List of the top ten chili pepper producing countries in 2019.
\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately thirty scientific publications in the field of statistics, inclusive education, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health. Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6926",title:"Biological Anthropology",subtitle:"Applications and Case Studies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5bbb192dffd37a257febf4acfde73bb8",slug:"biological-anthropology-applications-and-case-studies",bookSignature:"Alessio Vovlas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313084",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54255",title:"Understanding Cachexia, Sarcopenia, and Physical Exercise in Patients with Cancer",doi:"10.5772/67628",slug:"understanding-cachexia-sarcopenia-and-physical-exercise-in-patients-with-cancer",body:'\nMuscle wasting and weakness are common in many disease states and conditions including aging and cancer [1]. Muscle wasting in advanced cancer is related to age, sex, tumor type, and inflammation [2]. It can be caused by inflammation and malnutrition in patients with cancer [3]. Patients with cancer have problems including anorexia, weight loss, negative nitrogen balance, and skeletal muscle wasting [4]. The loss of muscle and fat tissue due to chronic illness is referred to as cachexia, and the general loss of muscle mass with advancing age is referred to as sarcopenia [5]. Sarcopenia diagnosis requires documentation of low muscle mass along with either low muscle strength or low physical performance [6]. Cachexia and sarcopenia share some pathological muscle wasting mechanisms characterized by inflammation and oxidative stress [7, 8]. In both cachexia and sarcopenia, muscle loss can lead to frailty and adversely affect various clinical outcomes [9]. Many oncologists and rehabilitation staffs confuse cancer cachexia with simple starvation or physiological processes such as sarcopenia. Since cancer cachexia and sarcopenia can both involve muscle wasting, we speculate that the two conditions can be confused in patients with cancer. However, sarcopenia and cachexia should not be confused in patients with cancer (Figure 1). Instead, it should be understood that the loss of skeletal muscle mass occurs in patients with cancer (cachexia) as well as during aging (sarcopenia). Cachexia involves muscle wasting and weakness as a result of cancer-related inflammation, while sarcopenia involves muscle wasting and weakness as a result of age-related inflammation. Thus, the underlying pathological processes leading to muscle wasting and weakness differ between the two conditions.
\nMuscle wasting due to cancer cachexia and sarcopenia.
Cachexia is associated with cancer and other chronic diseases, and cachexia patients lose weight and experience a decline in their overall health. The mechanism of cancer cachexia is known to involve inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6 [10]. Cancer cachexia is a complex syndrome that describes the progressive muscle wasting and weakness observed in many patients with cancer and accounts for at least 20% of cancer deaths [11, 12]. It is caused by numerous complex interactions of tumor and host factors [13, 14], and results in anorexia, wasting syndrome, and subsequent related issues [15]. It is a multifactorial syndrome defined by an ongoing loss of skeletal muscle mass (with or without loss of fat mass) that cannot be fully reversed by conventional nutritional support [16]. A panel of experts has also defined consensus criteria for diagnosing cachexia in patients with cancer [16]: (1) weight loss > 5% over the past 6 months (in the absence of simple starvation); (2) BMI < 20 kg/m2 and any degree of weight loss > 2%; or (3) appendicular skeletal muscle index consistent with sarcopenia (males < 7.26 kg/m2; females < 5.45 kg/m2), and any degree of weight loss > 2%. A defining feature of cancer cachexia is the loss of muscle, but fat may also be lost [17]. Weight loss is involuntary, meaning that there is no desire or attempt to lose weight. Cancer cachexia usually worsens over time, and as weight loss increases, cancer cachexia patients also experience difficulties in daily activities.
\nCancer cachexia has three clinical stages: precachexia, cachexia, and refractory cachexia [16]. The condition may occur in stages that are defined by differences in food intake, weight loss, and ability to function. In addition to muscle wasting and appetite loss, patients who have cancer anorexia–cachexia have a poor overall quality of life (QOL) and experience fatigue. They find it difficult to perform regular daily activities [18], and experience a significant symptom burden [19, 20]. Patients with cancer cachexia have significant decrease in physical function [21, 22], with low grip strength, and shorter walking distance even when controlling for muscle wasting [23, 24]. Also, cancer cachexia patients demonstrate lower physical activity [25–27]. In the early or mild stage, patients with cancer may only notice a slight loss of appetite. At the moderate stage, patients will notice more weight loss and often eat less than at the early and mild stages. In the severe stage, muscle wasting becomes markedly increased compared to the moderate stage, and the condition may be resistant to normal treatments such as dietary supplementation and nutritional support. Patients with cancer do not experience weight gain. Furthermore, patients may also have great difficulties in performing routine activities [16, 28]. Cachexia can reduce the physical activities of daily living (ADL) in patients with cancer [29]. Many patients with cancer cachexia experience decrease in physical function and ADL after muscle wasting. Thus, in addition to nutritional support, physical exercise may also contribute to improve the physical function in patients with cancer cachexia.
\nSarcopenia, derived from a Greek word meaning “poverty of flesh,” is characterized by the triad of progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass, muscle strength, and physical performance [30]. It is defined as age-related muscle wasting; thus, sarcopenia frequently occurs in elderly people. European Working Group on Sarcopenia in Older People (EWGSOP) recommends that the diagnosis of sarcopenia in elderly patients should be based on the presence of both low muscle mass and low muscle function (strength or performance) [6]. EWGSOP uses these characteristics to further classify the condition into the stages of presarcopenia, sarcopenia, and severe sarcopenia [6]. Sarcopenia has emerged as an important prognostic factor in elderly advanced patients with cancer [6]. Modalities used to assess sarcopenia include magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, and bioelectrical impedance analysis [31]. Sarcopenia is associated with poor performance status, toxicity from chemotherapy, and short time of tumor control [32, 33].
