“Organizational Health Literacy Self-Assessment Tool for Primary Care” (OHL self-AsseT).
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7553",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Density Functional Theory",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Density Functional Theory (or DFT for short) is a potent methodology useful for calculating and understanding the molecular and electronic structure of atoms, molecules, clusters, and solids. Its use relies not only in the ability to calculate the molecular properties of the species of interest but also provides interesting concepts that allow a better comprehension of the chemical reactivity of the studied systems. This book represents an attempt to present examples on the utility of DFT for the understanding of the chemical reactivity through descriptors that constitute the basis of the so called Conceptual DFT (sometimes also named as Chemical Reactivity Theory) as well as the application of the theory and its related computational procedures in the determination of the molecular properties of different systems of academic and industrial interest.",isbn:"978-1-78985-168-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-167-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-836-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76822",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"density-functional-theory",numberOfPages:166,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7e98c652fe7f0cf7310a33a74e9f3df5",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7553.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7772,numberOfWosCitations:34,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:56,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 9th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 23rd 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 22nd 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 10th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 9th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1169",title:"Condensed Matter Physics",slug:"nanotechnology-and-nanomaterials-material-science-condensed-matter-physics"}],chapters:[{id:"63326",title:"New Insights and Horizons from the Linear Response Function in Conceptual DFT",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80280",slug:"new-insights-and-horizons-from-the-linear-response-function-in-conceptual-dft",totalDownloads:1149,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An overview is given of our recent work on the linear response function (LRF) χrr′ and its congener, the softness kernel srr′, the second functional derivatives of the energy E and the grand potential Ω with respect to the external potential at constant N and μ, respectively. In a first section on new insights into the LRF in the context of conceptual DFT, the mathematical and physical properties of these kernels are scrutinized through the concavity of the E=ENv and Ω=Ωμv functionals in vr resulting, for example, in the negative semidefiniteness of χ. As an example of the analogy between the CDFT functionals and thermodynamic state functions, the analogy between the stability conditions of the macroscopic Gibbs free energy function and the concavity conditions for Ω is established, yielding a relationship between the global and local softness and the softness kernel. The role of LRF and especially the softness kernel in Kohn’s nearsightedness of electronic matter (NEM) principle is highlighted. The first numerical results on the softness kernel for molecules are reported and scrutinized for their nearsightedness, reconciling the physicists’ NEM view and the chemists’ transferability paradigm. The extension of LRF in the context of spin polarized conceptual DFT is presented. Finally, two sections are devoted to ‘new horizons’ for the LRF. The role of LRF in (evaluating) alchemical derivatives is stressed, the latter playing a promising role in exploring the chemical compound space. Examples for the transmutation of N2 and the CC→BN substitution pattern in 2D and 3D carbocyclic systems illustrate the computational efficiency of the use of alchemical derivatives in exploring nearest neighbours in the chemical compound space. As a second perspective, the role of LRF in evaluating and interpreting molecular conductivity is described. Returning to its forerunner, Coulson’s atom-atom polarizability, it is shown how in conjugated π systems (and within certain approximations) a remarkable integral-integrand relationship between the atom-atom polarizability and the transmission probability between the atoms/contacts exists, leading to similar trends in both properties. A simple selection rule for transmission probability in alternating hydrocarbons is derived based on the sign of the atom-atom polarizability.",signatures:"Paul Geerlings, Stijn Fias, Thijs Stuyver, Paul Ayers, Robert\nBalawender and Frank De Proft",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63326",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63326",authors:[{id:"253700",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Geerlings",slug:"paul-geerlings",fullName:"Paul Geerlings"},{id:"266408",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",surname:"Ayers",slug:"paul-ayers",fullName:"Paul Ayers"},{id:"266409",title:"Dr.",name:"Stijn",surname:"Fias",slug:"stijn-fias",fullName:"Stijn Fias"},{id:"266411",title:"Dr.",name:"Thijs",surname:"Stuyver",slug:"thijs-stuyver",fullName:"Thijs Stuyver"},{id:"266412",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",surname:"Balawender",slug:"robert-balawender",fullName:"Robert Balawender"},{id:"266413",title:"Prof.",name:"Frank",surname:"De Proft",slug:"frank-de-proft",fullName:"Frank De Proft"}],corrections:null},{id:"64499",title:"Modeling with DFT and Chemical Descriptors Approach for the Development of Catalytic Alloys for PEMFCs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80922",slug:"modeling-with-dft-and-chemical-descriptors-approach-for-the-development-of-catalytic-alloys-for-pemf",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Material properties and process modeling with density functional theory (DFT) is an accurate method to facilitate the study and the design of materials computationally for the development of different electrochemical technologies such as fuel cells, solar cells, and batteries, among others, mainly to achieve alternative ways for energy conversion and storage. Considering the relevance of DFT in the development of these alternative technologies for energy generation and storage, in this chapter, the application of DFT to study catalytic alloys and their reactivity processes to develop polymer membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) is presented. In this sense, firstly, a brief review of the application of DFT to develop catalysts for PEMFCs and the relation with the concept of chemical descriptors is presented. Secondly, the main chemical descriptors for this task are presented and discussed. Finally, a summary of the main findings of the modeling with DFT and chemical descriptors approach of catalytic alloys for PEMFCs is presented and analyzed.",signatures:"Alejandro E. Pérez and Rafael Ribadeneira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64499",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64499",authors:[{id:"237420",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Ribadeneira",slug:"rafael-ribadeneira",fullName:"Rafael Ribadeneira"},{id:"260956",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Pérez-Mendoza",slug:"alejandro-perez-mendoza",fullName:"Alejandro Pérez-Mendoza"}],corrections:null},{id:"64233",title:"Density Functional Theory Studies of Catalytic Sites in Metal- Organic Frameworks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80698",slug:"density-functional-theory-studies-of-catalytic-sites-in-metal-organic-frameworks",totalDownloads:1440,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Theoretical methods have become indispensable tools in many fields of chemistry and materials research. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) are porous materials; they have been intensively developed due to their diverse properties suitable for a wide range of applications. Theoretical approaches have thus been frequently employed toward the design and characterization of MOFs. We focus here in particular on theoretical studies of single-site catalytic reactions that occur inside the cavities of MOFs. The density functional method (DFT) has been the main approach used for such studies. We briefly review the uses of DFT to examine the catalytic reactions in MOFs. We note that DFT methods are versatile and can be made to work for different purposes such as, e.g., force-field development for molecular simulations. We shall, however, cover this field only very succinctly to put it into context with our main topic.",signatures:"Siwarut Siwaipram, Sarawoot Impeng, Philippe A. Bopp and\nSareeya Bureekaew",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64233",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64233",authors:[{id:"257019",title:"Dr.",name:"Sareeya",surname:"Bureekaew",slug:"sareeya-bureekaew",fullName:"Sareeya Bureekaew"},{id:"257021",title:"Dr.",name:"Sarawoot",surname:"Impeng",slug:"sarawoot-impeng",fullName:"Sarawoot Impeng"},{id:"257022",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Siwarut",surname:"Siwaipram",slug:"siwarut-siwaipram",fullName:"Siwarut Siwaipram"},{id:"269976",title:"Prof.",name:"Philippe",surname:"Bopp",slug:"philippe-bopp",fullName:"Philippe Bopp"}],corrections:null},{id:"63888",title:"The Use of Density Functional Theory to Decipher the Electrochemical Activity of Metal Clathrochelates with Regard to the Hydrogen Evolution Reaction in the Homogeneous Phase",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80267",slug:"the-use-of-density-functional-theory-to-decipher-the-electrochemical-activity-of-metal-clathrochelat",totalDownloads:1001,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The energetic needs of a rising human population have led to the search for alternative energy sources. A promising route for the large-scale storage of renewable energy is water electrolysis, which is performed with a proton-conducting polymer electrolyte. However, only platinum group metal electrocatalysts have the adequate properties to minimize the overvoltages associated with either hydrogen or oxygen evolution reactions. Alternative materials based on transition metals are scarce, but molecular electrochemistry offers some alternatives. In particular, transition metal clathrochelates exhibit an interesting activity with regard to the hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). However, such complexes form a vast family, and there is a need to implement screening approaches to identify the most performing ones. Theoretical studies on molecular electrocatalysts are adequate for this purpose, since density functional theory (DFT) has a strong predicting capability to provide clues for the improvement of practical devices. This chapter describes the most recent theoretical methods applied to several members of the clathrochelate family. We describe the computation of their common spectroscopic and electrochemical properties. In addition, DFT analysis is used to decipher the multistep reaction mechanism of a model Co clathrochelate with regard to the hydrogen evolution reaction in the homogeneous phase.",signatures:"Manuel Antuch and Pierre Millet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63888",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63888",authors:[{id:"256930",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",surname:"Millet",slug:"pierre-millet",fullName:"Pierre Millet"},{id:"257096",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Antuch",slug:"manuel-antuch",fullName:"Manuel Antuch"}],corrections:null},{id:"63384",title:"The Application of Periodic Density Functional Theory to the Study of Uranyl-Containing Materials: Thermodynamic Properties and Stability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79558",slug:"the-application-of-periodic-density-functional-theory-to-the-study-of-uranyl-containing-materials-th",totalDownloads:983,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the advent of increased computer capacities, improved computational resources, and easier access to large-scale computer facilities, the use of density functional theory methods has become nowadays a frequently used and highly successful approach for the research of solid-state materials. However, the study of solid materials containing heavy elements as lanthanide and actinide elements is very complex due to the large size of these atoms and the requirement of including relativistic effects. These features impose the availability of large computational resources and the use of high quality relativistic pseudopotentials for the description of the electrons localized in the inner shells of these atoms. The important case of the description of uranyl-containing materials and their properties has been faced recently. The study of these materials is very important in the energetic and environmental disciplines. Uranyl-containing materials are fundamental components of the paragenetic sequence of secondary phases that results from the weathering of uraninite ore deposits and are also prominent