 10) in order to avoid the production of holes in enamel and cementum. To avoid an excessive increase of temperature, the irrigation should be abundant (Figure 11), and to achieve an optimal efficacy the most suitable tip should be selected for each indication. It should be taken into account that it is different to work over a thick layer of supragingival calculus than over a thin subgingival layer, which is more adhered. This is the reason why large tips are used for superficial calculus, small tips for subgingival calculus, curette-like for scaling and thin and long for narrow and deep pockets (Figure 11).
Figure 9.
Hole in cementum due to a wrong ultrasonic instrumentation. Original magnification x600
Figure 10.
Insert application and displacement for calculus removal
Figure 11.
Supra (left) and thin subgingival (right) ultrasonic tips should always work with abundant irrigation
When US are used with complementary water tank and an antiseptic liquid, it is convenient to wash the whole circuit with demineralized water after its use, so the obstruction of tubes with the substances used is avoided. In case of using only water, it is recommended to fill in the deposit with low mineralized water, in order to facilitate the cleaning and prevent obstructions in tubes and inserts.
Due to their lineal oscillation over the dental surface, the actual rounded-tip piezoelectric US, reduce abrasion and obtain a uniform and smooth surface. With 32.000 oscillations per second, they are autoregulated and their cavitation effect and acoustic streaming reduce discomfort and have limited effects over gingival epithelium (Figure 12).
Figure 12.
Vector decomposition of ultrasonic oscillation
Some of these US may incorporate two bottles, one for the bactericidal agent and the other for water for clearing or cleaning. They are also equipped with perio and endodontic tips.
Ultrasounds present few contraindications. They are not recommended in children except in very concrete cases. They should be avoided in the proximity of composite resins, as they could produce roughness or even detachment of the filling. They should not be used directly over ceramic partial fixed prosthesis or veneers, as ceramic could detach or break. In patients with certain types of pacemakers, interferences could be produced with inhibition and increase of the stimulation frequency. It is recommended the intermittent use of ultrasounds, avoiding the support of instruments over the generator as well as deprogramming the frequency modulation during the sessions. With a magnet, the pacemaker, which usually works at demand mode, converts into fixed-rate, not being sensitive to electromagnetic fields. In case of non sensible to electromagnetic interferences pacemakers, US could be used in the same way as in patients without pacemakers. Another option in these patients is the use of sonicators (Figure 13) because they use an air flow so they don´t generate electromagnetic fields.
Figure 13.
Sonicator and varied tips
These instruments present certain advantages and disadvantages in relation to ultrasounds. Their oscillation frequency is much lower, of 2,000 Hz, because the oscillation is produced by the air that arrives directly from the equipment and generates an orbital oscillation in the application tip. Their efficacy is similar to that of ultrasounds, but they can only use water instead of antiseptic liquids and the set of tips is much more reduced than the ultrasounds.
Ultrasounds are used as preventive and complementary to surgery treatment in implants. In this case the tip should not be metallic but of teflon, in order to avoid the damage of the implants´ surface (Figure 14).
Figure 14.
EMS Teflon insert for implants´ instrumentation
Fox et al. compared plastic and metal curettes in titanium implants in an in vitro study. Plastic instruments produced an insignificant alteration of the implants´ surface after instrumentation, in contrast with metal instruments, which significantly altered this surface [18].
Something similar occurs when using Piezoelectric Ultrasonic Scalers with carbon, plastic and metallic tips on titanium implants. Remaining plaque and calculus index seemed to be similar with the three treatments. When using a laser profilometer and a laser scanning electron microscope to evaluate the treated abutment surface characteristics, implants treated with carbon and plastic tips presented smoother surfaces than those treated with metallic tips, which were more damaged [19].
5. US in endodontics
US were incorporated into this field in 1957 when Richman used them for root canal cleaning and instrumentation [20]. In 1976, Martin improved endodontic treatment adding simultaneous irrigation, but its commercialization and use only were extended from 1980 by Martin et al. [21]. There are sonic apparatus in which special files are used, and several ultrasonic devices which work with standard files, with the usual colours and diameters (Figure 15).
Figure 15.
EMS ultrasonic handle and several endodontic K-files.
In endodontics US work by a transversal vibration, with a characteristic pattern of nodes and antinodes along the file´s length (Figure 16) [22, 23], and may work in two different ways: with simultaneous ultrasonic instrumentation and irrigation (UI) or with passive ultrasonic irrigation (PUI), which works in an alternating way.
Figure 16.
Diagrammatic representation of the current observed in ultrasonic (A) and sonic (B) activated files [24].
As for ultrasonic instrumentation UI, it is discussed if the root canals thus instrumented are significantly cleaner than those prepared with files in the usual way. Some authors support UI cleaning is better [25-29], while other studies affirm the cleaning is similar [30-36]. For Ruddle, these differences could be due to the limited space available in the root canal to let the ultrasonic vibration [37]. Also the lack of space could be responsible of the lesions produced during ultrasonic instrumentation, such as perforations and deficient root canal preparations [38]. This is the reason why this technique is only recommended after the complete root canal preparation [39], by what is known as PUI.
Passive ultrasonic irrigation was described by Weller [40] as a technique in which the effect of the ultrasonic tip reduces the risk of contact with the root canal surface, thus reducing the risk of perforation, while the cavitation and cleaning effects are preserved. As the root canal has already been prepared, the file moves freely and the irrigant penetrates easily in the apical area of the root canal system [41]. In this technique two ways of irrigation may be used: continuous or discontinuous, in which irrigation works intermittently after each ultrasonic cycle. Both of them allow control of irrigation, so they seem to be equally efficient [42].
Sonic instruments may also be used for root canal therapy with similar results. Jensen et al. compare the sonic and ultrasonic cleaning efficacy after manual instrumentation in molars with curved roots. Results are analysed with photomicrographs with a grid in order to quantify the debris and evaluate the root canal cleaning level in the three groups. Sonic and ultrasonic treated molars after manual instrumentation seemed to be cleaner than those only manually treated, while the level of cleaning among sonic and ultrasonically treated molars was similar [43].
Another recent in vitro study compares the ability of different ultrasound irrigation procedures to eliminate debris and to open the dentine tubules. Previously instrumented with mechanical rotatory technique single-rooted extracted teeth are treated with US. The amount of debris and the number of open dentinal tubules were established by SEM. In the apical third, ultrasonic activation of the irrigation with Irrisafe tips seemed to be the most effective method to eliminate debris and open dentinal tubules [44].
According to Martí-Bowen et al., the use of US in periapical surgery with retrograde filling, it is feasible to reach difficult access root canals with sacrifice of few root tissue. Nowadays, good results are obtained in teeth with periapical pathology which previously were condemned to failure [45].
Van der Sluis et al. summarize the potential uses of US in endodontics with the following options: to improve the endodontic access (for example elimination of calcifications), irrigation of root canals, to remove broken posts and other obstructions inside the root canals, humectation with sealer of the root canal walls, guttapercha condensation of the obturations of root canals, mineral trioxide aggregate (MTA) application, endodontic surgery, and increase of the dentinal permeability in dental bleaching [46]; also to break fillings due to their shock effect, to remove old fillings and make easier the access to root canals, and in endodontic retreatments. There are available different applicators with the most adequate form for each use (Figures 17, 18).
Figure 17.
Satelec EndoSuccess Retreatment Kit. From left to right, tips for dentinal overhangs, calcificatons or filling materials elimination; for treatments in the coronal third; for treatments in the medium and apical thirds; for retreatment in coronal third and isthmus; for canal probing; and for loosening of posts and crowns. (Courtesy of Satelec, Merignac Cedex, France)
Figure 18.