\nSarcopenia is now recognized as a multifactorial geriatric syndrome [34, 35], and is a common clinical symptom of elderly patients with cancer [36]. It has been reported to serve as an independent risk factor for poor prognosis indicative of disease and death [37]. It typically co-occurs with cachexia in patients with cancer [38]. However, changes in muscle mass and physical performance may occur before clinically overt cachexia in patients with cancer [35]. In recent years, clinical research on the application of exercise, nutritional support, and drugs, as well as other comprehensive interventions in sarcopenia patients have demonstrated good results [39]. A significant proportion of elderly patients with cancer are at risk of sarcopenia development. However, despite its potential impact on their quality of life [2, 40], limited data are available regarding the factors associated with sarcopenia in elderly patients with cancer, who might have more problems such as malnutrition than non sarcopenic patients.
\nPhysical exercise has the potential to help maintain or slow the loss of physical function [41] as well as sustain and build muscle mass [42]. Aerobic and resistance exercise have been found to better improve upper and lower body strength than usual care in patients with cancer [42]. Aerobic exercise training for skeletal muscles improves wasting in cardiac and cancer cachexia patients [43]. Resistance exercise attenuates muscle wasting associated with a variety of catabolic conditions [44]. Physical exercise has been shown to be effective in improving physical activity levels in cancer survivors [45]. Physical activity intervention significantly improved quality of life for cancer cachexia patients [46, 47]. A systematic review found that physical activity has benefits including improvement in physical activity levels, aerobic fitness, muscle strength, functional quality of life, anxiety, and self-esteem [48] (Figure 2).
\nThe effectiveness of physical exercise for patients with cancer with cachexia and sarcopenia.
Physical activity correlated with maximum exercise capacity, weight loss, blood hemoglobin concentration, C-reactive protein, and QOL-related factors of physical functioning and bodily pain in patients with cancer with progressive cachexia [49]. Physical exercise may promote a disruption in the cycle of events leading to cachexia advancement (i.e. muscle tissue loss via anorexigenic proinflammatory cytokines) and, in turn, enhanced functionality and thus, improved QOL in patients with cancer [50]. It has been suggested to counteract sustained disease-related inflammation and the effect of exercise training in cancer cachexia [51]. Furthermore, it has been shown an association with the reduced levels of C-reactive protein in patients with cancer [52].
\nIn patients with cancer, physical exercise represents a function-preserving, anti-inflammatory, and metabolism-modulating strategy with a low cost [53]. It may reverse protein degradation while increasing protein synthesis and lean body mass, thus counteracting the wasting seen in cachexia [54]. It is necessary to develop a better understanding of how to support patients with cancer in starting and maintaining physical activity and exercise programs. It is uncertain whether physical activity during and following cancer treatment has the same benefits in the weight-stable and weight-losing patients. The question also remains as to whether physical exercise has any health benefit in people with cancer cachexia or those at risk of cancer cachexia. Research investigating physical exercise in patients with cancer undergoing treatment has demonstrated improvements in physical performance, fatigue, and functional quality of life. It is unclear whether these benefits are experienced by patients with cancer cachexia. There is insufficient evidence to establish the safety and effectiveness of physical exercise in cancer cachexia patients, and future trials on exercise and supportive care interventions are required in this population. Aerobic and resistance exercise regimens may have positive effects on decreasing cancer-related fatigue and muscle wasting in patients with cancer cachexia.
\nTo date, no studies have shown a relationship between physical exercise and cancer sarcopenia. In elderly patients with cancer, physical exercise has several benefits including improving immune function [55], hemoglobin and red blood cell count [56], and physical activity [57], not but VO2peak, 1 repetition maximum, functional capacity, anxiety level, or emotional well-being [58]. Physical exercise seems to improve physical function and immune function in elderly patients with cancer [59]. However, it has not shown effectiveness for sarcopenic patients with cancer.
\nMuscle wasting is often encountered in patients with cancer. Both cachexia and sarcopenia lead to muscle wasting in patients with cancer. However, the different mechanisms of muscle wasting in patients with cancer should be recognized. Physical exercise might be effective for improving physical function, physical activity, ADL, and QOL in patients with cancer cachexia. In the future, more studies are required on physical exercise in sarcopenic elderly patients with cancer. Studies investigating the combined effect of physical exercise and nutritional therapies such as branched chain amino acids in cancer rehabilitation are required to improve patient outcomes in the future.
\nFive major domesticated species of
Chili peppers are perennial woody plants grown as herbaceous annuals. It is said to be the first-ever domesticated crop in America [3]. The size of the plant can range from two to four feet tall, depending on the species. Typically, leaves are smooth, simple, entire, glabrous, and flat. The flowers are usually solitary, creamy white, and the seeds are straw-colored. Figure 2 highlights the different types of chili plants. In addition, chili plants are grown for ornamental purposes, owing to their bright, shining fruits with a diverse range of colors [4]. Most abundantly, chili crops are grown in Pakistan, India, China, Ethiopia, Myanmar, Mexico, Vietnam, Turkey, Peru, Ghana, Bangladesh, Japan, Africa, and America (Table 1). As per 2019 world production statistics, the total global produce of chili pepper is 38 million tons [5]. China ranks first, producing over 18,978,027 tons of chili in 2019. In terms of nutritional standpoint, chili is considered to be one of the most nutritionally dense foods on earth, and it plays a vital role in alleviating human micronutrient deficiencies [6, 7]. Traditionalistically, it is harnessed in different systems of medicine to combat a wide variety of diseases and/or disorders due to the presence of therapeutically significant active constituents [8]. A total of 200 phytoconstituents have been identified from chilies [9]. Chili pepper’s extremely hot or burning sensation is due to capsaicinoids, a family of compounds consisting of acid amides of vanillylamine and a C8–C13branched-chain fatty acid [10]. Capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin are the two prominent capsaicinoids present in chili peppers, accounting for over 90% of the total capsaicinoids [11]. Particularly, capsaicin has been at the center of intense research to elucidate the basis of its pharmacological properties and exploit its therapeutic potential [12, 13]. In recent times, this chemical substance has been employed as an analgesic in topical ointments, nasal sprays, and dermal patches to treat pain, typically in concentrations between 0.025 and 0.1%. It is also used to reduce the symptoms of peripheral neuropathy, such as postherpetic neuralgia caused by shingles [14]. Other capsaicinoids, such as nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin, are present in small amounts in chili peppers, accounting for less than 10% of the total capsaicinoids [15]. Therefore, this chapter aims to discuss the nutritional value, phytochemical profile, pharmacological properties, and health benefits of
Different types of chili plants.