phases appearing from the alteration of the spent nuclear fuel. The development of a new norm-conserving relativistic pseudopotential for uranium, the use of energy density functionals specific for solids, and the inclusion of empirical dispersion corrections for describing the long-range interactions present in the structures of these materials have allowed the study of the properties of these materials with an unprecedented accuracy level. This feature is very relevant because these methods provide a safe, accurate, and cheap manner of obtaining these properties for uranium-containing materials which are highly radiotoxic, and their experimental studies demand a careful handling of the samples used. In this work, the results of recent applications of theoretical solid state methods based on density functional theory using plane waves and pseudopotentials to the determination of the thermodynamic properties and stability of uranyl-containing materials are reviewed. The knowledge of these thermodynamic properties is indispensable to model the dynamical behavior of nuclear materials under diverse geochemical conditions. The theoretical methods provide a profound understanding of the thermodynamic stability of these mineral phases and represent a powerful predictive tool to determine their thermodynamic properties.",signatures:"Francisco Colmenero Ruiz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63384",authors:[{id:"252909",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Colmenero",slug:"francisco-colmenero",fullName:"Francisco Colmenero"}],corrections:null},{id:"64311",title:"Magnetic Ordering in Ilmenites and Corundum-Ordered Structures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81772",slug:"magnetic-ordering-in-ilmenites-and-corundum-ordered-structures",totalDownloads:1137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the last few years, the multiferroic materials have represented a very important research topic on the design of new technological devices. A better description for this kind of materials involves two or more forms of ferroic orders coupled in a single crystalline structure. The great number of studies in this field is focused on candidates that present the coupling between a magnetic order and ferroelectricity. However, these material classes are a challenging topic on first-principles calculations due to the strong correlation that arose from the unpaired electrons. Furthermore, the partial filling of d or f orbitals reduces a high localization and a strong interaction causing failures on the electronic structure prediction. The investigation of multiferroic materials aims at their application on the development of devices such as actuators, magnetic readers, sensors and data storage. Multiferroic materials are also alternatives to the production of technological applications based on spintronic. Our proposal is to show our experience in DFT simulations for magnetic states applied in oxides of ilmenites and corundum-ordered structures. Theoretical results reported for our group until now showed a good agreement with experimental results for half-metallicity, reduced band-gap, and/or ferromagnetic ordering.",signatures:"Sergio Ricardo De Lazaro, Luis Henrique Da Silveira Lacerda and\nRenan Augusto Pontes Ribeiro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64311",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64311",authors:[{id:"176017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio Ricardo De",surname:"Lazaro",slug:"sergio-ricardo-de-lazaro",fullName:"Sergio Ricardo De Lazaro"},{id:"176358",title:"MSc.",name:"Renan Augusto Pontes",surname:"Ribeiro",slug:"renan-augusto-pontes-ribeiro",fullName:"Renan Augusto Pontes Ribeiro"},{id:"176359",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Henrique Da Silveira",surname:"Lacerda",slug:"luis-henrique-da-silveira-lacerda",fullName:"Luis Henrique Da Silveira Lacerda"}],corrections:null},{id:"64919",title:"Role of Density Functional Theory in “Ribocomputing Devices”",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80491",slug:"role-of-density-functional-theory-in-ribocomputing-devices-",totalDownloads:854,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Molecular computing devices composed of biological substances, such as nucleic acid and ribonucleic acid plays a key role for the logical processing of a variety of inputs and viable outputs in the cellular machinery of all living organisms. These devices are directly dependent on the advancement in DNA and RNA technology. RNA nanoparticles can be engineered into a programmable and logically acting “Ribocomputing Devices”; a breakthrough at the interface of nanotechnology and synthetic biology. It opens a new path to the synthetic biologists to design reliable synthetic biological circuits which can be useful as the electronic circuits. In this emerging field, a number of challenges persist; as how to translate a variety of nucleic acid based logic gates developed by numerous research laboratories into the realm of silicon-based computing. So in this chapter we will discuss the advances in ribonucleic acid (RNA) based computing and it’s potential to serve as an alternative to revolutionize silicon-based technology by theoretical means. Also the results of the calculated parameters with computational tools using Density functional theory and the designed device circuits will be analyzed.",signatures:"Ruby Srivastava",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64919",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64919",authors:[{id:"185788",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruby",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"ruby-srivastava",fullName:"Ruby Srivastava"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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A sink or base station acts like an interface between users and the network. One can retrieve required information from the network by injecting queries and gathering results from the sink. Typically a wireless sensor network contains hundreds of thousands of sensor nodes. The sensor nodes can communicate among themselves using radio signals. A wireless sensor node is equipped with sensing and computing devices, radio transceivers and power components. The individual nodes in a wireless sensor network (WSN) are inherently resource constrained: they have limited processing speed, storage capacity, and communication bandwidth. After the sensor nodes are deployed, they are responsible for self-organizing an appropriate network infrastructure often with multi-hop communication with them. Then the onboard sensors start collecting information of interest. Wireless sensor devices also respond to queries sent from a “control site” to perform specific instructions or provide sensing samples. The working mode of the sensor nodes may be either continuous or event driven. Global Positioning System (GPS) and local positioning algorithms can be used to obtain location and positioning information. Wireless sensor devices can be equipped with actuators to “act” upon certain conditions. These networks are sometimes more specifically referred as Wireless Sensor and Actuator Networks as described in (Akkaya et al., 2005).
Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) enable new applications and require non-conventional paradigms for protocol design due to several constraints. Owing to the requirement for low device complexity together with low energy consumption (i.e. long network lifetime), a proper balance between communication and signal/data processing capabilities must be found. This motivates a huge effort in research activities, standardization process, and industrial investments on this field since the last decade (Chiara et. al. 2009). At present time, most of the research on WSNs has concentrated on the design of energy- and computationally efficient algorithms and protocols, and the application domain has been restricted to simple data-oriented monitoring and reporting applications (Labrador et. al. 2009). The authors in (Chen et al., 2011) propose a Cable Mode Transition (CMT) algorithm, which determines the minimal number of active sensors to maintain K-coverage of a terrain as well as K-connectivity of the network. Specifically, it allocates periods of inactivity for cable sensors without affecting the coverage and connectivity requirements of the network based only on local information. In (Cheng et al., 2011), a delay-aware data collection network structure for wireless sensor networks is proposed. The objective of the proposed network structure is to minimize delays in the data collection processes of wireless sensor networks which extends the lifetime of the network. In (Matin et al., 2011), the authors have considered relay nodes to mitigate the network geometric deficiencies and used Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) based algorithms to locate the optimal sink location with respect to those relay nodes to overcome the lifetime challenge. Energy efficient communication has also been addressed in (Paul et al., 2011; Fabbri et al. 2009). In (Paul et al., 2011), the authors proposed a geometrical solution for locating the optimum sink placement for maximizing the network lifetime. Most of the time, the research on wireless sensor networks have considered homogeneous sensor nodes. But nowadays researchers have focused on heterogeneous sensor networks where the sensor nodes are unlike to each other in terms of their energy. In (Han et al., 2010), the authors addresses the problem of deploying relay nodes to provide fault tolerance with higher network connectivity in heterogeneous wireless sensor networks, where sensor nodes possess different transmission radii. New network architectures with heterogeneous devices and the recent advancement in this technology eliminate the current limitations and expand the spectrum of possible applications for WSNs considerably and all these are changing very rapidly.
A typical Wireless Sensor Network
Wireless sensor networks have gained considerable popularity due to their flexibility in solving problems in different application domains and have the potential to change our lives in many different ways. WSNs have been successfully applied in various application domains (Akyildiz et al. 2002; Bharathidasan et al., 2001), (Yick et al., 2008; Boukerche, 2009), (Sohraby et al., 2007), and ( Chiara et al., 2009;Verdone et al., 2008), such as:
Military applications: Wireless sensor networks be likely an integral part of military command, control, communications, computing, intelligence, battlefield surveillance, reconnaissance and targeting systems.
Area monitoring: In area monitoring, the sensor nodes are deployed over a region where some phenomenon is to be monitored. When the sensors detect the event being monitored (heat, pressure etc), the event is reported to one of the base stations, which then takes appropriate action.
Transportation: Real-time traffic information is being collected by WSNs to later feed transportation models and alert drivers of congestion and traffic problems.
Health applications: Some of the health applications for sensor networks are supporting interfaces for the disabled, integrated patient monitoring, diagnostics, and drug administration in hospitals, tele-monitoring of human physiological data, and tracking & monitoring doctors or patients inside a hospital.
Environmental sensing: The term Environmental Sensor Networks has developed to cover many applications of WSNs to earth science research. This includes sensing volcanoes, oceans, glaciers, forests etc. Some other major areas are listed below:
Air pollution monitoring
Forest fires detection
Greenhouse monitoring
Landslide detection
Structural monitoring: Wireless sensors can be utilized to monitor the movement within buildings and infrastructure such as bridges, flyovers, embankments, tunnels etc enabling Engineering practices to monitor assets remotely with out the need for costly site visits.
Industrial monitoring: Wireless sensor networks have been developed for machinery condition-based maintenance (CBM) as they offer significant cost savings and enable new functionalities. In wired systems, the installation of enough sensors is often limited by the cost of wiring.
Agricultural sector: using a wireless network frees the farmer from the maintenance of wiring in a difficult environment. Irrigation automation enables more efficient water use and reduces waste.
There are a lot of challenges placed by the deployment of sensor networks which are a superset of those found in wireless ad hoc networks. Sensor nodes communicate over wireless, lossy lines with no infrastructure. An additional challenge is related to the limited, usually non-renewable energy supply of the sensor nodes. In order to maximize the lifetime of the network, the protocols need to be designed from the beginning with the objective of efficient management of the energy resources (Akyildiz et al., 2002). Wireless Sensor Network Design issues are mentioned in (Akkaya et al., 2005), (Akyildizet al., 2002), (SensorSim; Tossim, Younis et al., 2004), (Pan et al., 2003) and different possible platforms for simulation and testing of routing protocols for WSNs are discussed in ( NS-2, Zeng et al., 1998, SensorSim, Tossiim ). Let us now discuss the individual design issues in greater detail.
