Composition of LM6(Sayuti, Sulaiman, Baharudin, et al., 2011)
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6005",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Computed Tomography - Advanced Applications",title:"Computed Tomography",subtitle:"Advanced Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The advent and rapid diffusion of advanced multidetector-row scanner technology offers comprehensive evaluation of different anatomic structures in daily practice. The aim of this book is to introduce the applications of CT imaging in not only general medicine but also in different fields especially in veterinary medicine, dentistry, and engineering. Recent developments in CT technology have led to a widening of its applications on many areas like material testing in engineering, 3D evaluation of teeth, and the vascular and cardiac evaluations of small animals.",isbn:"978-953-51-3368-1",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3367-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4715-2",doi:"10.5772/66614",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"computed-tomography-advanced-applications",numberOfPages:300,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"8a17c8499e693346539688f5d170a43d",bookSignature:"Ahmet Mesrur Halefoglu",publishedDate:"August 9th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6005.jpg",numberOfDownloads:24841,numberOfWosCitations:28,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:44,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:93,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 22nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 13th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 11th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 9th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 8th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"51736",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmet Mesrur",middleName:null,surname:"Halefoğlu",slug:"ahmet-mesrur-halefoglu",fullName:"Ahmet Mesrur Halefoğlu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51736/images/system/51736.jfif",biography:"Dr. Ahmet Mesrur Halefoğlu is currently working as a resident specialist of Radiology and a Professor at Sisli Etfal Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey. He has completed Antakya High School at Antakya, Hatay, Turkey, with an honors degree and has graduated from Istanbul University Cerrahpaşa Faculty of Medicine in 1986, \nIstanbul, Turkey. He completed his residency between 1992 and 1997 at Sisli Etfal Training and Research Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey. \nHe has served as a postdoctoral research fellowship at Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, MD, USA, between 1998 and 1999. \nHe has also been a research observer at Johns Hopkins Hospital in the years 2002 and 2004. \nHe is mostly dealing with research fields in body imaging and neuroradiology with multidetector computed tomography and high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. \nHe has more than 60 high impact factor publications and has written 3 book chapters. \nHe is a member of the Turkish Society of Radiology and the European Society of Radiology.",institutionString:"Şişli Etfal Eğitim ve Araştırma Hastanesi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1008",title:"Radiology Diagnosis",slug:"radiology-diagnosis"}],chapters:[{id:"55543",title:"Advances in Cardiac Computed Tomography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68554",slug:"advances-in-cardiac-computed-tomography",totalDownloads:1687,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coronary cardiac computed tomography (CCTA) has seen rapid improvements in technology including hardware and postprocessing techniques that have contributed to its rapid growth and enabled it to remain in the forefront on diagnostic imaging. Important technological advances include wider detectors for greater coverage with less gantry rotation times, dual-source computed tomography (CT) with improved temporal resolution, dual-energy CT where simultaneous imaging at different energies to increase the contrast difference between different tissues enhances diagnostic accuracy, and emergence of spectral CT to enhance atherosclerotic imaging through nanoparticle technology. Software advances include iterative reconstruction methodologies to reduce noise and radiation doses, plaque imaging and quantification tools to assess plaque morphology and stenosis severity. Processing advances using computational fluid dynamics now enables the determination of fractional flow reserve (FFR). Another important advancement in CCTA physiologic imaging is CCTA perfusion imaging to detect ischemia and compares favorably with myocardial perfusion imaging and coronary angiographic stenosis. Finally, large registry studies and single-center studies have now been published assessing the incremental value of coronary calcium score, CT plaque severity of disease and have demonstrated that the CCTA carries strong prognostic value over and above traditional risk assessment in predicting adverse outcomes.",signatures:"Karthik Ananthasubramaniam, Nishtha Sareen and Gjeka Rudin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55543",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55543",authors:[{id:"157632",title:"Dr",name:null,surname:"Ananthasubramaniam",slug:"ananthasubramaniam",fullName:"Ananthasubramaniam"},{id:"203987",title:"Dr.",name:"Djeka",surname:"Rudin",slug:"djeka-rudin",fullName:"Djeka Rudin"},{id:"203988",title:"Dr.",name:"Nishtha",surname:"Sareen",slug:"nishtha-sareen",fullName:"Nishtha Sareen"}],corrections:null},{id:"55904",title:"Treatment Planning in Brachytherapy HDR Based on Three‐Dimensional Image",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68557",slug:"treatment-planning-in-brachytherapy-hdr-based-on-three-dimensional-image",totalDownloads:1628,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Treatment planning in High Dose Rate (HDR) brachytherapy based on three‐dimensional (3D) imaging allows for prearranging and realization optimal treatment process. This process consists of procedure planning, the choice of applicators, adjusting the appropriate implantation technique, and planning of three‐dimensional distribution of dose in computerized treatment planning system. 3D images used in treatment planning in HDR brachytherapy allows for choosing the most appropriate application technique. This in turn allows for the best area coverage by reference dose with simultaneous protection of critical organs. Treatment planning on 3D images assures individual planning of dose dispersion in target area. Several techniques will be presented based on 3D imaging in location such as lung, skin cancer, breast, and prostate cancer. For each location, relative cases will be provided where different applicators and techniques were applied. These examples are going to present images from before and after performed application along with the pictures from computer treatment planning system. In each of described locations, relative advice and rules of conducting accurate application will be provided.",signatures:"Marcin Sawicki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55904",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55904",authors:[{id:"202445",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Marcin",surname:"Sawicki",slug:"marcin-sawicki",fullName:"Marcin Sawicki"}],corrections:null},{id:"55481",title:"Computed Tomography: Role in Femoroacetabular Impingement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68558",slug:"computed-tomography-role-in-femoroacetabular-impingement",totalDownloads:1329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Femoroacetabular impingement (FAI) physiopathology is still unclear; however, there is a consensus that a pathological mechanical contact between the femoral neck-head junction and the acetabulum leads to pain and cartilage damage. Computed tomography (CT) is useful in FAI diagnosis and surgical planning. In the present chapter, we will analyze the role of CT in FAI, with special emphasis on alignment and comparison of measurements related to epidemiological variables. We analyzed 101 CT of patients that consulted in our institution for a non-joint-or-bone-related reason. Prior to the measurement of acetabular variables, CT image must be corrected in three planes. Acetabular version is a gender- and age-related measurement. As age increased, acetabular version increased, and the same impact age has on Wiberg angle. Femoral FAI-related measurement is not related to epidemiological variables. CT has a very important role for a better understanding of hip anatomy, and further research using CT images should be encouraged.",signatures:"Maximiliano Barahona, Jaime Hinzpeter and Cristian Barrientos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55481",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55481",authors:[{id:"203646",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Maximiliano",surname:"Barahona",slug:"maximiliano-barahona",fullName:"Maximiliano Barahona"},{id:"203647",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Hinzpeter",slug:"jaime-hinzpeter",fullName:"Jaime Hinzpeter"},{id:"203648",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristian",surname:"Barrientos",slug:"cristian-barrientos",fullName:"Cristian Barrientos"}],corrections:null},{id:"55158",title:"OncoSpineSeg: A Software Tool for a Manual Segmentation of Computed Tomography of the Spine on Cancer Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68552",slug:"oncospineseg-a-software-tool-for-a-manual-segmentation-of-computed-tomography-of-the-spine-on-cancer",totalDownloads:1377,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The organ most commonly affected by metastatic cancer is the skeleton, and spine is the site where it causes the highest morbidity. Computer-aided diagnosis (CAD) for detecting and assessing metastatic disease in bone or other spine disorders can assist physicians to perform their decision-making tasks. A precise segmentation of the spine is important as a first stage in any automatic diagnosis task. However, it is a challenging problem to segment correctly an affected spine, and it is a crucial step to assess quantitatively the results of segmentation by comparing them with the results of a manual segmentation, reviewed by one experienced radiologist. This chapter presents the design of a MATLAB-based software for the manual segmentation of the spine. The software tool has a simple and easy to use interface, and it works with either computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A typical workflow includes loading the image volume, creating multi-planar reconstructions, manually contouring the vertebrae, spinal lesions, intervertebral discs and spinal canal with availability of different segmentation tools, classification of the bone into healthy bone, osteolytic metastases, osteoblastic metastases or mixed lesions, being also possible to classify an object as a false-positive and a 3D reconstruction of the segmented objects.",signatures:"Silvia Ruiz-España and David Moratal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55158",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55158",authors:[{id:"9850",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Moratal",slug:"david-moratal",fullName:"David Moratal"},{id:"202909",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Ruiz-España",slug:"silvia-ruiz-espana",fullName:"Silvia Ruiz-España"}],corrections:null},{id:"55857",title:"Non-contrast CT in the Evaluation of Urinary Tract Stone Obstruction and Haematuria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68769",slug:"non-contrast-ct-in-the-evaluation-of-urinary-tract-stone-obstruction-and-haematuria",totalDownloads:2786,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Non-contrast computed tomography (CT) abdomen has emerged as a first line investigation in suspected upper urinary tract obstruction. Underlying causes can usually be ascertained on computed tomography of kidneys, ureters and bladder (CT KUB). However, further investigations may be required to delineate/confirm underlying pathology like ureteropelvic junction obstruction (UPJ), differentiation between obstruction and residual dilatation. Actual protocol of CT KUB for evaluation of stone disease and haematuria vary on institutional guidelines. CT KUB is not only extremely sensitive and specific in the diagnosis of stone; it is now used in the pre-operative nomograms in predicting success of various endourological interventions like percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL) and shock wave lithotripsy (SWL). Determination of stone density, stone volume, stone composition, skin to stone distance, presence of ureteral wall oedema, perinephric oedema are highly predictive of stone free rate. CT recognition of various anomalies, presence of retro-renal colon, horse-shoe kidney, malrotation, etc. can help in better planning to avoid complications. One of the major limitations of CT is the radiation dose, besides cost and availability. Modification in technique and technological innovation has resulted in significant dose reduction from 4.5 to about 1 mSv.",signatures:"Mohammad Hammad Ather, Wasim Memon, Wajahat Aziz and\nMohammad Nasir Sulaiman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55857",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55857",authors:[{id:"88868",title:"Prof.",name:"M