Satelec EndoSuccess Apical Surgery Kit. From left to right, universal apical surgery tip; second instrument; complicated cases (up to the coronal third), premolar left-orientated tip; premolar right orientated tip. (Courtesy of Satelec, Merignac Cedex, France)
6. US in surgery
Another application of US in dentistry is in oral and maxillofacial surgery to cut hard tissues. Experimental studies show that their application present better histological results than the rotary techniques. The precision of the cut with the different available inserts allows their use in our specialization in different fields such as general oral surgery, osseous grafts and implantology.
Although initially their use was reduced to sinus lift procedures, because they preserve the sinus membrane, their use has been extended to obtain bone grafts, osseous distraction and cortical split procedures, inferior dental nerve surgery, implant surgeries, extractions, etc. These biophotonic equipments allow changes in vibration\'s frequency from standard mode, with constant vibrations and frequency (used over soft tissues), to surgery mode (for hard tissues), where the modulation of amplitude and continuous vibration improves the efficacy over bone. Several applicators are designed for each osseous intervention (Figure 19).
Figure 19.
EMS Piezon Master Surgery US presents tips (from left to right) for vertical non-traumatic osseous incision, horizontal non-traumatic osseous incision, non-traumatic osteotomy, detachment of Schneider´s membrane during sinus lift procedures and obtaining of bone fragments for bone augmentation.
The tips are different depending on the application: they present multiple lateral impact for surgery; curved, thin and scalpel-like for osteotomy; thin for non-traumatic extractions; cone-shaped diamond covered and calibrated for guiding during preparation; rounded or flat, diamond covered or scaler-shaped for sinus lift procedures. There are multiple surgical possibilities, as it is possible to do thin incisions for grafts, cysts elimination, sinus lift procedures with alveolar or lateral access, extractions, osteoplasties, osteotomies and other.
The advantages justifying their use are less bleeding and thus better visibility during the intervention, higher cut precision than with traditional instruments and less increase of temperature, less discomfort for patients as ultrasonic vibration is less noisy than drilling, and especially that the action over the soft tissues is minimal when they are accidentally applied over them, without tearing them up.
Figure 20.
Mectron Piezosurgery´s basic surgery and sinus lift procedure kits.
The action of the tip is effectuated by two mechanical effects: direct and indirect. In the direct mechanical effect, the tissues in contact with the tip are under a very high frequency. It is the effect of a hammer working only over the hard tissues. In the indirect one, positive and negative pressures are generated over the fluids; they are known as cavitation, and they displace the osseous tissue and potentiate the mechanical effects. This produces localized osseous destruction in a continuous or discontinuous way, being the surgeon who decides one or another possibility depending on the osseous density and the required refrigeration. This makes the cut selective without neither microscopic osseous nor soft tissue alterations. Refrigeration should be abundant with saline solution, in order to avoid heating and wash up the field to obtain a better vision.
Kits are usually available for each type of indication. The insert size and angulation allow the use depending on the necessities of the case. There are basic kits, kits for surgery, osseous distraction, implants, endodontic surgery, alveolar and lateral sinus lift procedures, osteoplasy and ostectomy, etc (Figure 20).
7. US trays
US trays deserve to be mentioned. Their utilization is essential in the dental office as intermediate step between the washing with soap and the sterilization of instrumental. They allow the elimination of organic debris that remain adhered in the instrument gaps facilitating the sterilization (Figure 21).
Figure 21.
US tray.
Other applications of ultrasounds in Dentistry are removal of broken screws in implants, posts and crowns removal, etc. (Figure 22), but these applications are less frequent, they are not standardized and each professional acts according to his guidelines.
Figure 22.
Set of diverse US tips
8. Conclusion
The evolution of US in dentistry during the last 65 years has been revised. The first laminated devices, only used for supragingival and slightly subgingival tartrectomies, have lead to sonicators and newer piezoelectric US with multiple inserts which allow the performance of tartrectomies reducing patient´s discomfort and subgingival instrumentation. The variety of available tips lets us choose those which better adapt to our necessities and to the clinical situation, even in cases of periimplantitis. In endodontics, tips to facilitate the access, to clean the root canal and to carry out retreatments are available.
The industry offers the clinician optimal possibilities to achieve retrograde fillings more difficult or even impossible to carry out with other techniques. Among the latest applications, new possibilities emerge to effectuate certain surgical treatments, sinus lift procedures, implants placement, removal of fillings and crowns and other clinical situations.
Taking into account the great advance in US technology during the last years, it is reasonable to anticipate a great future for these devices. We are commited to regularly revisit the literature in order to know new opportunities provided by technology so the most suitable device is used in each clinical situation.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/47872.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/47872.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47872",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47872",totalDownloads:3415,totalViews:582,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:62,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 28th 2014",dateReviewed:"September 16th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"March 11th 2015",dateFinished:"November 19th 2014",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/47872",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/47872",book:{id:"4540",slug:"emerging-trends-in-oral-health-sciences-and-dentistry"},signatures:"Ana Isabel García-Kass, Juan Antonio García-Núñez and Victoriano\nSerrano-Cuenca",authors:[{id:"68134",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"García-Nuñez",fullName:"Juan Antonio García-Nuñez",slug:"juan-antonio-garcia-nunez",email:"garcinu@odon.ucm.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"76543",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"García-Kass",fullName:"Ana Isabel García-Kass",slug:"ana-isabel-garcia-kass",email:"garciakass@yahoo.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"173164",title:"Prof.",name:"Victoriano",middleName:null,surname:"Serrano-Cuenca",fullName:"Victoriano Serrano-Cuenca",slug:"victoriano-serrano-cuenca",email:"vserrano@odon.ucm.es",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. History and physics of ultrasounds",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Biologic actions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. US in periodontics and implants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. US in endodontics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. US in surgery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. US trays",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Curie J, Curie P. Dévélopements par presión de l’électricité polaire dans les cristaux hémièdres à faces inclinées. In: Editeurs G-V, ed. Compte rendu hebdomadaire des séances de l’Académie des Sciences. Paris, 1880.'},{id:"B2",body:'American Association of endodontist Glossary, 6° Ed Chicago, 1998.'},{id:"B3",body:'Lindhe J, Nyman S. Long-term maintenance of patients treated for advanced periodontal disease. J Clin Periodontol 1984: 11: 504-514.'},{id:"B4",body:'Becker W, Berg L, Becker B. Untreated periodontal disease: a longitudinal study. 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J Periodontol 2007: 78: 1689-1694.'},{id:"B20",body:'Richman R. The use of ultrasonics in root canal therapy and root resection. Med Dent J 1957: 12: 12-18.'},{id:"B21",body:'Martin H, Cunningham W, Norris J, Cotton W. Ultrasonic versus hand filing of dentin: a quantitative study. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol 1980: 49: 79-81.'},{id:"B22",body:'Walmsley A. Ultrasound and root canal treatment: the need for scientific evaluation. Int Endod J 1987: 20: 105-111.'},{id:"B23",body:'Walmsley A, Williams A. Effects of constraint on the oscillatory pattern of endosonic files. J Endod 1989: 15: 189-194.'},{id:"B24",body:'Lumley P, Walmsley A, Laird W. Streaming patterns produced around endosonic files. Int Endod J 1991: 24: 290-297.'},{id:"B25",body:'Cunningham W, Martin H. A scanning electron microscope evaluation of root canal debridement with the endosonic ultrasonic synergistic system. Oral Surg 1982: 53: 527-531.'