Fault Tolerance: Sensor nodes are vulnerable and frequently deployed in dangerous environment. Nodes can fail due to hardware problems or physical damage or by exhausting their energy supply. We expect the node failures to be much higher than the one normally considered in wired or infrastructure-based wireless networks. The protocols deployed in a sensor network should be able to detect these failures as soon as possible and be robust enough to handle a relatively large number of failures while maintaining the overall functionality of the network. This is especially relevant to the routing protocol design, which has to ensure that alternate paths are available for rerouting of the packets. Different deployment environments pose different fault tolerance requirements.
Scalability: Sensor networks vary in scale from several nodes to potentially several hundred thousand. In addition, the deployment density is also variable. For collecting high-resolution data, the node density might reach the level where a node has several thousand neighbours in their transmission range. The protocols deployed in sensor networks need to be scalable to these levels and be able to maintain adequate performance.
Production Costs: Because many deployment models consider the sensor nodes to be disposable devices, sensor networks can compete with traditional information gathering approaches only if the individual sensor nodes can be produced very cheaply. The target price envisioned for a sensor node should ideally be less than $1.
Hardware Constraints: At minimum, every sensor node needs to have a sensing unit, a processing unit, a transmission unit, and a power supply. Optionally, the nodes may have several built-in sensors or additional devices such as a localization system to enable location-aware routing. However, every additional functionality comes with additional cost and increases the power consumption and physical size of the node. Thus, additional functionality needs to be always balanced against cost and low-power requirements.
Sensor Network Topology: Although WSNs have evolved in many aspects, they continue to be networks with constrained resources in terms of energy, computing power, memory, and communications capabilities. Of these constraints, energy consumption is of paramount importance, which is demonstrated by the large number of algorithms, techniques, and protocols that have been developed to save energy, and thereby extend the lifetime of the network. Topology Maintenance is one of the most important issues researched to reduce energy consumption in wireless sensor networks.
Transmission Media: The communication between the nodes is normally implemented using radio communication over the popular ISM bands. However, some sensor networks use optical or infrared communication, with the latter having the advantage of being robust and virtually interference free.
Power Consumption: As we have already seen, many of the challenges of sensor networks revolve around the limited power resources. The size of the nodes limits the size of the battery. The software and hardware design needs to carefully consider the issues of efficient energy use. For instance, data compression might reduce the amount of energy used for radio transmission, but uses additional energy for computation and/or filtering. The energy policy also depends on the application; in some applications, it might be acceptable to turn off a subset of nodes in order to conserve energy while other applications require all nodes operating simultaneously.
Structure of a Wireless Sensor Network includes different topologies for radio communications networks. A short discussion of the network topologies that apply to wireless sensor networks are outlined below:
A star network is a communications topology where a single base station can send and/or receive a message to a number of remote nodes. The remote nodes are not permitted to send messages to each other. The advantage of this type of network for wireless sensor networks includes simplicity, ability to keep the remote node’s power consumption to a minimum. It also allows low latency communications between the remote node and the base station. The disadvantage of such a network is that the base station must be within radio transmission range of all the individual nodes and is not as robust as other networks due to its dependency on a single node to manage the network.
A Star network topology
A mesh network allows transmitting data to one node to other node in the network that is within its radio transmission range. This allows for what is known as multi-hop communications, that is, if a node wants to send a message to another node that is out of radio communications range, it can use an intermediate node to forward the message to the desired node. This network topology has the advantage of redundancy and scalability. If an individual node fails, a remote node still can communicate to any other node in its range, which in turn, can forward the message to the desired location. In addition, the range of the network is not necessarily limited by the range in between single nodes; it can simply be extended by adding more nodes to the system. The disadvantage of this type of network is in power consumption for the nodes that implement the multi-hop communications are generally higher than for the nodes that don’t have this capability, often limiting the battery life. Additionally, as the number of communication hops to a destination increases, the time to deliver the message also increases, especially if low power operation of the nodes is a requirement.
A Mesh network topology
A hybrid between the star and mesh network provides a robust and versatile communications network, while maintaining the ability to keep the wireless sensor nodes power consumption to a minimum. In this network topology, the sensor nodes with lowest power are not enabled with the ability to forward messages. This allows for minimal power consumption to be maintained. However, other nodes on the network are enabled with multi-hop capability, allowing them to forward messages from the low power nodes to other nodes on the network. Generally, the nodes with the multi-hop capability are higher power, and if possible, are often plugged into the electrical mains line. This is the topology implemented by the up and coming mesh networking standard known as ZigBee.
A Hybrid Star – Mesh network topology
A sensor node is made up of four basic components such as sensing unit, processing unit, transceiver unit and a power unit which is shown in Fig. 5. It also has application dependent additional components such as a location finding system, a power generator and a mobilizer. Sensing units are usually composed of two subunits: sensors and analogue to digital converters (ADCs) (Akyildiz et al., 2002). The analogue signals produced by the sensors are converted to digital signals by the ADC, and then fed into the processing unit. The processing unit is generally associated with a small storage unit and it can manage the procedures that make the sensor node collaborate with the other nodes to carry out the assigned sensing tasks. A transceiver unit connects the node to the network. One of the most important components of a sensor node is the power unit. Power units can be supported by a power scavenging unit such as solar cells. The other subunits, of the node are application dependent.
A functional block diagram of a versatile wireless sensing node is provided in Fig. 6. Modular design approach provides a flexible and versatile platform to address the needs of a wide variety of applications. For example, depending on the sensors to be deployed, the signal conditioning block can be re-programmed or replaced. This allows for a wide variety of different sensors to be used with the wireless sensing node. Similarly, the radio link may be swapped out as required for a given applications’ wireless range requirement and the need for bidirectional communications.
The components of a sensor node
Functional block diagram of a sensor node
Using flash memory, the remote nodes acquire data on command from a base station, or by an event sensed by one or more inputs to the node. Moreover, the embedded firmware can be upgraded through the wireless network in the field.
The microprocessor has a number of functions including:
Managing data collection from the sensors
performing power management functions
interfacing the sensor data to the physical radio layer
managing the radio network protocol
A key aspect of any wireless sensing node is to minimize the power consumed by the system. Usually, the radio subsystem requires the largest amount of power. Therefore, data is sent over the radio network only when it is required. An algorithm is to be loaded into the node to determine when to send data based on the sensed event. Furthermore, it is important to minimize the power consumed by the sensor itself. Therefore, the hardware should be designed to allow the microprocessor to judiciously control power to the radio, sensor, and sensor signal conditioner (Akyildiz et al., 2002).
The sensor nodes are usually scattered in a sensor field as shown in Fig. 1. Each of these scattered sensor nodes has the capabilities to collect data and route data back to the sink and the end users. Data are routed back to the end user by a multi-hop infrastructure-less architecture through the sink as shown in Fig. 1. The sink may communicate with the task manager node via Internet or Satellite.
Wireless Sensor Network protocol stack
The protocol stack used by the sink and the sensor nodes is given in Fig. 7. This protocol stack combines power and routing awareness, integrates data with networking protocols, communicates power efficiently through the wireless medium and promotes cooperative efforts of sensor nodes. The protocol stack consists of the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link layer, physical layer, power management plane, mobility management plane, and task management plane (Akyildiz et al., 2002). Different types of application software can be built and used on the application layer depending on the sensing tasks. This layer makes hardware and software of the lowest layer transparent to the end-user. The transport layer helps to maintain the flow of data if the sensor networks application requires it. The network layer takes care of routing the data supplied by the transport layer, specific multi-hop wireless routing protocols between sensor nodes and sink. The data link layer is responsible for multiplexing of data streams, frame detection, Media Access Control (MAC) and error control. Since the environment is noisy and sensor nodes can be mobile, the MAC protocol must be power aware and able to minimize collision with neighbours’ broadcast. The physical layer addresses the needs of a simple but robust modulation, frequency selection, data encryption, transmission and receiving techniques.
In addition, the power, mobility, and task management planes monitor the power, movement, and task distribution among the sensor nodes. These planes help the sensor nodes coordinate the sensing task and lower the overall energy consumption.
Energy consumption is the most important factor to determine the life of a sensor network because usually sensor nodes are driven by battery. Sometimes energy optimization is more complicated in sensor networks because it involved not only reduction of energy consumption but also prolonging the life of the network as much as possible. The optimization can be done by having energy awareness in every aspect of design and operation. This ensures that energy awareness is also incorporated into groups of communicating sensor nodes and the entire network and not only in the individual nodes (Bharathidasan et al. 2001).
A sensor node usually consists of four sub-systems (Bharathidasan et al. 2001):
a computing subsystem : It consists of a microprocessor(microcontroller unit, MCU) which is responsible for the control of the sensors and implementation of communication protocols. MCUs usually operate under various modes for power management purposes. As these operating modes involves consumption of power, the energy consumption levels of the various modes should be considered while looking at the battery lifetime of each node.
a communication subsystem: It consists of a short range radio which communicate with neighboring nodes and the outside world. Radios can operate under the different modes. It is important to completely shut down the radio rather than putting it in the Idle mode when it is not transmitting or receiving for saving power.
a sensing subsystem : It consists of a group of sensors and actuators and link the node to the outside world. Energy consumption can be reduced by using low power components and saving power at the cost of performance which is not required.
a power supply subsystem : It consists of a battery which supplies power to the node. It should be seen that the amount of power drawn from a battery is checked because if high current is drawn from a battery for a long time, the battery will die faster even though it could have gone on for a longer time. Usually the rated current capacity of a battery being used for a sensor node is less than the minimum energy consumption. The lifetime of a battery can be increased by reducing the current drastically or even turning it off often.
To minimize the overall energy consumption of the sensor network, different types of protocols and algorithms have been studied so far all over the world. The lifetime of a sensor network can be increased significantly if the operating system, the application layer and the network protocols are designed to be energy aware. These protocols and algorithms have to be aware of the hardware and able to use special features of the micro-processors and transceivers to minimize the sensor node’s energy consumption. This may push toward a custom solution for different types of sensor node design. Different types of sensor nodes deployed also lead to different types of sensor networks. This may also lead to the different types of collaborative algorithms in wireless sensor networks arena.
