Surface area, pore size and volume of calcined seashells and eggshells biomaterials.
\r\n\tHowever, both positive and negative consequences of COVID-19 are emerging from this pandemic. The negative impacts are the increase in hazard use, medical waste, disposal of disinfectants, masks, and gloves, as well as the burden of untreated wastes which are continuously endangering the environment. The positive impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the environment are the reduction of water pollution, reduction of air pollution, reduction of noise pollution, ecological restoration, and assimilation of tourist spots. Other positive impacts on the environment include also a governance-system-controlled investment toward a sustainable energy transition and other goals related to environmental protection.
\r\n\r\n\tDue to movement restrictions and a significant slowdown of social and economic activities, air quality has improved in many cities with a reduction in water pollution in different parts of the world.
\r\n\r\n\tWater demand was impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic in many ways, such as frequent handwashing with soap and water for 20 seconds, disinfecting surfaces, and cleaning food containers which have forced industries, businesses, and large corporations to shut down. Although the damage caused to humans, the economy, and society was extensive, the environment began to heal from the reduced exploitation of resources. The relationship between human activity and environmental health had been observed in various public health crises in the past.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to gather recent research by outstanding experts in the field of environmental health and protection. It hopes to gather a wide readership from universities and industry alike. Also, we hope that the readers will obtain updated information on environmental health and protection.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-621-4",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-620-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-622-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a58c7b02d07903004be70f744f2e1835",bookSignature:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed and Prof. Wafaa M. Abd El-Rahim",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11450.jpg",keywords:"COVID-19 Pandemic, Human Health, Untreated Wastes, Food Contamination, Pollution, Wastewater, Gas Emissions, Carbon Dioxide, Hazard Use, Medical Waste, Disposal of Disinfectants, Tourist Spots Impact",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 12th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 10th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 9th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 27th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 26th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Rashed has been considered among the Top 2% of Scientists Around the World in 2020 and 2021. Prof. Rashed acts as editor-in-chief and an editorial board member in several international journals related to chemistry and the environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He was awarded the Egyptian Star Award for Environmental Researches in 2001, and Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Abd El-Rahim has published 65 publications and has won funding for 9 projects dealing with the bioremediation field. She was issued patent number 25076 by the Egyptian Patent office at the Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology. She is also working in the bioremediation field, especially in textile dye bioremediation. This field is very important for the preservation of the environment from pollution.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"173470",title:"Prof.",name:"Wafaa",middleName:null,surname:"M. Abd El-Rahim",slug:"wafaa-m.-abd-el-rahim",fullName:"Wafaa M. Abd El-Rahim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9Y6QAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-17T11:21:16.jpg",biography:"Dr. Wafaa Mohamed Abd El Rahim Hassan\r\nHead of Agricultural Microbiology Dept. (2013-2019), and Professor of Environmental Microbiology.\r\n\r\nShe is working at the National Research Center (NRC), where multidisciplinary research and development take place. \r\nShe is a Professor of Environmental Microbiology at the Agricultural Microbiology Dept. Dr. Wafaa was awarded 9 prizes: Prize of the Best Applicable Research of the 2004-Year at The National Research Centre(NRC), Prize of the scientific encouragement of the 2006-Year at The National Research Centre(NRC), Prize of State of Egypt Advancement Award for Agricultural Sciences, 2006, Appreciation Certificate for excellence in the highest research output for the year 2009, at the National Research Centre (NRC), Award class GOLD from Korea Cyber International Genius Inventor Fair (CIGIF) 2012, a Gold prize from Korea International Women’s Invention Exposition 2013 and FIRI Diploma for the best women invention 2013. NRC Award for scientific excellence in advanced agricultural technological sciences 2015. An award for excellence in Agriculture and Food projects presented at the 4, 5th Cairo International Innovation Exhibition 2017, 2018.\r\n • Dr. Wafaa is the Chairman of the Agricultural Microbiology Department at the National Research Center, Egypt.\r\n • Dr. Wafaa published 65 publications. She also won funding for 9 projects dealing with the bioremediation field.\r\n • She was issued a patent of number 25076, date: 22-7-2008, 1242/2008. Egyptian Patent office at Egyptian Academy of Scientific Research and Technology.\r\n • She also is working in the bioremediation field, especially in textile dyes bioremediation. This field is very important for the preservation of the environment from pollution.",institutionString:"National Research Centre",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Research Centre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"429339",firstName:"Jelena",lastName:"Vrdoljak",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429339/images/20012_n.jpg",email:"jelena.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51136",title:"Conducting Polymer Aerogels",doi:"10.5772/63397",slug:"conducting-polymer-aerogels",body:'\n“Aerogel” does not refer to a specific material with a set chemical formula but encompasses all materials with a specific geometrical structure, which is extremely porous with high connectivity between nanometers-sized branched structures. The aerogel contains little solid and up to 99.8% volume of air; hence, it is often referred to as “frozen smoke.”
\nAerogels, with merits of ultra-low densities, large specific areas, hierarchical open pores, elaborate 3D networks, etc., are a novel class of highly porous nanomaterials. These unique characteristics endow aerogels with interesting physical properties (low thermal conductivity, low sound velocity, etc.) and with potential applications (Cerenkov detectors, electronic devices, catalysis, etc.). The majority of aerogel is composed of silica, but carbon, metal, iron oxide, organic polymers, and semiconductor nanostructures can also form aerogels.
\nIntrinsically conducting polymers, also known as “synthetic metals,” are polymers with a highly conjugated polymeric chain. They have been studied extensively due to their intriguing electronic and redox properties, along with the resulting numerous potential applications in many fields since their discovery in 1970s. Typical conducting polymers include polyacetylene (PA), polyaniline (PANi), polypyrrole (PPy), polythiophene (PTh), poly(para-phenylene) (PPP), poly(phenylenevinylene) (PPV), polyfuran (PF), etc. The chemical structures of these polymers are illustrated in Figure 1.
\nThe chemical structures of typical conducting polymers.
These intrinsically conducting polymers exhibit adjustable electric conductivities, even across several orders of magnitude sometimes, depending on the level of doping or chemical/electrochemical treating. The reversibility of doping-dedoping endows these conducting polymer potential applications in actuators, sensors, etc., while the highly doped conducting polymers can be applied in nanoelectronic devices, corrosion protection coatings, microwave absorbing, etc., because of the high conductivity.
\nAerogels can be divided into two categories according to their electrical properties: electric insulating aerogels and conducting ones. Conducting aerogels not only show ordinary properties as electric insulating aerogels but also exhibit excellent magnetic and electric-conducting performances. Therefore, conducting aerogels possess huge application potentials in energy storage, catalysis, sensing, electromagnetic shielding, and other fields. Heretofore, conductive aerogels are mainly obtained from (a) metal aerogel produced by sol-gel procedure, (b) carbonized product of organic aerogel, and (c) nanomaterial self-assembled by CNTs or G/GO sheets.
\nA new kind of conducting aerogels is produced by conducting polymers, named conducting polymer aerogels (CPAs). Theoretically, the inherent rigidity of most conducting polymers assist significantly in generating and maintaining permanent microporosity (pore diameter of <2 nm). Through the nanostructural design, CPAs combine the individual superiorities of conducting polymers and aerogels, providing high surface area for more efficient separation and energy storage, more acting sites for fast functionalization with various guest objects, etc.
\nHowever, there are still lots of challenges remaining. At first, as a result of the fast oxidation and the poor solvent solubility of intrinsically conducting polymers, there are great difficulties in preparing CPAs in large scale by far. Secondly, because of the inherent rigidity of the conjugated macromolecular chains resulted from the delocalized π-electron system along the conducting polymer backbone, it needs to design particular structures and explores new preparing methods to make CPAs either strong or elastic. Fortunately, improvements in the fragility and brittleness of CPAs announced recently by Zhang’s research group means that a whole new world of applications may be opened up in the future, from solid 3D conducting network to flexible electronics. To date, conducting aerogels can be made from poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), polyaniline (PANi), polypyrrole (PPy) conducting polymers. The progress in CPAs will be summarized in this chapter to inspirit many new explorations surrounding conducting aerogels in the further.
\nIn general terms, aerogel is produced by the synthesis of gel precursors and drying process. At first, the gel is created in a solution as a precursor via sol-gel transition, and then, the liquid component is removed through drying process, which removes liquid skillfully in order to maintain the nanostructures.
