Reported laser focusing conditions and resulting AuNP sizes.
\r\n\tWe hope to present dozens of algorithms and implementation examples, all in pseudo-code and suitable for use in real-world, large-scale Information Systems and their applications. We also hope to address advanced topics such as mining object-relational databases, spatial databases, multimedia databases, time-series databases, text databases, the World Wide Web, and applications in several fields. The goal is to provide a comprehensive, practical look at the concepts and techniques needed to get the most out of data.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-652-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-651-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-653-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f9b559ad26f909f0423ba9d111663218",bookSignature:"Dr. Rohit Raja",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11554.jpg",keywords:"Technical Support, IT Services, IT Support, Network Security, Cybersecurity, Cloud Services, Research Framework, Classification, Advance Management Techniques, Technological Innovation, Information Systems Maintenance, Enterprise Information Systems",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Raja is an IEEE Senior Member and has 5 National and 11 International patents granted, as well as 11 National patents published. 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These developments allowed researchers in many fields (e.g., astronomy, psychology, medicine) to create controlled virtual environments that permit users to interact with digitally generated stimuli [4, 5, 6]. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) are presented here as present and future alternatives for the efficient training of human resources, not only in the industrial field, but in every aspect of real world, of real life. The virtual recreation which objective is to transport the user to fully digitized and interactive environments, has allowed for the simulation of real processes and situations, an adequate way to reduce training times, prevent errors, or even improve the quality of products and actions. In the field of environmental sciences and natural disaster management (NDM), public, scientists, decision-makers, and professionals can benefit from virtual and augmented reality applications to simulate various and complex scenarios, constituting a realistic and safe workspace for repetition, precise measurements, and improved knowledge [7, 8].
In this research it is presented how VR and AR are applied to digitally recreate the real-life setting when an earthquake hit. In the preparedness before disasters happen, the simulated scenarios allow the user to interact with buildings, houses, foundations, streets, and buried pipes, on the one hand, and with soil strata, rock basement, ground motions, fissures, and cracks, on the other. Tricking the human perceptual system into believing that is being part of the virtual city, it is guaranteed complete focus on the effects of the seismic shaking.
By the seamless blending between a real environment and computer-generated virtual objects, the resulting mixture supplements the natural environment (the phenomena, the infrastructure, and soils responses) rather than replacing it with simplified conceptions. The virtual objects incrusted in the reality display information about structures characteristics and soils properties that the users cannot directly detect with their own senses. This information conveyed by the virtual objects helps a user perform better NDM-tasks. The concepts of VR/AR activated are simulation, interaction, artificiality, immersion, telepresence, full-body immersion, and network communication. The input information is compiled from the September 19th, 2021, earthquake files (accelerograms and geotechnical zonation where the monitoring station is placed), records of large settlements, fissures, and cracks as well as total and partial collapses of buildings and damage to buried pipes. The devastating earthquake of 2017 provided the opportunity to evaluate how citizens and the government prepare and respond to emergencies due to natural phenomena, particularly the seismic phenomenon, to generate the necessary improvements at each stage of natural disaster management.
Built environments, which refer to all physical environments constructed for human habitation and activities [9], are constantly exposed to risk from various natural and manmade disasters, such as fires, tropical cyclones (wind and storm surge), earthquakes, tsunamis, floods, and terrorist attacks, which pose a significant threat to human beings. Considering the severity of natural hazards, that become disasters when people’s lives and livelihoods are destroyed, an appropriate NDM is crucial to reduce the harmful effect of the phenomena and to facilitate a prompt reestablishment of the normal life after the emergencies [10]. When the threatened scenarios are large cities or strategic sites for nations, it is essential to have efficient and timely management programs that protect lives and properties of the inhabitants but also that quickly restore the productive and commercial capacities of population centers [11]. NDM covers i) risk prevention, ii) crisis preparedness (specific training), iii) emergency response (rescue), and iv) catastrophe recovery (reinstatement of services and lifelines) [12]. The key point in these actions is the preparation facing of the emergency so the researchers and professionals must work to improve the understanding of the situations, processes behind and analysis methods, anticipating the adverse possible situations, their worst evolution, and forecasting how they arrive to critical states.
The NDM process to save human lives, divided in pre-, during-, and post-disaster actions, still have a gap between knowledge and
Between the various studies the use of smartphones is indispensable. The potential and benefits of using AR to access and display disaster data in its geospatial context [35, 36, 37] is normally developed through a mobile application, for example to determine the best route for evacuation from collapsed or burned areas. The Whistland system [38] is an example of retrieving crowdsourced disaster-related information from real-time Twitter feed for display as an AR overlay to the smartphone camera. Mirauda et al. [39] developed a mobile application for connecting measurements from hydrological sensors with an integrated forecasting model. Fedorov et al. [40] presented a unique approach to utilize computer vision techniques to identify mountain silhouettes and compare the extracted information to available DEM (digital elevation model) data to provide useful information (e.g., peak name, height, lithology, associated risks, etc.).
About AR/VR solutions the best models are those developed for visualizing data and analyzing information in-situ in smooth transitions between virtual and augmented environments [41]. Ready et al. [42] presented a virtual reality application for HTC Vive that recreates a 3D model of terrain and buildings (geographic context in Japan) to interact with various data resources, mainly to access hydrological time-series in an easily interpretable way for disaster management. Haynes et al. [43] developed a mobile application to visualize potential floods through integration of real-time recordings (e.g., water level, soil moisture, and humidity), being extremely important that stakeholders can observe situations from the application and make decisions consistent with what happens in the field. Macchione et al. [44] proposed a virtual environment (open-source 3D graphics app, i.e., Blender) to recreate an urban environment (e.g., buildings, streams, roads, levees, textures) to simulate hydraulic dynamics during different flood scenarios.