Hammad",surname:"Ather",slug:"m-hammad-ather",fullName:"M Hammad Ather"},{id:"202795",title:"Dr.",name:"Wajahat",surname:"Aziz",slug:"wajahat-aziz",fullName:"Wajahat Aziz"},{id:"202796",title:"Dr.",name:"Wasim",surname:"Memon",slug:"wasim-memon",fullName:"Wasim Memon"},{id:"202799",title:"Dr.",name:"M Nasir",surname:"Sulaiman",slug:"m-nasir-sulaiman",fullName:"M Nasir Sulaiman"}],corrections:null},{id:"55051",title:"Cone Beam Computed Tomography in Orthodontics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68555",slug:"cone-beam-computed-tomography-in-orthodontics",totalDownloads:2035,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) is an important source of three‐dimensional volumetric data in clinical orthodontics. Due to the progress in the technology of CBCT, for orthodontic clinical diagnosis, treatment and follow‐up, CBCT supply much more reliable information compared to conventional radiography. The most justified indications for the use of CBCT in orthodontics are the existence of impacted and transposed teeth. For the management of the impacted teeth, CBCT enhances the ability to localize these teeth accurately and to assess root resorption of adjacent teeth. Patients with craniofacial anomalies like cleft palate cases, the abnormalities of the temporomandibular joint contributing malocclusion, evaluation of airway morphology in obstructive sleep apnea cases, patients needing maxillary expansion or planning orthognathic surgery in severe skeletal discrepancies are also listed among the indications of using CBCT in orthodontics. CBCT is useful in identifying optimal site location for temporary skeletal anchorage device. The use of CBCT for the assessment of treatment outcomes and evaluation of cervical vertebral maturation are still controversial issues. It should be kept in mind that before using CBCT, justification and evaluation of risks and benefits are needed. In order to minimize the radiation dose, the exam should include only the areas of interest.",signatures:"Emine Kaygısız and Tuba Tortop",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55051",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55051",authors:[{id:"200985",title:"Dr.",name:"Emine",surname:"Kaygisiz",slug:"emine-kaygisiz",fullName:"Emine Kaygisiz"},{id:"203887",title:"Prof.",name:"Tuba",surname:"Tortop",slug:"tuba-tortop",fullName:"Tuba Tortop"}],corrections:null},{id:"56251",title:"Cone-Beam Computed Tomography for Oral and Maxillofacial Imaging",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69282",slug:"cone-beam-computed-tomography-for-oral-and-maxillofacial-imaging",totalDownloads:2473,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The invention of computed tomography (CT) technique revolutionized diagnostic imaging. Compared to conventional X-ray imaging procedures, CT involves higher radiation doses. Recently, cone-beam CT (CBCT) specifically designed for maxillofacial imaging was introduced. CBCT technique is based on a cone-shaped X-ray beam centered on a two-dimensional (2D) detector. The detector system performs one rotation around the patient, producing a series of 2D images which are then reconstructed in a 3D data set. The contemporary knowledge regarding CBCT and its proper application guides the practitioner for improvement in diagnostic purposes and treatment planning. The aim of this chapter is to focus on the details, advantages, drawbacks, and clinical applications of CBCT as a headmost CT imaging technique in the oral and maxillofacial (OMF) region. The main clinical applications of CBCT in the OMF region are dentistry including dentoalveolar and maxillofacial surgery, orthodontics, endodontics, and periodontics; and otolaryngology. The aforementioned clinical use of CBCT was described in detail with illustrated sample cases. In most of the cases in OMF region, CBCT takes the place of multi-slice CT. Thus, clinicians should know the clinical applications and capabilities of CBCT technique with its drawbacks.",signatures:"Ufuk Tatli and Burcu Evlice",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56251",authors:[{id:"203864",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ufuk",surname:"Tatli",slug:"ufuk-tatli",fullName:"Ufuk Tatli"},{id:"204120",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu",surname:"Evlice",slug:"burcu-evlice",fullName:"Burcu Evlice"}],corrections:null},{id:"54904",title:"Usefulness of Cone Beam Computed Tomography for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68313",slug:"usefulness-of-cone-beam-computed-tomography-for-the-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-oral-and-maxillofacia",totalDownloads:1798,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Three-dimensional (3D) evaluation of oral and maxillofacial pathology, in comparison with two-dimensional (2D) radiological studies, offers many advantages that can assist in the diagnostic and in the preoperative evaluation of certain lesions and conditions of the jaws, reducing the risk of intraoperative and postoperative complications. The introduction of cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) represents an important technological advance in the context of oral and maxillofacial radiology as it permits the acquisition of high-quality 3D images and dynamic navigation over an area of interest in real time, with a short scan time and lower dose of radiation than conventional computed tomography (CT). The initial indications for CBCT have been extended by the progressive addition of new ones such as evaluation of the extent of osteonecrotic lesions of the jaw due to bisphosphonates, preoperative staging of oral cancer, and planning reconstructive surgery. As a consequence, this radiological technique represents an interesting complement to conventional radiology in those clinical situations in which 3D imaging can facilitate diagnosis and/or treatment.",signatures:"Márcio Diniz-Freitas, Javier Fernández-Feijoo, Lucía García-\nCaballero, Maite Abeleira, Mercedes Outumuro, Jacobo Limeres-\nPose and Pedro Diz-Dios",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54904",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54904",authors:[{id:"98186",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Diz-Dios",slug:"pedro-diz-dios",fullName:"Pedro Diz-Dios"},{id:"187403",title:"Dr.",name:"Maite",surname:"Abeleira Pazos",slug:"maite-abeleira-pazos",fullName:"Maite Abeleira Pazos"},{id:"187404",title:"Dr.",name:"Mercedes",surname:"Outumuro",slug:"mercedes-outumuro",fullName:"Mercedes Outumuro"},{id:"187405",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcio",surname:"Diniz-Freitas",slug:"marcio-diniz-freitas",fullName:"Marcio Diniz-Freitas"},{id:"187408",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacobo",surname:"Limeres",slug:"jacobo-limeres",fullName:"Jacobo Limeres"},{id:"194726",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",surname:"Fernandez-Feijoo",slug:"javier-fernandez-feijoo",fullName:"Javier Fernandez-Feijoo"},{id:"194727",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",surname:"Garcia-Caballero",slug:"lucia-garcia-caballero",fullName:"Lucia Garcia-Caballero"}],corrections:null},{id:"54257",title:"Novelty Detection‐Based Internal Fingerprint Segmentation in Optical Coherence Tomography Images",doi:"10.5772/67594",slug:"novelty-detection-based-internal-fingerprint-segmentation-in-optical-coherence-tomography-images",totalDownloads:1248,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biometric fingerprint scanners scan the external skin's features onto a 2‐D image. The performance of the automatic fingerprint identification system suffers first and foremost if the finger skin is wet, worn out or a fake fingerprint is used. We present an automatic segmentation of the papillary layer method, from images acquired using contact‐less 3‐D swept source optical coherence tomography (OCT). The papillary contour represents the internal fingerprint, which does not suffer from the external finger problems. It is embedded between the upper epidermis and papillary layers. Speckle noise is first reduced using non‐linear filters from the slices composing the 3‐D image. Subsequently, the stratum corneum is used to extract the epidermis. The epidermis, with its depth known, is used as the target class of the ensuing novelty detection. The outliers resulting from novelty detection represent the papillary layer. The contour of the papillary layer is segmented as the boundary between target and rejection classes. Using a mixture of Gaussian's novelty detection routine on images pre‐processed with a regularized anisotropic diffusion filter, the papillary contours—internal fingerprints—are consistent with those segmented manually, with the modified Williams index above 0.9400.",signatures:"Rethabile Khutlang, Pheeha Machaka, Ann Singh and Fulufhelo\nNelwamondo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54257",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54257",authors:[{id:"43988",title:"Dr.",name:"Fulufhelo",surname:"Nelwamondo",slug:"fulufhelo-nelwamondo",fullName:"Fulufhelo Nelwamondo"},{id:"201012",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Rethabile",surname:"Khutlang",slug:"rethabile-khutlang",fullName:"Rethabile Khutlang"},{id:"201030",title:"MSc.",name:"Ann",surname:"Singh",slug:"ann-singh",fullName:"Ann Singh"},{id:"201031",title:"MSc.",name:"Pheeha",surname:"Machaka",slug:"pheeha-machaka",fullName:"Pheeha Machaka"}],corrections:null},{id:"55976",title:"The Use of Computed Tomography to Explore the Microstructure of Materials in Civil Engineering: From Rocks to Concrete",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69245",slug:"the-use-of-computed-tomography-to-explore-the-microstructure-of-materials-in-civil-engineering-from-",totalDownloads:2200,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:26,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Computed tomography (CT) is a nondestructive technique, based on absorbing X-rays, that permits the visualisation of the internal microstructure of material. The field of application is very wide. This is a well-known technology in medicine, because of its enormous advantages, but it is also very useful in other fields. Computed tomography is used in palaeontology to study the internal structure of the bones from ancient hominids. In addition, this technology is being used by engineers to analyse the microstructure of materials. Materials engineers use this technology to analyse or develop new materials. Mechanical engineers use CT scans to study the internal defects of materials. Geotechnical engineers use CT scans to study several aspects of the rocks and minerals (cracks, voids, etc). This technology is also very useful to study de microstructure of concrete, especially in case of the new concretes (ultra-high performance concrete, fiber reinforced concrete, etc). In this chapter, an extended state-of-the-art of the most relevant research, related to the use of computed tomography to explore the microstructure of materials in civil and mechanical engineering, is exposed. The main objective of this chapter is that the reader can discover new applications of the computed tomography, different from conventional ones.",signatures:"Miguel A. Vicente, Jesús Mínguez and Dorys C. González",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55976",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55976",authors:[{id:"181643",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Vicente",slug:"miguel-vicente",fullName:"Miguel Vicente"},{id:"182032",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesus",surname:"Minguez",slug:"jesus-minguez",fullName:"Jesus Minguez"},{id:"182034",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorys",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"dorys-gonzalez",fullName:"Dorys Gonzalez"}],corrections:null},{id:"55863",title:"Physical Transport Properties of Porous Rock with Computed Tomography",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69415",slug:"physical-transport-properties-of-porous-rock-with-computed-tomography",totalDownloads:1859,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, three-dimensional digital rock models can be constructed by the micron X-ray computed tomography (CT). Then, lattice gas automata was applied to simulate the flow of electrical current in the saturated digital rocks to reveal the non-Archie relation of resistivity index and water saturation (I-Sw). The flow of single-phase Newtonian fluid in pore space had been studied with LBM for calculating the absolute permeability. Moreover, we have developed a model based on digital rock to simulate thermal neutrons transporting for imaging the anisotropy of pore structure. The advantages of the model over traditional methods indicate that it can simultaneously consider both the separation of matrix and pore and the distribution of mineral components. The results of numerical simulation with Monte Carlo are in good agreement with the pore distribution from X-ray CT, which can further verify the validity of the new model. In contrast to the conventional conclusion, we find that the porosity calculated with neutron data can be affected by the anisotropy. Therefore, a new formula to relate the resolution of array detectors to the quality of imaging, had been proposed to analyze the critical resolution and to optimize the number of neutrons in each simulation.",signatures:"Wenzheng Yue and