\nPEDOT, PPy, and PANi can be easily synthesized by chemical oxidation coupling with the presence of a series of oxidants, such as (NH4)2S2O8 (APS), FeCl3, Fe(NO3)3, and so on. However, because of the fast reaction rate of oxidation and the poor insolubility of the outcomes, the products often precipitated as granules. So as to obtain the intact hydrogels as the precursors for aerogels, the oxidation rate should be controlled at first to let the reaction stop at the proper extent that the building blocks is neither too large to aggregated and separated as precipitates, nor too small to hardly support the framework or badly affect the electrical conductivity. The reaction rates are dependent on the concentration of monomers and oxidant or the reacting temperature. Thus, monomer suspension and oxidant solution with lower concentrations can be adopted, as well as lower reaction temperature provided by ice bath.
\nAs for nonporous conducting polymers, the PEDOT:PSS (PSS is the abbreviation for poly(styrenesulfonate)) complex possess the merits of high dispersibility in water, excellent film-forming performance through conventional solution processing, and unique physical properties for the resulting films (high transparency in the visible range, high mechanical flexibility, and excellent thermal stability). So it becomes the most commonly used conducting polymer in commercial applications. Since PEDOT:PSS complex is highly soluble, it is most likely to realize the preparation of conducting aerogels.
\nAs expected, it was reported by Zhang’s group [1] that PEDOT-PSS supermolecular hydrogel could be obtained for first time by polymerizing 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) with excess ferric nitrate as oxidizing agent in the presence of PSS. The PSS plays two general roles: (1) acting as the source for the charge-balancing counter-ion, and (2) keeping the EDOT segments dispersed in the sol. Compared with the nonporous PEDOT-PSS synthesis, the oxidant amount and reaction temperature have been controlled effectively during PEDOT-PSS hydrogel preparation.
\nThe supermolecular cross-linking mechanism of the hydrogel precursors has also been discussed. If APS was used as oxidizing agent, there was no hydrogel formed. Additionally, it was revealed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) that excess iron existed in PEDOT-PSS aerogel samples. Taken the two aspects into account, it could be deduced that the small amount of iron ions cross-link PSS to form three-dimensional networks driven by the electrostatic interaction between the metal ions and the anions attached to PSS.
\nAlthough PEDOT:PSS hydrogel have been prepared, the presence of insulating PSS inevitably inhibits the electrical properties of hydrogel. The synthesis of conducting polymer hydrogels (CPHs) as precursors for CPAs is still a great challenge due to the poor solubility of conducting polymers in aqueous solution, originating from the lack of hydrophilic groups and stiff chains. Hence, Zhang’s group synthesize sodium 4-(2,3-dihydrothieno[3,4-b][1,4]dioxin-2-yl)-methoxybutane-1-sulfonate (EDOT-S), which is one of the thiophene derivatives used as an amphiphilic monomer (Figure 2a) [2].
\nThus, they prepared CPHs in one step through a combination of oxidative coupling polymerization and non-covalent cross linking of the amphiphilic thiophene derivative (Figure 2b) [2]. APS is a well-known non-crosslinking oxidant that can polymerize aniline, pyrrole, EDOT, etc., via oxidative coupling, but the corresponding conducting polymers are in the form of a precipitate due to the stiffness of their backbones and strong π-π interactions among large conjugated units in their backbones. Unsurprisingly, PEDOT-PSS gels cannot be obtained oxidized only by APS. However, the conducting polymer hydrogel was obtained for the first time starting from the amphiphilic EDOT-S using only APS as the oxidant. This indicates that the introduction of the hydrophilic ionic group to the hydrophobic monomer plays a key role in the synthesis of CPHs, which provides electrostatic interactions of the ionized polymer chains as extra cross-linking cites. By contrast, when FeCl3 was used as the oxidant, the PEDOT-S hydrogels can be obtained under conditions of either a lower monomer concentration or a higher reaction temperature. This is probably due to the multivalent metal ions (excessive Fe3+) offering an additional cross-linking force to the sulfonate groups attached to PEDOT-S backbones. Moreover, when the mixture of APS and FeCl3 was used as the oxidant, a strikingly synergistic effect was achieved during synthesis.
\n(a) Polymerization of EDOT-S into conducting polymer, and (b) schematic model for the formation of conducting polymer hydrogels through either ionic cross-linking or π-π stacking. The oxidant used herein could be APS, MCl3, or the mixture of them, where M represents Fe, La, Ce, Cr, or Sb [
Besides of the merits in gel forming, PEDOT-S can undergo significant 0D-2D transition during the polymerization and gelation process (Figure 3) [2]. The amphiphilic EDOT-S can self-assemble into sphere micelles in aqueous solution. However, when APS, FeCl3, or APS-FeCl3 was used as oxidant, PEDOT-S hydrogel was formed with the quasi-2D sheets, possessing an area-to-thickness ratio of much larger than 1000, serving as the building blocks.
\n(a) A schematic diagram for synthesis of conducting polymer hydrogels. (b–e) SEM images of the resulting PEDOT-S products (see inset) synthesized with different oxidants: (b, c) using APS as the oxidant; (d) using FeCl3 as the oxidant; (e) using a mixture of APS and FeCl3 as the oxidant [
Considering the fact that the π-π interactions are negligible unless the number of aromatic rings is three or more, the authors attributed the 0D-2D morphological transition to the gradually increased π-π stacking effect. There is only one aromatic ring in each EDOT-S molecule, so the π-π stacking can be neglected. Combined with the difficult-happened overlapping of ring planes of the monomers due to the steric hindrance, EDOT-S easily forms spherical micelles. However, with the process of polymerization, overlapping of the ring planes of the macromolecules easily occurs because of the increasing π-π stacking among growing PEDOT-S macromolecules. Thus, initial EDOT-S spherical micelles gradually gather to form lamellar structure and ultimately convert into the PEDOT-S sheets.
\nDimension evolution of the building blocks of the PEDOT-S hydrogel from 0D nanoparticles to 2D nanosheets did not only occur during polymerization and gelation process but was also observed by adjusting the reaction temperature or initial monomer concentration. It can be also explained by the enhanced π-π interaction of the conjugated length of polymer, which could surpass the hydrophobic interaction in original spherical micelles [3].
\nExcept for the 0D-2D morphological transition of building blocks, the PEDOT-s hydrogel also exhibits chemical potential-dependent gel-sol transitions [2]. Chemicals with standard electrode potentials higher than 0.8 V [APS, H2O2, K2Cr2O7, HNO3, Ce(SO4)2, etc.] triggered disbanding of the resulting conducting polymer hydrogels (called over-oxidation mechanism which has been confirmed via UV spectroscopy), promoting the occurrence of gel-sol transitions. It was evidenced that the gel-sol transition was driven by the decrease of conjunction length in the delocalized
Since EDOT-S can act as a reactive surfactant, it can be used to disperse EDOT to prepare PEDOT-S/PEDOT hydrogels through emulsion polymerization (Figure 4) [4]. The obtained hydrogels could also be an ideal precursor candidate for all-conducting polymer aerogels, which is the first all conducting polymer aerogel reported yet, with large BET surface areas, hierarchical pores, and abundant functional groups. It has been found that molar ratios of EDOT-S to EDOT have played a significant role in the stability of the EDOT-S stabilized EDOT emulsion—the higher molar ratio has led to the more stable colloid.
\nEmulsion-template synthesis strategy of all conducting polymer aerogels: digital photos of (a) EDOT emulsion stabilized by EDOT-S, (b) PEDOT-S/PEDOT hydrogel, (c) PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogel and the corresponding schematic diagrams (d–f) [
Hydrogel could not only be fabricated by PEDOT and their thiophene derivative, could also be prepared by PPy, and, what is more important, PPy hydrogel can exhibit high elasticity through two-step synthesis strategy.
\nOn account of inherent rigidity of the conjugated macromolecular chains originated from the delocalized π-electron system along the polymer backbone, it has been a huge challenge to make conducting polymer hydrogels elastic. Hence, Zhang’s group turned to the two-step synthesis method, which successively contains a fast and a slow reaction procedure, to prepare elastic PPy hydrogels (Figure 5) [5]. The fast reaction procedure contributes to the formation of incipient network with low joint density to show certain flexibility. The next slow reaction process strengthens the incipient framework by forming conformal polymer coatings. The two-step synthesis method can be actualized by adopting deficient oxidant Fe(NO3)3 (Fe3+ and NO3− dominate the fast and slow oxidation procedures, respectively) as oxidant and aging for 30 days.