Rank | Country | Production (tons) |
---|---|---|
1 | China | 18,978,027 |
2 | Mexico | 3,238,245 |
3 | Turkey | 2,625,669 |
4 | Indonesia | 2,588,633 |
5 | Spain | 1,402,380 |
6 | Egypt | 764.292 |
7 | Nigeria | 753.116 |
8 | Algeria | 675.168 |
9 | United States of America | 624.982 |
10 | Tunisia | 443.632 |
Chili peppers are a good source of dietary fiber, riboflavin, thiamin, folate, niacin, iron, protein, phosphorus, and copper. Aside from that, it also contains high amounts of vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin K, vitamin E, vitamin B6, potassium, and manganese [16]. The nutritional composition of chili peppers per 100 g is listed in Table 2. Chili fruits are also rich in many phytochemicals such as carotenoids (lutein, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, zeaxanthin, violaxanthin, and capsanthin), capsaicinoids (capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, homodihydrocapsaicin, and nonivamide), and flavonoids (quercetin, luteolin, kaempferol, catechin, epicatechin, rutin, apigenin, myricetin, and cyanidin) [17, 18]. The following Figure 3 shows the chemical structures of the various phytochemical constituents.
S. No. | Types of nutrient | Amount |
---|---|---|
1 | Water | 88.02 g |
2 | Energy | 40 kcal |
3 | Protein | 1.87 g |
4 | Fat | 0.44 g |
5 | Carbohydrate | 8.81 g |
6 | Fiber | 1.5 g |
7 | Sugars | 5.3 g |
Minerals | ||
8 | Calcium | 14 mg |
9 | Iron | 1.03 mg |
10 | Magnesium | 23 mg |
11 | Phosphorus | 43 mg |
12 | Potassium | 322 mg |
13 | Sodium | 9 mg |
14 | Zinc | 0.26 mg |
Vitamins | ||
15 | Vitamin C | 143.7 mg |
16 | Thiamin | 0.072 mg |
17 | Riboflavin | 0.086 mg |
18 | Niacin | 1.244 mg |
19 | Vitamin B-6 | 0.506 mg |
20 | Folate | 23 μg |
21 | Vitamin A | 48 μg |
22 | Vitamin E | 0.69 mg |
23 | Vitamin K | 14 μg |
Lipids | ||
24 | Fatty acids, total saturated | 0.042 g |
25 | Fatty acids, total monounsaturated | 0.024 g |
26 | Fatty acids, total polyunsaturated | 0.239 g |
Nutritional composition of chili pepper (per 100 g).
Chemical structures of various phytochemical constituents in chili pepper.
The mechanism behind the therapeutic potential of chili pepper has been apprised in several hefty pieces of literature. Chili is effective against a great number of ailments such as cancer, rheumatoid arthritis, bronchitis, macular degeneration, anemia, osteoporosis, coronary heart disease, diabetes, obesity, hypertension, sinus infection, migraine, neurological disorders, menopausal problems, and digestive complications [19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. Figure 4 displays the pharmacological activities of chili pepper. Herein, the immense potential of chili in battling severe illnesses, as well as the mechanisms associated with health-promoting actions, have been illustrated in detail.
Pharmacological activities of chili pepper.
Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by uncontrolled growth and the spread of abnormal cells. It is the world’s second leading cause of death, with a 10 million fatality rate annually [26]. A series of changes in the activities of cell cycle regulators are usually hooked up for cancer development and progression [27]. Generally, cancers are often named for the organ or cell type where the abnormal cells first form. Lung, prostate, colorectal, stomach, and liver cancer are the most prevalent types of cancer in men, while breast, colorectal, lung, cervical, and thyroid cancer are the most endemic among women [26]. Current chemotherapeutic drugs are enormously utilized to destroy cancer cells. Still, in addition to targeting the diseased cells, it also kills healthy blood cells, skin, stomach, hair follicles, bone marrow, etc. As a consequence of the undesirable properties and side effects of synthetic drugs, natural products have become increasingly popular over the past few decades. Capsaicin, the spicy ingredient of hot chili peppers, exhibits anti-neoplastic activity in a vast number of cancers like pancreatic cancer, colon cancer, liver cancer, lung cancer, prostate cancer, breast cancer, bladder cancer, and skin cancer [28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. The significant anticancer capacity of capsaicin targets multiple signaling pathways and cancer-associated genes in different phases of tumor development, including initiation, promotion, progression, and metastasis [37]. Table 3 shows that various
Cancer type | Dose or concentration/duration of application/ingestion | Effect/mechanism | Experimental model | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pancreatic cancer | 200 μM/L for 24 h | Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) mediated apoptosis | [38] | |
150 μM/L for 24 h | ||||
5 mg/kg oral administration for 35 days | Suppresses tumor growth by inhibiting Trx and activating ASK1 | [39] | ||
Colon cancer | 200 and 300 μM for 24 h | Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ƴ (PAPR ƴ) mediated apoptotic cell death | [40] | |
10–400 μM for 24 h | G0/G1 cell cycle arrest and induce apoptosis | [41] | ||