},{id:"B26",body:'Cunningham W, Martin H. Endosonics-the ultrasonic synergistic system of endodontics. Endod Dent Traumatol 1985: 1: 201-206.'},{id:"B27",body:'Stamos D, Sadeghi E, Haasch G, Gerstein H. An in vitro comparison study to quantitate the debridement ability of hand, sonic, and ultrasonic instrumentation. J Endod 1987: 13: 434-440.'},{id:"B28",body:'Lev R, Reader A, Beck M, Meyers W. An in vitro comparison of the step-back technique versus a step-back/ultrasonic technique for 1 and 3 minutes. J Endod 1987: 13: 523-530.'},{id:"B29",body:'Archer R, Reader A, Nist R, Beck M, Meyers W. An in vivo evaluation of the efficacy of ultrasound after step-back preparation in mandibular molars. J Endod 1992: 18: 549-552.'},{id:"B30",body:'Reynolds W, Madison S, Walton R, Krell K, Rittman B. An in vitro histological comparison of the step-back, sonic, and ultrasonic instrumentation techniques in small, curved root canals. J Endod 1987: 13: 307-314.'},{id:"B31",body:'Goldman M, White R, Moser C, Tanca J. A comparison of three methods of cleaning and shaping the root canal in vitro. J Endod 1988: 14: 7-12.'},{id:"B32",body:'Baker M, Ashrafi S, Van Cura J, Remeikis N. Ultrasonic compared with hand instrumentation: a scanning electron microscope study. J Endod 1988: 14: 435-440.'},{id:"B33",body:'Pugh R, Goerig A, Glaser C, Luciano W. A comparison of four endodontic vibratory systems. Gen Dent 1989: 37: 296-301.'},{id:"B34",body:'Walker T, del Río C. Histological evaluation of ultrasonic and sonic instrumentation of curved root canals. J Endod 1989: 15: 49-59.'},{id:"B35",body:'Ahmad M, Pitt Ford T, Crum L. Ultrasonic debridement of root canals: acoustic streaming and its possible role. J Endod 1987: 13: 490-499.'},{id:"B36",body:'Goodman A, Reader A, Beck M, Melfi R, Meyers W. An in vitro comparison of the efficacy of the step-back technique versus a step-back/ultrasonic technique in human mandibular molars. J Endod 1985: 11: 249-256.'},{id:"B37",body:'Ruddle C. Endodontic disinfection: tsunami irrigation. Endo Prac 2008: 2008: 7-16.'},{id:"B38",body:'Lumley P, Walmsley A, Walton R, Rippin J. Effect of precurving endosonic files on the amount of debris and smear layer remaining in curved root canals. J Endod 1992: 18: 616-619.'},{id:"B39",body:'Zehnder M. Root canal irrigants. J Endod 2006: 32: 389-398.'},{id:"B40",body:'Weller R, Brady J, Bernier W. Efficacy of ultrasonic cleaning. J Endod 1980: 6: 740-743.'},{id:"B41",body:'Krell K, Johnson R, Madison S. Irrigation patterns during ultrasonic canal instrumentation. Part I. K-type files. J Endod 1988: 14: 65-68.'},{id:"B42",body:'van der Sluis L, Gambarini G, Wu M, Wesselink P. The influence of volume, type of irrigant and flushing method on removing artificially placed dentine debris from the apical root canal during passive ultrasonic irrigation. Int Endod J 2006: 39: 472-476.'},{id:"B43",body:'Jensen S, Walker T, Hutter J, Nicoll B. Comparison of the cleaning efficacy of passive sonic activation and passive ultrasonic activation after hand instrumentation in molar root canals J Endod 1999: 25: 735-738.'},{id:"B44",body:'Mozo S, Llena C, Chieffi N, Forner L, Ferrari M. Effectiveness of passive ultrasonic irrigation in improving elimination of smear layer and opening dentinal tubules. J Clin Exp Dent 2014: 6: 47-52.'},{id:"B45",body:'Martí-Bowen E, Peñarrocha-Diago M, García-Mira B. Periapical surgery using the ultrasound technique and silver amalgam retrograde filling. A study of 71 teeth with 100 canals. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal 2005: 10: 67-73.'},{id:"B46",body:'van der Sluis L, Cristescu R. Ultraschall in der Endodontie. Die Quintessenz 2009: 60: 1281-1292.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Ana Isabel García-Kass",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Stomatology III, School of Dentistry, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Juan Antonio García-Núñez",address:"garcinu@odon.ucm.es",affiliation:'
Department of Stomatology III, School of Dentistry, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Department of Stomatology III, School of Dentistry, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Fog and mist events are rare and show significant variation of frequency in the tropical region of the Brazilian Northeast (BNE) [1, 2]. Radiosonde data in the central and south regions of the BNE, i.e., Recife, Pernambuco state (8oS, 35oW), and Salvador, Bahia state (13oS, 39oW), registered fog (haze) on average in 13 (13) and 37 (41) days per year, respectively [3]. On the other hand, in the first study of fog formation in Maceio, Alagoas State (9oS, 39oW) [4], only two fog events (moderate and weak) during 1996 (both in winter) were found. Fog does not exist in the semiarid region [3]. In the northern region of the BNE, i.e., Belem, Para State (1oS, 48oW), and Quixeramobim, Ceara State (5oS, 39oW), fog (haze) was registered in 24 (1) and 4 (28) events/year, respectively. More frequently, fog was observed in Barra do Corda, Maranhao State (5oS, 45oW), in 48 days/year, but haze was very rare, only 4 days/year. Also, fog duration was very short, 1–2 h on average in the coastal region of the BNE [5].
\n
Moreover, the physical mechanism of fog formation on the northern coast was atypical (typical radiation or advection fog does not occur typically) [6]. Summarizing the results of this chapter, it was possible to make the following conclusion regarding the processes of fog formation in the tropical region of the BNE. A weak confluence at the low-level trough (wave disturbances in trade winds—WDTW) contributes to weak pressure anomaly and creates the conditions for moisture convergence as well. A change in wind direction and air current from the river region contributes additional humidity for fog formation. Also, precipitation occurred before the fog events, contributing to humidification of the air through evaporation of the humid surface and raindrops. A warmer sea surface contributes to more evaporation and, as a consequence, increases the amount of water vapor in the surrounding air at the low levels near the coast. Positive latent heat flux shows a humidity increase and, therefore, moisture accumulation in the coastal region. Negative sensible heat flux results in air cooling, possible water vapor condensation, and, finally, fog formation.
\n
All this information about rare fog events with a short duration and atypical physical mechanisms of their formation demonstrates the numerous problems for fog/haze forecasting.
\n
An intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ), a South Atlantic subtropical high (SASH), trade winds, and an upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex are typical synoptic scale systems associated with different weather conditions in the BNE [7].
\n
For the first time, the influence of wave disturbances in trade winds (WDTW) on rain formation in the BNE was shown in Molion and Bernardo [8]. The relationship between different types of troughs and adverse meteorological phenomena (fog and thunderstorms) in Alagoas State was studied by Rodrigues et al. [9]. It was noted that 87% of the troughs were associated with wave disturbances in trade winds (WDTW) on the northwestern periphery of the subtropical South Atlantic High. Rare stratus cloud events with a duration of 4 days each on the northeast coast of Brazil also were formed in WDTW [10]. Fog formation is usually associated with WDTW in Maceio (Alagoas State) [1, 5, 6, 11].
\n
The influence of the Brazilian Northeast Jet Stream (BNEJS) on weather in the BNE was described recently [12, 13, 14]. Particularly, the results of this study show that the period from April to October (a rainy period and the transition to a dry season in the coastal region) was characterized by a rather high number of fast BNEJSs, with high wind speed in the core, a predominant northwesterly direction, and the location of BNEJS between the upper tropospheric trough (UTT) and the SASH.
\n
Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortices (UTCVs) are important synoptic scale systems in this region; the greatest UTCV frequency occurs during the austral summer period, with the maximum frequency in January [15, 16, 17, 18]. Intensive cloud development with precipitation was observed on the UTCV periphery and cloudlessness in their center as a result of a downward motion in its cold center and upward motion on the periphery. Rao and Bonatti [18] conjectured that barotropic instability of the regional mean basic winds at the upper levels could be one cause for UTCV formation. It was suggested that these air streams are associated with the subtropical jet stream and contribute to UTCV development. A strong positive shear zone was formed within the South Atlantic trough before the formation of the UTCV [19]. The same paper showed that the barotropic process dominates over the baroclinic one. They showed that barotropic energy conservation is the energy source for the growth of wave motion and wave amplitude and also that barotropic instability of the shear zone can excite the UTCV.