Virtual reality (VR) is a technology with which digital environments can be built for the immersion of participants. In these environments, users have the possibility of interacting with the environment and with each other in deeply realistic ways [45]. The ultimate goal of VR is for participants to experience total immersion and prevent, in every way possible, from perceiving stimuli from the outside (real) world [45]. However, VR also involves non-immersive and semi-immersive settings (i.e., when the experience is in a desktop) [46]. On the other hand, Augmented reality (AR) concentrates on the superposition of virtual or digital elements on real world scenes. The participants can “view” the real world, but it is composited with digital items [47]. AR expands the real-world rather than constructing a virtual one. The computer-generated material improves understanding or understanding of what is happening in reality [48]. Mixed Reality (MR) is a hybrid technology where virtual objects are merged into a 3D- atmosphere or real objects are positioned into a virtual creation (Figure 1).
Application example for the Federal Electricity Commission in Mexico, the team of engineers works a) in a geotechnical laboratory with an application that allows them to learn more about the specimens being analyzed, share the results with supervisors (in real time) and generate the log files using the lenses; b) in discussing projects in a more immersive way in which all sources of information can be displayed to each team member can understand and discuss without bias.
Another definition of VR is a specific collection of technologies (headset, gloves and walker) that allow participants to feel that they belong to a digitally created world through high interaction between their senses and the artificial environment [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. The 3D simulation (width, height, and depth) of a real or made-up situation can be experienced visually in real-time motion (or the closest thing to this) and supported by sounds and tactile stimulus, or the necessary feedback to recreate an integral experience. With VR, users can envisage, operate, and relate multifaceted data with surprising ease [55]. Therefore, VR refers to an immersive, interactive, multi-sensory, viewer-centered, 3D computer-generated environment and the combination of technologies required to build such an environment [56, 57]. The stereoscopic ambience enables the observer experiences in deeply immersing scenes. Exploiting the human brain responses, VR dilutes the boundaries between persons and computers. Because of our ability to see the environment three-dimensionally (stereoscopic vision) VR can create right and left eyes images of an object or a scene and the observer’s brain integrates these stimuli from the presented perspectives to generate a whole sensitivity of a space. The virtuality means that an illusion is created about screen objects beyond the information on 2D displays in monitors. In VR, as in other technologies (2D-CAD even the 3D version), it is tried viewers notice distance and spatial interactions, but more convincingly and precisely.
An augmented reality system, from a hardware perspective, consists of a sensor(s), processor(s), and display(s). AR systems superimpose computer graphics imagery on the real world, and, for this blending, the observer’s positions must be known (with extreme precision), stored, and related with the positions and geometry of the items that are to be projected on the real environment. From a general perspective, it is quite easy to draw the three-dimensional images that you want to superimpose on what the user observes in the real world. The task to be solved is to fully define a correct perspective while defining as accurately as possible the position of the observer’s eye. To offer a truly useful experience, portable and easy-to-use optical systems must be considered.
The AR processor coordinates and analyzes sensor inputs, stores, and retrieves data, carries out the tasks of the application program, and generates the appropriate signals to display. Computing systems for augmented reality can range in complexity from simple handheld devices such as smartphones and tablets to laptops, desktop computers, and workstation class machines all the way through powerful distributed systems. The scene must be updated smoothly and at a rate that the participant in the experience perceives as a constant stream of information. AR applications must sustain a frame rate of at least 15—preferably more— frames per second for the participant to perceive the display as continuous. Displays that are simulating the feel of a solid object must be updated about 1000 times per second or else the object will feel “mushy.” To superimpose information (graphics or data) stored in a computer (control center) on the actual environment, a device called a beam splitter is typically used. This divider does not divide but combines the images of the real environment with those placed in the monitor environment. As a result, the viewer is presented with a double exposure photograph. Because the optics are typically fixed, in AR systems there is only one depth at which both the computer-generated imagery and the real-world imagery are in focus. If real-world and virtual-world scenes are both in focus, it will be easier to perceive them simultaneously.
By the other hand, the components necessary for building and experiencing VR are divided into two main components, the hardware and the software mechanisms. The hardware components are composed of computer workstation, sensory displays, process acceleration cards, tracking system and input devices. The workstation is an object (computer or microcomputer) that is intended for technical or scientific work. These objects are typically used by one person at a time, but are connected to a network to facilitate multi-user operations. Sensory screens are the artifacts that are responsible for displaying virtual environments. These displays can be as basic as common computer display units to head-mounted displays (HMDs) with headphone mounts for a 3D viewing and audio experience.
When over-the-head (helmet) displays are used, the presentation of the images is given right in front of the viewer’s eyes. With the helmet’s sensors (the orientation ones) the artificial segments are controlled that make the user experience a complete virtual environment. In most cases, a set of optical lens and mirrors are used to enlarge the view to fill the field of view and to direct the scene to the eyes [58]. It is fundamental to have process acceleration cards to update the display with new sensory information and the tracking system (mechanical, electromagnetic, ultrasonic, and infrared trackers) that follows the position and orientation of a user in the virtual environment.
There are also VR software key components: 3D modeling software, 2D graphics software, digital sound editing software and VR simulation software. 3D modeling software is used in constructing the geometry of the objects in a virtual world and specifies the visual properties of these objects, and 2D graphics software permits to manipulate texture to be applied to the objects which enhance their visual details. With the digital sound editing software is mixed and edited sounds that objects make within the virtual environment and with the VR simulation software the components are put together. It is used to program how these objects behave and set the rules that the virtual world follows.