1 and 3 mg/kg intraperitoneal administration for 30 days | Inhibition of tumor growth | [42] | ||
Liver cancer | 50 μM for 36 h | Inhibition of migration and invasion | [43] | |
50 μM for 3 h | Inhibition of adhesion | |||
Lung cancer | 50 μM for 72 h | Inhibition of cell proliferation through E2F pathway | [44] | |
10 mg/kg in an AIN-76A based diet | ||||
Prostate cancer | 1–100 μM for 24–72 h | Inhibition of PI3K/Akt/mTOR axe and modulates autophagy | [45] | |
5 mg/kg, 3 days a week, oral administration for 30 weeks | Inhibition of migration, invasive, neuroendocrine differentiation process, and upregulation of the tumor suppressor protein p27Kip1 | [46] | ||
Breast cancer | 200 μM for 72 h | Inhibition of cell growth via apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in the S phase | [47] | |
10 mg/kg, once in 3 days, intraperitoneal administration for 21 days | Inhibition of proliferation and induces apoptosis via down-regulating FBI-1 mediated NF-κB pathways (Ki-67, Bcl-2, Bax, caspase 3, and survivin proteins) | [48] | ||
Bladder cancer | 50–300 μM for 48 h | Suppresses cell proliferation, induces cell cycle arrest and ROS production through modulating FOXO3a-mediated pathways | [49] | |
20 mg/kg, every two days for four weeks, injected peritumoral area |
Anticancer effects of capsaicin on various cancers in
Pancreatic cancer, one of the most lethal malignancies, is the seventh leading cause of cancer-related fatality globally. This disorder is broken down into two forms: pancreatic adenocarcinoma (85%, with a very poor prognosis) and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors [50]. In patients with advanced pancreatic cancer, the survival rate is less than one year. Numerous studies have explored the possibility of improving survival in pancreatic cancer with new therapies. Over the past few years, researchers have studied the effects of capsaicin on various pancreatic cancer cell lines, including BxPC-3, AsPC-1, PANC-1, SW1990, MiaPaCa-2, and L3.6pl. Based on the results of these studies, anti-proliferative activities of capsaicin are mainly attributed to the inhibition of oxidative stress and angiogenesis, cell cycle regulation, and apoptosis induction [38, 51, 52]. The first report on the involvement of endoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS) in the induction of apoptosis in PANC-1 and SW1990 cells using capsaicin was described by Lin et al. [38]. The authors demonstrated the potency of capsaicin on the mRNA expression of two key ERS markers (GRP78 and GADD153) in PANC-1 and SW1990 cells. According to real-time PCR analysis, capsaicin significantly increased the mRNA expression of GRP78 and GADD153 in a time and dose-dependent manner, suggesting ERS-mediated apoptosis and cell growth inhibition.
Globally, colon cancer is one of the most prevalent forms of cancer, posing a major public health threat. In 2020, approximately 1,148,515 people were diagnosed with colon cancer, and 576,858 people died from this disease worldwide [53]. The onset of colon cancer is associated with excessive cell proliferation and dysregulation of both cell-cycle progression and apoptosis. Additionally, “neoangiogenesis” plays an essential role in the development, growth, and metastasis of colon tumors [54]. In the majority of cases, colon tumors are only diagnosed in the later stages of the disease, because they do not manifest as pain-like symptoms. Over time, several strides have been made in researching and treating colon cancer. However, its survival rate has not significantly improved. The five-year survival rate is still less than 15% due to the available therapeutic agents showing strong adverse effects and poor effectiveness [55]. Recent research reported that capsaicin has cytotoxic effects on different human colorectal cancer cell lines, including colo 205 and RKO [42, 56]. In a 2004 study, Kim et al. presented salient findings regarding the capsaicin-induced apoptotic cell death by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ƴ (PAPR ƴ) in HT-29 human colon cancer cells [40]. In addition, the latest study has shown that capsaicin mediates cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in two different human colon cancer cells (HCT116 and LoVo) via stabilizing and activating p53 in a time-dependent manner [41].
Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most-encountered primary liver cancer in adults. Overall, the incidence rate of liver cancer is approximately four times higher in males than in females, and its pathogenesis is usually considered as an overlap of long-lasting processes, such as hepatic cytolysis, inflammation, liver regeneration, and fibrosis [57]. In hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2, capsaicin-induced apoptosis with the involvement of intracellular Ca2+, ROS, Bcl-2 family, cytochrome c protein expression, and caspase-3 activity [58]. Co-treatment with capsaicin and sorafenib potentially inhibits cell proliferation by activating caspase-9, PARP, AMPK, acetyl CoA carboxylase phosphorylation in HepG2 and Huh-7 cells [59].