Yong Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55863",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55863",authors:[{id:"203844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenzheng",surname:"Yue",slug:"wenzheng-yue",fullName:"Wenzheng Yue"},{id:"206449",title:"Mr.",name:"Yong",surname:"Wang",slug:"yong-wang",fullName:"Yong Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"56129",title:"Vascular and Cardiac CT in Small Animals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69848",slug:"vascular-and-cardiac-ct-in-small-animals",totalDownloads:2151,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly available in veterinary practice. As for humans, CT has a tremendous potential in various clinical scenario. Oncology and traumatized dogs and cats are probably the veterinary patients that get more benefit from new CT applications. However, the most amazing progresses are in vascular and cardiac applications. The advent and rapid diffusion of advanced scanner technology (multidetector row) offer unparalleled diagnostic opportunity in daily practice for comprehensive evaluation of complex cardiovascular diseases. New skills and knowledge are necessary for radiologists and nonradiologists for understanding this revolutionary field of radiology.",signatures:"Giovanna Bertolini and Luca Angeloni",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56129",authors:[{id:"202214",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",surname:"Bertolini",slug:"giovanna-bertolini",fullName:"Giovanna Bertolini"},{id:"202236",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Angeloni",slug:"luca-angeloni",fullName:"Luca Angeloni"}],corrections:null},{id:"55067",title:"Computed Tomography in Veterinary Medicine: Currently Published and Tomorrow's Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68556",slug:"computed-tomography-in-veterinary-medicine-currently-published-and-tomorrow-s-vision",totalDownloads:2270,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The utilisation of computed tomography (CT) in veterinary practise has been increasing rapidly in line with reduced cost, improved availability and the increase in expertise and technology. This review briefly examines the recent technological advancements in imaging in the veterinary sector, and explores how CT and micro-computed tomography (μCT) have furthered basic understanding and knowledge, and influenced clinical practise and medicine. The uses of CT technology in veterinary research, especially in relation to bone, vasculature and soft tissues are explored and compared in relation to the different species. CT is essential not only for the diagnosis and treatment of many disorders, but it is now being used to understand areas ranging from drug delivery and surgical advancements through to anatomical and educational uses throughout the world.",signatures:"Matthew Keane, Emily Paul, Craig J Sturrock, Cyril Rauch and Catrin\nSian Rutland",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55067",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55067",authors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6144",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"505b513060f90e61167b5e46e8cd9fea",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Ahmet Mesrur Halefoğlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51736",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmet Mesrur",surname:"Halefoğlu",slug:"ahmet-mesrur-halefoglu",fullName:"Ahmet Mesrur Halefoğlu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2266",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Life and Biomedical Sciences",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"21ed0818c4fcaf44b2f1e201e68014e3",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-life-and-biomedical-sciences",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2266.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3390",title:"Electrodiagnosis in New Frontiers of Clinical Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccd9da6b93d7419d735f17e246f78fe2",slug:"electrodiagnosis-in-new-frontiers-of-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Hande Turker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3390.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63331",title:"Prof.",name:"Hande",surname:"Turker",slug:"hande-turker",fullName:"Hande Turker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"389",title:"Neuroimaging",subtitle:"Methods",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e4321a4d45346699f9ada729290e156a",slug:"neuroimaging-methods",bookSignature:"Peter Bright",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/389.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49019",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Bright",slug:"peter-bright",fullName:"Peter Bright"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"719",title:"Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22a011ac72d696199044d841c9ac653b",slug:"magnetic-resonance-spectroscopy",bookSignature:"Donghyun Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/719.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85279",title:"Prof.",name:"Dong-Hyun",surname:"Kim",slug:"dong-hyun-kim",fullName:"Dong-Hyun Kim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1481",title:"Radioisotopes",subtitle:"Applications in Bio-Medical Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"408245da32dcf9a061e72275dd348b04",slug:"radioisotopes-applications-in-bio-medical-science",bookSignature:"Nirmal Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1481.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"48584",title:"Prof.",name:"Nirmal",surname:"Singh",slug:"nirmal-singh",fullName:"Nirmal Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"163",title:"Ultrasound Imaging",subtitle:"Medical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa3c22596ff5852287143fe66a643289",slug:"ultrasound-imaging-medical-applications",bookSignature:"Igor V. 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",isbn:"978-1-83768-436-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-435-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-437-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"256aaeeb2cfa765c6a37c73e4fe7402f",bookSignature:"Dr. Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12020.jpg",keywords:"Stability of Fixed Points, Banach Fixed Points Theorem, Fractional Calculus, Discontinuity of Fixed Points, Stability of Systems, Route to Chaos, Multistability, Perturbations Theory, Unstable Fixed Points, Adaptive Control, Control of Discrete-Time Chaotic Systems, Pseudo-Random Bit Generator",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 15th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 13th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 31st 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Guillermo Huerta Cuellar is a researcher in the area of nonlinear dynamics and chaotic systems, with experimental and theoretical results. Has been an author of more than 40 high-level papers, and academic editor in 4 journals, and 3 books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"237167",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Huerta-Cuellar",slug:"guillermo-huerta-cuellar",fullName:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/237167/images/system/237167.jpg",biography:"Guillermo Huerta Cuellar received a B.Sc. degree from Instituto de Investigación en\r\nComunicaciones Ópticas (IICO), from the Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, San Luis\r\nPotosí in 2004. After, he received a Ph.D. degrees from Centro de Investigaciones en Óptica\r\n(CIO), León Guanajuato, Mexico, in 2009. During 2010 to present he have been working at the\r\nExact Sciences and Technology Department in Centro Universitario de los Lagos, Universidad de\r\nGuadalajara. He has been Visiting Researcher in the department of Applied Mathematics at\r\nInstituto Potosino de Investigación Científica y Tecnológica, San Luis Potosí, México (2012-\r\n2014), in Department of Theory of Oscillations and Automatic Control, Faculty of Radiophysics,\r\nLobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod, Russia (2016), sabbatical stay in the\r\nDepartment of Physics and Environmental Science at St. Mary's University, San Antonio, TX, US\r\n(2018-2019), and in División de Matemáticas Aplicadas, Instituto Potosino de Investigación\r\nCientífica y Tecnológica (IPICYT), in San Luis Potosí, S. L. P., México (2019-2020). He has\r\neditor of 3 books, and coauthor of 6 book chapters, international journals and conferences, and\r\nmore of 40 high impact publications. He is member in the National System for Researchers (SNI-\r\nCONACyT-México). He participates as Academic Editor in the Journal Complexity (2021),\r\nFrontiers in Applied Mathematics and Statistics (2022), and Axioms (2022). He has participations\r\nas a reviewer in high impact-factor journals. His research interests include study, characterization,\r\ndynamical behavior and design in nonlinear dynamical systems as lasers, electronics, and in\r\nnumerical models.",institutionString:"University of Guadalajara",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"478197",firstName:"Veronika",lastName:"Radosavac",middleName:null,title:"Dr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"veronika@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9272",title:"Optical Fiber Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd156cc0568d8a4204d9f13609d8ff9e",slug:"optical-fiber-applications",bookSignature:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar and Roghayeh Imani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9272.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237167",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Huerta-Cuellar",slug:"guillermo-huerta-cuellar",fullName:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10767",title:"Fiber Optics",subtitle:"Technology and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b8ef72a4a369383a4b719bba2a4",slug:"fiber-optics-technology-and-applications",bookSignature:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10767.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237167",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",surname:"Huerta-Cuellar",slug:"guillermo-huerta-cuellar",fullName:"Guillermo Huerta-Cuellar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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The property of the composite varies based on the size, shape and amount of the second phase (Sayuti et al., 2010; Sulaiman et al., 2008). Discontinuously reinforced metal matrix composites, the other name for particulate reinforced composites, constitute 5 – 20 % of the new advanced materials (Gay et al., 2003). The mechanical properties of the processed composites are greatly influenced by their microstructure. An increased stiffness, yield strength and ultimate tensile strength are generally achieved by increasing the weight fraction of the reinforcement phase in the matrix. Inspite of these advantages, the usage of particulate reinforced MMCs as structural components in some applications is limited due to low ductility (Rizkalla and Abdulwahed, 1996). Owing to this and to overcome the draw-backs, a detailed investigation on the strengthening mechanism of composites has been carried out by composite experts (Humphreys, 1987). They have found that the particle size and its weight fraction in metal matrix composites influences the generation of dislocations due to thermal mismatch. The effect is also influenced by the developed residual and internal stresses too. The researchers have predicted that the dislocation density is directly proportional to the weight fraction and due to the amount of thermal mismatch. As a result, the strengthening effect is proportional to the square root of the dislocation density. This effect would be significant for fine particles and for higher weight fractions. The MMCs yield improved physical and mechanical properties and these outstanding benefits are due to the combined metallic and ceramic properties (Hashim et al., 2002). Though there are various types of MMCs, particulate-reinforced composites are the most versatile and economical (Sayuti, Sulaiman, Vijayaram, et al., 2011; Sayuti, Suraya, et al., 2011).
In the past 40 years, the researchers and design experts have perceived their research to emphasis on finding lightweight, environmental friendly, low-cost, high quality, and good performance materials (Feest, 1986). In accordance with this trend, MMCs have been attracting growing interest among researchers and industrialists. The attributes of MMCs include alterations in mechanical behavior (e.g., tensile and compressive properties, creep, notch resistance, and tribology) and physical properties (e.g., intermediate density, thermal expansion, and thermal diffusivity) a change, primarily induced by the reinforced filler phase (Sayuti, et al., 2011). Even though MMCs posses various advantages, they still have limitations of thermal fatigue, thermo-chemical compatibility, and posses lower transverse creep resistance. In order to overcome these limitations, fabrication of discontinuously reinforced Al-based MMCs was carried out by standard metallurgical processing methods such as powder metallurgy, direct casting, rolling, forging and extrusion. Subsequently, the products were shaped, machined and drilled by using conventional machining processes. Consequently, the MMCs would be available in suitable quantities with desirable properties, particularly for automotive applications (Sharma et al., 1997).