\n
Middle tropospheric cyclonic vortices (MTCVs) located between 700 and 400 hPa in the BNE were described recently [20, 21]. About 232 MTCVs were observed each year over the BNE and adjacent ocean region. MTCVs were predominantly short and lasted less than 12 h. The vortices persisting longer than 30 h were detected more frequently in the summer and rarely in autumn.
\n
Frontal zones are observed regularly in the southern region of the Brazilian Northeast in the Southern Hemisphere (SH) [22, 23]. The influence of a western edge of a frontal cloud band on the weather conditions was found in the central region of the Brazilian Northeast SH and was described by Fedorova et al. [24]. The western edge of a frontal cloud band rarely passes across Alagoas State in the BNE. Only two to five frontal zones per year which directly affected the weather conditions were observed in 2004–2006. Nonetheless, Reeder and Smith [25] quoted different papers (including [26, 27]) where a cold front crossing the equator and penetrating the Northern Hemisphere (NH) tropics was documented. These fronts can initiate severe convection in the subtropic SH; however, they generally tend to suppress convection in the ITCZ.
\n
A SASH was observed in the South Atlantic during the whole year and was located at the low levels in the eastern part of the South Atlantic, on average between 20oW and 30oS [7, 28]. It migrated from 15oW, 27oS in August, to 5oW, 33oS in February [29]. A SASH in summer is frequently split and is normally weaker [7].
\n
Some studies show the influence of synoptic scale systems of the Northern Hemisphere on BNE weather. The influence of tropical cyclone Dany-15 on intensive fog formation in the NEB was descried by Fedorova and Levit [1]. But the information about tropical cyclone (TC) impact on BNE weather over many years has not yet been presented. Thus, the main aim of this chapter is to analyze the impact of all tropical cyclones formed from 2013 to 2015 between 20oN and the equator and which passed through 35–50oW, on fog, mist, and weak rain formation in the BNE.
\n
\n
\n
2. Data and methodology
\n
\n
2.1 Selection and classification of the tropical cyclones
\n
All tropical cyclones (TC) formed from 2013 to 2015 between 20oN and the equator whose centers passed through 35–50oW have been studied, using data from the National Hurricane Center’s Tropical Cyclone Reports https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/data/tcr/.
\n
TC has been classified according to their sustained wind speed [30] as follows:
\nTropical disturbance (TD). In this stage, winds are less than 17 m/s with open circulation (no closed isobars).
\nTropical depression (TDep). Winds are less than 17 m/s, but there is a closed circulation (closed isobars).
\nTropical storm (TS). Winds are greater than or equal to 17 m/s but less than 33 m/s with a definite closed circulation. The storm is usually assigned a name.
\nHurricane (H). Winds greater than or equal to 33 m/s.
\nMajor hurricane (MH). Typhoon with 1 min of sustained winds of 65 m/s or greater (MH was not observed during the study period).
\n\n
\n
\n
2.2 Analysis of meteorological phenomenon in the BNE
\n
Fog, mist, and weak rain events in the BNE were analyzed by SYNOP and METAR data. The BNE area and location of all meteorological stations are presented in Figure 1.
\n
Figure 1.
The location of the BNE, States, and all meteorological stations (green points) with names.
\n
\n
\n
2.3 Synoptic and thermodynamic analysis
\n
Synoptic analysis was elaborated in the equatorial and tropical regions of both hemispheres between 30oN and 30oS and by latitude between 10oW and 60oW. This region includes the BNE, part of the South Atlantic and the TCs moving over the North Atlantic region.
\n
The tropospheric structure for all TC events has been studied using data from the European Center for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), with a resolution of 0.25°× 0.25°, 00, 12, 18 UTC (http://apps.ecmwf.int/datasets/data/interim-full-daily/levtype=pl). Streamlines have been elaborated at the low (1000 hPa), middle (500 hPa), and high levels (300 and 200 hPa). Divergence maps were constructed only at the high levels (300 and 200 hPa). Both horizontal maps and vertical sections were used for vertical movement identification. These vertical sections passed through the TC center and the BNE region at the same longitude. Satellite infrared images from the GOES-13 and METEOSAT-10 (http://bancodedados.cptec.inpe.br) were used for synoptic system identification.
\n
Thermodynamic analysis was elaborated for the days with fog, mist, and weak rain in the BNE. Vertical profiles were constructed using the same data from the ECMWF quoted above.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Results
\n
\n
3.1 Information about tropical cyclones
\n
Information about tropical cyclones (TC) formed during 2013–2015 between 20oN and the equator and passing through 35–50oW is presented in Table 1. Ten tropical cyclones were registered during this time period, and their influences have been analyzed. Five TCs were observed in 2015, three of them in 2013 and only two in 2014.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Name
\n
Data
\n
TC intensity
\n
\n
\n
Formation
\n
Dissipation
\n
BNE longitude
\n
Maximal
\n
BNE longitude
\n
\n\n\n
\n
2013
\n
\n
\n
Chantal
\n
06 July
\n
10 July
\n
7–10 July
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\n
\n
Dorian
\n
22 July
\n
03 August
\n
24–27 July
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\n
\n
Erin
\n
15 August
\n
20 August
\n
16–20 August
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\nTS-D\n
\n
\n
\n
2014
\n
\n
\n
Bertha
\n
29 July
\n
06 August
\n
29–31 July
\n
\nH\n
\n
\nTD\n
\n
\n
\n
Edouard
\n
10 September
\n
23 September
\n
10–14 September
\n
\nH\n
\n
\nTD-H\n
\n
\n
\n
2015
\n
\n
\n
Danny
\n
17 August
\n
24 August
\n
17–22 August
\n
\nH\n
\n
\nTD-H\n
\n
\n
\n
Erika
\n
24 August
\n
28 August
\n
24–25 August
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\n
\n
Fred
\n
30 August
\n
06 September
\n
02–05 September
\n
\nH\n
\n
\nTS-TDep\n
\n
\n
\n
Grace
\n
05 September
\n
09 September
\n
06–09 September
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\nTS-D\n
\n
\n
\n
Ida
\n
15 September
\n
28 September
\n
17–28 September
\n
\nTS\n
\n
\nTD-D\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Information about time period and intensity of tropical cyclones (TC).
\nTD, tropical disturbance; TDep, tropical depression; TS, tropical storm; H, hurricane; D, dissipation. Source: National Hurricane Center, 2017.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Information about fog, mist, and rain formation by METAR and SYNOP data
\n
Information about fog, mist, and weak rain events in the BNE by METAR data when TCs passed through 35–50oW is presented in Figure 2 and Table 2. Two examples of maps with this information are presented in Figure 2. Fog, mist. and weak rain events were observed more frequently in the coastal region, e.g., Figure 2. Only one fog event was registered far from the coastal region, occurring in the Maranhao State (SBIZ station) (Figure 2a). Fog, mist, and weak rain events were observed more frequently in the southern region of the BNE, in the Bahia State. Six events were registered in the southern region of the Bahia (SBQV), not far from the coastal region (300 km approximately). Also, fog was detected in the coastal stations of this region (SBIL and SBPS). Only one event was recorded in the northern coastal region in the Pernambuco State (SBRF). An influence of seven TCs on fog rain formation in the BNE was confirmed (Table 2). During three TCs (Edouard, Fred, and Grace), METAR data did not record any fog events; at the same time, weak rain and mist were detected. A Tropical disturbance and Tropical storm were the predominant TC stages during its influence on the weather in the BNE.
\n
Figure 2.