\n(A) The synthetic process of elastic polypyrrole hydrogel. Enlarged sketch maps indicated by squares in (A) have shown aggregated structural change of the polypyrrole hydrogel building blocks during polymerization. (B) The polymerization mechanism of the polypyrrole hydrogel [
To the best of our knowledge, it is the first report on the synthesis and properties of the elastic conducting polymer hydrogels. The work might also offer much inspiration to make more elastic conducting polymer hydrogels directly derived from PANi, PTh, etc., to prepare more elastic conducting aerogels.
\nPANi hydrogels have been synthesized by embedding PANi into continuous matrix or using various non-conducting cross-linkers to cross-link PANi to form gels. However, both of the two strategies inevitably introduce non-conducting components, which impairs the performances of the resulting PANi hydrogels. Is it possible to make PANi hydrogels with continuous conjugated framework but without using any additional cross-linkers?
\nHerein self-cross-linked PANi hydrogels was synthesized for the first time via oxidative coupling reaction with APS as the oxidant and aniline hydrochloric salt as the precursor without any additional crosslinkers [6]. Aniline hydrochloric salt was chosen as the raw material on account of its water solubility and that the dissociated HCl could also dope PAni to ensure high conductivity. Aniline hydrochloric salt was oxidized by equimolar amount of APS. With the polymerization proceeded, the PAni hydrogel formed. Subsequently, the hydrogel aged at ambient temperature to obtain an ideal precursor for PANi aerogels.
\nConducting hydrogels could be fabricated by typical conducting polymers (PEDOT, PPy, PANi) via well-designed synthesis strategies as maintained above. On this basis, conducting hydrogels can also composite with other functional materials to obtain more integrate performances for final aerogel products.
\nAt first, by embedding carbon nanotubes into PEDOT-PSS supermolecular hydrogels in the presence of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as stabilizer for carbon nanotubes, Zhang’s group [7] have prepared PEDOT-PSS/MWCNTs and PEDOT-PSS/c-MWCNTs composite gels with low densities of 0.04–0.07 g cm−3.
\nSchematic representation of incipient network conformal growth (INCG) technology [
On the basis of elastic PPy hydrogels, an incipient network conformal growth (INCG) technology was proposed to prepare hybrid and elastic porous materials (Figure 6) [8]. 0D, 1D, or 2D nanoparticles (NPs) are dispersed in solvent to form a uniform suspension at first. Once the concentration of suspension is within a proper range, the incipient network will form through NPs contacting with each other. The monomer of conducting polymer is then introduced and supposed to coating the incipient network conformally through polymerization. The conformal coatings not only endow NPs suspension with high dispersion but also offer composite conducting polymer with additional structural elasticity, meeting requirements for future generations of portable, compressive, and flexible devices.
\nTo put INCG technology into practice, the fabrication process for PPy-Ag NW hybrid gels is demonstrated in Figure 6 [8]. Ag nanowires (Ag NWs) were selected to contribute the incipient 3D networks considering easy synthesis and uniform diameters. Evaluated by Doi and Edwards theory, Ag NWs suspension with the volume friction between
Besides, a “wet” process to incorporate chiral polyaniline nanowires into the agarose was put forward, and hence, the chiroptical properties could be attached to PANi hydrogels [9]. The chiral polyaniline nanofibers were obtained by successively using potassium tetrachloroaurate (PTC) and APS to oxidize aniline in the presence of (1S)-(+)-10-camphorsulfonic acid [(S)-(+)-CSA] or (R)-(−)-CSA as a chiral-inducing agent. The optical activity of the chiral polyaniline is dependent on the mass ratio of PTC to APS, reaching peak values in the ratio range of 1.0–2.5. The chiroptical properties of the polyaniline nanofibers are retained within the composite hydrogel, although the degree of chiral organization of the polyaniline appears to be somewhat modified by the presence of the agarose matrix.
\nPhase diagram of pure materials and arrow illustrations of different drying process (supercritical drying—red arrow, ordinary drying—green arrow, and freeze-drying—blue arrow).
After the conducting polymer hydrogels were produced, the hydrogels should be processed into aerogels by replacing the liquid solvent with air. When a substance is dried via normal methods of applying heat and pressure at a finite rate, the substance passes through the liquid-gas barrier (green arrow in Figure 7), where the amount of capillary stress changes, causing the substance to deflate. To avoid this problem, there are supercritical drying (SCD), which dries a substance via high heat and pressure and goes beyond the critical point (red arrow in Figure 7), and freeze-drying, which goes through solid-gas barrier (blue arrow in Figure 7) to avoid the direct liquid-gas transition.
\nSupercritical drying (SCD) is performed to replace the liquid in a material with a gas to isolate the solid component without destroying the material’s delicate nanostructured porous network. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most used as supercritical fluid, because it is supercritically extracted at a lower temperature (31.1°C) than an organic solvent without the risk of combustion. Through low-temperature SCD, most of the obtained conducting polymer hydrogels mentioned above, such as PEDOT-PSS, PEDOT-s/PEDOT, PEDOT-PSS/MWCNTs, PPy, PPy/Ag NW, PANi hydrogels, can be converted into corresponding aerogels successfully. Low-temperature supercritical drying for aerogel production conducts as follows:
\nA gel is prepared using sol-gel chemistry. The gel contains a mixture of organic solvent and water in its pores.
\nThe gel is soaked in a pure organic solvent (ethanol, methanol, acetone, amyl acetate, etc.) and changes the solvent for several times over several days to remove the original solvent from its pores.
Finally, the gel is supercritically dried in a pressure vessel. The gel is placed in a pressure vessel, and the pressure vessel is then filled with liquid CO2. Adjusting temperature and pressure to make the gel soaked in supercritical CO2 and flushing through new CO2 every 1–2 h. After the solvent in the pores of the gel has been completely replaced by supercritical CO2, the vessel is then isothermally depressurized to give aerogels.
It is notable that when the solvent of the gel is exchanged for supercritical CO2, the gel may also shrink slightly. This stems from favorable interactions between the two liquids, to put it simply, molecules take up smaller space in a mixture than molecules in either of the separate liquids. Solvents with low volume changes of mixing with supercritical CO2 include acetone, amyl acetate, ethanol, and methanol. In general, aerogels made using supercritical drying from CO2 may shrink up to 5%. Even so, low temperature SCD is still the best drying method to maintain deliberate nanostructures of aerogels so far.
\nAlthough SCD is a mostly used drying method to maintain deliberate nanostructures of aerogels, it is not always successful for gel precursors, because (1) some conducting polymer gels dissolve in alcohol or acetone, like aforementioned PEDOT-s hydrogels [2, 3], (2) gels are prepared in solvent which cannot exchange with alcohol or acetone or supercritical CO2 and (3) some metal-containing gels will react with the carbon dioxide to create metal carbonates. In these circumstances, the freeze-drying is a common alternative for gel precursors to proceed into aerogels (also called cryogels sometimes).
\nIn freeze-drying, the gel precursors were usually quickly frozen in liquid N2 at first. Then, reduce the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen solvent in the gel pores to sublimate directly from the solid phase to the gas phase, leaving aerogels.
\nTo avoid the structural damages caused by ice crystals of solvent produced and grown during the freezing process, the frozen process should finish within the shortest time, usually quenching the gel precursors in liquid N2 with a very quick speed. Well, it is indeed a crazy idea to carry out in a diametrically opposite way, called ice-segregation-induced self-assembly (ISISA) [10]. The pore morphology of resulting cryogels can be well controlled via ISISA process by unidirectional freezing at a definite immersion rate (Figure 8). During unidirectional freezing, crystalline ices are produced, causing the original dispersed solute to be expelled to the boundaries between adjacent ice crystals gradually. After experiencing freeze-drying, the ordered-arranged solutes become “walls,” enclosing the empty spaces that formerly occupied by ice crystals. Aligned or unaligned conducting polymer cryogels with 3D macroporous architectures have been prepared using the ice-segregation-induced self-assembly (ISISA) of different PEDOT-PSS freezing precursors as a dispersion or a formed hydrogel.
\n(a) An example of the PEDOT-PSS freezing precursor held in a plastic centrifugal tube. (b) A schematic diagram for unidirectional freezing of the PEDOT-PSS precursor by dipping vertically into liquid nitrogen at a rate of 3–50 mm min−1. (c) Digital photos of the PEDOT-PSS cryogels starting from dispersion (left) and hydrogel (right) [
It is believed that ISISA is a facile method for producing hierarchically macroporous 3D monoliths of conducting polymers with many advantages as follows. (1) It is a green and inexpensive method for ice template was merely needed without any other organic solvents. (2) It is facile, reproducible, and readily controllable by adjusting immersion rate, solute concentration, etc. (3) It endows conducting polymers with unusual long-range ordered macropores, which may introduce many unexpected properties and thus may exploit some new applications in the fields of electronic components (including batteries and transistors, solar cells), tissue engineering, and next-generation catalytic and separation supports.