Lung cancer is the leading cause of mortality in both men and women, and it causes 1.8 million deaths annually. On the medical front, the prognosis of lung cancer is poor because it cannot produce noticeable signs and symptoms in the early stages. Being exposed to cigarette smoke/smoking is considered the most important factor involved in lung cancer development. Besides, environmental pollution and epigenetic alterations can also lead to lung cancer progression. This kind of cancer is broadly classified into two types: small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). NSCLC is the predominant type of lung cancer, accounting for about 85% of cases, while SCLC is responsible for 15% of lung cancer cases [60]. Capsaicin exhibited its therapeutic efficiency in lung cancer treatment by means of inhibiting Hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF)-1α accumulation by suppressing mitochondrial respiration in human lung cancer cells (H1299, H23, A549, and H2009) [61]. Furthermore, the time-dependent antitumor effects of capsaicin on lung cancer were also described in an
Prostate cancer is the most common invasive malignancy among males. The incidence rate has increased in recent years in most regions of the world, perhaps due to improved detection methods with prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing; however, the mortality rate has remained constant since the early 1900s. Androgen and androgen receptor (AR) play a critical role in the growth and maintenance of the prostate gland and the development of prostate tumors [63]. Prostate cancer may be connected with debilitating disease-related complications in an advanced stage, including painful bone metastases and urinary tract obstruction. microRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of small non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) that regulate gene expression by repressing translation and have been proven to be implicated in the regulation of crucial processes, such as proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis in various kinds of cancer [64]. Among the miRNAs, miR-449a functions as an important tumor suppressor in many types of tumors by targeting different genes. Recently, Zheng et al. found that capsaicin inhibits the proliferation of AR-positive prostate cancer cells (C4-2 and LNCaP) by inducing the restoration of miR-449a [65]. Additional convergent pieces of evidence have shown that the capsaicin combined with brassinin and docetaxel synergistically kills human prostate cancer cells (PC-3 and LNCaP) through metabolic regulator AMP-activated kinase and apoptosis [66, 67].
Breast cancer is the second most prevalent cancer worldwide and causes a high number of deaths among women every year. In the proliferation of breast cancer cells, NF-κB—the proinflammatory transcription factor plays a key role. It regulates more than 500 different genes and governs the expression of proteins engaged in cellular signaling pathways, leading to the development of malignancies and inflammation. Capsaicin displayed the ability to affect breast cancer cell proliferation by downregulating the FBI-1-Mediated NF-κB pathway [48]. Another target that acts on the proliferation of breast cancer cells is the human epidermal growth factor receptor-2 (HER-2), a tyrosine kinase (TK) receptor belonging to the EGFR family. A recent study by Thoennissen et al. showed capsaicin causes cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis in breast cancer cells (MCF-7, T47D, BT-474, SKBR-3, and MDA-MB231) via modulating the EGFR/HER-2 pathway [68].
Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs), a member of the serine/threonine-protein kinase family, can coordinate critical regulatory events during the cell cycle and transcription. Alterations in at least one CDK regulator or effector have been identified in almost all types of cancer. CDK8, as a member of the CDK family, serves a crucial role in gene transcription. Apart from this, phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT) signaling pathways also play an important role in many aspects of cell growth and survival under both physiological and pathological conditions. Dysregulation of this pathway has been observed a various transformed cells and cancer tumors. In addition, aberrant activation of the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway causes β-catenin accumulation in the nucleus and can induce breast cancer. However, Wu et al. demonstrated that capsaicin inhibited breast cancer cell viability, induced G2/M cell cycle arrest, reduced CDK8 expression levels, decreased the phosphorylation of PI3K and Akt, and downregulated Wnt and β catenin expression levels in MDA MB 231 cells [69].
Bladder cancer is a common malignancy affecting the genitourinary system. It is generally subdivided into two types: nonmuscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) and muscle-invasive bladder cancer (MIBC). About 30% of total patients are MIBC and have a high mortality rate due to distant metastases. Meanwhile, 70% of patients are NMIBC, which are likely to progress MIBC. Morphologically, bladder tumors can be divided into papillary, solid, and mixed types. However, the papillary type is predominant, especially in NMIBC [70]. A poor prognosis and resistance to chemotherapy are the two most important characteristics of this disease. Recently, Yang et al. reported capsaicin-induced cell death in human bladder cancer T24 cells through calcium entry-dependent ROS production and mitochondrial depolarization [71]. Likewise, Chen et al. also demonstrated capsaicin-induced cell cycle arrest by inhibiting cyclin-dependent-kinase in 5637 bladder carcinoma cells [72].
Microorganisms are liable for causing food spoilage and various foodborne illnesses every year. These illnesses can generate many ailments, ranging from stomach discomfort to spontaneous abortions in pregnant women, and can even lead to death in severe cases. Researchers have recently stated that some varieties of chili peppers and their active compounds exhibit significant antimicrobial properties, equivalent to some modern-day antibiotics [73, 74, 75, 76]. Especially, Goci et al. investigated the carbopol-based formulated capsaicin enhances the antibacterial and antifungal effects against
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic endocrine disease characterized by disorders in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins due to a deficiency in insulin production by pancreatic beta cells and/or an increase in insulin resistance in peripheral tissues. Universally, this illness affects the majority of people in both developed and developing countries. Numerous synthetic drugs have been developed for the treatment, but a safe and effective paradigm is yet to be achieved. In terms of potential as a pharmacological alternative, chili has shown good antidiabetic effect because it contains α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitors, which are required for the degradation of polysaccharides and disaccharides. Especially, the species
Arthritis is an autoimmune disorder that causes pain, swelling, and stiffness in the joints. There are at least 100 types of arthritis, commonly known as connective tissue disorders, which can affect people of all ages, gender, and races. However, there is significant evidence to suggest that both the elderly and women are greatly affected. More than three decades ago, capsaicin was first shown to have protective effects in experimental arthritis [79]. Further, Inman et al. observed that capsaicin concomitantly administered with methylated bovine serum albumin (mBSA) into the rat knee markedly reduced the severity of arthritis in comparison with the contralateral inflamed knee treated with vehicle, supporting a protective role for capsaicin in reducing the severity of antigen-induced arthritis in felines [80]. According to the trend, capsaicin cream is used to reduce pain caused by many types of arthritis. Specifically, it works by decreasing a certain natural substance in the human body (substance P) that helps transmit pain signals to the brain.