In this research is presented a mechanism of Mixed Reality (MR), which combines Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality, called also ‘Hybrid Reality’ or ‘Extended Reality’. MR [59] is understood as a proposal that can be placed anywhere between digital environments that belong to complete virtuality up to the absolute perception of the real environment. MR works with concepts and objectives of AR and VR (Figure 2). The use of helmets or glasses allows the user to enter a digital world with all the information that could be useful. The continuity between reality and virtuality is the basis for the interaction between objects in the physical world with items in the virtual world, which will finally be the future of these technologies.
Reality roadmap according to
Modeling objects and the building structure in the virtual world is the first step for environment construction. In this research the employed techniques entail software for modeling/constructing bi- and three- dimensional objects and backgrounds. Once the 3D modeling of the objective scene is built, the model brings in the VR/AR mechanisms (in this research is used Unity3D-Unreal), in this way the static model is converted into a synergistic environment. Based on the experiences modeling urban infrastructure, these alternatives are appropriate for metropolis projects. Then the virtual contents (movements, gestures, and commands) were established. Physics engines were sometimes used to assist the simulation of emergencies, i.e., for a building shaking according with the accelerations registered during an earthquake, in each virtual room the movements of the room must be experienced, but in addition to the objects that could also move and even fall.
An avatar is used to manage the commands that will make the experience in the virtual environment one with dedicated goals. The avatar is the representation of the person, and it reflects the response behavior (of him and/or the participants) to the stimuli of the virtual world. For an avatar to move and act, a device such as a mouse, keyboard, pad, and telephone (in the 2D case) and gamepad and joystick (for the 3D offer) is used. The AR phase contains, in addition to the possibilities of movements and executing commands, data and information from the real world that could be useful for the designed task. Cameras and sensors are widely used and combined with the image recognition function of an AR engine. HMDs (glasses) provides the ergonomic solution for a virtual environment task using direct vision. Users can experience high-level immersion and better react as if they were in the real world.
The September 19th, 2017, a M 7.1 earthquake hit Mexico City causing 370 people were killed, over 6,000 were injured, 230 totally collapsed buildings and more than 7 000 small houses were damaged. The situation required the intervention of hundreds of geotechnics and structural specialists to qualify conditions and to permit people to return to their homes (Figure 3). Exactly 32 years before (Sept 19th, 1985, more than 10,000 deaths, 30,000 destroyed buildings, and 68,000 injured people) a M8.1 event had showed the fact that the city is built on the unstable and sinking ground of a dried-out lakebed and this promoted a better geo-zonification of the risk.
The Mexican earthquake from the 19 September 2017 led to significant building damage in the capital Mexico City and the states of Morelos and Puebla. The damage data in houses/buildings and soils characteristics highlights the correlation between damage drivers that little has been studied or they have not been fully understood.
In 1985 the functioning of the city was failed for months, the reconstruction took years and led many to relocate from the most affected areas to the city’s outskirts in search of the safety of the bedrock. The districts affected in 1985 and 2017 events were quite different and, because of this, the type of damage and the technical needs to manage rescue activities were also distinctive. These experiences have undoubtedly shown that for designing an efficient post-earthquake relief plan, it must be recognized that Mexico City is particularly exposed because of its huge population and strategic importance for the country and that this vulnerability has grown the last years due to the expansion of the urban settlements in risky areas (nodules of extreme poverty), the environmental devastation, the deterioration of life levels, the economic activities concentration that require the transport of substances (water, potable and used, gas and hydrocarbons) by underground infrastructure, and the growing complexity of transportation process.
Despite the best intentions and the enormous efforts of the governments that have attended these emergencies, the situations dangerously evolved and the period in which the city was detained, and the population subjected to chaos, spread out for months (or even years in 1985) damaging, primarily, the poorer and fragile (socially) population centers. Hereby, there is an increasing need for a holistic and more efficient natural disaster management.
The application that is explained in the following is VR-AR engine to train and to administrate the three phases of this kind of NDM: preparedness, response, and recovery. This VR instrument has the capability bridge the gap between knowledge and action with the necessary velocity and efficiency when disasters happen. Exploiting the scenarios reconstructed, the first-responders, civilians, and city-planners can be prepared to work under a series of conditions built in virtual/augmented-life, expanding the learning and response experiences. The heterogeneity of soils properties (and responses), earthquakes damage intensities, and the actions effectiveness (professional teams and their capacities) is displayed in the digital metropolis based on the results from neural topologies that predict the spatial variability of risk components (exposure and vulnerability).
For the preparation of engineers and specialists to perform i. state declaration (for soils and structures), ii. routes recognition (safest and more efficient), and iii. Provision of resources, it was necessary to construct specific VR-AR tools. The training under real-life conditions goes in two directions: geo-situations and structures. Simulations are about first-responders’ reactions for specific scenarios: 1. extreme vulnerable communities, 2. structural pathologies (residential homes and multi-family buildings) and 3. buried infrastructure and 4. soil masses.
The immersive experience of an earthquake (during the shaking and/or immediately after it has happened) is simulated in locations where fragile infrastructure coupled with danger zones (susceptible soils). In Figure 4 is shown how is recreated the structural masonry commonly used in poverty nodes in Mexico City. The structuration refers to the practice of using masonry, brick, or stone, as mass self-supporting. It is one of the oldest building methodologies, and by far the most resilient, however when self-construction (the inhabitants develop the structuring without the support of engineers or architects) does not follow basic rules for the placement of vertical and horizontal reinforcement elements (columns and beams) and the mezzanine and ceiling slabs are extremely light (even without steel reinforcement), the response of these units to ground movements is very unfavorable.
A training room: after an earthquake M8, subduction zone, site Lake zone, failure conditions for a concrete frame system (1 floor). Analyzing cracks in walls and columns the user is being trained to correct classify the damage level after an extreme earthquake.
The VR-AR tool (principally the VR box) drives the user to detect first the kind of cracks, fissures or other pathologies presents in a house and to relate them with a classifying guide (Figure 5). After this, the observer must look for overgrown trees and shrubs, cracked drains, leaking rainwater goods, as some of the things that may lead to structural problems but that are not related to the seismic inputs.