(a) Location of the meteorological stations detected fog (yellow points) in the BNE by METAR during all TC events. (b) and (c) Location of the meteorological stations detected mist events (yellow points) 29 July 2014 12 UTC in the BNE by METAR (c) and SYNOP (b). Green points mark all meteorological stations.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
TC name, stage\n
\n
Data
\n
State
\n
Station
\n
Hours (local)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
2013
\n
\n
\n
Chantal TS\n
\n
08 July
\n
Bahia South
\n
SBQV
\n
08, 09
\n
\n
\n
Dorian TS\n
\n
22 July
\n
Bahia South
\n
SBQV
\n
10, 11
\n
\n
\n
25 July
\n
Paraiba
\n
SBKG
\n
06, 09, 10
\n
\n
\n
25 July
\n
Maranhao
\n
SBIZ
\n
08
\n
\n
\n
26 July
\n
Paraiba
\n
SBKG
\n
03–08
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nParaiba\n
\n
\n
\n06\n
\n
\n
\n
Erin TS\n
\n
15 August
\n
Bahia North
\n
SBSV
\n
08–10
\n
\n
\n
18 August
\n
Pernambuco
\n
SBRF
\n
15
\n
\n
\n
\n
\nPernambuco\n
\n
\n
\n12\n
\n
\n
\n
2014
\n
\n
\n
Bertha TD\n
\n
\n29 July\n
\n
\nPernambuco\n
\n
\n
\n12\n
\n
\n
\n
31 July
\n
Bahia South
\n
SBQV
\n
10, 11
\n
\n
\n
01 August
\n
Bahia South
\n
SBQV
\n
09
\n
\n
\n
Edouard
\n
—
\n
—
\n
—
\n
\n
\n
\n
2015
\n
\n
\n
Danny TD\n
\n
\n17 August\n
\n
\nPernambuco\n
\n
\n
\n12\n
\n
\n
\n
20 August
\n
Bahia South
\n
SBQV
\n
09, 10
\n
\n
\n
21 August
\n
Paraiba
\n
SBKG
\n
04, 05
\n
\n
\n
21 August
\n
Bahia South
\n
SBQV
\n
10, 11
\n
\n
\n
Erika TS\n
\n
24 August
\n
Bahia South
\n
SBIL
\n
09, 10
\n
\n
\n
Fred
\n
—
\n
—
\n
—
\n
—
\n
\n
\n
Grace
\n
—
\n
—
\n
—
\n
—
\n
\n
\n
Ida TD\n
\n
18 September
\n
Bahia South
\n
SBPS
\n
09
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Information (TC name, state, station, and hour) about fog events in the BNE by METAR data and SYNOP data (inclined) during the time period with TC passing through 35–50oW.
Bold data show the information when a TC passes before or after the BNE longitudes. TD, tropical disturbance; TS, tropical storm. Source: DECEA, 2017.
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Synoptic systems associated with fog events
\n
\n
3.3.1 1000 hPa
\n
A synoptic situation at 1000 hPa was very similar during all fog, mist, and weak rain events (Table 3). Trade winds presented cyclonic curvature (weak trough) over the ocean close to the coastal area and anticyclonic curvature (weak ridge) over the northern region of the BNE (Figure 3). This weak trough was located close to the frontal extremity over the south of the Bahia State in five events. It is important to note that a frontal extremity does not have a direct influence in the fog region but has action on trough formation.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
TC name, stage\n
\n
1000 hPa
\n
500 hPa
\n
200/300 hPa
\n
\n\n\n
\n
2013
\n
\n
\n
Chantal TS\n
\n
\nTO/RC (7), TO/RC/FZ (8,9)
\n
A (7–9)
\n
\nTCO (6, 7) A (8) \nTCO (9) SJSHS 10–15o\n
\n
\n
\n
Dorian TS\n
\n
\nTO/RC/FZ (22–26)
\n
A (22–25), MTCVo (23–25)
\n
A (22–23) \nTCO (24, 25) A (26, 27) SJSHS 20o\n
\n
\n
\n
Erin
\n
\nTO/RC/FZ (16–17)
\n
MTCVc, A (16–18)
\n
A (16) \nTCO (17) A (18) SJSHS 20o\n
\n
\n
\n
2014
\n
\n
\n
Bertha TDis\n
\n
\nTO/RC/FZ (29–31–1)
\n
A (29–31–1)
\n
\nTCO (29–31–1), SJSHS 10–15o\n
\n
\n
\n
Edouard
\n
\nTO/RC (10–13)
\n
A (10), MTCVc (10, 11)
\n
\nTCO (10–11) A (12–13) SJSHS 10–15o\n
\n
\n
\n
2015
\n
\n
\n
Danny TDis\n
\n
\nTO/RC (17–19), TO/RC/FZ (20–21)
\n
A, MTCVc (17–18), A (19–22)
\n
\nTCO (17–20) SJSHS 10–15o\n (17–20)
\n
\n
\n
Erika
\n
\nTO/RC/FZ (24–26)
\n
A (24–26)
\n
\nTCO (24–26) SJSHS 10–15o\n (24–26)
\n
\n
\n
Fred
\n
\nTO/RC (1) \nTO/RC/FZ (2–3)
\n
A (1–4)
\n
\nTCO (1–2) A (3–4) SJSHS 10–15o\n
\n
\n
\n
Grace
\n
\nTW(6–9)\n
\n
A (7–9)
\n
\nTCO (7) A (8–9) SJSHS 10–15o\n
\n
\n
\n
Ida
\n
\nTO/RC (16–18)
\n
A (16–17) MTCVo A (16–17)
\n
A (17–19)
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Synoptic systems in the BNE at the low (1000 hPa), middle (500 hPa), and high (300 and 200 hPa) levels during tropical cyclones in the northern hemisphere.
A, anticyclonic circulation; TO (trough over the ocean); RC (ridge over the continent); TW, trade winds nearly straight (no pronounced curvature); FZ (frontal zone), TCO (trough at the middle and high levels over the continent and ocean); SJSHS (subtropical jet stream of the Southern Hemisphere)—location of the northern boundary (oW); MTCVo and MTCVc—middle tropospheric cyclonic vortices over the oceanic and continental regions, respectively.
Information inside brackets represents number of days.
\n
Figure 3.
Streamlines at 1000 hPa on 22 July 2013, 18 UTC. Trough, dashed line; ridge, dotted line; and TC, tropical cyclone.
\n
\n
\n
3.3.2 500 hPa
\n
Anticyclonic circulation over the BNE was the predominant process at the middle levels in days with fog, mist, and weak rain events (Figure 4, Table 3). Also, a convergence zone was observed in the north and middle regions of the BNE in all events. This convergence zone was formed between the currents from a tropical cyclone or tropical depression in the Northern Hemisphere and this anticyclonic circulation in the Southern Hemisphere. The current from the NH was formed as a result of the divergence at the middle levels of the tropical cyclone or tropical depression. For example, Figure 3 shows airflow from the tropical depression on the west coast of Africa (6oN) converging with the air current of the high (with the center at 6oS, 54oW).
\n
Figure 4.
Streamlines at 500 hPa, 17 August 2013, 00UTC. H, anticyclonic circulation; TD, tropical disturbance; TC, tropical cyclone; and -• -• -, convergence zone.
\n
Middle tropospheric cyclonic vortices (MTCV) were observed in five studied events (Table 3). MTCVs were located over the adjacent ocean region in two of the five events, in the northeastern part and in the coastal region of the continent in one case each. Four MTCVs were typical in terms of the level of its location and duration, were short, and lasted 6–12 h. Only one MTCV lasted 36 h, and its center was located in the south of the BNE, and its circulation affected only southern part of the BNE. The MTCVs created the waves on the air current from the NH but did not change the principal influence of this northern current. Meanwhile one MTCV on 17 Ag 2013, 12UTC, was formed between west flow of the SH and northeast current from the tropical disturbance of the NH near Africa and lasted 6 h. Other four MTCVs were formed in the flow of the southern hemisphere without the TC influence.
\n
\n
\n
3.3.3 200/300 hPa
\n
The principal influence of the NH flow was observed at the high levels (Figure 5, Table 3). Divergent flow was observed at the high levels in the TC. The height of this divergent flow depended on the TC intensity and was registered at 300 and 200 hPa. This divergent flow at the high levels passed through the equator to the BNE region. This flow from the TC was connected with anticyclonic circulation over the equatorial and south Atlantic. Thus, a single current was formed in the Northern Hemisphere, from the north or northeast.