In WSN, the main task of a sensor node is to sense data and sends it to the base station in multi hop environment for which routing path is essential. For computing the routing path from the source node to the base station there is huge numbers of proposed routing protocols exist (Sharma et al., 2011). The design of routing protocols for WSNs must consider the power and resource limitations of the network nodes, the time-varying quality of the wireless channel, and the possibility for packet loss and delay. To address these design requirements, several routing strategies for WSNs have been proposed in (Labrador et al., 2009), (Akkaya et al., 2005), ( Akyildiz et al. 2002), (Boukerche, 2009, Al-karaki et al., 2004, Pan et al., 2003) and (Waharte et al., 2006).
The first class of routing protocols adopts a flat network architecture in which all nodes are considered peers. Flat network architecture has several advantages, including minimal overhead to maintain the infrastructure and the potential for the discovery of multiple routes between communicating nodes for fault tolerance.
A second class of routing protocols imposes a structure on the network to achieve energy efficiency, stability, and scalability. In this class of protocols, network nodes are organized in clusters in which a node with higher residual energy, for example, assumes the role of a cluster head. The cluster head is responsible for coordinating activities within the cluster and forwarding information between clusters. Clustering has potential to reduce energy consumption and extend the lifetime of the network.
A third class of routing protocols uses a data-centric approach to disseminate interest within the network. The approach uses attribute-based naming, whereby a source node queries an attribute for the phenomenon rather than an individual sensor node. The interest dissemination is achieved by assigning tasks to sensor nodes and expressing queries to relative to specific attributes. Different strategies can be used to communicate interests to the sensor nodes, including broadcasting, attribute-based multicasting, geo-casting, and any casting.
A fourth class of routing protocols uses location to address a sensor node. Location-based routing is useful in applications where the position of the node within the geographical coverage of the network is relevant to the query issued by the source node. Such a query may specify a specific area where a phenomenon of interest may occur or the vicinity to a specific point in the network environment.
In the rest of this section we discuss some of the major routing protocols and algorithms to deal with the energy conservation issue in the literatures.
Flooding: Flooding is a common technique frequently used for path discovery and information dissemination in wired and wireless ad hoc networks which has been discussed in (Akyildiz et al., 2002). The routing strategy of flooding is simple and does not rely on costly network topology maintenance and complex route discovery algorithms. Flooding uses a reactive approach whereby each node receiving a data or control packet sends the packet to all its neighbors. After transmission, a packet follows all possible paths. Unless the network is disconnected, the packet will eventually reach its destination. Furthermore, as the network topology changes, the packet transmitted follows the new routes. Fig. 8 illustrates the concept of flooding in data communications network. As shown in the figure, flooding in its simplest form may cause packets to be replicated indefinitely by network nodes.
Flooding in data communication networks
Gossiping:
To address the shortcomings of flooding, a derivative approach, referred to as gossiping, has been proposed in ( Braginsky et al., 2002). Similar to flooding, gossiping uses a simple forwarding rule and does not require costly topology maintenance or complex route discovery algorithms. Contrary to flooding, where a data packet is broadcast to all neighbors, gossiping requires that each node sends the incoming packet to a randomly selected neighbor. Upon receiving the packet, the neighbor selected randomly chooses one of its own neighbors and forwards the packet to the neighbor chosen. This process continues iteratively until the packet reaches its intended destination or the maximum hop count is exceeded.
Protocols for Information via Negotiation (SPIN):
Sensor protocols for information via negotiation (SPIN), is a data-centric negotiation-based family of information dissemination protocols for WSNs (Kulik et al., 2002). The main objective of these protocols is to efficiently disseminate observations gathered by individual sensor nodes to all the sensor nodes in the network. Simple protocols such as flooding and gossiping are commonly proposed to achieve information dissemination in WSNs. Flooding requires that each node sends a copy of the data packet to all its neighbors until the information reaches all nodes in the network. Gossiping, on the other hand, uses randomization to reduce the number of duplicate packets and requires only that a node receiving a data packet forward it to a randomly selected neighbor.
SPIN basic protocol operation
Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy (LEACH)
Low-energy adaptive clustering hierarchy (LEACH) is a routing algorithm designed to collect and deliver data to the data sink, typically a base station (Heinzelman et. al. 2000). The main objectives of LEACH are:
Extension of the network lifetime
Reduced energy consumption by each network sensor node
Use of data aggregation to reduce the number of communication messages
To achieve these objectives, LEACH adopts a hierarchical approach to organize the network into a set of clusters. Each cluster is managed by a selected cluster head. The cluster head assumes the responsibility to carry out multiple tasks. The first task consists of periodic collection of data from the members of the cluster. Upon gathering the data, the cluster head aggregates it in an effort to remove redundancy among correlated values. The second main task of a cluster head is to transmit the aggregated data directly to the base station over single hop. The third main task of the cluster head is to create a TDMA-based schedule whereby each node of the cluster is assigned a time slot that it can use for transmission. The cluster head announces the schedule to its cluster members through broadcasting. To reduce the likelihood of collisions among sensors within and outside the cluster, LEACH nodes use a code-division multiple access–based scheme for communication.
The basic operations of LEACH are organized in two distinct phases. The first phase, the setup phase, consists of two steps, cluster-head selection and cluster formation. The second phase, the steady-state phase, focuses on data collection, aggregation, and delivery to the base station. The duration of the setup is assumed to be relatively shorter than the steady-state phase to minimize the protocol overhead.
At the beginning of the setup phase, a round of cluster-head selection starts. To decide whether a node to become cluster head or not a threshold T(s) is addressed in (Heinzelman et. al. 2000) which is as follows:
Where r is the current round number and G is the set of nodes that have not become cluster head within the last 1/popt rounds. At the beginning of each round, each node which belongs to the set G selects a random number 0 or 1. If the random number is less than the threshold T(s) then the node becomes a cluster head in the current round.
Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient Protocols (TEEN and APTEEN):
Two hierarchical routing protocols called TEEN (Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network protocol), and APTEEN (Adaptive Periodic Threshold-sensitive Energy Efficient sensor Network protocol) are proposed in (Manjeshwar et al., 2001) and (Manjeshwar et al., 2002), respectively. These protocols were proposed for time-critical applications. In TEEN, sensor nodes sense the medium continuously, but the data transmission is done less frequently. A cluster head sensor sends its members a hard threshold, which is the threshold value of the sensed attribute and a soft threshold, which is a small change in the value of the sensed attribute that triggers the node to switch on its transmitter and transmit. Thus the hard threshold tries to reduce the number of transmissions by allowing the nodes to transmit only when the sensed attribute is in the range of interest. The soft threshold further reduces the number of transmissions that might have otherwise occurred when there is little or no change in the sensed attribute. A smaller value of the soft threshold gives a more accurate picture of the network, at the expense of increased energy consumption. Thus, the user can control the trade-off between energy efficiency and data accuracy. When cluster-heads are to change, new values for the above parameters are broadcast. The main drawback of this scheme is that, if the thresholds are not received, the nodes will never communicate, and the user will not get any data from the network at all.
Power-Efficient Gathering in Sensor Information Systems (PEGASIS):
Power-efficient gathering in sensor information systems (PEGASIS) (Lindsey et al., 2002) and its extension, hierarchical PEGASIS, are a family of routing and information-gathering protocols for WSNs. The main objectives of PEGASIS are twofold. First, the protocol aims at extending the lifetime of a network by achieving a high level of energy efficiency and uniform energy consumption across all network nodes. Second, the protocol strives to reduce the delay that data incur on their way to the sink.
The network model considered by PEGASIS assumes a homogeneous set of nodes deployed across a geographical area. Nodes are assumed to have global knowledge about other sensors’ positions. Furthermore, they have the ability to control their power to cover arbitrary ranges. The nodes may also be equipped with CDMA-capable radio transceivers. The nodes’ responsibility is to gather and deliver data to a sink, typically a wireless base station. The goal is to develop a routing structure and an aggregation scheme to reduce energy consumption and deliver the aggregated data to the base station with minimal delay while balancing energy consumption among the sensor nodes. Contrary to other protocols, which rely on a tree structure or a cluster-based hierarchical organization of the network for data gathering and dissemination, PEGASIS uses a chain structure.
Directed Diffusion:
Directed diffusion (Intanagonwiwat et al., 2000) is a data-centric routing protocol for information gathering and dissemination in WSNs. The main objective of the protocol is to achieve substantial energy savings in order to extend the lifetime of the network. To achieve this objective, directed diffusion keeps interactions between nodes, in terms of message exchanges, localized within limited network vicinity. Using localized interaction, direct diffusion can still realize robust multi-path delivery and adapt to a minimal subset of network paths. This unique feature of the protocol, combined with the ability of the nodes to aggregate response to queries, results into significant energy savings.
Chain-based data gathering and aggregation scheme
The main elements of direct diffusion include interests, data messages, gradients, and reinforcements. Directed diffusion uses a publish-and-subscribe information model in which an inquirer expresses an interest using attribute–value pairs. An interest can be viewed as a query or an interrogation that specifies what the inquirer wants.
Geographic Adaptive Fidelity (GAF):
GAF (Xu et al., 2001) is an energy-aware location-based routing algorithm designed mainly for mobile ad hoc networks, but may be applicable to sensor networks as well. The network area is first divided into fixed zones and forms a virtual grid. Inside each zone, nodes collaborate with each other to play different roles. For example, nodes will elect one sensor node to stay awake for a certain period of time and then they go to sleep. This node is responsible for monitoring and reporting data to the BS on behalf of the nodes in the zone. Hence, GAF conserves energy by turning off unnecessary nodes in the network without affecting the level of routing fidelity.
Security issues in sensor networks depend on the need to know what we are going to protect. In (Zia et al., 2006), the authors defined four security goals in sensor networks which are Confidentiality, Integrity, Authentication and Availability. Another security goal in sensor network is introduced in (Sharma et al., 2011).Confidentiality is the ability to conceal message from a passive attacker, where the message communicated on sensor networks remain confidential. Integrity refers to the ability to confirm the message has not been tampered, altered or changed while it was on the network. Authentication Need to know if the messages are from the node it claims to be from, determining the reliability of message’s origin. Availability is to determine if a node has the ability to use the resources and the network is available for the messages to move on. Freshness implies that receiver receives the recent and fresh data and ensures that no adversary can replay the old data. This requirement is especially important when the WSN nodes use shared-keys for message communication, where a potential adversary can launch a replay attack using the old key as the new key is being refreshed and propagated to all the nodes in the WSN ( Sen, 2009). To achieve the freshness the mechanism like nonce or time stamp should add to each data packet.