A training room: after an earthquake M8, a sinkhole has formed, and it is necessary to determine the sources that erode/dissolve as well as call the specific help team. The repair conditions are stored in the event DataMart.
Part of this investigation, but still in a preliminary stage, is the issue of the entry and exit routes of the emergency teams. The evacuation of threatened communities and assistance to those potentially blocked by the effects of an earthquake is a complex and vital issue. Transportation system is conceived as the role that sustain the economic and social well-being of the communities so disaster or extreme hazard such as earthquake has a major impact on the resilience of the communities. In Mexico City suburbs, road infrastructure is linked to many factors such as users, climate, economic level, material, topography, and periodic maintenance, therefore, part of the real-time analysis for the planning of entry and exit routes must be the superposition of layers on information from massive sources (traffic control systems) and the spatial variation of these susceptibilities. A comprehensive review of social infrastructure (hospitals, schools, recreation centers, markets, department stores, fire and police stations, etc.) must be done to detect temporal routes options as part of the adaptive routing solution.
The Response during Emergency refers to the actions that people may take, in the case of earthquakes, immediately after the ground movement has ended. The emergency period, when the events are extreme, can be extended depending on the size of the heavily damaged areas or in which the collapses have occurred in public places with large concentrations of people. The AR box was developed to assist technical crews which are organized according to the risk levels at each site. The entrance to housing units is categorized according to their structure and size: types of walls, types of columns, types of slabs, types of foundations and, on the other hand, single-family houses, multi-family houses, light and small buildings, large buildings.
In this stage of NDM, the personal is in real danger so it is mandatory that they have a support outside the damaged site: an automated or human control center. The superposition of information about the structures and materials permits rescue teams to take immediately decisions about evacuations or calls for additional help (Figure 6). Also, it is important that the field teams are provided with a dedicated storage for the found conditions. Once the
Immediately after the earthquake has ended, the trained teams go out into the field and begin to verify the conditions through the lenses that are communicated with the control room, a) since street, an engineer is checking a multi-level building that has lost the walls on one side of its perimeter, b) inside a 1-story house, a user checks the cracking, catalogs it and stores it.
Example of the integral maps: peak ground accelerations PGA superposed on the number of damaged houses (1 to 3 floors) -red circles- in a small region of the Mayor’s Office of Tláhuac, southeast of Mexico City.
In addition, there is a section of AR toolbox that is exclusively dedicated to the attention of leaks. Water and gas, the latter considered a priority due to the secondary effect of the explosions, are attended by specialized professionals that work in accordance with specific regulated policies (Figure 8).
The status review of the pipelines that transport dangerous substances (in this case gas) is essential to qualify the inhabited regions as safe. The application created for one of the largest companies in the country is shown. The user has the information about the arrangements in the field as well as the readings that must be verified on the special monitors. At all times, the user can be assisted by his human colleagues in the control room.
In some zones of the metropolis the vulnerability of the soils to the arrival of seismic waves is very high. The most superficial layers in these areas suffer cracking and subsidence processes among the most alarming scales in the world (Figure 9). The periods of drought and torrential rains aggravate the susceptibility to the collapse/cracking. This situation maintains small buildings and buried facilities in a very susceptible state, making them prone to be more affected when an extreme earthquake hit. The coincidence between construction deficiencies (poor technical conceptions) and degradation of materials (highly deformed, cracked and collapsed soils), when the seismic waves arrive, constitutes a challenging scenario.
In the southeastern of Mexico City, where the poorest neighborhoods of the metropolis are concentrated, during the 2017 earthquake manifestations such as cracks, subsidence and collapses (steps) in the most superficial soils were exacerbated. This had the effect of the uninhabitability of thousands of homes. Since then, the city government undertook one of the largest reconstruction campaigns in the modern history of the city.
The toolbox for geotechnical engineers, intend to train them to detect aspects about differential subsidence, sudden deformations, and sinkholes. In the immediate aftermath of a major earthquake, they must also learn to catalog an additional symptom of deterioration: cracks and fissures in natural masses. This is particularly important as damage to build units can develop days after the seismic event if the openings in the soils and rocks are not properly treated (Figure 10). The registered details are stored and sent to the control center where are analyzed with a CART (classification tree) to determine if the site is on the “zero set” (cases where their conditions are on the top of risk levels and demands immediate actions).
The vision of the user in the field is shown, a) in the Tláhuac area, in a serious crack, he observes the information on geotechnical zoning, b) check, in one of the most damaged areas, the repair of the drainage ducts, observes the optimal filling conditions according to the regional sinking map c) at site, where a leak and step deformation are present, infers which is the damaged section and record it in the application to call a specialized team.
The machine learning analysis is based in layers of Geo-descriptors that permits to qualify the susceptibility to sink-fracture in specific Mexico City regions. With the analysis of 6 variables (Geo-position, Soil heterogeneity, Groundwater Level, Urban loads, Type of foundations, Use of nearby streets) a CART (Figure 11) determines the relative influence of each one on the cracks’ development and relates present conditions to a risk level. The user of the tool can request from the control center the result of the evaluation with CART so that he, when faced with any doubt about the state of the soils, can make a decision and qualify the situation. For example, let us examine a site in the southern poor, and very susceptible to cracking, region in the metropolis. In Figure 12 the user’s vision when entering the site is shown. The characteristics of the breaks that must be recorded are geometry, materials (under consideration of soil evaluation according to the SUCS unified soil classification system), relative movement between the flanks of the crack/ step/subsidence, among others. When the user asks for the CART response for this site, the geotechnical information (boreholes) that the AR-tool finds near the site is first shown and then the evaluation is presented with a disaggregated description of the factors that lead to that level of susceptibility. In the case exposed, the presence of a non-continuous thin layer of semi-rigid material embedded in the plastic clay, its proximity to the battery of water pumping wells (operating at relatively shallow depths) and the shape and depth of the rigid base, are the conditions that drives to the site to a high susceptibility to crack.