The family of free radicals generated from the oxygen is referred to as reactive oxygen species (ROS), which cause damage to other molecules by extracting electrons from them in order to attain stability. ROS are various forms of activated oxygen which include free radicals such as superoxide anion radicals (O2−), hydroxyl radicals (OH−), non-free radicals (H2O2), and singlet oxygen [81]. The molecular basis of many diseases is known to involve oxidative stress caused by free radicals [82]. Recently progressive research has been directed at natural antioxidants. By using the DPPH free radical assay, Dubey et al. evaluated the antioxidant potential and free radical scavenging activities of some selective chili genotypes from the North East region of India in terms of inhibitory concentration (IC50), efficiency concentration (EC50), and anti-radical power (ARP) [83]. Likewise, Ayob et al. also determined the antioxidant activity of three varieties of Himalayan red chili (Kashmiri Local, Kupwari Local, and Shalimar Long) in North India by using DPPH radical scavenging activity, Hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, and Ferric reducing power, based on EC50 values [84].
Cardiovascular disease remains a leading cause of disability and premature death globally. The disease is mimicked by the narrowed lumen of arteries and reduced blood flow to the heart. According to a report presented at the American Heart Association’s Scientific Sessions 2020, regular intake of chili peppers could significantly reduce the risk of dying from cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, very recent striking findings of a pooled longitudinal analysis by Bonaccio et al. illustrated the cardiovascular benefits of
Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s disease are often characterized by multifactorial clinical features such as loss of memory function, protein aggregation, progressive loss of neurons, cognitive impairment, neuronal cell dysfunction, and/or death. Capsaicin is a vanilloid agonist known to activate the TRPV1, recently reported to be involved in neurodegeneration [90]. A study by Veldhuis et al. demonstrated that capsaicin and the vanilloid antagonist capsazepine, peripherally administered, have been shown to exhibit neuroprotection against ouabain-induced excitotoxicity in rats [91]. Moreover, in the latest evidence, Abdel-Salam et al. reported the effect of the TRPV1 agonist capsaicin on epileptic seizures, neuronal injury, and brain oxidative stress in a model of status epilepticus induced in the rat by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections of pentylenetetrazole (PTZ). This study shows that 2 mg/kg of capsaicin decreased brain oxidative stress, the severity of seizures and neuronal injury, and its coadministration with phenytoin afforded neuronal protection [92].
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors declare that the chapter’s content is for informational or educational purposes only and does not substitute professional medical advice or consultations with healthcare professionals.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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These capabilities, as well as the high sensitivity and robustness of the test and a small price, make it possible to quickly and reliably diagnose diseases in most laboratories. Besides, ELISA is a test that is also used in veterinary medicine, toxicology, allergology, food industry, etc. Despite the fact that it has existed for almost 50 years, different ELISA tests with different technical solutions are still being developed, which improves and expands the application of the this exceptional test. The aim of this chapter is to empower the rider to optimize, standardize and validate an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay.",book:{id:"9850",slug:"norovirus",title:"Norovirus",fullTitle:"Norovirus"},signatures:"Rajna Minic and Irena Zivkovic",authors:[{id:"325806",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Zivkovic",slug:"irena-zivkovic",fullName:"Irena Zivkovic"},{id:"325839",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajna",middleName:null,surname:"Minic",slug:"rajna-minic",fullName:"Rajna Minic"}]},{id:"56750",title:"Laboratory Approach to Anemia",slug:"laboratory-approach-to-anemia",totalDownloads:6181,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Anemia is a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide and can be defined as a decreased quantity of circulating red blood cells (RBCs). The epidemiological studies suggested that one-third of the world’s population is affected with anemia. Anemia is not a disease, but it is instead the sign of an underlying basic pathological process. However, the sign may function as a compass in the search for the cause. Therefore, the prediagnosis revealed by thorough investigation of this sign should be supported by laboratory parameters according to the underlying pathological process. We expect that this review will provide guidance to clinicians with findings and laboratory tests that can be followed from the initial stage in the anemia search.",book:{id:"5942",slug:"current-topics-in-anemia",title:"Current Topics in Anemia",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Anemia"},signatures:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez and Abdullah Tuli",authors:[{id:"183998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Dündar Yenilmez",slug:"ebru-dundar-yenilmez",fullName:"Ebru Dündar Yenilmez"},{id:"209103",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Tuli",slug:"abdullah-tuli",fullName:"Abdullah Tuli"}]},{id:"33133",title:"Waist Circumference in Children and Adolescents from Different Ethnicities",slug:"waist-circumference-in-children-and-adolescents-from-different-ethnicities",totalDownloads:8e3,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"642",slug:"childhood-obesity",title:"Childhood Obesity",fullTitle:"Childhood Obesity"},signatures:"Peter Schwandt and Gerda-Maria Haas",authors:[{id:"29867",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Schwandt",slug:"peter-schwandt",fullName:"Peter Schwandt"}]},{id:"54411",title:"Isolation and Characterization of Escherichia coli from Animals, Humans, and Environment",slug:"isolation-and-characterization-of-i-escherichia-coli-i-from-animals-humans-and-environment",totalDownloads:6141,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Working on a diverse species of bacteria that have hundreds of pathotypes representing hundreds of strains and many closely related family members is a challenge. Appropriate research design is required not only to achieve valid desired outcome but also to minimize the use of resources, including time to outcome and intervention. This chapter outlines basics of Escherichia coli isolation and characterization strategies that can assist in research designing that matches the set objectives. Types of samples to be collected, collection and storage strategies, and processing of samples