Having built a foundation of security goals in sensor network, the major possible security attacks in sensor networks are identified in (Undercoffer et al., 2002). Routing loops attacks target the information exchanged between nodes. False error messages are generated when an attacker alters and replays the routing information. Routing loops attract or repel the network traffic and increases node to node latency. Selective forwarding attack influences the network traffic by believing that all the participating nodes in network are reliable to forward the message. In selective forwarding attack malicious nodes simply drop certain messages instead of forwarding every message. Once a malicious node cherry picks on the messages, it reduces the latency and deceives the neighboring nodes that they are on a shorter route. Effectiveness of this attack depends on two factors. First the location of the malicious node, the closer it is to the base stations the more traffic it will attract. Second is the percentage of messages it drops. When selective forwarder drops more messages and forwards less, it retains its energy level thus remaining powerful to trick the neighboring nodes. In sinkhole attacks, adversary attracts the traffic to a compromised node. The simplest way of creating sinkhole is to place a malicious node where it can attract most of the traffic, possibly closer to the base station or malicious node itself deceiving as a base station. One reason for sinkhole attacks is to make selective forwarding possible to attract the traffic towards a compromised node. The nature of sensor networks where all the traffic flows towards one base station makes this type of attacks more susceptible. Sybil attacks are a type of attacks where a node creates multiple illegitimate identities in sensor networks either by fabricating or stealing the identities of legitimate nodes. Sybil attacks can be used against routing algorithms and topology maintenance; it reduces the effectiveness of fault tolerant schemes such as distributed storage and disparity. Another malicious factor is geographic routing where a Sybil node can appear at more than one place simultaneously. In wormhole attacks an adversary positioned closer to the base station can completely disrupt the traffic by tunneling messages over a low latency link. Here an adversary convinces the nodes which are multi hop away that they are closer to the base station. This creates a sinkhole because adversary on the other side of the sinkhole provides a better route to the base station. In Hello flood attacks a Broadcasted message with stronger transmission power is pretending that the HELLO message is coming from the base station. Message receiving nodes assume that the HELLO message sending node is the closest one and they try to send all their messages through this node. In this type of attacks all nodes will be responding to HELLO floods and wasting the energies. The real base station will also be broadcasting the similar messages but will have only few nodes responding to it. Denial of service (DoS) attacks occur at physical level causing radio jamming, interfering with the network protocol, battery exhaustion etc. An specific type of DoS attack, Denial-of-service attack has been explored in (Raymond et al., 2009), in which a sensor node’s power supply is targeted. Attacks of this type can reduce the sensor lifetime from years to days and have a devastating impact on a sensor network.
Layering based security approach:
Application layer
Data is collected and managed at application layer therefore it is important to ensure the reliability of data. Wagner (Wanger, 2004) has presented a resilient aggregation scheme which is applicable to a cluster based network where a cluster leader acts as an aggregator in sensor networks. However this technique is applicable if the aggregating node is in the range with all the source nodes and there is no intervening aggregator between the aggregator and source nodes. To prove the validity of the aggregation, cluster leaders use the cryptographic techniques to ensure the data reliability.
Network layer
Network layer is responsible for routing of messages from node to node, node to cluster leader, cluster leaders to cluster leaders, cluster leaders to the base station and vice versa.
Data link layer
Data link layer does the error detection and correction, and encoding of data. Link layer is vulnerable to jamming and DoS attacks. TinySec (Karlof et al., 2004) has introduced link layer encryption which depends on a key management scheme. However, an attacker having better energy efficiency can still rage an attack. Protocols like LMAC (Hoesel et al., 2004) have better anti-jamming properties which are viable countermeasure at this layer.
Physical Layer
The physical layer emphasizes on the transmission media between sending and receiving nodes, the data rate, signal strength, frequency types are also addressed in this layer. Ideally FHSS frequency hopping spread spectrum is used in sensor networks.
The aim of this chapter is to discuss few important issues of WSNs, from the application, design and technology points of view. For designing a WSN, we need to consider different factors such as the flexibility, energy efficiency, fault tolerance, high sensing fidelity, low-cost and rapid deployment, above all the application requirements. We hope the wide range of application areas will make sensor networks an integral part of our lives in the future. However, realization of sensor networks needs to satisfy several constraints such as scalability, cost, hardware, topology change, environment and power consumption. Since these constraints are highly tight and specific for sensor networks, new wireless ad hoc networking protocols are required. To meet the requirements, many researchers are engaged in developing the technologies needed for different layers of the sensor networks protocol stack.
Future research on WSN will be directed towards maximizing area throughput in clustered Wireless Sensor Networks designed for temporal or spatial random process estimation, accounting for radio channel, PHY, MAC and NET protocol layers and data aggregation techniques, simulation and experimental verification of lifetime-aware routing, sensing spatial coverage and the enhancement of the desired sensing spatial coverage evaluation methods with practical sensor model.
The advances of wireless networking and sensor technology open up an interesting opportunity to manage human activities in a smart home environment. Real-life activities are often more complex than the case studies for both single and multi-user. Investigating such complex cases can be very challenging while we consider both single- and multi-user activities at the same time. Future work will focus on the fundamental problem of recognizing activities of multiple users using a wireless body sensor network. Wireless Sensor Networks hold the promise of delivering a smart communication paradigm which enables setting up an intelligent network capable of handling applications that evolve from user requirements. We believe that in near future, WSN research will put a great impact on our daily life. For example, it will create a system for continual observation of physiological signals while the patients are at their homes. It will lower the cost involved with monitoring patients and increase the efficient exploitation of physiological data and the patients will have access to the highest quality medical care in their own homes. Thus, it will avoid the distress and disruption caused by a lengthy inpatient stay.
Health literacy (HL) is an issue of increasing importance in the health sector due to its ability to use existing health services effectively and efficiently. It allows the acquisition of better outcomes from the services provided thus, reducing health expenditure. Study findings indicate that a significant number of successful results from health services are closely associated with the health literacy of individuals [1, 2, 3]. Its importance was better understood during the COVID-19 pandemic, because of the dependent relationship between individuals and the health care organizations.
The health literacy concept, which has been initially used to mean individuals’ ability to read drug prospectuses, health-related brochures, and understand health-related information, has changed and expanded over time. Today, health literacy is defined as “people’s knowledge, motivation, and competencies to access, understand, appraise, and apply health information to make judgments and take decisions in everyday life concerning healthcare, disease prevention, and health promotion to maintain or improve quality of life during the life course.” [4], in essence, a lifelong learning activity that needs continuous improvement for individuals.
Over time, it has been understood that health literacy issue is not solely an individual burden, the health system and health organizations have an important role as well, so the “Organizational Health Literacy” (OHL) concept has been launched. OHL is defined as the ability of health organizations to provide information and services that are easy to find, understand and use, to assist people in decision making, and to remove existing barriers to all individuals who are seeking services. Health literate health care organizations are organizations that provide the needed information and services to the people in an easier way of access, understanding, and use [5].
Literacy is not a genetic or an ordinary characteristic of the people. It is a phenomenon that emerges and develops under the influence of several variables. It is the product of a kind of interaction and that means there is a mutual and reciprocal action. For such action there must be at least two sides, a receiver and a sender or influencer. Additionally, it always occurs in an environment that has physical, social, and psychological characteristics. So, all of these variables regarding receiver, sender, and environment should be considered to understand the concept. That means health literacy is a product of an interaction between health-seeking individuals and the health care providers within the environment of health care organizations [6, 7].
Because measurement and evaluation methods of a feature is closely linked to its conceptualization, the concepts of HL and OHL should be clarified before discussing the measurement methods.
The first use of the term health literacy was in the 1970s, during the times when health education was seen as a component of social policy, [8] and evolved in recent years. HL is expressed as the knowledge of individuals throughout their life course, which will guide behaviors and decisions related to themselves and public health, their knowledge of basic health information and services, their access to this information, their understanding of the information accessed, and then their use of this information for the development of health for the maintenance or improvement of quality of life. It is the degree to which individuals have the capacity to access, understand and interpret the basic health information, and services they need to make appropriate decisions associated with their health [4, 6].
Studies have reported that there is an association between low health literacy and various negative health behaviors as well as poor health-related outcomes, such as difficulties to interpret health messages and labels, poor medication adherence, high rates of hospitalization [9], frequent emergency room use, less frequent mammography rates [10], lower participation in preventive activities [11], inappropriate drug use, poor self-management of chronic conditions [12], high mortality rates [13], and increased health care costs [1, 14, 15].
Several definitions of health literacy [4, 16], as well as health literacy measures, were reported in different studies [15]. It is seen that more than 150 health literacy instruments were developed and used in the first decade of the 21st century according to various publications [17, 18].
Presence of different health literacy definitions and use of different measurement tools may be considered normal since they focus on different aspects of the concept and are complementary to each other. Here, the important thing to remember is that methods needed to measure health literacy are usually developed according to our understanding and definition of health literacy. In their study, Urstad et al. [15] have concluded that there will be a risk of missing information when the used measurement tools of health literacy are not consistent with the definition and concept of health literacy.
On the other hand, current health care systems have a complex nature and they are in rapid change and evolution. They usually are not designed according to the abilities of at least some of their service users and this characteristic makes it difficult for some patients to access and use the correct health information they needed. So, such systems should also be literate to help and increase the low literacy level of all patients.
The term OHL is relatively a new concept that emerged a few decades ago to address the challenges faced by individuals with predominantly limited HL. Because the service relationship in healthcare institutions and organizations is a mutual interaction, the literacy of institutions has become an important issue in recent years.
Features of the health organizations, such as a respectful approach to patients, easy access to services, easy information to understand, helpful navigation and signage systems, and correct answers given to every kind of question are important factors. These features are helpful to individuals for the correct use of the services, and they are as effective as the literacy of the individuals [5, 19, 20].