\nThe PEDOT-PSS aerogels dried through SCD show low density (0.138–0.232 g cm−3), large surface area (170–370 m2 g−1), and hierarchical porous structures [1]. The resulting PEDOT-PSS aerogel (with molar ratio of 1:1 for PEDOT: PSS) has a conductivity of 10−1 S cm−1, being comparable with the value of PEDOT-PSS thin film.
\nProcessing PEDOT-PSS via ISISA endows the conducting polymers with novel properties. Well-ordered alignment of the macroporous structure could be observed along the longitudinal direction (i.e., the ice growth direction) for the resulting aerogels from SEM, which resulted from phase separation that occurs during the directional freezing process (Figure 9) [10]. Closer observations in different areas showed that there were several domains with random orientations over the whole macroporous monolith and that the boundaries of these domains could be easily recognized. More interestingly, unexpected fingerprint-like morphology can be observed from the cross section of the cone-shaped bottom of the cryogel (Figure 9d). This may be attributed to the super-cooling of the dispersion in the immersed portion, thus instead of crystalline ice, the amorphous ice grow and act as a template. These observations may indicate an efficient way to produce the man-made fingerprint for identifications and markings.
\nSEM images of PEDOT-PSS cryogel prepared via ISISA showing a well-ordered macropore structures from (a) the whole domain, (b) face Zr1, (c) face r1r2, and (d) cross section of the cone-shaped bottom of the cryogel. (Arrow Z and r denotes the longitudinal and radial directions, Z⊥r1⊥r2.) [
Besides, all conducting polymer PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogels obtained by emulsion polymerization and dried through SCD have high conductivity with the level of 101 S m−1 [4]. In comparison with any other conventional aerogels, the resulting PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogels, without the necessity of further functionalization, show superb adsorption ability to various guest substances, such as dyestuffs and heavy metal ions, and enhanced electrochemical.
\nFurthermore, the specific surface areas, thermal stability, and electrical conductivities can be significantly enhanced by embedding MWCNTs into PEDOT-PSS aerogel matrix [7]. The resulting composite aerogels show low density (0.044–0.062 g cm−3), large surface area (280–400 m2 g−1), high electrical conductivity (1.2–6.9 × 10−2 S cm−1), and hierarchical porous structures.
\nThe PPy hydrogel could be also readily converted into the lightweight, elastic, conductive, and aerogel through SCD. Thus, pure organic, electrically conductive (ca. 0.5 S m−1), lightweight (0.07 g cm−3) PPy aerogel was first obtained by Zhang’s group (Figure 10) [5]. The obtained aerogels have still kept the excellent elasticity after drying of the PPy hydrogels, which could be compressed by ≥70% and recovered to its original shape in 30 s.
\nDigital photos of the lightweight, elastic, conductive, and organic PPy aerogels made from the resulting PPy hydrogels through supercritical fluid drying process located on a dandelion and connected to the LED bulb [
The authors attributed the elasticity of the PPy aerogels to the elaborate synthesis design and the resulting micro-structural changes. (1) At first, the reaction rate is slowed down and the reaction extent is limited by adopting the deficient oxidant, bringing an incipient network with the reduced joint density. Thus, the obtained PPy aerogels exhibit less stiffness. (2) Then, the initial network can be reinforced effectively by coarsening the framework conjunctions, benefited from the secondary growth during the slow reaction process. Thus, the obtained PPy aerogels can avoid the structural fracture when suffering compressions. (3) At last, the asymmetrically epitaxial growth of the original polymer particles during the secondary growth offers many new weak contacting joints. Single-point contacting for the building blocks of traditional PPy aerogels suffering compression is replaced by multi-point contacting or even face contacting. Thus, inside stress of the compressed PPy aerogels can be easily dissipated, preventing damage caused by stress concentration. In summary, the PPy aerogels can restrict the irreversible fracture of the hydrogel network when bearing compression.
\nBesides PPy aerogels, PPy-Ag NW aerogels prepared through INCG [8] also exhibited superb compressive elasticity, which could be compressed by large deformations (>90%) and return to its original shape in seconds once withdrawing the compression (Figure 11a, b). From the comparison stress-stain (σ-ε) curves for 50 compress-release circles along the loading direction with under a fixed max strain of 20%, PPy-Ag NW aerogel recovered their deformations with little mechanical failures (Figure 11c).
\n(a) Digital pictures showing a superb elasticity of PPy-Ag NW aerogel. (b) σ–ε curves for PPy-Ag NW aerogel along the loading direction during loading–unloading cycles (ε = 10–90%). (c) 50 consecutive compression tests for PPy-Ag NW aerogel at ε = 20% [
Similarly to PPy aerogels, the superb elasticity of PPy-Ag NW aerogels also comes from the rational-designed nanostructures. The resultant PPy-Ag NW aerogels possess: (1) strong and flexible 3D network contributed by ultra-long coaxial nanowires, giving aerogels resistance and elasticity to external compressions by bending their framework skeletons; (2) rich pores, making aerogels possible to dissipate the external compressive energy by shutting off the pores; (3) in situ welded junctions and strong metal-π interactions, avoiding the interfacial slippage resulting from the poor load transfer between adjacent coaxial nanowires or Ag NW and PPy coatings.
\nSelf-cross-linked PANi hydrogels can be also converted to corresponding aerogels by SCD [6]. The obtained aerogels exhibit adjustable densities from 0.03–0.15 g cm−3, coral-like micro-morphology, high BET surface area (39.54 m2 g−1), and comparative mechanical strength. The resulting PANi aerogels showed a coral-like micro-morphology, formed by branched nanofibers with a diameter of 50–150 nm and a length up to tens of micrometers (Figure 12). This unique morphology insures higher electrochemical performance, because the charges can transport effectively in 3D porous network than the corresponding bulk materials.
\nSEM images of PANi hydrogels with a density of (a) 0.05 g cm−3, (b) 0.08 g cm−3, (c) 0.11 g cm−3, and (D) the magnified image of PANi hydrogel with 0.11 g cm−3 [
As the obtained PANi aerogels exhibit high porosity from SEM detections, it is necessary to analysis their specific surface area and pore size distribution (PSD) by Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) tests. The adsorption-desorption isotherm curve (Figure 13) of PANi aerogels presents the characteristic feature of the type-IV isotherm with a H3 hysteresis loop, indicating the existence of a large number of mesoporous (with a diameter of 2–50 nm). A further analysis shows that PANi aerogel possesses a BET specific surface area of 39.54 m2 g−1 and a unimodal pore size distribution peak around 28 nm. The high surface area and mesoporous structure are supposed to enlarge electrode-electrolyte contact surface and boost the electrolyte transfer obviously.
\n(a) Nitrogen adsorption/desorption isotherms of PANi aerogels analyzed by BET detections and (b) the corresponding pore size distribution [
Besides, PANi aerogels exhibit increasing mechanical strength with the increase of the PANi density. The comparative mechanical strength insures better integrity of the hydrogel network, which also contributes to better transfer of ions, charges, and electrons in redox reaction interface during electrochemical tests.
\nThe large surface area and wide pore size distribution, together with their electro properties, would allow these conducting polymer aerogels to be applied in many fields with unexpected performance.
\nThe conducting polymer hydrogels and aerogels show superior electro-chemical properties including a fast electrochemical response, a high specific capacitance, and a low electric resistance, resulting from the combined merits of organic semiconductors and three-dimensional porous gels.
\nAt first, the electrochemical capacitive behavior of the supercritically dried PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogel has been investigated by cyclic voltammetry (CV) between 0.2 and 0.6 V in 1.0 mol L−1 KCl solution [4]. Fixing the scan rate at 50 mV s−1, the CV curves for both PEDOT-S/PEDOT and PSS/PEDOT aerogel electrodes show a rectangular-like shape with an obvious wide peak at the potential interval of −0.2 to 0.0 V, indicating the presence of a pseudo-capacitive effect caused by the redox of the conducting polymers. The electrochemical capacitance of the electrode materials can be calculated further from the integral CV area. For the PEDOTS/PEDOT aerogel, the electrochemical capacitance is 68.5 F g−1, much more than the value of the PSS/PEDOT aerogel electrode (19.2 F g−1). Furthermore, the good rate capability (slight decay of the electrochemical capacitance along with the increase of the scan rate) and high cycling stability (negligible changes of the electrochemical capacitance after 100th charge-discharge cycle) of the resulting PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogel electrode have been further confirmed from CV detections. The excellent performance in electrochemical energy storage of the resulting PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogel electrode might be ascribed to low ionic resistance and fast kinetics of the electrochemical process in an aqueous medium.