In general, composite materials posses good mechanical and thermal properties, sustainable over a wide range of temperatures (Vijayaram et al., 2006). The desirable factors such as property requirements, cost factor considerations and future application prospects would decide the choice of the processing method (Kaczmar et al., 2000). In practice, composite materials with a metal or an alloy matrix are fabricated either by casting or by powder metallurgy methods (Fridlyander, 1995). They are considered as potential material candidates for a wide variety of structural applications in the transportation, automobile and sport goods manufacturing industries due to the superior range of mechanical properties they exhibit (Hashim et al., 1999). MMCs represent a new generation of engineering materials in which a strong ceramic reinforcement is incorporated into a metal matrix to improve its properties such as specific strength, specific stiffness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance and elastic modulus (Baker et al., 1987; Chambers et al., 1996; Kok, 2005). As a virtue of their structure and bonding between the matrix and the reinforcement, MMCs combine metallic properties of matrix alloys (ductility and toughness) with ceramic properties of reinforcements (high strength and high modulus), therein leading to greater strength in shear and compression as well as higher service-temperature capabilities (Huda et al., 1993). Thus, they have scientific, technological and commercial significance. MMCs, because of their improved properties, are being used extensively for high performance applications such as in aircraft engines especially in the last decade. Recently, they also find application in automotive sectors (Surappa, 2003; Therén and Lundin, 1990).
Aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and silicon carbide (SiC) powders in the form of fibers and particulates are commonly used as reinforcements in MMCs. In the automotive and aircraft industries for example, production of engine pistons and cylinder heads, the tribological properties of the materials used are considered crucial. Hence, Aluminum oxide and silicon carbide reinforced aluminum alloy matrix composites are applied in these fields (Prasad and Asthana, 2004). Due to their high demand, the development of aluminum matrix composites is receiving considerable emphasis in modern application. Research reports ascertain that the incorporation of hard second phase particles in the alloy matrices to produce MMCs is beneficial and economical due to its high specific strength and corrosion resistance properties (Kok, 2005). Therefore, MMCs are those materials that have higher potential for a large range of engineering applications.
Metal matrix composites are a family of new materials which are attracting considerable industrial interest and investment worldwide. They are defined as materials whose microstructures compromise a continuous metallic phase (the matrix) into which a second phase, or phases, have been artificially introduced. This is in contrast to conventional alloys whose microstructures are produced during processing by naturally occurring phase transformations (Feest, 1986). Metal matrix composites are distinguished from the more extensively developed resin matrix composites by virtue of their metallic nature in terms of physical and mechanical properties and by their ability to lend themselves to conventional metallurgical processing operations. Electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity and non-inflammability, matrix shear strength, ductility (providing a crack blunting mechanism) and abrasion resistance, ability to be coated, joined, formed and heat treated are some of the properties that differentiate metal matrix composites from resin matrix composites. MMCs are a class of advanced materials which have been developed for weight-critical applications in the aerospace industry. Discontinuously reinforced aluminum composites, composed of high strength aluminum alloys reinforced with silicon carbide particles or whiskers, are a subclass of MMCs. Their combination of superior properties and fabricability makes them attractive candidates for many structural components requiring high stiffness, high strength and low weight. Since the reinforcement is discontinuous, discontinuously reinforced composites can be made with properties that are isotropic in three dimensions or in a plane. Conventional secondary fabrication methods can be used to produce a wide range of composites products, making them relatively inexpensive compared to the other advanced composites reinforced with continuous filaments. The benefit of using composite materials and the cause of their increasing adoption is to be looked for in the advantage of attaining property combinations that can result in a number of service benefits. Among these are increased strength, decreased weight, higher service temperature, improved wear resistance and higher elastic module. The main advantage of composites lies in the tailorability of their mechanical and physical properties to meet specific design criteria. Composite materials are continuously displacing traditional engineering materials because of their advantages of high stiffness and strength over homogeneous material formulations. The type, shape and spatial arrangement of the reinforcing phase in metal matrix composites are key parameters in determining their mechanical behavior. The hard ceramic component which increases the mechanical characteristics of metal matrix composites causes quick wear and premature tool failure in the machining operations. Metal matrix composites have been investigated since the early 1960s with the impetus at that time, being the high potential structural properties that would be achievable with materials engineered to specific applications (Mortensen et al., 1989).
In the processing of metal matrix composites, one of the subjects of interest is to choose a suitable matrix and a reinforcement material (Ashby and Jones, 1980). In some cases, chemical reactions that occur at the interface between the matrix and its reinforcement materials have been considered harmful to the final mechanical properties and are usually avoided. Sometimes, the interfacial reactions are intentionally induced, because the new layer formed at the interface acts as a strong bond between the phases (Gregolin et al., 2002).
During the production of metal matrix composites, several oxides have been used as reinforcements, in the form of particulates, fibers or as whiskers (Zhu and Iizuka, 2003). For example, alumina, zirconium oxide and thorium oxide particulates are used as reinforcements in aluminum, magnesium and other metallic matrices (Upadhyaya, 1990). Very few researchers have reported on the use of quartz as a secondary phase reinforcement particulate in an aluminum or aluminum alloy matrix, due to its aggressive reactivity between these materials (Sahin, 2003). Preliminary studies showed that the contact between molten aluminum and silica-based ceramic particulates have destroyed completely the second phase microstructure, due to the reduction reaction which provokes the infiltration of liquid metal phase into the ceramic material (Mazumdar, 2002). Previous works carried out by using continuous silica fibers as reinforcement phases in aluminum matrix showed that even at temperatures nearer to 400 0C, silica and aluminum can react and produce a transformed layer on the original fiber surface as a result of solid diffusion between the phases and due to the aluminum-silicon liquid phase formation (Seah et al., 2003). The organizations and companies that are very active in the usage of MMCs in Canada and United States include the following (Rohatgi, 1993):
Aluminium Company of Canada, Dural Corporation, Kaiser Aluminium, Alcoa, American Matrix, Lanxide, American Refractory Corporation
Northrup Corporation, McDonald Douglas, Allied Signal, Advanced Composite Materials Corporation, Textron Specialty Materials
DWA Associates, MCI Corporation, Novamet
Martin Marietta Aerospace, Oakridge National Laboratory, North American Rockwell, General Dynamics Corporation, Lockheed Aeronautical Systems
Dupont, General Motors Corporation, Ford Motor Company, Chrysler Corporation, Boeing Aerospace Company, General Electric, Westinghouse
Wright Patterson Air Force Base, (Dayton, Ohio), and
Naval Surface Warefare Centre, (Silver Spring, Maryland)
India also has substantial activity in PM and cast MMCs. It has had world class R&D in cast aluminium particulate composites which was sought even by western countries.
Among the major developments in materials in recent years are composite materials. In fact, composites are now one of the most important classes of engineered materials, because they offer several outstanding properties as compared to conventional materials. The matrix material in a composite may be ceramic based, polymer or metal. Depending on the matrix, composite materials are classified as follows:
Metal matrix composites (MMCs)
Polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs)
Majority of the composites used commercially are polymer-based matrices. However, metal matrix composites and ceramic matrix composites are attracting great interest in high temperature applications (Feest, 1986). Another class of composite material is based on the cement matrix. Because of their importance in civil engineering structures, considerable effort is being made to develop cement matrix composites with high resistance to cracking (Schey, 2000). Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are composites with a metal or alloy matrix. It has resistance to elevated temperatures, higher elastic modulus, ductility and higher toughness. The limitations are higher density and greater difficulty in processing parts. Matrix materials used in these composites are usually aluminum, magnesium, aluminum-lithium, titanium, copper and super alloys. Fiber materials used in MMCs are aluminum oxide, graphite, titanium carbide, silicon carbide, boron, tungsten and molybdenum. The tensile strengths of non metallic fibers range between 2000 MPa to 3000 MPa, with elastic modulus being in the range of 200 GPa to 400 GPa. Because of their lightweight, high specific stiffness and high thermal conductivity, boron fibers in an aluminum matrix have been used for structural tubular supports in the space shuttle orbiter. Metal matrix composites having silicon carbide fibers and a titanium matrix, are being used for the skin, stiffeners, beams and frames of the hypersonic aircrafts under development. Other applications are in bicycle frames and sporting goods (Wang et al., 2006). Graphite fibers reinforced in aluminum and magnesium matrices are applied in satellites, missiles and in helicopter structures. Lead matrix composites having graphite fibers are used to make storage-battery plates. Graphite fibers embedded in copper matrix are used to fabricate electrical contacts and bearings. Boron fibers in aluminum are used as compressor blades and structural supports. The same fibers in magnesium are used to make antenna structures. Titanium-boron fiber composites are used as jet-engine fan blades. Molybdenum and tungsten fibers are dispersed in cobalt-base super alloy matrices to make high temperature engine components. Squeeze cast MMCs generally have much better reinforcement distribution than compocast materials. This is due to the fact that a ceramic perform which is used to contain the desired weight fraction of reinforcement rigidly attached to one another so that movement is inhibited. Consequently, clumping and dendritic segregation are eliminated. Porosity is also minimized, since pressure is used to force the metal into interfiber channels, displacing the gases. Grain size and shape can vary throughout the infiltrated preform because of heat flow patterns. Secondary phases typically form at the fiber-matrix interface, since the lower freezing solute-rich regions diffuse toward the fiber ahead of the solidifying matrix (Surappa, 2003).
Composites technology and science requires interaction of various disciplines such as structural analysis and design, mechanics of materials, materials science and process engineering. The tasks of composites research are to investigate the basic characteristics of the constituents and composite materials, develop effective and efficient fabrication procedures, optimize the material for service conditions and understanding their effect on material properties and to determine material properties and predict the structural behavior by analytical procedures and hence to develop effective experimental techniques for material characterization, failure analysis and stress analysis (Daniel and Ishai, 1994). An important task is the non-destructive evaluation of material integrity, durability assessment, structural reliability, flaw criticality and life prediction. The structural designs and systems capable of operating at elevated temperatures has spurred intensive research in high temperature composites, such as ceramic/matrix, metal/ceramic and carbon/carbon composites. The utilization of conventional and new composite materials is intimately related to the development of fabrication methods. The manufacturing process is one of the most important stages in controlling the properties and ensuring the quality of the finished product. The technology of composites, although still developing, has reached a state of maturity. Nevertheless, prospects for the future are bright for a variety of reasons. Newer high volume applications, such as in the automotive industry, will expand the use of composites greatly.