\n
Figure 5.
Streamlines at 300 hPa 18 September 2015, 12UTC. H, anticyclonic circulation; TD, tropical disturbance; and TC, tropical cyclone. -• -• -, convergence zone.
\n
Also, the anticyclonic circulation was predominant over the central and south region of the BNE. The location of this high was dependent upon the subtropical jet stream of the Southern Hemisphere (SJSHS). The northern boundary of this jet stream reached 15 or 30oW in the study events and was not observed over the BNE region. Curvature of the SJSHS was cyclonic (trough, upper tropospheric trough) over the continental region and anticyclonic (ridge) over the ocean region.
\n
These two currents from the Northern Hemisphere and anticyclonic circulation of the Southern Hemisphere created the convergence of air current which, in turn, produced air sinking.
\n
Two examples of this flow at the high levels can be seen in Figures 5 and 6. The difference between these examples is in the location of the Highs over the Atlantic Ocean. Meanwhile, the location of the convergence zone over the BNE was very similar.
\n
Figure 6.
Streamlines at 300 hPa 16 August 2013, 00UTC. H, anticyclonic circulation; TD, tropical disturbance; TC, tropical cyclone; and -• -• -, convergence zone.
\n
A slightly different situation was observed during the TC Dorian on 25 July 2013 (Figure 7). This difference was associated with jet stream formation from the Northern to Southern Hemisphere, denominated as the Brazilian Northeast Jet Stream—BNEJS [20]. The data from this paper shows that, generally, BNEJS from the north was observed very rarely. On this day, the BNEJS was formed between two highs: in the north (near Maranhao State, high 1) and northeast of Brazil (high 2). The high 1 location was more to the north than the typical high position described before. At the same time, the high 2 location was close to the continental region, with its center on the northeastern cape of the South American continent. These highs squeezed the flow from the TC, and so the BNEJS was created. Also, the northern boundary of the SJSHS reached 15oW on this day. Therefore, the convergence zone between the currents from the south and north was detected in the south BNE region.
\n
Figure 7.
Streamlines at 200 hPa, 25 July 2013, 06UTC. H, anticyclonic circulation; TC, tropical cyclone; and -• -• -, convergence zone. The black arrows show the BNEJS.
\n
A scheme of the synoptic systems, observed more frequently at all levels simultaneously during the TC and fog events, is presented in Figure 8. This figure shows the circulation pattern, which contributes to fog, mist, and weak rain formation in the BNE. As a result of this circulation, a convergence zone at the middle and high levels and anticyclonic circulation at the middle levels were formed.
\n
Figure 8.
Synoptic systems, observed more frequently at all levels simultaneously. TD, tropical disturbance; and TC, tropical cyclone.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.4 Mechanism of fog, mist, and weak rain formation
\n
The circulation described in Section 3.3 creates sinking over the BNE. Vertical movements were analyzed in all events, and an example of this vertical motion is presented in Figure 9. Lifting in TC Bertha can be seen in Figure 9a and d. The vertical movement reaches 0.3 m/s. Very intense diffluent current was observed at 300 hPa in TC Bertha (Figure 9b). Airflow at the high levels from TC Bertha to the BNE is presented in Figure 9a and c.
\n
These circulations create sinking over the BNE and, as a result, humidity accumulation at the low levels and fog, mist, and weak rain formation. These phenomena were detected as the principal adverse phenomena in the BNE during all TC days.
\n
Figure 9.
Circulation between TC, TD is, and fog formation region on 29 June 2014, 06 UTC, in different maps: Vertical velocity (a, Pa s−1) and divergence (b, s−1), streamlines and wind velocity (c, m s−1) all at 300 hPa and (d) vertical section of vertical velocity (Pa s−1) along 37.1oW (longitude of TC Bertha).
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusion
\n
The impact of all studied (10) TCs on the weather conditions in the BNE was analyzed during July to September from 2013 to 2015. These TCs had a tropical storm stage, when passing between 35 and 50oW and up to 20oN in the Northern Hemisphere. Only one, TC Bertha, had the stage of tropical disturbance (TDis) during its passage in this area.\n
\n
The fog, mist, and weak rain in the BNE were the adverse phenomena associated more frequently with these TCs. Days with mist were also accompanied by weak rain. These phenomena were observed in all TC events and predominantly near the coastal region of the BNE.
\n
The synoptic situation at 1000 hPa shows a wave disturbance near the BNE coastal area with a weak trough over the ocean close to the coastal area and a weak ridge over the northern region of the BNE. This situation was detected in all study events. Frontal extremity over the south of the Bahia State had an influence on trough intensification.
\n
The convergence zone at the middle levels in the northern or middle region of the BNE was formed in all fog events between the currents from a TC in the Northern Hemisphere and anticyclonic circulation in the Southern Hemisphere. This anticyclonic circulation was predominant over the greater part of the BNE. Middle tropospheric cyclonic vortices were observed during half of the events but did not change the principal influence of the airflow from the TCs. One MTCV was formed between west flow of the Southern Hemisphere and northeast current from the tropical disturbance of the Northern Hemisphere.
\n
The airflow at the high levels from the Northern Hemisphere is formed by the coupling (joining) of two currents: (1) from a TC and (2) from the high over the equatorial and south Atlantic. The confluence of these airflows with the current from the trough created by the subtropical jet stream of the Southern Hemisphere was the principal mechanism of the sinking in the BNE.
\n
This sinking over the BNE formed the accumulation of humidity at the low levels and, as a result, fog, mist, and weak rain formation. Therefore, fog, mist, and weak rain were the principal adverse phenomena in the BNE during TC days.
\n
This information can be used for short-term forecasting of adverse phenomena, such as fog and mist with weak rain in the BNE.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors thank English editor Robert Dower for his careful revision of this manuscript.