CART for conclude about the susceptibility to crack. The model uses (a) information from maps of geo and anthropic properties and (b) survey of field damage. This tool (c) permits the user to qualify the susceptibility of a site to the development of a crack. (d).
Conditions at the entrance of a trench found under a foundation (3 floor house). The case is studied with the AR tool because of a call after finding a deep crack. The user of AR can measure the geometry and send/store this data. It also has information from nearby geotechnical surveys that help him interpret what observes. The videos of what happens are recorded for later analysis.
When the conditions of habitability and urban services have begun the path towards normalization, government administrators and practitioners (particularly engineers dedicated to the generation of infrastructure) should consolidate the assistance programs (repair of minor damages in houses and buildings as well as attention to water pipelines) and larger-scale plans for the correction of structures that are considered not to follow what is established in the code or that require the application of complex engineering solutions (structural reinforcement, total or partial demolitions, complex restoration, control of settlements (fill), repair of sinkholes, etc.).
In this case the teams (engineers, designers, government, and urban planners) are provided with integral tools to evaluate causes-effects and directly determine how many resources the city and community needs to correct the risk situations and how to improve its resilience for future, which is one of the most effective long-term strategies. These virtual collaborative immersive spaces allow different experts from all over the instances to work together in the same virtual environment, creating enhanced and coordinated solutions. Resilience, poverty, security, among others, are social aspects that are presented in maps in superposition on the kind of damages and necessities of reparation. In this way the decisions about resources can be developed on a solidarity base that prioritizes the needs of the most marginalized communities. An additional aspect, very important for the NDM, is that one of the layers shown is the prediction of accelerations in the different geotechnical zones of the city when certain earthquakes attack the metropolis. With these interpretations and the effects, routes can be drawn for the adaptation of services and infrastructure to anticipate the potential scenarios of shutdown of functions in the event of a mega earthquake.
For gathering a more organic, equal, and inclusive world with no one left behind, there is an urgent need to transform the current unsustainable interactions within social ecological systems. The role of emerging technologies in achieving harmonious interactions is crucial. The tools presented in this investigation show how they can be used to enhance resilience to environmental disruptions, particularly earthquakes threat. It has been showed how Artificial Intelligence, VR and AR can improve natural disaster management closing the gap between knowledge and action.
VR-AR technology provides visual simulations to create a vivid first-person experience. Temporal, spatial, and social differences are lowered by immersing people into a certain location or experience. This immersion can be exploited in the three phases of NDM: preparedness, response, and recovery. Artificial Intelligence + VR-AR is an innovative addition to NDM as it provides a non-destructive and safe technique to recreate natural disasters. The simulation of future conditions using the parametric relationships found by NN improves the understanding of what kind of damage is caused, how to better prepare, and shows the possible ways to recovery.
NDM undoubtedly benefits from the adoption of VR-AR technologies. These tools are most advantageous and attractive when data, models and strategies are included from all possible sources involved in preparing for, responding to, and recovering from the effects of a natural phenomenon. The integration of geological, seismic, geotechnical, urban, service, social data, to name a few, in an interchangeable and visually stimulating format, directly impacts the effectiveness, cost and execution time of activities related to each stage of a NDM project. The proposal presented in this document was used as a prototype by some teams during the 2017 earthquake and showed its great potential to create routes that increased productivity and promoted more agile and socially supportive decision-making processes, reducing duplication of work and some traditional activities prone to big mistakes.
The requirement derived from the collaboration between actors from different branches of knowledge (from scientists, technologists, engineers, administrators, politicians to representatives of civil society) when an earthquake occurs in a large metropolis, and especially if it is of enormous complexity such as Mexico City, will increasingly force the use of tools that allow raising quality in i) training in predicted scenarios on responses of soils and rocks interacting with buildings and buried infrastructure, ii) the conceptualization of risk management and the monitoring of activities that affect the resilience of the most vulnerable populations and iii) the interpretations of behaviors, relationships, patterns and models with intelligent tools that allow exploring a multiparametric, highly dimensional, extremely complex natural/anthropic universe.
The aspect of absolute and partial immersion, the congruent and integral intelligent modeling, the exploration of the programming and the risk management tools, as well as the interoperability, interactions and exchanges between the actors that generate huge amounts of data in all types and formats, without a doubt, it is a monumental challenge not only to the exercise of those who are in charge of NDM but to the adjustments to the analytical and mental connections, with which we have historically directed the responses to the demands of emergency situations, however the recent experience has shown that the application is effective and promising.
The authors would like to express their very great appreciation to the Government of Mexico City and to the Commission for the Reconstruction. Also, we would like to thank the following company for its assistance with the collection of the data and to share experiences: LOHRE S.A. de C.V.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The unique chemical and physical qualities of metallic nanoparticles have attracted the attention of researchers. Their size- and shape-dependent optical properties make them especially appealing due to the potential technological applications [1, 2, 3, 4]. In particular, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have strong absorptions in the visible spectrum that come from the collective oscillations of surface conduction-band electrons as they interact with light, which is called the surface plasmon resonance (SPR). The dependence of the SPR absorption on particle size and shape opens a range of application possibilities for AuNPs, including surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy [5]; non-invasive diagnostic imaging [2]; photothermal cancer therapy [3, 6]; plasmon-enabled photochemistry; and catalytic reactions such as water-splitting [7, 8]. It is necessary to these ends that the NP sizes and shapes are controllable during synthesis [9, 10]. Control can be achieved chemically, by modifying experimental conditions like temperature, reaction time, metal-ion concentration, and the absence or presence of reducing agents and surfactants [2]. Laser-assisted approaches to AuNP fabrication allow the manufacture of “pure” NPs which lack chemical reducing agents or surfactants, making this synthesis method ideal for NPs intended to be used in catalysis, and other electronic, biological or medical applications [11, 12].