\nIn the meanwhile, CV curves of the PEDOT-S gels were recorded in 1.0 mol L−1 Na2SO4 aqueous solution [3]. The specific capacitance of the PEDOT-S hydrogels is estimated to be ca. 30–60 F g−1, which is much higher than PEDOT:PSS gels. This can be ascribed to the higher proportion of active ingredients in PEDOT-S than PEDOT:PSS gels for PSS does not contribute electrochemical capacitance directly.
\nBesides PEDOT aerogels, PANi gels are proved to be a promising material for electrochemical energy storage [6]. For the self-cross-linking PANi hydrogel, functionalized electrodes have exhibited a new record of specific capacitance (750 F g−1). At first, CV curves of the PANi hydrogel electrode were collected in 1.0 M H2SO4 electrolyte solution (Figure 14). The representative redox peaks, which belong to the transformation between leucoemeraldine base (LB), emeraldine salt (ES), and pernigraniline base (PB), persisted from 5 to 200 mV s−1, indicating a high stability in redox electrochemical activity. Then, EIS analysis was performed to evaluate the charge transfer property of PANi hydrogel. The solution resistance of the PANi gel electrode is as low as 1.7 X. The charge-transfer resistance of electrode of the PANi hydrogel electrode is <0.1 X, which is remarkably low due to well-matched resistance between the PANi hydrogel (electronic conductivity) and liquid electrolyte phase (ionic conductivity), insuring good ion transport within 3D gel framework. At last, chronopotentiometry (CP) tests were carried out to further evaluate the electrochemical energy storage performance of PANi hydrogel electrode (Figure 14). 75.8% capacitance remained with the increasing current density from 2 A g−1 (588 F g−1) to 20 A g−1 (446 F g−1), indicating an excellent rate capability for high power performance. The specific capacitance of the PANi hydrogel electrodes is dependent on hydrogel density, reaching the peak level (750 F g−1) at the density of 0.11 g cm−3.
\nElectrochemical performance of PANi hydrogel electrodes: (a) cyclic voltammogram curves, (b) Nyquist plot, (c) galvanostatic charge/discharge curves, (d) specific capacitances of PANi hydrogel electrodes with various PANi densities, and (d-inset) chronopotentiogram curves of PANi hydrogel electrodes at current density of 2 A g−1 [
Piezoresistive sensors, transducing pressure message to resistance signal, have been rapidly developed and widely used for their advantages in high sensitivity, fast response, feasible fabrication, low cost, and easy signal collection. Conductive and elastic aerogels are an emerging kind of candidates for fabrication of piezoresistive sensors because of their combinational electric conductivities and mechanical flexibilities.
\nAs mentioned above, the PPy hydrogel can be readily converted into the lightweight, elastic, conductive, and organic aerogels via SCD [5]. The obtained aerogels have still kept the excellent elasticity after drying of the PPy hydrogels and been made into stress sensors successfully. The decreases of the electrical resistance are directly proportional to the compression strain, reaching at 3% when the aerogel was compressed by 80%. It is not difficult to understand that the external responses in electrical properties are brought by the different contacting situations of the gel network upon compressive stresses. The resistance decreases of the compressed PPy aerogels could complete within 1.5 s and so was the electrical resistance returns to the original value once being released. It is because of the elasticity of PPy aerogels that their gel skeletons can bend and recover in seconds without structural fractures. Besides of the short response time, the electrical responses of PPy aerogels also exhibit high stability under compress and release circles.
\nAlthough pure conducting polymer aerogels show great potentials in stress sensing, they have not solved the “temperature drift,” a common problem that the piezoresistive materials always meet caused by the temperature-dependent electrical resistances. Hence, self-temperature compensated sensors are highly desirable in direct and precise measurement. The most feasible solution is developing hybrid sensing materials with a low/nearly zero temperature coefficient resistivity (TCR) by offsetting the positive and negative temperature dependence of electric resistance. In this respect, the polypyrrole/silver (PPy/Ag) coaxial nanowire hybrid aerogel prepared via INCG [8] is a wise choice for Ag NWs show positive temperature-coefficient, while PPy show negative temperature-coefficient. Through the reasonable selection of the ratio of Ag NWs at 83.3%, the electric resistance of the hybrid aerogels can be immune from temperature influence, showing a nearly zero temperature coefficient (Figure 15a).
\nPerformance of PPy-Ag NW hybrid aerogels in stress sensing. (a) Curves of how the electric resistance changes with temperature relatively (ΔR/R ~ T) for Ag NWs, PPy-Ag NW membrane deposited by nanocable suspension, and PPy-Ag NW hybrid aerogel, respectively. (b) Schematic illustration of how to prepare a stress sensor with PPy-Ag NW aerogel. (c) SEM images of PPy-Ag NW aerogel with compression. (d) Multiple-cycles electric resistance tests under a series of repeated loading-unloading pressures with 1 V input. (e) Reliability test of PPy-Ag NW hybrid aerogel under a series of repeated loading-unloading pressures with partial enlarged details in insets. (f) Comparison of how electric resistance changes with compressive pressure relatively (ΔR/R ~ p) for the nearly zero temperature coefficient PPy-Ag NW aerogel performed at 25 and 15°C. (g) Electric resistance response of the nearly zero temperature coefficient PPy-Ag NW aerogel at different strains by introducing a series of persistent compressive pressure [
To process into a stress sensor, PPy-Ag NW aerogel was imbedded into two parallel copper electrodes, as shown in Figure 15b. The electric resistance decreased directly with the compression strain, changing by 83% at the strain of 80% (Figure 15d). The electric resistance response of PPy-Ag NW aerogel caused by compression could be completed within 1 ms and so was the electric resistance recovery after compression released. The detection minimum was as low as 4.93 Pa when the aerogel was compressed by 0.5%. Furthermore, the electrical response of PPy aerogel upon stress exhibited high stability, indicated by suffering hundreds of compression-release circles for each compressive strain (Figure 15e). The sensitivity S (= δ(ΔR/R0)/δσ) was as high as 0.33 kPa−1 for the nearly zero temperature coefficient sample, while S = 0.06 kPa−1 for another sample with a Ag NW content of 2.7 wt% (Figure 15f). It implies that a series of sensing samples with different sensitivities can be prepared by programmed synthesis to meet the needs of applications. There was no deviation in sensing performance at different temperatures (15, 25°C) (Figure 15f) or after 3 V electric heating for 160 s, affirming the high sensing stability of the PPy-Ag NW aerogel sensor with nearly zero temperature coefficient.
\nA stress-triggered Joule heater can be fabricated by aerogels used for stress sensing in principle. Under compression, the electric resistance can be reduced and the Joule heating generated by electric current running through aerogels can be raised. It is possible that the thermal generation may be inconspicuous for aerogels in original state upon inputting a proper voltage, while for the compressed aerogels, the Joule heating can raise its temperature considerably, named stress-triggered Joule heating.
\nThe stress-triggered Joule heater can be fabricated by PPy-Ag NW hybrid aerogel, which is placed on thermal insulating blanket and covered by a reversible thermo-allochroic membrane (Figure 16a) [8]. Inputting a persistent voltage of 3 V, the Joule heating generated by electric current running through the original aerogel was mostly dissipated and will not causing any visible differences for thermo-allochroic membrane (Figure 16b). However, if imposing a persistent compressive pressure, the electric current was boosted by nearly four times. As a consequence, Joule heating increased, warmed the aerogel, and induced the color changes of the thermo-allochroic membrane (the temperature point of color transition for thermo-allochroic membrane used in this work is about 43°C) (Figure 16c). Once the compressive pressure was released, the membrane returned its original color gradually, indicating the temperature recovery of the aerogel.
\nThe performance of stress-triggered Joule heater. (a) Schematic illustration of how to construct a stress-triggered Joule heater with PPy-Ag NW aerogel. (b) Real-time I–t curves of the stress-triggered Joule heater under both free and compressive states with 3 V voltage input, and inset is the digital pictures of the Joule heater in free state. (c) Digital pictures of the intelligent Joule heater at the corresponding time point marked in (b) [
Hierarchical pores, a large surface area, and abundant conjugated chain or functional groups have endowed the conducting polymer aerogels with adsorption ability of some guest substances, such as heavy metals, dye molecules, etc.