\n
\n',keywords:"tropical cyclones, Northeast Brazil, adverse phenomena",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69026.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69026.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69026",totalDownloads:548,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 17th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 24th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 12th 2019",datePublished:"November 4th 2020",dateFinished:"September 12th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Tropical cyclone (TC) impacts on adverse phenomena in the tropical region of Northeastern Brazil (NEB) have been analyzed. TC influence on fog and rain formation was not described in the previous papers. The main goal of the chapter is to evaluate the existence of such influence and thus to improve the weather forecasting in this area. TC information from the NHC of the NOAA was used. METAR and SYNOP data were used for the adverse phenomena study. Analysis of the synoptic systems was based on different maps at the pattern levels and on satellite images. These maps were elaborated using reanalysis data from the ECMWF. Thermodynamic analysis was also used. Middle tropospheric cyclonic vortexes (MTCV) in the tropical region of the Southern Atlantic were described recently. Five from 10 MTCVs were associated with tropical cyclones and disturbances in the Northern Atlantic. Circulation patterns between TC and synoptic systems at the NEB are described. These circulations create sinking over the BNE and, as a result, form fog, mist and weak rain in the BNE during TC days. Mechanisms of TC influence on weather formation in the BNE are presented. This information is important for improving weather forecasting methods.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69026",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69026",signatures:"Natalia Fedorova, Vladimir Levit and Lucas Carvalho Vieira Cavalcante",book:{id:"8974",type:"book",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Cyclone Research",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Tropical Cyclone Research",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-cyclone-research",publishedDate:"November 4th 2020",bookSignature:"Anthony Lupo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8974.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-362-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-361-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-116-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"18289",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:"Rocco",surname:"Lupo",slug:"anthony-lupo",fullName:"Anthony Lupo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Data and methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Selection and classification of the tropical cyclones",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Analysis of meteorological phenomenon in the BNE",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Synoptic and thermodynamic analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Information about tropical cyclones",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Information about fog, mist, and rain formation by METAR and SYNOP data",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.3 Synoptic systems associated with fog events",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.3.2 500 hPa",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.3.3 200/300 hPa",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.4 Mechanism of fog, mist, and weak rain formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nFedorova N, Levit V. Fog in the Tropical Region. Fog Formation in the Tropical Region of the Northeast of Brazil. Saarbrücken, Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing; 2016, 82 p. ISBN: 978-3-659-87098-9\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nSchwerdtfeger W. Climates of Central and South America. New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company; 1976\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nRatisbona LR. The climate of Brazil. Chapter 5. In: Schwerdtfeger W, editor. Climates of Central and South America. Oxford: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company; 1976. pp. 219-269\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nSilveira PS. Analysis of the fog cases and stratus clouds in Airport of Maceio [MSc thesis]. Maceio, Brazil: Federal University of Alagoas; 2003\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nFedorova N, Levit V, Fedorov D. Fog and stratus formation on the coast of Brazil. Atmospheric Research. 2008;87:268-278\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nFedorova N, Levit V, Souza JL, Silva AO, Afonso JMS, Teodoro I. Fog events at Maceio airport on the northern coast of Brazil during 2002-2005 and 2007. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 2015;172:2727-2749. DOI: 10.1007/s00024-014-1027-0\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nSatyamurty P, Nobre CA, Silva Dias PL. South America. In: Karoly DJ, Vincent DG, editors. Meteorology of Southern Hemisphere. Boston: American Meteorological Society; 1998. pp. 119-139\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nMolion LCB, Bernardo SO. Uma revisão da dinâmica das chuvas no Nordeste Brasileiro. Revista Brasileira de Meteorologia. 2002;17(1):1-10\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nRodrigues LRL, Fedorova N, Levit V. Adverse meteorological phenomena associated with low level baric troughs in the Alagoas State in 2003. Atmospheric Science Letters. 2010. DOI: 10.1002/asl.273\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nGomes HB, Fedorova N, Levit V. Rare events of stratus clouds on the northeast coast of Brazil. Revista Brasileira de Meteorologia. 2011;26(1):9-18\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nFedorova N, Levit V, Silva AO, Santos DMB. Low visibility formation and forecasting on the northern coast of Brazil. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 2013;170(4):689-709. DOI: 10.1007/s00024-012-0565-6\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nFedorova N, Levit V, Campos AMV. Brazilian northeast jet stream: Frequency, wind speed and direction. Meteorological Applications. 2018;25:254-260. DOI: 10.1002/met.1688\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nFedorova N, Levit V, Campos AMV. Brazilian northeast jet stream: Association with synoptic scale systems. Meteorological Applications. 2018;25:261-268. DOI: 10.1002/met.1693\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nFedorova N, Lyra MJA. Capítulo 1. Corrente de jato e fenômenos associados. In: Meteorologia em tópicos. Vol. 5. Pelotas: UFPel; 2017. pp. 11-68. ISBN 978-85-68891-04-9\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nGan MA, Kousky VE. Vórtices ciclônicos da Alta troposfera no Oceano Atlântico Sul (Cyclonic vortices in the upper troposphere the South Atlantic Ocean). Revista Brasileira de Meteorologia. 1986;1:19-28\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nKousky VE, Gan MA. Upper tropospheric cyclonic vortices in the tropical South Atlantic. Tellus. 1981;33(6):538-551\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nMishra SK, Rao VB, Franchito SH. Genesis of Northeast Brazil upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex: A primitive equation barotropic instability study. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences. 2007;64:1379-1392\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nRao VB, Bonatti JP. On the origin of upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex in the South Atlantic Ocean and adjoin Brazil during summer. Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics. 1987;37:11-16\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nMishra SK, Rao VB, Gan MA. Structure and evolution of the large-scale flow of an embedded upper tropospheric cyclonic vortex over Northeast Brazil. Monthly Weather Review. 2001;129:1673-1688\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nFedorova N, Santos DMB, Lopes Segundo MM, Levit V. Middle tropospheric cyclonic vortex in northeastern Brazil and the tropical Atlantic. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 2017;174(1):397-411. DOI: 10.1007/s00024-016-1381-1\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nPontes da Silva BF, Fedorova N, Levit V, Peresetsky A. Sistemas sinóticos associados às precipitações intensas no Estado de Alagoas (Synoptic systems associated with the precipitations in the Alagoas State). Revista Brasileira de Meteorologia. 2011;26(3):295-310\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nFedorova N, Carvalho MH. Processos sinóticos em anos de La Niña e de El Niño. Parte II: Zonas Frontais. Revista Brasileira de Meteorologia. 2000;15(2):57-72\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nKousky VE. Frontal influences on Northeast Brazil. Monthly Weather Review. 1979;107(9):1140-1153\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nFedorova N, Levit V, Cruz CD. On frontal zone analysis in the tropical region of the Northeast Brazil. Pure and Applied Geophysics. 2016;173:1403-1421. DOI: 10.1007/s00024-015-1166-y\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nReeder MJ, Smith RK. Mesoscale meteorology. In: Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere. Vol. 27(49). Boston: American Meteorological Society; 1998. pp. 201-241\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nFortune MA, Kousky VE. Two severe freezes in Brazil: Precursors and synoptic evolution. Monthly Weather Review. 1983;111:181-196\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nParmenter FC. A southern hemisphere cold-front passage near the equator. Bulletin of the American Meteorology Society. 1976;57:1435-1440\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nTaljaard JJ. Synoptic meteorology of the Southern hemisphere. In: Meteorology of the Southern Hemisphere. Vol. 13(35). Boston: Press AMS; 1972. pp. 129-213\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nHastenrath S. Climate Dynamics of the Tropics. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers; 1991. p. 488\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nVasquez T. Weather Forecasting Handbook. Garland, Texas: Weather Graphics Technologies; 2000. 98 p\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Natalia Fedorova",address:"nataliabras@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Institute of Atmospheric Science, Federal University of Alagoas, Brazil
Institute of Atmospheric Science, Federal University of Alagoas, Brazil
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We believe financial barriers should not prevent researchers from publishing their findings. With the need to make scientific research more publicly available and support the benefits of Open Access, more and more institutions and funders are dedicating resources to assist faculty members and researchers cover Open Access Publishing Fees (OAPFs). In addition, IntechOpen provides several further options presented below, all of which are available to researchers, and could secure the financing of your Open Access publication.