There are two common approaches to colloidal AuNP synthesis using laser-assisted methods. The first is bulk-metal ablation, in which metal atoms are ejected from the target material and form nanoparticles in solution [13]. The second is by irradiating a metal-salt solution to produce reducing agents via solvent-molecule photolysis [14, 15, 16]. Controlling nucleation and growth of the nanoparticles during metal-salt reduction by changing laser parameters (focusing conditions, pulse duration, pulse energy, irradiation time), and chemical parameters (metal-ion concentration, solvent composition, presence of capping agents), determines the size, shape, and stability of the colloidal products [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. Laser-assisted AuNP fabrication requires a simple setup, which facilitates experimentation [12].
Section 2 of this chapter examines
In a dielectric medium with a band gap that exceeds the laser photon-energy, ultrashort laser pulses can produce quasi-free electrons in the conduction band by two processes: (1) nonlinear multiphoton ionization and tunneling photoionization [31], and (2) high-kinetic-energy free electron collisions with neutral molecules, causing cascade ionization, also called avalanche ionization [32]. The formation of free electrons initially generates a localized, weakly-ionized plasma [32, 33, 34], which can initiate optical breakdown (OB), supercontinuum emission (SCE), or both [35, 36, 37]. This section provides an overview of the theory behind both processes, and some experimental measurements.
Optical breakdown (OB) of a transparent dielectric medium occurs when the free-electron density
Conventionally, the laser pulse propagates in the
where
The time evolution of the free-electron density
Free electrons are produced according to the photoionization rate
At a given laser wavelength, the peak-intensity needed to reach critical electron density for OB is highly dependent on pulse duration, due to the interplay between the photoionization and cascade ionization rates [33, 34]. To illustrate this effect over a wide range of pulse durations used in recent
(a) Electron density vs. time for
The high pulse-energies of up to 5 mJ and tight-focusing conditions often used in
The filamentation process leading to SCE arises from self-focusing of the laser pulse in a nonlinear Kerr medium. A full discussion of the details of nonlinear light propagation leading self-focusing is beyond the scope of this work and may be found in Refs. [35, 36, 37]. Briefly, filamentation depends on the laser power
where
(a) Setup for OB and SCE measurements. (b) OB spectra for tightly focused 30 fs and 1500 fs pulses. (c) SCE spectra for tightly focused 30 fs pulses. (d) SCE spectra for collimated 30 fs pulses.
The presence of OB and SCE may be measured with a spectrometer arranged as shown in Figure 2(a) [35, 36]. To detect OB from light that has scattered off of the OB plasma, the fiber mount is placed at a 90
To illustrate the conditions in which OB, SCE, or both are present, tightly focused pulses [16] and unfocused, collimated pulses [28] were measured using the setup in Figure 2(a). Figure 2(b) shows spectra obtained at detector (i) for tightly focused 30 and 1500 fs pulses at 0.3 and 0.03 mJ pulse energy. The broadened spectrum for 30 fs pulses indicates the presence of SCE along with OB, while the narrow spectrum with 1500 fs pulses indicates that no SCE occurs. Figure 2(c) and (d) show SCE spectra obtained for 30 fs pulses at a series of pulse energies for tightly focused and collimated pulses. Under both conditions, asymmetric broadening towards the visible region of the spectrum grows with increasing pulse energy. The spectral broadening saturates for tightly focused pulses at energies above 1.2 mJ (Figure 2(c)), while greater pulse-energies would be needed to saturate the spectral width for unfocused pulses (Figure 2(d)). No OB is observed when the beam is collimated, indicating that a low-density plasma (LDP) with
The key role that water photolysis plays, in the photochemical reduction of
Although both hydrated-electrons and hydrogen radicals are capable of reducing
Another product of water photolysis,
where the existing AuNPs act as a catalyst for
Controlling the sizes and shapes of AuNPs starts with kinetic control of their nucleation and growth. LaMer’s nucleation theory, developed in 1950 [60], was used to describe AuNP formation first [4, 9, 61], but Turkevich’s studies [62] on reduction of
where [A] is the precursor (metal salt) concentration, [B] is the metal nanoparticle concentration,
where [A(0)] is the initial precursor concentration. The rate law in Eq. (13) has been used to describe AuNP formation from reducing ionic precursors via wet chemical routes [67, 68, 69] and for femtosecond laser-induced
The time-dependent concentrations of
(a) UV–vis spectra of
Under certain experimental conditions where the
The third rate constant,
Extracting the rate constants at a series of experimental conditions (e.g., solution pH [15], pulse energy [16, 28]) provides significant insight into the roles that the reactions in Eqs. (4)–(9) play in the conversion of
Rate constants for 30 fs laser pulses (blue,
The power law dependence of
Under both tight-focusing and LDP conditions, the power law dependence of
The kinetics results quantifying the dependence of both nucleation and autocatalytic growth rate constants demonstrate the importance of both short and long-lived reducing species to control the formation of AuNPs via photochemical reduction of aqueous
Several recent articles have reported some degree of control over the size of AuNPs synthesized by photochemical reduction of
Focusing-geometries influence the nature of the nonlinear interactions between the laser and solution (c.f., Section 2). Without strong-focusing, SCE yields a LDP environment containing electron-densities on the order of
Diagrams (top) and photographs (bottom) of irradiated water using (a) collimated beam, (b) low-NA focusing, (c) high-NA focusing, and (d) SSTF.