\nFor PEDOT aerogels, let us have a look at molecular structure of PEDOT-S at first. The conducting polymers possess linear π-conjugated system and lots of attached sulfonic acid groups. The π-conjugated system makes both of PEDOT-S and PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogels show good affinity to the most of π-conjugated based dyestuffs via π-π stacking. But the adsorptive capacities of these aerogels to cationic and anionic dyestuffs exhibit a significant difference, contributed by the electrostatic interaction of the adsorbed dyestuffs and the sulfonic acid groups attached on the PEDOT-S polymer chains. The adsorptive capacity of PEDOT-s and PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogels can reach around 164 and 170 mg g−1 for basic fuchsine, while gels can only adsorb 39 and 160 mg g−1 acid fuchsine, respectively [3, 4]. Moreover, for both of the two kinds of aerogels, the adsorbed basic fuchsin can be released by addition of a cationic surfactant cetyltrimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) and the more the CTAB added, the more the basic fuchsin released, which provides an efficient way to control the release of the adsorbed dye molecules.
\nIn addition, the PEDOT-S/PEDOT aerogel also show certain adsorptive capacity to heavy metals ions caused by electrostatic interactions [4]. But the adsorptive capacity is not uniform towards different kind of metals, 184.1 mg g−1 for Hg2+, 111.1 mg g−1 for Ag+, 79.6 mg g−1 for Pb2+, and 28.3 mg g−1 for Cu2+. Author ascribed it to the different affinity of metal ions to alkoxy sulfonate groups attached on the main chains of the conducting polymer. On all accounts, these adsorption investigations have shown a very promising application of the PEDOT aerogels in the removal of color and heavy metal ions from wastewater, etc.
\nAlthough there is no ionized functional group attached on PPy chains, the π-conjugated structures can provide enough active cites for dyestuff adsorptions. The high specific surface area (ca. 12 m2 g−1), excellent mechanical strength, and strong π-π interaction between dye molecules and sorbent matrix allow PPy aerogels to extract dye molecules from the dye solutions in a very fast and effective way (Figure 17) [5].
\nDigital photos showing fast removal of (a) methyl orange, (b) victoria blue, and (c) brilliant yellow from waste water with the elastic PPy hydrogels in syringes [
The PPy gels were placed in the tube of a syringe, and the plunger was pulled or pushed allowing take in or expel the dye solutions after permeating through the PPy hydrogels. For all three kinds of dye molecules, the colorful dye solutions changed into colorless in several seconds. PPy gel could absorb methyl orange (MO) with a capacity of 389.5 mg g−1 and an efficiency of 99.99%. Besides, the used hydrogel can be refreshed by treating with NaOH aqueous solution with a concentration of 2 mol L−1 at 80°C, and the refreshed gel could still adsorb MO with a capacity of 196.4 mg g−1 and an efficiency of 99.89%.
\nThis chapter has focused on recent research progress in the development of conducting polymer aerogels, with specific focus on PEDOT-containing, PPy, and PANi aerogels discussing from (1) synthesis strategy of conducting polymer (PEDOT, PPy, and PANi) aerogels through rational design for oxidant, cross-linker, soft template, sol-gel process, drying process; (2) advantages of these aerogels in physical and chemical performance, compared with the counterparts in bulk or membrane; and (3) applications in energy storage, adsorption to metal-ions/dye-molecules, stress sensing, Joule heating.
\nHowever, there are still lots of challenges remaining. At first, as a result of the fast oxidation and the poor solvent solubility of intrinsically conducting polymers, there are great difficulties in preparing conducting polymer aerogels in large-scale by far. Secondly, because of the common existing differences in physicochemical properties, it lacks universal methods to make widely used conducting polymer aerogels. Besides, lots of the exploited applications of conducting polymer aerogels in the present go back to the liquid surroundings, such as electrochemical energy storage, dyestuff absorption, liquid-phase catalysis, etc., making drying process futile to some extent.
\nAs such, the future development of conducting polymer aerogels will focus on (1) exploring new universally applicable synthesis strategies on the base of INCG, emulsion polymerization, two-step synthesis, ISISA described in this chapter; (2) expanding new application areas of conducting polymer aerogels, especially applications in gas environment, such as gas phase catalysis, air purification, solar cells, electrostatic shielding, heat insulation combining with thermoelectric conversion functions, etc. Enlightened by the progress of typical PEDOT, PPy, and PANi aerogels presented in this chapter, we expect to witness the widespread use of many new conducting aerogels in the near future.
\nThe authors would like to thank the financial supports from National Natural Science Foundation of China (21504104) and the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (BK20140391).
The combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas for energy generate a large amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) emission, causing global warming and climate change. Presently, legislation such as the Paris Agreement of 2015, provided a framework on dealing with greenhouse-gas-emissions (GHG) mitigation, and it is anticipated across the industrialised world to cut down the amount of CO2emissions and limit global warming to less than 2°C [1]. Additionally, the demand for energy is expected to increase by 50% in 2030, and also oil and gas are considered the principal feedstock of about 90% of chemicals produced worldwide, and it is forecasted that petrochemical industries will become the largest driver for global oil consumption by 2050 [2]. In this light, it is therefore important to mitigate the environmental impact of burning carbon-based fuels, in which potential progress has already been made in CO2 capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) technologies [3]. The CCUS is considered a means to deliver low carbon energy, decarbonising industries, and facilitates the net removal of CO2 from the atmosphere. The stages involved include CO2 capture, transport of the captured CO2, utilisation and secure storage of the captured CO2.
Carbon dioxide capture will play a significant role as fossil fuel will continue to meet world energy needs during this transition to sustainable low-carbon energy system [4]. It has also been reported that this transition phase will linger for a long time, providing sufficient time for the development and commercialisation of renewable energy systems. The transportation sector especially logistics operations majorly depend on fossil fuels, resulting in large carbon footprint on the environment. Based on World Bank data, the shift into low-carbon energy such as renewable energy in logistics operations prove to minimise carbon emission and other greenhouse gases, create sustainable environment as well as improve economic performance [5, 6]. In 2018, the global CO2 emissions increased to 37.1 Gt which is forecasted to rise by about 10% in 2040, majorly due to the combustion of fossil fuels from industrial processes and transportation sector [7]. Hence, the impact of carbon emissions from logistics operations on the environment, global warming, climate change and health can be reduced remarkably by adopting renewable energy and green vehicles [6]. Therefore, government policy and legislations such as the Paris Agreement of 2015 are necessary to drive research and development into low-carbon energy and environmental sustainability. As a result of these policies, renewable energy and carbon capture technologies are being developed, and their implementation is expected to improve environmental quality and sustainability [5, 8, 9]. Unlike fossil fuels, renewable energies promote eco-friendly environment. Hence, CCUS technologies will enable the use of fossil fuels in a cleaner way when integrated with power plants to mitigate global warming and climate change effects. CO2 has found utilisation in the following areas mineralisation, biological utilisation, food and beverages, energy storage media, chemicals, enhanced oil recovery, coal bed methane and hydraulic fracturing processes [7]. However, public awareness and acceptance of CCUS is still low in spite of the attention shown by the scientific communities, industries and governments. Findings by Tcvetkov et al. [10] show that most studies on CCUS are dedicated to carbon dioxide storage in geological formation with less attention on capture and transportation. Hence, this study focuses on carbon dioxide capture using natural and renewable biomaterials such as eggshells and seashells.
The essence of carbon capture is to separate carbon dioxide from other gases produced as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels for power generation and industrial processes. Figure 1 shows the three main approaches to accomplish this, which are pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture and oxy-fuel combustion methods.
Three common carbon dioxide capture approaches for coal fired power plant.
Before now, the capture of carbon dioxide is commonly achieved in the industry through absorption using liquid solvents such as selexol, rectisol, and mono-ethanol-amine, MEA [11]. The absorption process involves the use of two columns, namely the absorber and the stripper. This makes the process cost intensive in addition to corrosion issues. Consequently, a large amount of energy is needed to absorb CO2 [12]. On the other hand, physical adsorption via solid adsorption processes can selectively separate carbon dioxide from flue gas mixture. The advantages of adsorption include high selectivity, operation simplicity, low-cost, ease of regeneration, and low corrosiveness of adsorbent compared with solvent processes [11, 12].