Matrix is the percolating alloy/metal/polymer/plastic/resin/ceramic forming the constituent of a composite in which other constituents are embedded. If the matrix is a metal, then it is called as a metal matrix and consecutively polymer matrix, if the matrix is a polymer and so on. In composites, the matrix or matrices have two important functions (Weeton et al., 1988). Firstly, it holds the reinforcement phase in the place. Then, under an applied force, it deforms and distributes the stress to the reinforcement constituents. Sometimes the matrix itself is a key strengthening element. This occurs in certain metal matrix composites. In other cases, a matrix may have to stand up to heat and cold. It may conduct or resist electricity, keep out moisture, or protect against corrosion. It may be chosen for its weight, ease of handling, or any of many other applications. Any solid that can be processed to embed and adherently grip a reinforcing phase is a potential matrix material.
In a composite, matrix is an important phase, which is defined as a continuous one. The important function of a matrix is to hold the reinforcement phase in its embedded place, which act as stress transfer points between the reinforcement and matrix and protect the reinforcement from adverse conditions (Clyne, 1996). It influences the mechanical properties, shear modulus and shear strength and its processing characteristics. Reinforcement phase is the principal load-carrying member in a composite. Therefore, the orientation, of the reinforcement phase decides the properties of the composite.
Reinforcement materials must be available in sufficient quantities and at an economical rate. Recent researches are directed towards a wider variety of reinforcements for the range of matrix materials being considered, since different reinforcement types and shapes have specific advantages in different matrices (Basavarajappa et al., 2004). It is to be noted that the composite properties depend not only on the properties of the constituents, but also on the chemical interaction between them and on the difference in their thermal expansion coefficients, which both depend on the processing route. In high temperature composites, the problem is more complicated due to enhanced chemical reactions and phase instability at both processing and application temperatures. Reinforcement phases in MMCs are embedded in the form of continuous reinforcement or discontinuous reinforcement in the matrix material. The reinforcing phase may be a particulate or a fiber, continuous type or discontinuous type. Some of the important particulates normally reinforced in composite materials are titanium carbide, tungsten carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum silicate, quartz, silicon carbide, graphite, fly ash, alumina, glass fibers, titanium boride etc. The reinforcement second phase material is selected depending on the application during the processing of composites (Clyne, 1996). The reinforcement phase is in the form of particulates and fibers generally. The size of the particulate is expressed in microns, micrometer. However, the discontinuous fiber is defined by a term called as ‘Aspect Ratio’. It is expressed as the ratio of length to the diameter of the fiber. To improve the wettabilty with the liquid alloy or metal matrix material, the reinforcement phase is always preheated (Adams et al., 2003).
The interface between the matrix and the reinforcement plays an important role for deciding and explaining the toughening mechanism in the metal matrix composites. The interface between the matrix and the reinforcement should be organized in such a way that the bond in between the interface should not be either strong or weak (Singh et al., 2001).
Interfaces are considered particularly important in the mechanical behavior of MMCs since they control the load transfer between the matrix and the reinforcement. Their nature depends on the matrix composition, the nature of the reinforcement, the fabrication method and the thermal treatments of the composite. For particular matrix/reinforcement associations and especially with liquid processing routes, reactions can occur which change the composition of the matrix and lead to interfacial reaction products, thus changing the mechanical behavior of the composites. The interfacial phenomena in MMCs have been surveyed by several authors. Considering physical and chemical properties of both the matrix and the reinforcing material, the actual strength and toughness desired for the final MMCs, a compromise has to be achieved balancing often several conflicting requirements. A weak interface will lead to crack propagation following the interface, while a strong matrix associated with a strong interface will reveal cracks across both the matrix and the reinforcements. If however the matrix is weak in comparison with the interface and the particle strength, the failure will propagate through the matrix itself. The wettability of the reinforcement material by the liquid metallic matrix plays a major role in the bond formation. It mainly depends on heat of formation, electronic structure of the reinforcement and the molten metal temperature, time, atmosphere, roughness and crystallography of the reinforcement. Similarity between metallic bond and covalent bond is reflected in some metal, like titanium carbide and zirconium carbide which are more easily wetted than strong ionic bonds found in ceramics such as alumina that remains poorly wetted. Surface roughness of the reinforced material improves the mechanical interlocking at the interface, though the contribution of the resulting interfacial shear strength is secondary compared to chemical bonding. Large differences in thermal expansion coefficient between the matrix and the reinforcement should be avoided as they can include internal matrix stresses and ultimately give rise to interfacial failures. From a purely thermo dynamical point of view, a comparison of free enthalpy of formation at various temperatures shows that many metals in the liquid state are reactive toward the reinforcing materials in particular oxides or carbides. Though thermodynamically favored, some reactions are however not observed and practically the kinetics of these reactions has to be considered in conjunction with thermodynamic data in order to evaluate the real potential of the reactions. The consequences of such interfacial reactions are the chemical degradation of the reinforcing material associated with a decrease of its mechanical properties, the formation of brittle reaction products at the interface, as well as the release of elements initially part of the reinforcing material toward the matrix may generate inopportune metallurgical phases at the vicinity of the reinforcing materials. Moreover in the case of alloyed matrices, the selective reactivity and depletion of given elements from the alloy can generate compositional gradients in the matrix and may therefore alter its properties close to the interface. Though a moderate reaction may improve the composite bonding, extended reactions usually ruin the reinforcing material. The relation between interfacial reactions and interface strength depends on the materials. The elaboration of MMC requires often a very short solidification time to avoid excess interfacial reaction. During the cooling process, differences in thermal capacity and thermal conductivity between the reinforcing material and the matrix induce localized temperature gradients. Solidification of the metallic matrix is believed to be generally a directional outward process, starting from the inside of the metallic matrix while ending at the reinforcing material surface. Finally, the processing type and the parameters have to be selected and adjusted to a particular MMC system. Metals are generally more reactive in the liquid rather than in the solid state. Consequently, shorter processing time, that is, short contact time between the liquid metal and the reinforcement can limit the extent of interfacial reactions. The study of reinforcement and matrix bonding is important in composite matrix structure, which has been described by Gregolin (2002). While the load is acting on the composite, it has been distributed to the matrix and the reinforcement phase through the matrix interface. The reinforcement is effective in strengthening the matrix only if a strong interfacial bond exists between them. The interfacial properties also influence the resistance to crack propagation in a composite and therefore its fracture toughness (Dusza and Sajgalik, 1995). The two most important energy-absorbing failure mechanisms in a composite are debonding and particle pull-out at the particle matrix interface. If the interface between the matrix and reinforcement debonds, then the crack propagation is interrupted by the debonding process and instead of moving through the particle, the crack moves along the particle surface allowing the particle to carry a higher load (El-Mahallawy and Taha, 1993).
Wettability is defined as the extent to which a liquid will spread over a solid surface. Interfacial bonding is due to the adhesion between the reinforcement phase and the matrix. For adhesion to occur during the manufacturing of a composite, the reinforcement and the matrix must be brought into an intimate contact. During a stage in composite manufacture, the matrix is often in a condition where it is capable of flowing towards the reinforcement and this behavior approximates to that of the flow of a liquid. A key concept in this contact is wettability. Once the matrix wets the reinforcement particle, and thus the matrix being in intimate contact with the reinforcement, causes the bonding to occur (Hashim et al., 2001; Oh et al., 1987). Different types of bonding will occur and the type of bonding varies from system to system and it entirely depends on the details such as the presence of surface contaminants. The different types of bonding observed are mechanical bonding, electrostatic bonding, chemical bonding, and inter diffusion bonding (Burr et al., 1995). The bonding strength can be measured by conducting the tests like single particle test, bulk specimen test, and micro-indention test (Dusza and Sajgalik, 1995).
Poor wettability of most ceramic particulates with the molten metals is a major barrier to processing of these particulate reinforced MMCs by liquid metallurgy route. The characterization and enhancement of wettability is therefore, of central importance to successful composite processing (Asthana and Rohatgi, 1993). Wettability is shown in the Figure 1 below and it is customarily represented in terms of a contact angle defined from the Young-Dupre equation which is expressed as follows:
A sessile drop to the left is an example of poor wetting (>90) and the sessile drop to the right is an example of good wetting (<90) (
Where γSV = Solid/Vapor surface energy, γSL = Solid/Liquid surface energy and γLV = Liquid/Vapor surface energy.
The wetting behavior of a liquid on a solid can be characterized by the wetting or contact angle that is formed between the liquid and the solid substrate. A “sessile drop” is a continuous drop of liquid on a flat, solid surface under steady-state conditions. To neglect the effects of gravity, the gravitational forces should be small compared to the surface tension of the drop. If this condition is satisfied, the drop will approach a hemispherical shape which represents its smallest area and lowest surface free energy. The sessile drop is placed on the solid substrate and the angle between the solid surface and the tangent to the liquid surface at the contact point is measured. This is known as the contact angle or wetting angle. The contact angle can vary between 0 and 180 and is a measure of the extent of wetting. The conditions of good wetting (<90) and partial wetting (>90) are illustrated in Figure 1. Complete wetting (also referred to as spreading) is obtained at an angle of 0 and complete non-wetting occurs at an angle of 180. The contact angle is the vector sum of the interfacial surface energies between the solid/liquid (γsl), liquid/vapor (γlv), and solid/vapor (γsv) phases. Young’s equation represents a steady-state condition for a solid/liquid interface in stable or metastable thermodynamic equilibrium. Temperature changes have been shown to affect the contact angle of many different systems. The temperature effect, in most cases, can be explained by a reaction at the liquid/solid interface. Thermally activated reactions can occur because many systems are not at chemical equilibrium. The reactions that contribute to wetting (decrease of the contact angle) are those that increase the driving force for wetting (γSV - γSL), which is acting at the surface of the liquid drop and the solid substrate. The reactions that contribute to the driving force for wetting are the ones in which the composition of the substrate changes by dissolution of a component of the liquid. On the contrary, if the reaction results in a change of the liquid’s composition by dissolution of the solid substrate, but with no change in the composition of the substrate, there is no contribution to the driving force for wetting.
As mentioned above, if the solid substrate is an active participant in the reaction, the free energy of the outer surface of the liquid drop will contribute to the driving force for wetting. As the drop expands on the substrate, the perimeter remains in contact with the unreacted solid and thus the reaction continues to contribute to the driving force for wetting. Examination of phase diagrams representing the interaction between the constituents of the liquid and solid surfaces can help to predict the wetting behavior of a system.
Moreover, measurement of wettability of powders consisting of irregular and polysized particles is extremely difficult. Several techniques have been proposed in the thermodynamic literature to measure wettability. However, these techniques have been applied mostly to non-metallic liquids and their application to metal ceramic systems with reference to pressure casting of composites has been quite limited. The engineering approaches to increasing wettability can be broadly classified into two categories. One method is the surface modification of the reinforcement phase and the other technique is melt treatment. Surface modifications of reinforcements include heat treatment of the particulates to determine surface gas desorbtion, surface oxidation and coating of particles with materials that react with the matrix. Melt treatment is usually done to promote reactivity between the metal and the particulate surface. The wetting reaction must be constrained to prevent reinforcement degradation during the fabrication of subsequent utilization (Ho and Wu, 1998).