There are numerous studies showing that the development of OHL leads to positive effects on the health of patients and increases patient satisfaction [21, 22, 23, 24]. Although there are various studies and ways on how an institution can become a health literate organization, agreed-upon methods to measure, and evaluate the level of OHL are still lacking. The existing methods are generally highly scoped, but their reliability and criterion validity are generally unknown since they are not used in interventional research.
OHL standards and measurement methods have become an increasingly important topic in the last decade. Although there is a strong interest in OHL, majority of the studies are theoretical, and methodological studies are limited. Presence of measurement methods with different characteristics causes confusion over OHL.
A recent review showed that at least 17 different measures were used to assess OHL. According to the findings of this scoping review, six major categories of OHL have been defined and the most prevalent topic is referred to as “communication with service users.”
The following categories were, “easy access and navigation,” “integration and prioritization of OHL,” “assessments and organizational development,” “engagement support of service users,” and “information and qualification of staff” [25]. However, it was stated that no consensus has been reached on criteria that can describe a health care organization as a health literate organization.
Some criteria are focused on specific health facilities [26] or different aspects of OHL [26, 27] and/or interventions [26, 28], their evaluation [29] and implementation [30].
Another scoping review regarding OHL implementation has found that important factors that can be helpful for creating health literate organizations are ordered as, supportive leadership, a culture of change and innovation, awareness and participation of the staff, and engagement of service users [31]. However, different studies have also commented that still there is not a sufficient amount of evidence to assess the effects of OHL interventions on improved health outcomes or cost-effectiveness, and further studies are needed [26, 28].
As it was stated by Kaper et al. [31], interventional studies regarding the improvement of OHL have several weaknesses and the main limitations of the studies were lack of an experimental design and lack of instruments measuring OHL outcomes with known reliability and validity. Studies were usually conducted on small sample groups and without a control group or based on baseline cross-sectional measurements. Nevertheless, it is concluded that the instruments used in these studies may be useful to observe and monitor the change over time and make comparisons between the organizations [31].
Following are the most frequently referred studies regarding the conceptualization, implementation, and measures of the OHL.
The idea of a
The comprehensive study, prepared by Brach et al. in 2012 [5], is a milestone in OHL. In this study, detailed recommendations on what health literate organizations should and should not be are clearly stated and Ten Attributes of Health Literate Health Care Organizations are defined.
Ten attributes of Health Literate Health Care Organizations are as follows [5]:
Has leadership that makes health literacy integral to its mission, structure, and operations.
Health literacy is an organizational value for a health literate organization, and strategies of health literacy are internalized at every management level. They are perceived as part of the business and integral to its mission, structure, and operations. Leadership is the key to the success and sustainability of such an implementation.
Integrates health literacy into planning, evaluation measures, patient safety, and quality improvement.
Health literacy is integrated into the strategic and operational plans of a health literate organization. It is seen as an inseparable part of patient safety and quality improvement activities and is evaluated regularly.
Prepares the workforce to be health literate and monitors progress.
Every professional in the organization must be health literate and understand the meaning of being a health literate organization. So, they must be trained and educated by appropriate adult education methods for the establishment of a health literate organizational culture. Training and education activities must be continuous and monitored regularly. They must be organized under the responsibility of a training team and include every staff member.
Includes populations served in the design, implementation, and evaluation of health information and services.
Community participation and decision sharing are essential for the success of all health care activities including health literacy. Health literate organizations include representatives of the local people in the design, implementation, and evaluation of services. Especially hearing the voices of individuals with low health literacy is important for designing user-friendly services.
Meets the needs of populations with a range of health literacy skills while avoiding stigmatization.
Health literate organizations use communication methods that are as simple as possible. Written, visual or digital communication is not sufficient since some individuals may have difficulties. So, alternatives such as oral communication and escort guiding are useful methods. These methods must be available for and offered to every service user to reduce the low literacy-related stigma. This is particularly important for individuals who have limited health literacy.
Uses health literacy strategies in interpersonal communications and confirms understanding at all points of contact.
Health literate organizations create an environment that has linguistic and cultural competency to support health literacy strategies. Such an environment aims to provide clear communication during all interactions and for every kind of service including clinical, administrative, and financial services.
Provides easy access to health information and services and navigation assistance.
Health literate organizations design their facilities to help people to access information and services easily. They use a simple and easy-to-understand style of symbols, language, and signage.
Designs and distributes print, audiovisual, and social media content that is easy to understand and act on.
Health literate organizations design all printed materials, such as education documents, diagnosis and treatment guides, laboratory test results, insurance policies, bills, and various written directives in an understandable style and with easy-to-understand language. The same approach is true for the design and distribution of audiovisual and social media content.
Addresses health literacy in high-risk situations, including care transitions and communications about medicines.
“First, do no harm” is the number one principle of medicine since Hippocrates. However, due to the nature of the health services, there are several high-risk situations that cannot be eradicated in health facilities. Complications following surgical operations, adverse drug reactions, and absence of radical therapies are some examples of these situations. Health literate health care organizations identify such situations and inform patients appropriately.
Communicates clearly what health plans cover and what individuals will have to pay for services.
Health literate organizations communicate openly, clearly, and on time regarding financial issues such as coverage of the patient’s health plans, and how much they will have to pay for which services. They answer all relevant questions of the service users in an understandable language.
The ten attributes are related to health organizations, health care professionals, and various types of healthcare facilities that have direct responsibility for the provision of health services. All kinds of hospitals, clinics, group practices, private physician offices, community health centers, pharmacies, health insurance companies, accreditation agencies, information technology and health education professionals, and administrative staff needed to have these attributes to become health literate. In other words, almost all components of the supply side of a health system must have these ten attributes.
“Ten attributes of health literate healthcare organization” has been used by many researchers in the following years.
In a study conducted by Kowalski et al. [33] a ten items survey tool “Health Literate Health Care Organization Ten Item Questionnaire” (HLHO-10) to represent the ten attributes was developed. It was applied as part of a larger study and cross-sectional data was collected from a key informant survey in 51 German hospitals, and found to be reliable and valid [33]. It was concluded to be a useful tool to assess the level of OHL that is which organizations are helpful to their users to access, find, understand, and use the correct information they needed as well as the services.
Later HLHO-10 has been used during a survey to assess the OHL of a group of hospitals in Turkey and investigate the relationships between OHL, patient satisfaction, and individual health literacy by Hayran and Ozer [21].
Bonaccorsi et al., have used the Italian version of the HLHO-10 scale in healthcare organizations in Tuscany. They have found that accredited hospitals have higher HLHO-10 scores and perceived quality increases with the increase in HLHO-10 scores, which is interpreted as OHL an integral element for the quality of care [34].
HLHO-10 scale was also adapted to measure and use the OHL level of the facilities established for individuals with various disabilities [35].
Ten attributes provided intellectual foundation to other action frameworks. At least two other concepts and tools were based on the principles of the ten attributes. These are, “Vienna Concept of Health Literate Hospitals and Healthcare Organizations” (V-HLO) [36] and “the Organizational Health Literacy Responsiveness self-assessment tool” (Org-HLR) [37].
V-HLO is designed as a self-assessment questionnaire that includes 9 standards, 22 sub-standards, and 160 items [36]. It was tested by Pelikan and Dietscher in Austria and found to be successful [38].
This tool builds upon the “Ten Attributes of Health Literate Health Care Organizations.” However, the V-HLO expands the concept by introducing specific aspects tested in Health Promoting Hospitals (HPH) that were created by an international working group within the ‘International Network of Health Promoting Hospitals. It includes five standards published by WHO-EURO [39], 18 strategies of the HPH [40], and with reference to quality management concepts.
V-HLO considers the significance of organizational support for health literacy as a necessary precondition for sustainable implementation. This support is necessary for the implementation of interventions in relation to four action areas of the concept. These action areas are health literacy that is needed to gain adequate
These action areas are applied to three stakeholder groups, namely, patients, staff, and population.
Nine standards of V-HLO are as follows [38]:
Establishment of management policy and organizational structures for health literacy (includes 2 sub-standards)
Development of materials and services in participation with stakeholders (includes 2 sub-standards)
Qualification of staff for health-literate communication with service users (includes 2 sub-standards)
Provision of a supportive environment with health-literate navigation and access (includes 5 sub-standards)
Application of health literacy principles in routine communication with patients (includes 4 sub-standards)
Improvement of the health literacy of patients and their entourage (includes 2 sub-standards)
Improvement of the health literacy of the staff (includes 2 sub-standards)
Contribution to the health literacy in the region (includes 2 sub-standards)
Sharing experiences and being a role model (includes 1 sub-standard)
In the following years, the French version of V-HLO has been prepared and tested in three hospitals in Belgium. It was concluded to be an appropriate tool for hospitals that have the intention to raise their level of health literacy, create awareness and formulate strategies and actions [41].
The rationale underlying this Project was the need for a specific tool to assess and enhance OHL in primary health care settings. As the authors have stated, most approaches to OHL have usually focused on inpatient care, and outpatient and/or primary health care services have rarely been included. However, especially the level of OHL in primary care settings is of great importance, because they are the first contact points of the well-designed health systems.
The tool has been developed and evaluated with the participation of various practice partners including general practitioners and community health care organizations as well as expert opinions. The aim of this tool is to make the needs assessment, identify the improvement areas, and implement the actions necessary for OHL.
The tool consists of three modules and six dimensions:
A user manual containing instructions
A checklist for self-assessment of the community health services
A handbook to measure the improvement of the check-list items
Six dimensions of the tool were based on the ten attributes of a health literate health care organization [5], the nine standards of the V-HLO [38], and six dimensions of a health literate organization as used in the Tasmanian toolkit [HelloTAS] [43] and finalized after discussions with the representatives of primary care professionals the community health care organizations.
Six dimensions of the tool included the main content of the checklist. Then it was divided into 15 sub-dimensions including a total of 43 criteria (Table 1).