are described. Different approaches to isolation, confirmation and concentration of various E. coli strains are summarized in this chapter. Characterization and typing of E. coli isolates by biochemical, serological, and molecular methods have been explained so that an appropriate choice is made to suite a specific E. coli strain/pathotype. Some clues on sample and isolate preservation for future use are outlined, and general precautions regarding E. coli handling are also presented to the researcher to avoid improper planning and execution of E. coli-related research. Given different options, the best E. coli research design, however, should try as much as possible to shorten the length of time to outcomes.",book:{id:"5493",slug:"-i-escherichia-coli-i-recent-advances-on-physiology-pathogenesis-and-biotechnological-applications",title:"Escherichia coli",fullTitle:"Escherichia coli - Recent Advances on Physiology, Pathogenesis and Biotechnological Applications"},signatures:"Athumani Msalale Lupindu",authors:[{id:"185959",title:"Dr.",name:"Athumani",middleName:"Msalale",surname:"Lupindu",slug:"athumani-lupindu",fullName:"Athumani Lupindu"}]},{id:"53085",title:"Malaria in Pregnancy",slug:"malaria-in-pregnancy",totalDownloads:3194,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Malaria infection during pregnancy is an important public health problem with substantial risks to both the mother and foetus. Pregnant women are the most vulnerable group of malaria‐associated morbidity and mortality. A pregnant woman has an increased risk (up to four times) of getting malaria and twice the chances of dying from malaria, compared to a non‐pregnant adult, becuase the immune system is partially suppressed during pregnancy. Malaria in pregnancy not only affects the mother but also has a dangerous sequel for the developing foetus, resulting in premature delivery or intrauterine growth retardation. Diagnosis of malaria in pregnancy remains a challenge due to the low parasite density and placental sequestration of Plasmodium falciparum. Thus, there is an urgent need for new diagnostic methods to detect malarial parasites in the pregnant women. Though antimalarial drugs are available, which can be safely given in the pregnancy, increasing drug resistance of malarial parasite may pose a big problem in the future. In this chapter, we review the burden of pregnancy‐associated malaria (PAM), its pathogenesis, diagnostic issues during pregnancy and recent guidelines for chemoprophylaxsis and treatment.",book:{id:"5270",slug:"current-topics-in-malaria",title:"Current Topics in Malaria",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Malaria"},signatures:"Kapil Goyal, Alka Sehgal, Chander S. Gautam and Rakesh Sehgal",authors:[{id:"181967",title:"Prof.",name:"Rakesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sehgal",slug:"rakesh-sehgal",fullName:"Rakesh Sehgal"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1046",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81939",title:"Translational Research on Chagas Disease: Focusing on Drug Combination and Repositioning",slug:"translational-research-on-chagas-disease-focusing-on-drug-combination-and-repositioning",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104231",abstract:"Chagas disease, caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi, is a major neglected disease endemic to Latin America, associated to significant morbimortality comprising a remarkable socioeconomic problem mainly for low-income tropical populations. The present chapter focuses translational research on Chagas disease, approaching drug combinations and repositioning, particularly exploiting the parasite oxidative stress by prospecting prooxidant compounds combined with antagonists of antioxidant systems, for developing low-cost and safe therapies for this infection. The pertinent literature on protozoal parasitic diseases is reviewed as well as on repurposing disulfiram aiming the combination with the Chagas disease drug of choice benznidazole. Both disulfiram and its first derivative sodium diethyldithiocarbamate (DETC) are able not only to inhibit p-glycoprotein, possibly reverting resistance phenotypes, but also to reduce toxicity of numerous other drugs, heavy metals, etc. Therefore, this innovation, presently in clinical research, may furnish a novel therapeutic for T. cruzi infections overcoming the adverse effects and refractory cases that impair the effectiveness of Chagas disease treatment.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Marcos André Vannier-Santos, Ana Márcia Suarez-Fontes, Juliana Almeida-Silva, Alessandra Lifsitch Viçosa, Sandra Aurora Chavez Perez, Alejandro Marcel Hasslocher-Moreno, Gabriel Parreiras Estolano da Silveira, Luciana Fernandes Portela and Roberto Magalhães Saraiva"},{id:"81702",title:"The Saga of Selenium Treatment Investigation in Chagas Disease Cardiopathy: Translational Research in a Neglected Tropical Disease in Brazil",slug:"the-saga-of-selenium-treatment-investigation-in-chagas-disease-cardiopathy-translational-research-in",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103772",abstract:"This chapter describes the steps from basic research to the definition of a putative public health recommendation in the clinical protocols and therapeutic guidelines for selenium (Se) supplementation for patients with Chagas disease. From 1998 to 2018, we conducted a translational research project to test the concept that chronic Chagas disease cardiopathy (CCC) severity could be associated with low levels of blood selenium (Se), and if oral Se supplementation could help to sustain the asymptomatic cardiac stage and reduce disease severity. Pre-clinical studies in mice and a clinical trial conducted in the early asymptomatic cardiac stage of CCC patients (B stage) were performed, identified as “Selenium Treatment of Chagasic Cardiopathy (STCC)” trial. The roadmap of the selenium project was/is a real saga, with important obstacles that tested team resilience and revealed Brazilian conditions of science development. We discuss the main possible mechanisms involved in the physiopathology of CCC and the lessons learned in this process. In this chapter, we also organized the timeline of the translational project and described the crucial moments of the journey, as well as the next steps driving the research teams and their international and health industry connections.