Another phenomenon to consider when experimenting with focusing-conditions is cavitation bubble formation, which happens when the OB electron-density threshold is exceeded [38]. The generated cavitation bubbles are sensitive to the shape of the laser-plasma [20, 72]. Under low-NA focusing-conditions with filamentation and SCE, the bubbles are ejected from the focus with low kinetic energy, seen as a small stream of bubbles rising from the center of the cuvette in Figure 5(b). This condition results in inefficient and asymmetrical mixing-dynamics of the reactive species throughout the solution, but can be improved with the addition of a magnetic stir-bar [20]. Similarly, a stir bar is needed when operating under LDP conditions to ensure that the solution is being mixed [26, 28]. Both high-NA focusing and SSTF produce more spherical plasmas, which eject high kinetic energy bubbles into solution radially [72], causing turbulent mixing of the reactive species into the solution (evident in Figure 5(c)) and removing the need for stirring [16, 20].
The complex interactions between high-intensity fs laser pulses and aqueous solution result in the particle size being sensitive to different focusing-conditions. Table 1 summarizes the results of AuNP syntheses prepared in aqueous solutions without capping agents across focusing conditions. Of the reported sizes, the largest AuNPs resulted from the LDP conditions [26, 28], which limits production of the reducing species, driving AuNP formation through aggregative growth and agglomeration. Smaller AuNPs were formed with the high-NA focusing conditions [16, 18], which produces high electron-densities because of tight laser-focus; filamentation is suppressed, and the reducing species (electrons and
Several studies on focusing-conditions have demonstrated that increasing the pulse energy reduces AuNP size [16, 20, 28]. When tight-focusing geometry was used, increasing the energy of a 30 fs pulse from 0.15 mJ to 2.4 mJ decreased AuNP size from
Representative TEM images and AuNP size distributions synthesized with 30 fs pulses under the following conditions: (a) tightly focused, 2.4 mJ; (b) tightly focused, 0.15 mJ; (c) LDP, 3.3 mJ; and (d) LDP, 2.7 mJ.
While the pulse energy strongly influences the size of the AuNPs from photochemical reduction of
Water photolysis produces reactive species, which govern
The hydrated-electron scavenger
Belmouaddine et al. [26] investigated the effect of adding
In another study, Uwada et al. [21] investigated the effects of alcohols (1-propanol, 2-propanol, ethanol) on aqueous
act as the primary reducing agents of
Changing the pH of irradiated aqueous
For comparison with the results in Ref. [15], experiments performed in our laboratory using the tight-focusing conditions in Ref. [16] also showed that the AuNP size depends on solution pH. Aqueous solutions (0.1 mM
UV-vis spectra (a) and TEM images with size distributions (b)–(d) of AuNPs synthesized at different solution pH using the experimental setup in ref. [
One of the most widely used strategies for controlling AuNP size during chemical synthesis is the addition of capping agents, including polymers and surfactants, to stop particle growth [2]. Increasing the molar ratio of a capping agent to Au(III) salt typically results in smaller AuNPs in chemical syntheses [79]. A similar trend is observed for femtosecond laser-based syntheses of AuNPs, as shown in Table 2. Nakamura et al. [14] found that addition of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) to aqueous
Ref. | Laser condition | Capping agent | Capping agent: Au | Size (nm) | Size range (nm) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[14] | High-NA | PVPa | 0.001 | 2, 7 | |
0.01 | 4.5 | ||||
0.1 | 3 | ||||
[19] | SSTF | PEG45 | 0.05 | ||
0.1 | |||||
0.25 | |||||
0.5 | |||||
[45] | Ablation, | Dextranb | 0.0002 | ||
Low-NA | 0.002 | ||||
0.007 | |||||
0.05 | |||||
0.2 |
Capping agents effect on AuNP size.
Median size estimated from reported histogram.
Standard deviation values estimated from 20 to 30
In addition to controlling AuNP size in femtosecond laser-based syntheses, capping agents like PEG
Photochemical reduction of
This work was supported by the American Chemical Society Petroleum Research Fund under Grant no 57799-DNI10 and Virginia Commonwealth University.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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Builders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6302.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"182744",title:"Dr.",name:"Philip",middleName:null,surname:"Builders",slug:"philip-builders",fullName:"Philip Builders"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5612",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",subtitle:"Back to Nature",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ccf7987200bfc541e2e56bb138de86f3",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",bookSignature:"Hany A. 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Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"64851",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80348",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14206,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"54028",doi:"10.5772/67291",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7474,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. This chapter describes the therapeutic effects and uses of Mentha species and their constituents, particularly essential oils and phenolic compounds; some additional biological activities will also be considered.",book:{id:"5612",slug:"aromatic-and-medicinal-plants-back-to-nature",title:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Aromatic and Medicinal Plants - Back to Nature"},signatures:"Fatiha Brahmi, Madani Khodir, Chibane Mohamed and Duez Pierre",authors:[{id:"193281",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatiha",middleName:null,surname:"Brahmi",slug:"fatiha-brahmi",fullName:"Fatiha Brahmi"},{id:"199693",title:"Prof.",name:"Khodir",middleName:null,surname:"Madani",slug:"khodir-madani",fullName:"Khodir Madani"},{id:"199694",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Duez",slug:"pierre-duez",fullName:"Pierre Duez"},{id:"203738",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Chibane",slug:"mohamed-chibane",fullName:"Mohamed Chibane"}]},{id:"58270",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72437",title:"Toxicity and Safety Implications of Herbal Medicines Used in Africa",slug:"toxicity-and-safety-implications-of-herbal-medicines-used-in-africa",totalDownloads:3376,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:"The use of herbal medicines has seen a great upsurge globally. In developing countries, many patronize them largely due to cultural acceptability, availability and cost. In developed countries, they are used because they are natural and therefore assumed to be safer than allopathic