Dimensions | Sub-dimensions (number of criteria) |
---|---|
1. Provision of easy access to primary care services and facilitated navigation | 1.1 Contact (5) 1.2 Navigation within the primary care service (2) |
2. Communication in plain and easy to understand language | 2.1 Oral communication (8) 2.2 Written communication (5) |
3. Promotion of health literacy for service users | 3.1 Empowering service users to use health information (1) 3.2 Promotion of an active role and self-management of service users (2) |
4. Promotion of health literacy of staff members | 4.1 Know-how and professional competence (1) 4.2 Personnel development (3) 4.3 Staff members’ health (1) |
5. Incorporation of health literacy into management and organizational structure | 5.1 Health literacy as an organizational responsibility (2) 5.2 Health literacy as a development goal (2) 5.3 Organizational culture (2) 5.4 User involvement – feedback (2) |
6. Promotion of health literacy at care interfaces, networks, and further activities of the organization | 6.1 Care interfaces (4) 6.2 Networking and further activities (3) |
“Organizational Health Literacy Self-Assessment Tool for Primary Care” (OHL self-AsseT).
Adapted from De Ganni et al. [42].
Authors have concluded that this tool may be helpful for a successful implementation of OHL in primary care settings because it was developed with the participation of various practice partners and shaped by expert opinions.
In their study, Trezona et al. [37] developed the Organizational Health Literacy Responsiveness self-assessment tool (Org-HLR) and conducted an assessment process for supporting the health organizations with the application of the tool.
OHL responsiveness is the synonym term for OHL. It means the provision of health information and services in an equitable manner in terms of access and participation, taking into consideration the literacy needs and preferences of all service users, and supporting community participation during decision-making processes for health and well-being [37].
The self-rating Org-HLR tool and process were derived through co-design processes with a wide range of professionals working in the health and social services sectors, It has seven dimensions for assessment and they are divided into 24 sub-dimensions with 135 performance indicators.
Seven assessment dimensions are:
External policy and funding environment
Leadership and culture
Systems, processes, and policies
Access to services and programs
Community engagement and partnerships
Communication practices and standards
Workforce
A scale to assess the OHL status of different types of secondary and tertiary care hospitals has been developed by Dundar Ege and Hayran [44]. Forty-three 7-point Likert-type scale items were prepared by a comprehensive literature review and shaped by expert opinions. It was tested by the management staff of a sample group of 47 hospitals in İstanbul, including State hospitals, Private Hospitals, University Hospitals, Non-Profit Foundation Hospitals, and Accredited and Non-accredited Hospitals.
Five dimensions of OHL-Hosp were identified following the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Internal consistency of the items of each dimension has been found significantly high and statistically significant (Table 2).
Dimensions (number of items) | Eigenvalues | Variance (%) | Cronbach’s alpha |
---|---|---|---|
1. Leadership and Regulations (16) | 20.996 | 48.828 | 0.987 |
2. Communication (14) | 5.014 | 11.661 | 0.946 |
3. Operational Access (6) | 3.320 | 7.722 | 0.954 |
4. Indoor Access (4) | 2.973 | 6.914 | 0.948 |
5. Outdoor Access (3) | 1.638 | 3.810 | 0.841 |
Dimensions and factor analysis findings of the OHL-Hosp scale.
The scale consisting of 43 items and five dimensions is concluded to be a valid and reliable instrument to determine OHL levels of secondary and tertiary care institutions.
This tool is the updated version of the “Health Literacy Environment of Hospitals and Health Centers” by Rudd and Andersen [45]. It was developed by Harvard University and published in 2019 [7]. Its original form has been widely used in the USA. It was also adapted to use in different countries including Australia, New Zealand and European countries.
It is helpful to identify and rate the factors that are related to the literacy of health organizations for improving health literacy and monitoring change over time.
The HLE2 tool is organized into five sections, 10 parts, and 135 criteria as it is presented in Table 3. Content of all sections is addressed through the lens of health literacy. Each section has a rating scale. Following data collection, a total score and a percentage score is computed for each section. An overall score tally of the HLE2 has not been recommended. Instead, actions to consider for the % score of each section are described.
Sections | Parts (number of criteria) |
---|---|
1. Organizational Policies |
|
2. Organizational Practices |
|
3. Navigation |
|
4. Culture and Language | (10) |
5. Communication |
|
The study is based on visitor observations and standards to be applied by officials and it is organized as a list of things to do for OHL. The list can be applied in the form of brainstorming sessions with active members of healthcare institutions.
In a scoping review [25] which was held in 2021, sixty studies on OHL are examined in-depth and common six main categories, 25 subcategories of attributes, and 494 criteria of OHL were identified.
The main categories were ordered as:
Communication with service users
Easy access and navigation
Integration and prioritization
Assessments and organizational development
Engagement and support of service users
Information and qualification of staff
Among the reviewed articles published between 2006 and 2020, the majority were related to toolkits. This was followed by discussions, case studies, feasibility studies, surveys, workshop summaries, or evaluation studies.
“Ten Attributes of Health Literate Health Care Organizations” by Brach et al. [5] was the most frequently referred publication for the concepts used.
Reviewed studies have used 17 different assessment tools and instruments for the assessment of OHL. The HLHO-10 [33] and the HLE2 [7, 45] were the most frequently referenced tools among them.
The tools were usually designed as questionnaires and used during surveys. Some studies have used them in their original form while others have used a subset of items. Some studies have used the translated tools in a different language while others have adopted the measures for a different type of method.
Design of the assessment methods has also varied. Some studies have used standardized questionnaires and semi-structured interviews while others have collected the data by observations, checklists, and material assessments.
However, the authors have stated that the majority of the tools and instruments were not tested for validity and feasibility.
The goal of the study was to develop a valuable set of measures to inform OHL-related quality improvement activities. The study [46] was based on patient feedback and presented the standards that increase quality in healthcare organizations.
These are organizational structure, policy and leadership, communication, navigation, and patient participation. The results are similar to other studies.
Communication has been deeply examined as the main standard of OHL in this study in 2021 [47]. A sensitive communication approach was assessed from the perspective of the patients’ health in complex care structures.
As an important finding of the study, better processing of the organization is perceived by patients that was related to significantly higher health literacy scores. On the other hand, better health literacy scores were related to more patient-reported social support provided by physicians and nurses as well as fewer unmet information needs.
It was concluded that investing in good processing of the organization can improve the communication that is sensitive to health literacy. This has the potential to encourage service user–provider relationships and it might reduce the unmet information needs of the service users.
In this meta-narrative review, Farmanova et al. have identified 20 health literacy guides with various contexts and scopes [27]. Most guides have been prepared for general healthcare organizations. Six of them were specific for primary care besides hospitals and pharmacies. One was specific to health literacy of nursing practices.
Most included dimensions of OHL in guides were verbal and written communication, and access and navigation. All guides have included these dimensions. Access and navigation referred to the physical environment as well as the provided services by the organization.
Thirteen key barriers under 3 broad themes were identified during the use of health literacy guides: barriers related to the leadership and cultural environment of the organization; barriers related to the design and planning of interventions needed for the improvement; and barriers referred to the health workforce.
Especially recent guides provided best practices and recommendations that are evidence-based to support OHL actions. However, it was found that most of the guides have not been tested and their applicability was unknown in organizational practices, and this finding raises questions regarding their effectiveness [27].
Authors have concluded that OHL seems to be a heterogeneous phenomenon and it can be theorized from many different perspectives and implemented in different ways.
There is a similarity among the criteria identified in the conceptualization of the OHL in various studies. However, despite the conceptual similarities and presence of many different techniques and scales to assess OHL, there is still confusion about conceptualization and operationalization [25].
“Ten Attributes of Health Literate Organizations” by Brach et al. [5], is the most detailed and broad-ranged study in terms of conceptualization of OHL and has been an intellectual foundation for several other studies. Many of the assessment tools and instruments were based on the principles described as ten attributes. Most frequently used examples are, HLHO-10 [33], V-HLO [36], and the Org-HLR [37].
HLHO-10 is designed as a questionnaire that rates each of the ten attributes on a Likert scale.
The V-HLO aims at the sustainability of OHL and expands the concept by introducing specific aspects tested in Health Promoting Hospitals (HPH) [39, 40]. It approaches OHL from the stakeholders’ view considering their impact zone.
The Org-HLR uses health literacy responsiveness as a system-level action. It aims to coordinate and integrate all health care services, and system navigation by intersectoral collaboration [37].
Another important instrument HLE2 Assessment Tool [7] has a long history and wider use and includes palpable criteria mostly based on observations regarding implementation details. It offers ‘to-do lists’, observation forms, and process management details that can also be used during brainstorming meetings in organizations.
Among the several criteria to describe OHL, “communication” seems to be the major and most common component in all studies. Possible benefit effects of HL-sensitive communication were examined in several studies [47] including specific groups such as cancer patients [48], culturally diverse patient groups [49], and concluded to be an important dimension of OHL.
“Ease of access and navigation” is another significant criterion to describe OHL that has been investigated in many studies. Zanobi et al. [26] and Bremer et al. [25] have identified many different interventions for easy access and navigation in their scoping reviews. Use of pathways with different color codes, directions prepared with a plain and standardized language, support from volunteer escorts, directions posted in commonly used languages, and navigation apps are some examples. However, no studies have been found to evaluate their effects.
In some studies, quality is considered the main aspect [46] and OHL is examined as an instrument to raise the quality of healthcare.
It is known that patient satisfaction and responsiveness are high in organizations with high OHL [21]; however, it is not possible to say the opposite and it is important not to confuse OHL with patient satisfaction or health care responsiveness.
According to a study conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic, OHL principles and guidelines may be helpful to promote human-centered health care and services even in times of crisis [50].
OHL has been examined in various countries, in different settings, and from different aspects by many researchers. Among the limited number of scales that have been presented in some studies, none of them was tested for validity and reliability [51].
Additionally, many patient health outcomes have been investigated, but it is seen that almost all of them were related to supportive interventions for patients. No study was found reporting the patient health outcomes that are related to staff.
The effects of environmental support on health care staff have been rarely studied. Only a few studies have reported outcomes related to the satisfaction and helpfulness perception of the staff [26].
Comprehensive work done by Brach et al. on the conceptualization of the OHL is a milestone as we have mentioned above [5]. It serves as an intellectual base for other studies. In studies, regarding the implementation and assessment of OHL, checklists based on on-site observation and interview forms based on general questions for qualitative evaluation purposes are used. Furthermore, in some studies, it is observed that checklists for self-evaluation and guidelines to assess the healthcare organizations including primary healthcare institutions are also used.