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Tania C. de Araujo-Jorge, Anna Cristina C. Carvalho, Roberto R. Ferreira, Luciana R. Garzoni, Beatriz M.S. Gonzaga, Marcelo T. Holanda, Gilberto M. Sperandio da Silva, Maria da Gloria Bonecini-Almeida, Mauro F.F. Mediano, Roberto M. Saraiva and Alejandro M. Hasslocher-Moreno"},{id:"81938",title:"How Do Mouse Strains and Inoculation Routes Influence the Course of Experimental Trypanosoma cruzi Infection?",slug:"how-do-mouse-strains-and-inoculation-routes-influence-the-course-of-experimental-trypanosoma-cruzi-i",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104461",abstract:"Chagas’ disease outcomes depend on several factors including parasite and host genetics, immune response, and route of infection. In this study, we investigate the influence of inoculation route and host genetic background on the establishment and development of Chagas disease in mice, using an isolate of Trypanosoma cruzi SC2005 strain (TcII), which was obtained from an oral Chagas’ disease outbreak in Santa Catarina, Brazil. Comparative analysis of the immunopathological, histopathological, and hematological profiles of mice was performed demonstrating the influence of the route of infection in disease severity. In outbred mice, intraperitoneal (IP) infection led to higher infection and mortality rates and more severe parasitaemia, when compared with intragastric (IG) infection. Nevertheless, tissue colonization was similar, showing severe damage in the heart, with intense lymphocytic inflammatory infiltrates, regardless of the route of infection. On the other hand, in mice IG-infected, the host genetic background influences the start timing of immune response against Trypanosoma cruzi. The susceptible BALB/c inbred mouse strain presented an earlier development of a cytotoxic cellular profile, when compared with A mice. We hypothesize that the cytotoxic response mounted before the parasitaemia increase allowed for a milder manifestation of Chagas’ disease in intragastrically infected mice.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Flávia de Oliveira Cardoso, Carolina Salles Domingues, Tânia Zaverucha do Valle and Kátia da Silva Calabrese"},{id:"81814",title:"Evaluation of Molecular Variability of Isolates of Trypanosoma cruzi in the State of Rio de Janeiro-Brazil",slug:"evaluation-of-molecular-variability-of-isolates-of-trypanosoma-cruzi-in-the-state-of-rio-de-janeiro-",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104498",abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi, the etiological agent of Chagas disease, presents considerable heterogeneity among populations of isolates within the sylvatic and domestic cycle. This study aims to evaluate the genetic diversity of 14 isolates collected from specimens of Triatoma vitticeps from Triunfo, Conceição de Macabu, and Santa Maria Madalena cities (Rio de Janeiro—Brazil). By using PCR based on the mini-exon gene, all isolates showed a profile characteristic of bands zymodeme III and with a lower intensity characteristic of TcII. To verify possible hybrids among the strains analyzed, the polymorphisms analysis of the MSH2 gene was performed. HhaI restriction enzyme digestion products resulted in characteristic TcII fragments only, demonstrating the absence of hybrids strains. In our attempt to characterize isolation in accordance with the reclassification of T. cruzi into six new groups called DTUs (“discrete typing unit”), we genotyped the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit two gene, ribosomal RNA gen (24Sα rDNA), and the spliced leader intergenic region (SL-IR). This procedure showed that TcII, TcIII, and TcIV are circulating in this area. This highlights the diversity of parasites infecting specimens of T. vitticeps, emphasizing the habit of wild type and complexity of the region epidemiological study that presents potential mixed populations.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Helena Keiko Toma, Luciana Reboredo de Oliveira da Silva, Teresa Cristina Monte Gonçalves, Renato da Silva Junior and Jacenir R. Santos-Mallet"},{id:"81252",title:"Modulation of Host Cell Apoptosis by Trypanosoma cruzi: Repercussions in the Development of Chronic Chagasic Cardiomyopathy",slug:"modulation-of-host-cell-apoptosis-by-trypanosoma-cruzi-repercussions-in-the-development-of-chronic-c",totalDownloads:31,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103740",abstract:"Trypanosoma cruzi is an intracellular parasite, which causes Chagas disease, affecting millions of people throughout the world. T. cruzi can invade several cell types, among which macrophages and cardiomyocytes stand out. Chagas disease goes through two stages: acute and chronic. If it becomes chronic, its most severe form is the chagasic chronic cardiomyopathy, which accounts for most of the fatalities due to this disease. For parasites to persist for long enough in cells, they should evade several host immune responses, one of these being apoptosis. Apoptosis is a type of programmed cell death described as a well-ordered and silent collection of steps that inevitably lead cells to a noninflammatory death. Cells respond to infection by initiating their own death to combat the infection. As a result, several intracellular microorganisms have developed different strategies to overcome host cell apoptosis and persist inside cells. It has been shown that T. cruzi has the ability to inhibit host cells apoptosis and can also induce apoptosis of cells that combat the parasite such as cytotoxic T cells. The aim of this chapter is to present up-to-date information about the molecules and mechanisms engaged by T. cruzi to achieve this goal and how the modulation of apoptosis by T. cruzi reflects in the development of chronic chagasic cardiomyopathy.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Fiordaliso Carolina Román-Carraro, Diego Maurizio Coria-Paredes, Arturo A. Wilkins-Rodríguez and Laila Gutiérrez-Kobeh"},{id:"80917",title:"Digestive Disorders in Chagas Disease: Megaesophagus and Chagasic Megacolon",slug:"digestive-disorders-in-chagas-disease-megaesophagus-and-chagasic-megacolon",totalDownloads:25,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102871",abstract:"Chagas disease, also known as American trypanosomiasis, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi and transmitted by hematophagous vectors, is a parasitic disease, which according to the WHO ranks fourth as a cause of loss of potential years of life due to complications that can occur in multiple body systems. According to the reports presented by the World Health Organization, there are between 16 and 18 million infected people in the world, predominantly in endemic areas of Latin America, of which only 1% receives an adequate diagnosis and full treatment, thereby that the chronic phase comes to present digestive disorders that are one of the main causes of loss in the quality of life of patients, as well as complications that can lead to life-threatening surgical emergencies.",book:{id:"11377",title:"Chagas Disease - From Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Trypanosoma cruzi-Host Interactions to the Clinical Intervention",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11377.jpg"},signatures:"Víctor Hugo García Orozco, Juan Enrique Villalvazo Navarro, Carlos Solar Aguirre, Carlos Manuel Ibarra Ocampo, César Iván Díaz Sandoval, Carlos Alejandro Ortíz Gallegos, Diego Javier Oregel Camacho and Araceli Noriega Bucio"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:6},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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