The improvement in toughness due to the particulate reinforcement depends on the residual stresses surrounding the particles, the weight fraction of the particles, size and shape of the particles (Suery and Esperance, 1993). Particles can be spherical, disk-shaped, rod shaped, and plate shaped. Each particle forces the crack to go out of plane, and can force the crack to deflect in more than one direction and thus increase the fracture surface energy (Gogopsi, 1994). Plate and rod shaped particles can increase the composite toughness by another mechanism called as ‘pullout’ and ‘bridging’. The residual stress around the particles results from thermal expansion mismatch between the particles and the matrix, which helps to resist the crack propagation. The term ‘particulates’ is used to distinguish these materials from particle and referred as a large, diverse group of materials that consist of minute particles. The second phase particle can produce small but significant increase in toughness and consequently increases its strength through crack deflection processes. The particles, sometimes given a proprietary coating can be used for improving strength. When compared to whiskers-reinforcement systems, particle reinforcement systems have less processing difficulties and should permit to add higher weight fractions of the reinforcing phase. The orientation of particles appears as flat plates (Matthew and Rawlings, 1999; Pardo et al., 2005).
Aluminum. – 11.8% silicon (LM6)
The main materials used in this project are LM6 aluminum alloy as a matrix material and SiO2-quartz as a particulate reinforced added in different percentages. Pure (99.99%) aluminum has a specific gravity of 2.70 and its density is equals 2685kg/m3. The details of the LM6 alloy properties and composition is shown in Table 1 and Table 2.
Al | 85.95 |
Cu | 0.2 |
Mg | 0.1 |
Si | 11.8 |
Fe | 0.5 |
Mn | 0.5 |
Ni | 0.1 |
Zn | 0.1 |
Lead | 0.1 |
Tin | 0.05 |
Titanium | 0.2 |
Other | 0.2 |
Composition of LM6(Sayuti, Sulaiman, Baharudin, et al., 2011)
Density (g/cc) | 2.66 |
Tensile strength, Ultimate (MPa) | 290 |
Tensile Strength, Yield (MPa) | 131 |
Elongation %; break (%) | 3.5 |
Poisson’s ratio | 0.33 |
Fatigue Strength (MPa) | 130 |
CTE, linear 20oC (μm/m-oC) | 20.4 |
CTE, linear 250oC (μm/m-oC) | 22.4 |
Heat Capacity (J/g- oC) | 0.963 |
Thermal Conductivity (W/m-K) | 155 |
Melting Point (oC) | 574 |
Physical, Mechanical and thermal properties of LM6 (Sulaiman, et al., 2008)
Quartz
\n\t\t\t\tPure and fused silica is commonly called quartz. Quartz is a hard mineral which is abundantly available as a natural resource. It has a rhombohedra crystal structure with a hardness of 7 on the Mohs scale and has a low specific gravity ranging from 2.50 to 2.66. It provides excellent hardness when incorporated into the soft lead-alloy, thereby making it better suited for applications where hardness is desirable. It also imparts good corrosion resistance and high chemical stability. It is a mineral having a composition SiO2, which is the most common among all the materials, and occurs in the combined and uncombined states. It is estimated that 60% of the earth’s crust contain SiO2. Sand, clays, and rocks are largely composed of small quartz crystals. SiO2 is white in color in the purest form. The properties of pure quartz are listed in the Table 3.
Molecular weight | 60.08 |
Melting Point °C | 1713 |
Boiling Point °C | 2230 |
Density gm/cc | 2.32 |
Thermal Conductivity | 0.01 W/cm K (bulk) |
Thermal Diffusivity | 0.009 cm2/sec (bulk) |
Mohs Hardness @ 20 °C | 7 Modified Mohs |
Si % | 46.75 |
O % | 53.25 |
Crystal Structure | Cubic |
Mesh size | 230 |
Size | 65 microns (65 μm) |
Properties of quartz
Preparation. of materials
The materials used in this work were Aluminum LM6 alloy as the matrix and SiO2 as reinforcement particulates with different weight percentages. The tensile test specimens were prepared according to ASTM standards B 557 M-94 (ASTM, 1991). Sodium silicate and CO2 gas was used to produce CO2 sand mould for processing composite casting. The aluminum alloy, LM6, was based on British standards that conform to BS 1490-1988 LM6. Alloy of LM6 is actually a eutectic alloy having the lowest melting point that can be seen from the Al-Si phase diagram. The main composition of LM6 is about 85.95% of aluminum and 11.8% of silicon.
The SiO2 particulate used as a second phase reinforcement in the alloy matrix was added on the molten LM6 by different weights fraction such as 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30%. The mesh size of Silicon Dioxide particulate is 230 microns and the average particle size equal to 65 microns (65μm).
Fabrication. of composites
Only one type of pattern was used in this project and the procedure for making the pattern involves the preparation of drawing, selection of pattern material and surface finishing. Carbon dioxide moulding process was used to prepare the specimens as per the standard moulding procedure. Quartz-particulate reinforced MMCs were fabricated by casting technique. Six different weight fractions of SiO2 particle in the range from 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, and 30% by weight were used. In this research work, the particulates were preheated to 200 oC in a heat treatment muffle furnace for 2 hours and it was transferred immediately in the crucible containing liquid LM6 alloy.
Tensile. testing
Tensile test was conducted to determine the mechanical properties of the processed SiO2 particulate reinforced LM6 alloy composites. Test specimens were made in accordance to ASTM standard B557 M-94. A 250 KN servo hydraulic INSTRON 8500 UTM was used to conduct the tensile test. The tensile testing of the samples was performed based on the following specifications and procedures according to the ASTM standards, which of one crosshead speed of 2.00 mm/minute, grip distance 50.0 mm, specimen distance 50.0 mm and temperature 24 0C.
Hardness. measurement
The hardness testing was done on a Rockwell Hardness Tester. The hardness of composites was tested by using MITUTOYO ATK-600 MODEL hardness tester. For each sample, ten hardness readings were taken randomly from the surface of the samples. Hardness values of different types of the processed composites are determined for different weight fraction % of titanium carbide particulate containing aluminum-11.8% silicon alloy and graphs were plotted between the hardness value and the corresponding type of particulate addition on weight fraction basis.
Impact. testing
The impact test was conducted in accordance with ASTM E 23-05 standards at room temperature using izod impact tester. The casting processing steps and testing shows are shown in Figure 2.
The casting processing steps; (a) Pattern of mould (b) sand mould : drag and copper (c) melting and pouring in the sand mould (d) tensile specimens with gating system (e) tensile specimen after removing of gating systems (f) tensile testing
Density. measurement
The density of a material is defined as its mass per unit volume. A&D-GR 200 – Analytical Balance was used to conduct the density measurement. The theoretical density of each set of composites was calculated using the rule of mixtures (Rizkalla and Abdulwahed, 1996). Each pellet was weighed in air (Wa), then suspended in Xylene and weighed again (W). The density of the pellet was calculated according to the formula:
Thermal. diffusivity measurement
Thermal diffusivity of composite materials is measured using the photo flash method. The photoflash detection system consists of a light source, sample holder, thermocouple, low noise pre amplifier, oscilloscope, photodiode and a personal computer. The temperature rise at the back surface of the sample is detected by the thermocouple. The detected signal is amplified by a low-noise preamplifier and processed by a digital oscilloscope (Carter and Norton, 2007; Yu et al., 2002).
The voltage supplied to the camera flash is always maintained below 6 Volts before switching on the main power supply. The sample is machined to acquire flat surface to obtain better quality result and it is attached directly to the thermocouple. The camera flash is located at 2 cm in front of the sample holder. Before starting the equipment, the set up was tested using a standard material such as aluminium. Measurement was carried out every 10 minutes to allow the sample to thermally equilibrate at room temperature. The data was analyzed before running the next measurement.
Photoflash detection system is not an expensive method and the standard thermal diffusivity value for aluminum is equal to 0.83 cm2/sec for thickness greater than 0.366 cm (Muta et al., 2003). In the photo flash system, the excitation source consists of a high intensity camera flash. This method is well suitable for aluminum, aluminum alloys and aluminum-silicon particulate metal matrix composites (Collieu and Powney, 1973). The thermal diffusivity values can be obtained for different thicknesses of the test samples. The thermal diffusivity α determines the speed of propagation of heat waves by conduction during changes of temperature with time. It can be related to α, the thermal conductivity through the following equation (Michot et al., 2008; Taylor, 1980).
The photo flash technique was originally described by Parker and it is one of the most common ways to measure the thermal diffusivity of the solid samples. The computer is programmed to calculate the thermal diffusivity, α, using the equation:
Where L = thickness in mm and t 0.5 = half rise time in seconds.
Scanning. Electron Microscopy (SEM)
LEO 1455 variable pressure scanning electron microscope with Inca 300 Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) was used to investigate the morphological features. Results and data obtained from the tensile tested samples were correlated with the reported mechanical properties for each volume fraction of silicon dioxide percentage addition to the LM6 alloy matrix.
Tensile. properties
The average value of tensile strength (MPa) and Young’s Modulus (MPa) versus weight fraction of SiO2 is shown in the Figures 3 and 4.
Tensile strength Vs % weight
Young”s modulus Vs % weight
The graph plotted between the average tensile strength and modulus or elasticity values versus variation in weight fraction of quartz particulate addition to LM6 alloy indicates that both the properties decreases with increase in the addition of the quartz particulate. The increase of closed pores content with increasing quartz particulate content would create more sites for crack initiation and hence lower down the load bearing capacity of the composite. The fluctuation maybe due to the non-uniform distribution of quartz particulates, due to experimental errors and also depends on the cooling rate of the castings (ASTM, 1991; Seah, et al., 2003). When particulates increase, particles are no longer isolated by the ductile aluminum alloy matrix, therefore cracks will be not arrested by the ductile matrix and gaps would propagate easily between the quartz particulates. This residual stress affects the material properties around it and the crack tips and the fracture toughness values would be altered. Consequently, these residual stresses would probably contribute for the brittle nature of the composites. It should be noted that the compressive strength of the quartz particulate dominates which is more than the tensile strength of the LM6 alloy matrix and hence the tensile strength decreases with more amount of addition of quartz particulate afact which is well supported is well supported and evidenced from the literature citation (Rizkalla and Abdulwahed, 1996; Seah, et al., 2003).