The carbon dioxide adsorption approaches rely on the ability of the adsorbing material to preferentially adsorb CO2 over other gases. This is achieved through a packed bed system of the adsorbent materials. The adsorbent materials will continue to absorb CO2 until it is saturated, which is its adsorptive capacity. At this point, the packed bed undergoes desorption either through pressure swing adsorption (PSA) or temperature swing adsorption (TSA), which causes the release of the adsorbed CO2 to the point where the adsorbent material is at equilibrium [12, 13]. The commonly used adsorbent materials include zeolites, activated carbon, microporous/mesoporous silica, carbonates, carbon molecular sieves and metal organic frameworks. These materials possess adequate surface area and pore network structures that are highly microporous to accommodate and capture CO2 [12, 13]. The adsorbent materials are evaluated on the basis of adsorption capacity, preferential adsorption affinity for carbon dioxide over gases from flue gas stream, adsorption and desorption kinetics, low-cost, tolerance of impurities, mechanical strength, multicycle durability and regeneration of stability [13]. Additionally, the porous structure of the adsorbent material is engineered to improve mass transport by reducing diffusional resistance, and the microstructure and morphological texture must demonstrate the capacity to hold captured CO2 during multi cycling between the absorption and regeneration steps [13, 14]. However, since the process is based on gas-solid interaction, operational conditions such as gas flow rate, temperature and vibration could cause disintegration of adsorbent material due to crushing and abrasion, and consequently collapse pore network structures. It is also rare to find a single adsorbent material that maximises all the above highlighted attributes. Therefore, this review explores the use of other materials such as eggshell and seashell rich in calcium carbonate through reactive adsorption, which involves carbonation – calcination of CaO/CaCO3 for carbon dioxide capture.
Alkaline earth metal oxides have demonstrated a strong affinity for acidic gas such as carbon dioxide and sulphur oxides. These metal oxides, particularly calcium oxide (CaO), are effective for the removal of CO2 via carbonation at moderate temperatures of less than 700°C [11]. Hence, calcium oxide has proven a good sorbent material for carbon dioxide capture. With regards to availability and cost, an excellent source of CaO is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The most widely natural source of CaCO3 includes dolomite and limestone. However, these natural resources are non-renewable, energy intensive to exploit, their mining cause damage to the environment as well as landscape. More also, CaO sorbent derived from natural limestone decreases in its reactivity over a number of cycles of reaction with CO2 [15]. As a result of this, attention has been shifted to renewable sources such as eggshells, seashells and snail shells. These waste biomaterials provide sustainable source of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the range of 90–96% [16]. Calcined eggshell and seashells such as oyster shell are rich in lime (CaO) and can be combined with post-combustion and pre-combustion systems to separate CO2 through cyclic carbonation of CaO (calcined eggshell/seashell) to CaCO3, and subsequently the calcination of CaCO3 to release pure CO2 and regenerate back to CaO, as shown in Figure 2 [15, 17, 18, 19]. This reversible reaction between CaO and CO2 is a promising approach of removing CO2 from flue gas from power plants, producing a pure stream of CO2 ready for geological sequestration [15, 19]. To achieve this objective, the material should exhibit sufficient reactivity and thermal stability. Eggshell and seashell are a low-cost and abundant alternative to synthetic calcium carbonate and lime sorbents.
Carbonation – calcination process in calcium looping cycle application for carbon capture.
The poultry and seafood industries generate millions of tonnes of waste shells annually, which are disposed of in landfills. These biomaterials are rich in calcium carbonate, and subsequently, a large source of calcium oxide. The discarded eggshells and seashells after consumption of their food content, the heap waste shell is a habitat for microbes which causes environmental and air pollution due to emission of intensive odour especially during microbial decomposition [16]. These waste shell biomaterials can be recycled and used as a source of calcium oxide material for carbon dioxide capture purposes. Remarkable costs can be saved when these waste shells biomaterials are re-used, with emphasises on economic and sustainable environmental benefits of recycling instead of disposing. However, the carbon dioxide capture capacity of synthesised calcium oxide sorbents from eggshell and seashells decreases, as cycles of carbonation and calcination increases because of sintering over time [17]. To remedy this, it is important to generate more porous surface structure in the biomaterials through pre-treatment and regeneration processes.
The major solid mineral component of eggshells and seashells is calcium carbonate in the range of 92–96% and minor trace elements such as silica, alumina, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, potassium, zinc, manganese, iron, and copper. A detail composition of eggshell and seashells has been reported elsewhere [16]. The physical properties of some calcined eggshells and seashells biomaterials such as surface area, pore volume and pore diameter are shown in Table 1. These waste shells biomaterials exhibit the type-IV isotherm which an attribute of mesoporous texture morphology characterised with a network of micropores. The pore size re-affirms their microstructure characteristics to accommodate captured CO2. During calcination, the specific surface area and pore volume of the crushed eggshells and seashells biomaterials increases, as the calcination temperature increases. This is because of the evolution of porosity within the material as a result of the release of CO2 from CaCO3, leading to the formation of CaO [16, 20]. However, at a temperature greater than 900°C, the surface area and pore volume decreased due to prolonged thermal effect, resulting in sintering [16, 20].
Parameter | Mussel shell | Oyster shell | Chicken eggshell | Ostrich eggshell |
---|---|---|---|---|
Surface area (m2/g) | 89.91 | 24.00 | 54.60 | 71.00 |
Pore volume (cm3/g) | 0.130 | 0.04 | 0.015 | 0.022 |
Pore size (nm) | 3.5 | 6.6 | 0.54 | 0.61 |
Reference | [21] | [22] |
Surface area, pore size and volume of calcined seashells and eggshells biomaterials.
Figure 3 shows the X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) patterns of uncalcined (natural) and calcined (thermally treated) eggshell (quail) and seashell (oyster shell). The major component visible on the XRD pattern of the natural crushed shells is CaCO3and a small amount of Ca(OH)2. Both the quail eggshell and the oyster shell share identical diffraction patterns for both the natural and calcined forms.
XRD pattern of shells natural and calcined: (a) quail eggshell (*CaCO3, natural + CaO, calcined at 900°C) [
This suggests a similar mineralogical identity. After calcination (thermal treatment process), the diffraction lines attributed to rhombohedral phase for CaCO3 disappeared, with new diffraction patterns arising around 2θ = 32.3°, 37.4°, 53.7°, 63.9°, and 67.3° assigned to cubic phase for lime (CaO) appeared (Figure 3). It is worthy to note that the quail eggshell exhibited a crystallite size of 315 nm (CaCO3), while its calcined counterpart showed a size of 240 nm, CaO [23]. This crystallite size decrease can be ascribed to the exothermic natures of the calcination process. However, the lower intensity peaks for calcined eggshell and oyster shell could be related to the reduction in the crystallite size [21, 23]. Hence, the changes in the XRD pattern as a result of calcination are because of the release of carbon dioxide from the decomposition of CaCO3 into CaO.
The associated complexity and high cost for the production of carbon dioxide capture adsorbent materials such as activated carbon or zeolite has shifted attention to exploiting and developing cheap and renewable materials such as eggshells and seashells biomaterials. Figure 4 shows the procedure involved in the preparation of sorbent material from eggshells and seashells. The waste eggshells and seashells first undergo pre-treatment, which begins with acetic acid treatment with a concentration in the range of 1–10 molar to remove dirt, membrane layer, fibrous matters, proteins and other impurities as well as improve pore structure of the biomaterial [24]. Exposing the waste shells to acetic acid promotes the detachment of protein-collagen membrane depending on the extent, concentration and duration. At the end of this process, the sample is filtered and rinsed with distilled or deionised water. The separated eggshell or seashell is dried at 100–200°C for 5 h [16]. The dried biomaterials are crushed and then sieved into different particle size ranges depending on the application. The particles are calcined; the calcination process involves heat treatment to decompose the major component CaCO3 into CaO. The temperature of calcination could range from 500 to 1000°C depending on the application. It has been reported that at 900°C, the CaCO3 undergoes complete conversion into CaO [21]. The material produced after calcination is the sorbent material, which is placed in a desiccator to curtail the chances of coming in contact with humidity and carbon dioxide in the air.
Adsorbent material preparation procedure from eggshell and seashells.