In a comprehensive systematic review, it was found that the practices, measurement, and evaluation criteria in the field of OHL are very diverse and differ from each other [52]. According to the results of the screening, there were 8 main measurement-evaluation tools used for OHL measurement-evaluation, among which HLHO-10 (Health Literate Health Organization-10) [33] and V-HLO (Vienna Health Literate Organization) [36, 38] were used more frequently.
No definitive list of actions for implementation was found as well as assessment and measurement of the OHL. As a matter of fact, the rapid change in health care systems, institutions, types of services, technologies, and even professions naturally will affect and change the ways of our understanding of OHL.
So, aims for the implementation, operationalization, and improvement of the OHL must be addressed in a systematic and flexible manner. This issue is particularly significant for the communication of health care organizations with service users.
As the last word, some recommended steps to facilitate organizational change when promoting OHL practices can be summarized as encouragement of leadership, presence of clear and effectively communicated change vision, and provision of staff training and education to promote OHL practices [53]. These are the most important steps during the journey to facilitate organizational change toward OHL.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen publishes different types of publications.
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Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"56460",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69501",title:"Application of Taguchi-Based Design of Experiments for Industrial Chemical Processes",slug:"application-of-taguchi-based-design-of-experiments-for-industrial-chemical-processes",totalDownloads:3223,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:54,abstract:"Design of experiment is the method, which is used at a very large scale to study the experimentations of industrial processes. It is a statically approach where we develop the mathematical models through experimental trial runs to predict the possible output on the basis of the given input data or parameters. The aim of this chapter is to stimulate the engineering community to apply Taguchi technique to experimentation, the design of experiments, and to tackle quality problems in industrial chemical processes that they deal with. Based on years of research and applications, Dr. G. Taguchi has standardized the methods for each of these DOE application steps. Thus, DOE using Taguchi approach has become a much more attractive tool to practicing engineers and scientists. And since the last four decades, there were limitations when conventional experimental design techniques were applied to industrial experimentation. And Taguchi, also known as orthogonal array design, adds a new dimension to conventional experimental design. Taguchi method is a broadly accepted method of DOE, which has proven in producing high-quality products at subsequently low cost.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Rahul Davis and Pretesh John",authors:[{id:"199438",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",slug:"rahul-davis",fullName:"Rahul Davis"}]},{id:"14634",doi:"10.5772/15998",title:"The Application of FT-IR Spectroscopy in Waste Management",slug:"the-application-of-ft-ir-spectroscopy-in-waste-management",totalDownloads:6651,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"1574",slug:"fourier-transforms-new-analytical-approaches-and-ftir-strategies",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - New Analytical Approaches and FTIR Strategies"},signatures:"Ena Smidt, Katharina Böhm and Manfred Schwanninger",authors:[{id:"20376",title:"Dr.",name:"Katharina",middleName:null,surname:"Böhm",slug:"katharina-bohm",fullName:"Katharina Böhm"},{id:"22840",title:"Dr.",name:"Ena",middleName:null,surname:"Smidt",slug:"ena-smidt",fullName:"Ena Smidt"},{id:"22915",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfred",middleName:null,surname:"Schwanninger",slug:"manfred-schwanninger",fullName:"Manfred Schwanninger"}]},{id:"15157",doi:"10.5772/15959",title:"Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry for the Molecular Level Characterization of Natural Organic Matter: Instrument Capabilities, Applications, and Limitations",slug:"fourier-transform-mass-spectrometry-for-the-molecular-level-characterization-of-natural-organic-matt",totalDownloads:4347,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"122",slug:"fourier-transforms-approach-to-scientific-principles",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - Approach to Scientific Principles"},signatures:"Rachel L. 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In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59209",title:"Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Extraction of Plant Materials",slug:"utilization-of-response-surface-methodology-in-optimization-of-extraction-of-plant-materials",totalDownloads:5469,totalCrossrefCites:64,totalDimensionsCites:97,abstract:"Experimental design plays an important role in several areas of science and industry. Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"74096",title:"Time Frequency Analysis of Wavelet and Fourier Transform",slug:"time-frequency-analysis-of-wavelet-and-fourier-transform",totalDownloads:1283,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Signal processing has long been dominated by the Fourier transform. However, there is an alternate transform that has gained popularity recently and that is the wavelet transform. The wavelet transform has a long history starting in 1910 when Alfred Haar created it as an alternative to the Fourier transform. In 1940 Norman Ricker created the first continuous wavelet and proposed the term wavelet. Work in the field has proceeded in fits and starts across many different disciplines, until the 1990’s when the discrete wavelet transform was developed by Ingrid Daubechies. 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In all cases, cyclical ups and downs depend not only on internal system cyclical processes and their factors in countries but also on the consequences of intercountry interaction. The ability to measure and predict business cycles, taking into account their mutual influence, is a prerequisite for the development of an adequate business policy of countries and their associations.",book:{id:"6703",slug:"statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics",title:"Statistics",fullTitle:"Statistics - Growing Data Sets and Growing Demand for Statistics"},signatures:"Elena Zarova",authors:null},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6866,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1718,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"15",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83034",title:"Optimal N-of-1 Clinical Trials for Individualized Patient Care and Aggregated N-of-1 Designs",slug:"optimal-n-of-1-clinical-trials-for-individualized-patient-care-and-aggregated-n-of-1-designs",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106352",abstract:"Precision medicine typically refers to the use of genomic signatures of patients to assign more effective therapies to treat patients, or, for improved diagnosis of the early onset of a disease so that interventions can be delivered to prevent or delay the disease progression. Because the aim is to provide individualized patient treatment, such single-person trials are called N-of-1 trials. This chapter reviews fundamental ideas, models, and construction of optimal designs for N-of-1 trials, which are invariably constructed from crossover trials, where each patient receives a random sequence of trial treatments over time. We construct examples of universally optimal N-of-1 designs for comparing two treatments under various correlation structure assumptions and discuss how N-of-1 trials may be combined to form optimal aggregated N-of-1 trials for assessing average treatment effects for two or more treatments.",book:{id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg"},signatures:"Yin Li, Weng Kee Wong and Keumhee Chough Carriere"},{id:"83029",title:"Quasi Conformally Flat Quasi Einstein-Weyl Manifolds",slug:"quasi-conformally-flat-quasi-einstein-weyl-manifolds",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105683",abstract:"The aim of this work is to study on quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifolds. In this book chapter, firstly, an interesting relationship between complementary vector field and generator of the quasi Einstein-Weyl manifold is obtained and supported by an example. Then, it is investigated that quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifolds are of quasi constant curvature, recurrent and semi-symmetric under which conditions after obtaining the expression of the curvature tensor of the quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifold. Furthermore, some equivalences are obtained between to be of quasi constant curvature and to be semi-symmetric in quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifolds.",book:{id:"11502",title:"Manifolds - Recent Developments and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11502.jpg"},signatures:"Fusun Nurcan"},{id:"82970",title:"Probability to be Involved in a Road Accident: Transport User Socioeconomic Approach",slug:"probability-to-be-involved-in-a-road-accident-transport-user-socioeconomic-approach",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106325",abstract:"Road education is one of the most relevant issues focused to reduce traffic accidents, so it is important to analyze the driver’s behavior on the roads. International research has found evidence for a relationship between socioeconomic characteristics and traffic accidents. In this sense, the chapter shows a methodology to estimate the probability to be involved in a road accident, considering the road education and the socioeconomic characteristics of the population of a specific region, taking the Santiago de Querétaro city (in México) as a study case. Through a logit model estimation and a survey applied to pedestrian, cyclist, motorcyclist, car driver, and freight driver allow us to determine which socioeconomic variables and road education are significant to determine the probability of being involved in a road accident.",book:{id:"12021",title:"Applied Probability Theory - New Perspectives, Recent Advances and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12021.jpg"},signatures:"Saúl Antonio, Obregón Biosca, José Luis Reyes Araiza and Miguel Angel Pérez Lara y Hernández"},{id:"82947",title:"Some Tauberian Theorems under Triple Statistically Nörlund-Cesáro Summability Method",slug:"some-tauberian-theorems-under-triple-statistically-n-rlund-ces-ro-summability-method",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106141",abstract:"In this paper, we extend the notion presented by Braha (2020) in a higher dimension, we introduce the notion of Np,qn,m,gCn,m,g1,1,1-statistically convergence and show necessity and sufficiency conditions under which the existence of the limit st-limn,m,g→∞xn,m,g=L follows from that st-limn,m,g→∞Np,qn,m,gCn,m,g1,1,1=L. These conditions are one-sided or two-sided if xn,m,g is a sequence of real or complex numbers, respectively.",book:{id:"11503",title:"Functional Calculus - Recent Advances and Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11503.jpg"},signatures:"Carlos Granados"},{id:"82847",title:"A Chaos Auto-Associative Model with Chebyshev Activation Function",slug:"a-chaos-auto-associative-model-with-chebyshev-activation-function",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106147",abstract:"In this work, we shall put forward a novel chaos memory retrieval model with a Chebyshev-type activation function as an artificial chaos neuron. According to certain numerical analyses of the present association model with autocorrelation connection matrix between neurons, the dependence of memory retrieval properties on the initial Hamming distance between the input pattern and a target pattern to be retrieved among the embedded patterns will be presented to examine the retrieval abilities, i.e. the memory capacity of the associative memory.",book:{id:"12019",title:"Chaos Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12019.jpg"},signatures:"Masahiro Nakagawa"},{id:"82826",title:"A Brief Look at the Calderón and Hilbert Operators",slug:"a-brief-look-at-the-calder-n-and-hilbert-operators",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106027",abstract:"The Calderón operator is the sum of the Hardy averaging operator and its adjoint, and plays an important role in the theory of real interpolation. On the other hand, the Hilbert operator arises from the continuous version of Hilbert’s inequality. Both operators appear in different contexts and have numerous applications within harmonic analysis. In this chapter we will briefly review the Calderón and Hilbert operators, showing some of the most relevant results within functional analysis and finally we will present recent results on these operators within Fourier analysis.",book:{id:"11503",title:"Functional Calculus - Recent Advances and Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11503.jpg"},signatures:"Guillermo J. 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