Hardness
Similarly, for a given SiO2 reinforcement content, some differences in the hardness values were observed depending upon the particle size of the constituents. From the Table 4, data on hardness of quartz particulate reinforced composites made in sand mold is listed. It was found that the hardness value increased gradually with the increased addition of quartz particulate by weight fraction percentage as shown in Figure 5.
The maximum hardness value obtained based on the Rockwell superficial 15N-S scale was 67.85 for 30% weight fraction addition. The EDS spectrums for 30% wt of SiO2 are shown in Figure 5. Their respective elemental analysis is shown in Table 4. It was observed that the grain-refined composite casting has higher weight percentage of Si compared with the original LM6 casting. These results indicate the interrelationship between the thermal properties and hardness.
Impact. strength
Impact strength data of quartz particulate reinforced composite castings processed was determined and it is listed in the Table 4. From the plotted graph shown in the Figure 6, it is found that the impact strength values were gradually increased with the increased addition of quartz particulate in the alloy matrix. The maximum value of impact strength was 24.80 N-m for 30% weight fraction addition of quartz particulate to the alloy matrix. A reason for the increased volume impact–abrasive wear of the SiO2 particle reinforced composites lies in the propensity of the carbides to fracture and spall as a result of the repeated impact from the quartzite. In the monolithic ferrous-based alloys, the matrix can absorb substantial damage in the form of plastic deformation. This plastic deformation is in fact beneficial in that, the matrix will get harder as a result, and wear, fatigue type processes ending as a material removal mechanism. In the SiO2 particle reinforced composites, however, the high weight fraction of SiO2 limits the amount of plastic deformation that the matrix can absorb. This leads more quickly to SiO2 reinforcement fracture, matrix– SiO2 particle delamination, and SiO2 particle spalling. As a consequence, volume impact–abrasive wear increases at a more rapid rate for the composite materials as the hardness increases. However, for the very ‘hardest’ SiO2 particle reinforced composites, impact–abrasion resistance is very good. The summary of mechanical properties of quartz particulate reinforced composite castings processed was determined and it is listed in the Table 4.
Hardness Vs wt % of quartz
Impact strength Vs Weight fraction % of quartz
Wt % of quartz | UTS (MPa) | Yield (MPa) | Young’s modulus MPa | Fracture stress MPa | Ductility % | Reduction in area % | Rockwell Hardness | Impact (N-m) |
5 % | 142.99 | 132.00 | 14351 | 189.50 | 1.214 | 2.863 | 44.65 | 12.20 |
10 % | 124.74 | 129.60 | 12350 | 164.60 | 1.412 | 2.864 | 49.85 | 15.00 |
15 % | 108.47 | 118.50 | 10635 | 142.20 | 1.422 | 3.042 | 52.73 | 18.60 |
20 % | 78.97 | 109.60 | 7621 | 128.40 | 1.632 | 3.264 | 55.38 | 20.00 |
25% | 59.53 | 100.50 | 5853 | 115.30 | 1.824 | 3.625 | 60.52 | 23.40 |
30% | 52.64 | 92.65 | 5242 | 104.60 | 1.741 | 3.482 | 67.85 | 24.80 |
Mechanical properties of quartz particulate composites
Density
Figure 8 gives the influence of quartz addition on the density. The graph shows that as the quartz-silicon dioxide content was gradually increased, the density of the Aluminum composite decreased. Slight decrease was observed in the density because quartz-silicon dioxide has a slight lower density value than LM6 (the density of LM6 is 2.65grs/cc and of quartz is 2.23grs/cc).
The investigation of the aluminum composite was well documented. The percentage of the closed pores in the sintered composites increased with increasing quartz content. This can be attributed to silica being harder than aluminum and non deformation at all under the applied compaction load. The morphological features of quartz particles were significantly different from those of Aluminum and as a result, the interparticle friction effects were different. Therefore, the increase in the amount of closed pores with increasing quartz content would justify the observed decrease in density (Rizkalla and Abdulwahed, 1996).
Graph plotted on density versus %wt fraction of SiO2
Thermal. properties
Quartz particulate reinforced composite castings made in grey cast iron mold were tested and analyzed for thermal properties. Graphs are plotted between the weight fraction % addition of quartz and thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity values. It is found that the thermal diffusivity of the quartz composites decreased with the increased addition in the alloy matrix. Reversely, the thermal conductivity of the quartz composites decreased with the increased addition of quartz particulate in the alloy matrix. Quartz particulates are a ceramic reinforcement phase and on addition of this in the alloy matrix reduces the thermal conductivity. The data for thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity of the quartz particulate reinforced composites made in sand mold is given in the Table 4. These are illustrated in the plotted graphs and are shown in Figure 8 and 9. The thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity for 30% weight fraction addition of quartz are 0.2306 cm2/sec and 52.9543 W/mK respectively and it is well supported from the literature citation (Collieu and Powney, 1973). The summary of physical properties of quartz particulate reinforced composite castings processed was determined and it is listed in the Table 5.
Thermal conductivity Vs Wt Fraction % of quartz
Wt % of quartz | Density (g/cc) | Thermal diffusivity cm2/sec | Thermal conductivity (W/ mK) |
5 % | 2.644 | 0.6513 | 215.826 |
10 % | 2.635 | 0.4514 | 149.584 |
15 % | 2.632 | 0.3595 | 119.933 |
20 % | 2.627 | 0.3102 | 65.6860 |
25% | 2.621 | 0.2590 | 84.6830 |
30% | 2.619 | 0.2306 | 52.9543 |
Physical properties of quartz particulate composites
Scanning. electron microscopy (SEM)
Scanning Electron Microscopy and energy dispersive spectroscopy was employed to obtain some qualitative evidences on the particle distribution in the matrix and bonding quality between the particulate and the matrix. Besides this the fracture surface of the composite was analyzed by using SEM to show the detail of chemically reacted interfaces. Thus, in order to increase the potential application of MMCs, it is necessary to concentrate on the major aspects, like particle size of quartz and quartz distribution concentration.
The fracture surfaces or fractographs are shown in the Figures 10-15 after tensile testing the specimens having different weight fraction of quartz particulate. It was observed that the increase of SiO2 content would create more sites for crack initiation and would lower the load bearing capacity of MMCs. In addition the number of contacts between quartz particles would increase and more particles were no longer isolated by the ductile aluminum alloy matrix. Therefore, cracks were not arrested by the ductile matrix and they would propagate easily between quartz particulates. Decrease of SiO2 content to less than 30% in the matrix and a particle size of 230 micron could increase the tensile strength. Hence cracking on the surface is not too dominant. This phenomenon is shown in Figure 10. The problem on interfacial bonding between the particulate quartz and the matrix during the solidification of composites can be ignored because the phenomena of cracking occurs only in a small part of the surface (Seah, et al., 2003). In contrast, when the content of quartz was increased (30%), interfacial bonding concept would be an important phenomenon because the surface cracking will be distributed on the surface of the parts. The other problem caused by the interaction between Aluminum alloy and quartz particle is not a significant one and it is removed while solidification during the pouring process and due to slip inter bonding/ inter granular movement which is illustrated with the aid of Figure 11.
EDX Spectrum and Fractograph of 5wt% quartz particulate reinforced in quartz -LM6 alloy matrix composite at 250X magnification by SEM after tensile testing.
EDX Spectrum and Fractograph of 10wt% quartz particulate reinforced in quartz -LM6 alloy matrix composite at 100X magnification by SEM after tensile testing.
EDX Spectrum and Fractograph of 15wt% quartz particulate reinforced in quartz -LM6 alloy matrix composite at 250X magnification by SEM after tensile testing.
EDX Spectrum and Fractograph of 20wt% quartz particulate reinforced in quartz -LM6 alloy matrix composite at 100X magnification by SEM after tensile testing
EDX Spectrum and Fractograph of 25wt% quartz particulate reinforced in quartz -LM6 alloy matrix composite at 250X magnification by SEM after tensile testing
EDX Spectrum and Fractograph of 30wt% quartz articulate reinforced in quartz -LM6 alloy matrix composite at 250X magnification by SEM after tensile testing
In this study, the compressive strength of the silicon dioxide particulate reinforcement dominates and influences more effectively than the tensile strength of the LM6 alloy matrix phase. Hence the values of tensile strength and modulus of elasticity are decreased with the increased addition of SiO2 particulate from 5 to 30% by volume fraction basis. This fact from the present experimental research is well supported and validated from the literature. The mechanical behaviour of the processed composite had a strong dependence on the volume fraction addition of the second phase reinforcement particulate on the alloy matrix. On the other hand, decreasing the SiO2 particulate content less than 30% by weight along with the particle size constraint as 230 mesh-65 microns would increase the tensile strength and cracking on the surface might not be too dominant. The hardness value of the silicon reinforced aluminum silicon alloy matrix composite is increased with the addition of quartz particulate in the matrix.
The density of these composites decreased slightly with increasing quartz content. Slight decrease was observed in the density because quartz-silicon dioxide has a slightly lower density value than LM6. For a given particle size combination, the thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity decreases as SiO2 wt % of the composite increases. The particle size ratio of the constituents becomes an important factor for thermal properties, especially above 10wt. % SiO2. A higher Al/ SiO2 particle size ratio results in segregation of SiO2 particles along the LM6 boundaries. This yields lower thermal conductivity with respect to the homogeneously distributed reinforcement. Therefore, a thermal conductivity value that is less than the expected one might be attributed to the micro-porosity in the segregated structure. Similar tendencies were also observed for the results of hardness tests.
In future, it is strongly recommended that tensile tests be performed by reinforcing the second phase quartz particulate addition to the LM6 alloy matrix by limiting it up to 15 wt%. In addition, compressive strengths testing of the processed composite samples can be done to highlight the benefits, advantages and applications of these composites. It is also worthwhile to conduct heat treatment studies of these processed composites and this will be in the scope of future research work.
The authors would like to express their deep gratitude and sincere thanks to the Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia for their help to complete this work.
An Al wire coated with a thin Cu cover (≈15-μm thickness), utilised near an automobile motor, is heated to temperatures about 373–473 K (100–200°C). Intermetallics (IMCs) can be formed at the Cu/Al interface and grow gradually during heating at such temperatures. The IMC layers are brittle and have high resistivity. Therefore, for assurance of the reliability of the product, information on the growth behaviour of the IMC layers during heating is essentially important [1]. Figure 1 shows the problem: an electronic device working time,
(a) Initial stage (t = 0): An electronic device is working, since the electric current, Ia = ICu + IAl, has optimal value; (b) final stage (t = t0): The electronic device is not working, because the electric current, Ib = I3 + I2 + I1 + IAl, has too small value, since pure Cu cover has disappeared.
so three-phase general thickness is approximately greater in two times than the initial Cu cover thickness.