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Paying the OAPF
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The first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
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IntechOpen Waivers in Action
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For Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
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How to Apply for a Waiver
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The application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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Note: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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The first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\n
However, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\n
Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\n
IntechOpen Waivers in Action
\n\n
For Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\n
Our mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\n
While providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\n
How to Apply for a Waiver
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The application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
Feel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
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Note: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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The use of aquatic organisms as bioindicators of metal pollution allowed the obtaining of valuable information about the acute and chronic toxicity on common Romanian aquatic species and the estimation of the environment quality. Laboratory toxicity results showed that Cd, As, Cu, Zn, Pb, Ni, Zr, and Ti have toxic to very toxic effects on Cyprinus carpio, and this observation could raise concerns because of its importance as a fishery resource. The benthic invertebrates’ analysis showed that bioaccumulation level depends on species, type of metals, and sampling sites. The metal analysis from the shells of three mollusk species showed that the metals involved in the metabolic processes (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, and Mg) were more accumulated than the toxic ones (Pb, Cd). The bioaccumulation factors of metals in benthic invertebrates were subunitary, which indicated a slow bioaccumulation process in the studied aquatic ecosystems. The preliminary aquatic risk assessment of Ni, Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, As, and Zn on C. carpio revealed insignificant to moderate risk considering the measured environmental concentrations, acute and long-term effects and environmental compartment.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Stefania Gheorghe, Catalina Stoica, Gabriela Geanina Vasile, Mihai\nNita-Lazar, Elena Stanescu and Irina Eugenia Lucaciu",authors:[{id:"186964",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefania",middleName:null,surname:"Gheorghe",slug:"stefania-gheorghe",fullName:"Stefania Gheorghe"},{id:"194072",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalina",middleName:null,surname:"Stoica",slug:"catalina-stoica",fullName:"Catalina Stoica"}]},{id:"42035",doi:"10.5772/55354",title:"Arsenic in Groundwater: A Summary of Sources and the Biogeochemical and Hydrogeologic Factors Affecting Arsenic Occurrence and Mobility",slug:"arsenic-in-groundwater-a-summary-of-sources-and-the-biogeochemical-and-hydrogeologic-factors-affecti",totalDownloads:6141,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:45,abstract:null,book:{id:"3491",slug:"current-perspectives-in-contaminant-hydrology-and-water-resources-sustainability",title:"Current Perspectives in Contaminant Hydrology and Water Resources Sustainability",fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Contaminant Hydrology and Water Resources Sustainability"},signatures:"Julia L. Barringer and Pamela A. Reilly",authors:[{id:"163098",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Barringer",slug:"julia-barringer",fullName:"Julia Barringer"},{id:"167449",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Pamela",middleName:"A.",surname:"Reilly",slug:"pamela-reilly",fullName:"Pamela Reilly"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21385,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7202,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"24552",title:"Geology and Geotectonic Setting of the Basement Complex Rocks in South Western Nigeria: Implications on Provenance and Evolution",slug:"geology-and-geotectonic-setting-of-the-basement-complex-rocks-in-south-western-nigeria-implications-",totalDownloads:20731,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:null,book:{id:"1882",slug:"earth-and-environmental-sciences",title:"Earth and Environmental Sciences",fullTitle:"Earth and Environmental Sciences"},signatures:"Akindele O. Oyinloye",authors:[{id:"68497",title:"Prof.",name:"Akindele",middleName:null,surname:"Oyinloye",slug:"akindele-oyinloye",fullName:"Akindele Oyinloye"}]},{id:"66437",title:"Detection of Underground Water by Using GPR",slug:"detection-of-underground-water-by-using-gpr",totalDownloads:2945,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Water is the human vital requirement for life; in these days, decreasing of the fresh water increases the importance of the aquifer water. However, Upper Egypt is higher than north Egypt, so the water map continually changes daily, and the aquifer water is deeper than 10 m. The ground penetrating radar (GPR) system is used for underground water detection. GPR is a promising technology to detect and identify aquifer water or nonmetallic mines. One of the most serious components for the performance of GPR is the antenna system. The technology of the remote sensing and radar is rapidly developing, and it has led to the ultra-wideband electronic systems. All of these factors, such as miniaturized, low cost, possible compromise solution between depth and resolution, scanning in real time, easy to interpret, and decreased the false alarm, are important in designing the ground penetrating system. The electrical properties of the sand and fresh water layers are investigated using laboratory measurement and EM simulation. Different types of antenna may be used in GPR to operate over a frequency range for different penetration depth. Frequency-modulated continuous wave is also used for GPR and for through-the-wall applications. However, most of these kinds of antennas are limited by their large volume for certain applications. Therefore, a compact Vivaldi antenna with EBG and a compact planar printed quasi-Yagi antenna with meandered ground plane are designed to fulfill all above requirement.",book:{id:"6836",slug:"groundwater-resource-characterisation-and-management-aspects",title:"Groundwater",fullTitle:"Groundwater - Resource Characterisation and Management Aspects"},signatures:"Dalia N. Elsheakh and Esmat A. Abdallah",authors:[{id:"111813",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalia",middleName:null,surname:"Elsheakh",slug:"dalia-elsheakh",fullName:"Dalia Elsheakh"},{id:"111867",title:"Prof.",name:"Esmat",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"esmat-abdallah",fullName:"Esmat Abdallah"}]},{id:"57345",title:"Safe Drinking Water: Concepts, Benefits, Principles and Standards",slug:"safe-drinking-water-concepts-benefits-principles-and-standards",totalDownloads:6046,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Water is connected to every forms of life on earth. As a criteria, an adequate, reliable, clean, accessible, acceptable and safe drinking water supply has to be available for various users. The United Nation (UN) and other countries declared access to safe drinking water as a fundamental human right, and an essential step towards improving living standards. Access to water was one of the main goal of Millinium Development Goals (UN-MDGs) and it is also one of the main goal of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The UN-SDG goal 6 states that “Water sustains life, but safe clean drinking water defines civilization”. Despite these facts, there are inequalities in access to safe drinking water in the world. In some countries, sufficient freshwater is not available (physical scarcity); while in other countries, abundant freshwater is available, but it is expensive to use (economic scarcity). The other challenge is the increasing population of the world at an alarming rate, while the available freshwater resources almost remains constant. This chapter presents aspects of safe drinking water - background information, definition of water safety and access, benefits, principles and regulations, factors challenging the sustainable water supply and water quality standards and parameters.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Megersa Olumana Dinka",authors:[{id:"206964",title:"Dr.",name:"Megersa Olumana",middleName:null,surname:"Dinka",slug:"megersa-olumana-dinka",fullName:"Megersa Olumana Dinka"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"125",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 19th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. She serves as an Associate Editor for the International Journal of the Analytic Hierarchy Process. She is a member of AHP Academy and a member of several editorial boards. She has over 160 Scientific Publications in International Journals and Conferences and she is the author of 5 books on Innovation and Decision Making in Industrial Applications and Engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Parthenope University of Naples",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"92",title:"Health and Wellbeing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/92.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"348225",title:"Prof.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Hemingway",slug:"ann-hemingway",fullName:"Ann Hemingway",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035LZFoQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-11T14:55:40.jpg",biography:"Professor Hemingway is a public health researcher, Bournemouth University, undertaking international and UK research focused on reducing inequalities in health outcomes for marginalised and excluded populations and more recently focused on equine assisted interventions.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bournemouth University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"93",title:"Inclusivity and Social Equity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/93.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",middleName:null,surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6LkBQAU/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:31:48.png",biography:'Professor Dr. Ebba Ossiannilsson is an independent researcher, expert, consultant, quality auditor and influencer in the fields of open, flexible online and distance learning (OFDL) and the "new normal". Her focus is on quality, innovation, leadership, and personalised learning. She works primarily at the strategic and policy levels, both nationally and internationally, and with key international organisations. She is committed to promoting and improving OFDL in the context of SDG4 and the future of education. Ossiannilsson has more than 20 years of experience in her current field, but more than 40 years in the education sector. She works as a reviewer and expert for the European Commission and collaborates with the Joint Research Centre for Quality in Open Education. Ossiannilsson also collaborates with ITCILO and ICoBC (International Council on Badges and Credentials). She is a member of the ICDE Board of Directors and has previously served on the boards of EDEN and EUCEN. Ossiannilsson is a quality expert and reviewer for ICDE, EDEN and the EADTU. She chairs the ICDE OER Advocacy Committee and is a member of the ICDE Quality Network. She is regularly invited as a keynote speaker at conferences. She is a guest editor for several special issues and a member of the editorial board of several scientific journals. She has published more than 200 articles and is currently working on book projects in the field of OFDL. Ossiannilsson is a visiting professor at several international universities and was recently appointed Professor and Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington, NZ. Ossiannilsson has been awarded the following fellowships: EDEN Fellows, EDEN Council of Fellows, and Open Education Europe. She is a ICDE OER Ambassador, Open Education Europe Ambassador, GIZ Ambassador for Quality in Digital Learning, and part of the Globe-Community of Digital Learning and Champion of SPARC Europe. On a national level, she is a quality developer at the Swedish Institute for Standards (SIS) and for ISO. She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.',institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. 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She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNVJQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-07T13:23:04.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. His research interests include biochemistry, oxidative stress, reactive species, antioxidants, lipid peroxidation, inflammation, reproductive hormones, phenolic compounds, female infertility.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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