In the pre-treatment phase, the reaction of acetic acid with CaCO3 results in the formation of calcium acetate, which has a larger molar volume than CaCO3 and CaO [25]. The acetic acid treatment helps to expand and improve particle pore structure. As a result of the expanded and enhanced pore network structure, improve performance is achieved over multiple carbonation-calcination reaction (CCR) cycles [24, 26, 27]. Hence, the increased porosity within the microstructure of the synthesised CaO sorbent biomaterial from eggshell or seashells leads to increased reactivity over time.
The continuing reliance on fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas and crude oil emits greenhouse gas (GHG) especially carbon dioxide (CO2), a major contributor to global warming. The application of physical and chemical absorption using solvents such as selexol, rectisol, and mono-ethanol-amine (MEA) to remove carbon dioxide from flue gas streams is limited by low-temperature, cost and energy-intensive to regenerate [11]. Produced CaO sorbent material from eggshells or seashells through the method outlined in Figure 4, has proven a good candidate for carbon dioxide capture from flue gas stream of power plants. This is owing to their affinity to carbonate in the presence of CO2; resulting in the formation of CaCO3 which is regenerated back to CaO via calcinations while pure CO2 is released for sequestration in the process as shown in Figure 5.
Schematic of the eggshell or seashell carbonation – calcination processes for carbon dioxide capture.
Unlike the adsorption process for CO2 capture using activated carbon or zeolite adsorbent materials, eggshells and seashells biomaterials are low-cost and offer exclusive environmental and economic benefits. Additionally, eggshell or seashell-derived CaO sorbent are abundant, renewable, simple to prepare and also possesses excellent thermal stability. The mechanism of CO2 capture by these biomaterials comprises of a series of carbonation-calcination reactions (CCR): calcium oxide (CaO) derived from eggshell or seashell reacts with CO2 in the flue gas stream, leading to calcium carbonate (CaCO3), which then undergoes calcination resulting in the release of a pure CO2 stream for sequestration, and at the same time is regenerated into CaO as shown in Figure 5 [24]. The pilot-scale demonstration of the concept has been reported for eggshell and oyster shell in the literature [24, 26, 27, 28, 29]. The reactions are summarised as follows: carbonation (CaO + CO2 → CaCO3) of the eggshell-derived CaO through reaction with CO2 forms calcium carbonate (CaCO3), while the calcination process (CaCO3 → CaO + CO2), regenerates the CaO bio-composite material, and liberate pure stream of CO2 for sequestration. Sacia et al. [27] investigated CaO sorbents derived from chicken eggshell for CO2 from coal-fired power plants. In the work, they discovered that the pre-treatment of the eggshell with acetic acid enhanced and expanded the derived-sorbent material pore structure and surface area, which favoured CO2 diffusion as mass transport is improved.
Figure 6 shows the effect of acetic acid concentration and treatment time on CO2 capture over multiple cycles. It is clear that the acetic acid treated eggshell outperformed the untreated counterpart. On the other hand, derived CaO from eggshell treated with a low concentration of acetic acid exhibited better reactivity and CO2 capture capacity than that treated with higher concentration. This can be attributed to the improved reactivity and porous surface structure within the biomaterials when treated with an optimised concentration of acetic acid [24, 26, 27].
Effect of acetic acid and treatment time on weight per cent CO2 capture using chicken eggshell [
Figure 6 also demonstrates that subjecting the eggshell or seashell to a higher strength acetic acid solution or for a longer treatment time could affect the pore structure, strength and stability of the derived CaO sorbent biomaterial. This is consistent with the result of the investigation reported by Sacia [17], on the use of eggshell for CO2 capture. Hence, the observed decrease in the reactivity and CO2 capture capacity under this condition. More also, the data shows that the derived sorbent from eggshell or seashell cannot be continuously regenerated over multiple cycles, as a result, fresh sorbent would be added as make-up during the process to sustain capture capacity (Figure 6). Depending on the acetic pre-treatment time, it has been reported that the CO2 capture ranges from 70 to 80% in the first cycle, and gradually drop to about 40% in the fifth cycle [27].
Figure 7 shows simulated thermogravimetric analyser (TGA) results to prove CO2 capture capacity of eggshell-derived sorbent using a typical flue gas stream (10% CO2 for 60 min cycles at 700°C). The weight of the sample indicates reactivity, while the weight increase signifies carbonation due to CO2 capture; the decrease represents the calcination process because of CO2 liberation. It is clear that the CO2 capture performance and reactivity gradually diminishes for multicycles over time.
Weight vs. time of eggshell-derived adsorbent for CO2 capture using TGA [
The reactivity and CO2 capture capacity of the eggshell or seashell derived CaO sorbent decline over time, so regeneration of sorbents in-situ is pivotal to maintaining CO2 capture. The regeneration can be carried out using deionised water and acetic acid solutions [27]. The effect of regeneration of the eggshell derived CaO sorbent on CO2 capture is shown in Figure 8. It is clear that regeneration with acetic acid is more effective than with water. Sacia [17] ascribed this observation to two factors. First, the use of acetic acid resulted in calcium acetate, which exhibited a higher molar volume than only Ca(OH)2 formed when water is used. Also, the combination of water and acetic acid allows for a surface structure rearrangement due to the solubility of calcium acetate in water. It has been found that the use of 2 M acetic acid offers the best performance after multiple cycle regeneration in terms of reactivity and CO2 capture [17, 24]. It can be observed that over three regenerations, all of the sorbent showed similar results trend.
Conversion vs. regenerations of eggshell derived CaO sorbent treated with a 1 M acetic acid for 30 min [
In the investigation of Sacia et al. [27], it was found that regeneration restored the reactivity of the eggshell-derived CaO sorbent, and subsequently, CO2 capture capacity in the range of 70–80% was achieved. The CO2 capture capacity increased on average after successive regeneration, as can be seen in Figure 8. This suggests that periodic regeneration can effectively increase the reactivity of the spent eggshell or seashell-derived CaO sorbent. In another study by Banerjee et al. [30], it was reported that after four successive regenerations over multi-cycles usage, the carbon dioxide capture capacity of the eggshell-derived sorbent material decreased from 6824 mg CO2/g to 1608 mg CO2/g an average compared to the fresh material. This indicates that the eggshell-derived CaO sorbent biomaterial could hold about eight times its own weight of CO2 from flue gas. Furthermore, Ma and Teng [31] investigated and reported the carbonation – calcination loop of CaO/CaCO3 process for CO2 capture using CaO derived sorbent from oyster shells. Though compared to reagent grade CaO from CaCO3, the oyster shell derived CaO possess bigger crystallite size and lower specific surface area. It was reported that at 740°C carbonation temperature, the oyster shell-derived CaO sorbent in cyclic carbonation exhibited superior performance to the reagent-grade CaO obtained from CaCO3. Therefore, utilising this waste biomaterial in CO2 capture encourages the reuse of materials in the industries, which will reduce the risk, cost and energy associated with mining limestone and dolomite for CaCO3 and CaO, and subsequently offers economic and environmental benefits. However, these benefits will be significant if the system is scaled-up to industrial standards.
There are large tonnes of eggshells and seashells discarded in landfill annually from poultry and food industries. Most of the seashells and eggshells are piled up on the seashore and thus would cause risks to water resources and public health. The applications of these biomaterials in construction such as concrete and cement production, catalyst manufacture, adsorbent for wastewater treatment, source of calcium in animal feed, manufacture of hydroxyapatite biomaterial, and additive in plastic manufacture has been explored extensively in the literature. These biomaterials contain about 96% calcium carbonate mineralogical component from which calcium oxide can be produced through thermal treatment. The carbonation – calcination loop of CaO/CaCO3 process has been investigated for CO2 capture potentials. Herein, the application of eggshell and seashell derived-CaO sorbent in the capture of carbon dioxide from flue gas is reviewed. The utilisation of this waste shell offers economic as well as environmental benefits because they are abundant, renewable and cheap. The CaO sorbent derived from eggshell and seashell has demonstrated the potential for carbon dioxide capture. It was also found that pre-treatment and regeneration provide means of restoring reactivity and CO2 capture capacity over multicyclic usage. Although this ensured sustainability and sorbent recyclability, the performance decreases ten cycles after regeneration. The future outlook will be to improve the carbon dioxide capture capacity and thermal stability of these biomaterials over multicycles operations.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"94",type:"subseries",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",keywords:"Environmental protection, Socio-economic development, Resource exploitation, Environmental degradation, Climate change, Degraded ecosystems, Biodiversity loss",scope:"\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. He got his Ph.D. in Animal Ecology at Umeå University in Sweden in 1998. He conducted postdoc research in stream ecology at the University of California at Santa Barbara in the USA. After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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