Otherwise, it was proved experimentally that a thin Al pad (≈1-μm thickness) can prevent gold and copper corrosion because the intermetallics formation rate in Au-Al system is much higher than the intermetallic formation rate in Cu-Al system, so it is possible to use Cu instead of Au for wire bonding in microelectronic packaging, and Cu has higher electric conductivity, higher thermal conduction, and lower material cost than Au [3]. Corrosion and intermetallic rate formation in gold and copper wire bonding in microelectronics packaging were investigated in [3] at temperatures
where R ≈ 8.314 JK−1 is the gas constant, and K01 is the constant related to initial IMC thickness. General reaction rates of IMC formation were calculated: K123(T1) = 3.57·10−7 μm2/s, K123(T2) = 6.26·10−7 μm2/s, and K123(T3) = 7.15·10−7 μm2/s. The pre-exponential factor and IMC formation activation energy was calculated: K0 ≈ 3.52·10−4 μm2/s, Q ≈ 25.5 kJ/mol. We can use these results to calculate the electronic device working time by Eq. (14) in [4] at different temperatures:
Other researchers have obtained [5]: K123(T4 = 300°C) = 4.2·10−4 μm2/s, K123(T5 = 350°C) = 3.4·10−3 μm2/s. Eq. (3) gives
We can calculate: Q ≈ 124 kJ/mol; K0 ≈ 8.5·10−5 m2/s = 8.5·107 μm2/s;
It was reported in [1] that the growth of layer 1 is controlled predominantly by boundary diffusion, but that of layers 2 and 3 are governed mainly by volume diffusion at temperatures T = 483–543 K (210–270°C) for various periods up to 3.456Ms (960 h). The authors obtained: K01 ≈ 5.3·10−7 m2/s, Q1 ≈ 86 kJ/mol, K023 ≈ 4.2·10−5 m2/s, Q23 ≈ 146 kJ/mol. We can calculate: K123(T6 = 210°C) = 1.5·10−6 μm2/s,
The less temperature is, the higher contribution of grain-boundary diffusion and dislocation pipe diffusion to the layers growth is, so models of grain-boundary diffusion and dislocation pipe diffusion involving outflow into volume should be taken into account [6, 7, 8].
Diffusion activation energy of Al is less than diffusion activation energy of Cu (Q
in
in
in
We can calculate the mutual diffusion coefficient for each phase at temperature 160°C by the Darken equation [8, 10] and taking into account Eqs. (4)–(6):
We can calculate using the methods described in [4, 11]: K123(T7 = 160°C) ≈ 2.8·10−6 μm2/s,
It was founded experimentally, that copper electrochemical corrosion is higher than aluminium electrochemical corrosion in approximately two times at room temperature [4, 11], so a thin Al layer can prevent copper electrochemical corrosion. It was reported also about the influence of hydrogen and the absence of a passive layer on the corrosive properties of aluminium alloys [12].
Besides, the soldered copper/tin-based contacts are the weakest part of the chip that can be related to intermetallics and the Kirkendall-Frenkel porosity formation in the contact zone [13]. One of the most common reasons for chip failure is the soldered. The typical range of packaging and operation of the integrated circuits is from room temperature to 250°C [14].
Hydrostatic pressure of Argon gas (≈10 MPa) can decrease Kirkendal-Frenkel porosity formation, but practically cannot decrease mutual diffusion coefficients, but hot isostatic pressing (p ≈ 100 MPa, Argon) removes porosity due to homogenisation heat treatment in alloy CMSX4 and superalloy CMSX10 [15].
It was clarified also that carbon steel-stainless steel with the environment of flowing sodium chloride does indeed produce synergetic corrosion instead of antagonistic corrosion [16].
Electric current can destruct wire bonding in microelectronics packaging, so we planned to investigate copper, iron, and aluminium electrochemical corrosion at room temperature and temperature 100°C. Direct current can dissolve metal anode into electrolyte, and we planned to do experiments under the same conditions: initial radii of Cu, Fe, and Al anodes should be approximately equal, electrolyte concentration should be the same, anodes lengths immersed into electrolyte should be equal, graphite cathodes should be the same, direct electric current value should be practically the same. Aluminium can dissolve into electrolyte only as of the Al3+ ions, so the charge of aluminium ions should be exactly equal to 3, but copper can dissolve into electrolyte as the Cu+ ions and the Cu2+ ions, and the charge of copper ions could be equal to 1 or 2, and iron can dissolve into electrolyte as the Fe2+ ions and the Fe3+ ions, and the charge of iron ions could be equal to 2 or 3. We need to find appropriate mathematical equations to calculate the charges of copper, iron, and aluminium ions dissolved into NaCl solution.
Cylindrical anodes (99.99% Cu, 99.96% Fe, and 99.99% Al) were used for copper and aluminium [4, 11], and also iron electrochemical corrosion investigation. Sodium chloride (NaCl) solution was used as an electrolyte (Figure 2).
Scheme of experimental equipment at room temperature. Cu, Fe, and Al anodes dissolve into NaCl solution as Cu+, Fe2+, and Al3+ ions.
Direct electric current and anode mass decreasing were measured. First of all, we need to be assured that the Cu+ ions (or the Cu2+), the Fe2+ (or the Fe3+), and the Al3+ were present in NaCl solution. The rate of anode dissolving into electrolyte can be calculated using Faraday’s law of electrolysis:
Here,
where
where
Cu, Fe, and Al anodes radii decreasing kinetics at room temperature.
Chemical reactions took place near the positive electrode (anode):
Chlorine gas was formed near the anode.
Chemical reactions took place near the negative electrode (cathode):
Hydrogen gas was formed near the cathode.
Anodes radii decreasing rate constants can be calculated as the average value of four experiments to increase calculation precise:
so copper electrochemical corrosion is much higher than aluminium and iron electrochemical corrosion, despite
Experiments were carried also at temperature 100°C. Cylindrical anodes (99.99% Cu, 99.99% Al, and 99.96% Fe) were used for copper and aluminium [17] and also iron electric corrosion investigation. Sodium chloride (NaCl) solution was used as an electrolyte (Figure 4). Direct electric current and anodes’ mass decreasing rate were measured (Figure 5).
Scheme of experimental equipment at T = 100°C. Cu, Fe, and Al anodes dissolved into NaCl solution as Cu+, cu2+, Fe2+, and Al3+ ions.
Cu, Fe, and Al anodes radii decreasing kinetics at
Electric current value did not change, so one can calculate the following:
where
Chemical reactions are more complicated at 100°C than at room temperature near positive electrodes (anodes):
Chlorine gas and boiling water were formed near anodes.
Chemical reactions took place near negative electrodes (cathodes):
Hydrogen gas and boiling water were formed near cathodes.
Anode radii-decreasing rate constants can be calculated as average value of four experiments to increase calculation precise:
so copper electrochemical corrosion is higher at room temperature
Dislocation pipe and volume diffusion activation energies can be calculated in such a way. The Arrhenius law is valid for dislocation pipe diffusion and volume diffusion in ultra-high-purity samples [8, 18]:
Here,
Our experimental results allow us to calculate:
so diffusion activation energy of Al,
We can analyse described the experimental results in the Al-Cu system for bulk samples [19] since the ratio
where
Five phases are formed in the Al-Cu system at temperatures from 400 to 535°C in bulk samples [19]: θ-phase (phase 1) CuAl2 (
We can use these four points to calculate by the least square method to increase calculation precise:
so
Diffusion activation energy of Al is less than the diffusion activation energy of Cu (
so the Al atoms diffuse faster than the Cu atoms in θ-phase at temperatures from 160 to 250°C;
so the Cu atoms diffuse faster than the Al atoms in
so the Cu atoms diffuse faster than the Al atoms in
The Cu-rich phases can be formed faster than the Al-rich phases at temperatures from 160 to 250°C, and the Cu atoms can diffuse faster than the Al atoms in the Al-Cu system at temperatures from 160 to 250°C. The Al-rich phases can be formed faster than the Cu-rich phases at temperatures from 400 to 535°C, and the Al atoms can diffuse faster than the Cu atoms in the Al-Cu system at temperatures from 400 to 535°C. It depends on the crystal structure of each phase, but, in general, it could depends on conclusions that the Cu2+ ions are less mobile than the Cu+ ions, and the ratio
Mutual diffusion coefficients were calculated for all five phases [19]:
We can see that
Moisy et al. [5] did not calculate diffusion activation energies and the pre-exponential factors, so we can do it:
Eq. (42) correspond to Eq. (34). We can use several,
Eqs. (43) and (44) give Eq. (41) for only two points (
A method of dislocation pipe diffusion parameter determination during the type B diffusion kinetics was suggested by the model of dislocation pipe diffusion involving outflow [6, 20]. The method involves diffusion dislocation pipe kinetics for two different annealing times at the same temperature during the type B kinetics and dislocation pipe kinetics for one annealing time at other lower temperature during the type C kinetics. Transition time for type B kinetics to type A kinetics (volume diffusion) and kinetics law
Bulk diffusion coefficients,
The Al atoms diffuse faster than the Cu atoms at a temperature higher than 475°C, but the Cu atoms diffuse faster than the Al atoms at a temperature lower than 100°C. The diffusion activation energy of Al is less than the diffusion activation energy of Cu at a temperature higher than 475°C, but diffusion activation energy of Cu is less than the diffusion activation energy of Al at a temperature lower than 100°C. Our investigations show that it is possible because the Cu2+ ions are less mobile than Cu+ ions.
Volume diffusion activation energy of Fe is higher than volume diffusion activation energy of Cu or Al, but dislocation pipe diffusion activation energy of Fe is smaller than volume diffusion activation energy of Cu or Al, so the Fe atoms diffuse faster along the dislocation line, but the Cu or Al atoms diffuse faster in volume.
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He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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Ribeiro-Barros",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171036/images/system/171036.jpg",institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"University of Lisbon",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",value:91,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:250,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. 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This will ensure that we discover ways to live in our world that allows us and other beings to flourish. We can no longer rely on medicalized approaches to health that wait for people to become ill before attempting to treat them. We need to live in harmony with nature and rediscover the beauty and balance in our everyday lives and surroundings, which contribute to our well-being and that of all other creatures on the planet. This topic will provide insights and knowledge into how to achieve this change in health care that is based on ecologically sustainable practices.
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