medicines. In recent times, however, there has been a growing concern about their safety. This has created a situation of ambivalence in discussions regarding their use. Some medicinal plants are intrinsically toxic by virtue of their constituents and can cause adverse reactions if inappropriately used. Other factors such as herb-drug interactions, lack of adherence to good manufacturing practice (GMP), poor regulatory measures and adulteration may also lead to adverse events in their use. Many in vivo tests on aqueous extracts largely support the safety of herbal medicines, whereas most in vitro tests on isolated single cells mostly with extracts other than aqueous ones show contrary results and thus continue the debate on herbal medicine safety. It is expected that toxicity studies concerning herbal medicine should reflect their traditional use to allow for rational discussions regarding their safety for their beneficial use. While various attempts continue to establish the safety of various herbal medicines in man, their cautious and responsible use is required.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Merlin L.K. Mensah, Gustav Komlaga, Arnold D. Forkuo, Caleb\nFirempong, Alexander K. Anning and Rita A. Dickson",authors:[{id:"190435",title:"Dr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:null,surname:"Firempong",slug:"caleb-firempong",fullName:"Caleb Firempong"},{id:"212111",title:"Dr.",name:"Gustav",middleName:null,surname:"Komlaga",slug:"gustav-komlaga",fullName:"Gustav Komlaga"},{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor"},{id:"217049",title:"Prof.",name:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",slug:"merlin-lincoln-kwao-mensah",fullName:"Merlin Lincoln Kwao Mensah"},{id:"217488",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander K.",middleName:null,surname:"Anning",slug:"alexander-k.-anning",fullName:"Alexander K. Anning"},{id:"223959",title:"Prof.",name:"Akosua Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Dickson",slug:"akosua-rita-dickson",fullName:"Akosua Rita Dickson"}]},{id:"26489",doi:"10.5772/28224",title:"Alternative and Traditional Medicines Systems in Pakistan: History, Regulation, Trends, Usefulness, Challenges, Prospects and Limitations",slug:"alternative-and-traditional-medicines-systems-in-pakistan-history-regulation-trends-usefulness-chall",totalDownloads:9199,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Shahzad Hussain, Farnaz Malik, Nadeem Khalid, Muhammad Abdul Qayyum and Humayun Riaz",authors:[{id:"73162",title:"Dr.",name:"Shahzad",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"shahzad-hussain",fullName:"Shahzad Hussain"},{id:"82266",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnaz",middleName:null,surname:"Malik",slug:"farnaz-malik",fullName:"Farnaz Malik"},{id:"124185",title:"Dr.",name:"Humayun",middleName:null,surname:"Riaz",slug:"humayun-riaz",fullName:"Humayun Riaz"},{id:"124186",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Abdul",middleName:null,surname:"Qayyum",slug:"muhammad-abdul-qayyum",fullName:"Muhammad Abdul Qayyum"},{id:"125340",title:"Mr.",name:"Nadeem",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"nadeem-khalid",fullName:"Nadeem Khalid"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:14207,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:52,abstract:"African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:8875,totalCrossrefCites:56,totalDimensionsCites:140,abstract:"The vast and versatile pharmacological effects of medicinal plants are basically dependent on their phytochemical constituents. Generally, the phytochemical constituents of plants fall into two categories based on their role in basic metabolic processes, namely primary and secondary metabolites. Primary plant metabolites are involved in basic life functions; therefore, they are more or less similar in all living cells. On the other hand, secondary plant metabolites are products of subsidiary pathways as the shikimic acid pathway. In the course of studying, the medicinal effect of herbals is oriented towards the secondary plant metabolites. Secondary plant metabolites played an important role in alleviating several aliments in the traditional medicine and folk uses. In modern medicine, they provided lead compounds for the production of medications for treating various diseases from migraine up to cancer. Secondary plant metabolites are classified according to their chemical structures into various classes. In this chapter, we will be presenting various classes of secondary plant metabolites, their distribution in different plant families and their important medicinal uses.",book:{id:"6302",slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"77433",title:"Extraction of Bioactive Compounds from Medicinal Plants and Herbs",slug:"extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-from-medicinal-plants-and-herbs",totalDownloads:1266,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human beings have relied on herbs and medicinal plants as sources of food and remedy from time immemorial. Bioactive compounds from plants are currently the subject of much research interest, but their extraction as part of phytochemical and/or biological investigations present specific challenges. Herbalists or scientists have developed many protocols of extraction of bioactive ingredients to ensure the effectiveness and the efficacy of crude drugs that were used to get relief from sickness. With the advent of new leads from plants such as morphine, quinine, taxol, artemisinin, and alkaloids from Voacanga species, a lot of attention is paid to the mode of extraction of active phytochemicals to limit the cost linked to the synthesis and isolation. Thus, the extraction of active compounds from plants needs appropriate extraction methods and techniques that provide bioactive ingredients-rich extracts and fractions. The extraction procedures, therefore, play a critical role in the yield, the nature of phytochemical content, etc. This chapter aims to present, describe, and compare extraction procedures of bioactive compounds from herbs and medicinal plants.",book:{id:"10356",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants"},signatures:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane, Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules, Gaber El-Saber Batiha, Iftikhar Ali and Lenta Ndjakou Bruno",authors:[{id:"224515",title:"Dr.",name:"Fongang Fotsing",middleName:null,surname:"Yannick Stéphane",slug:"fongang-fotsing-yannick-stephane",fullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane"},{id:"227816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankeu Kezetas",middleName:null,surname:"Jean Jules",slug:"bankeu-kezetas-jean-jules",fullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules"},{id:"227817",title:"Prof.",name:"Lenta Ndjakou",middleName:null,surname:"Bruno",slug:"lenta-ndjakou-bruno",fullName:"Lenta Ndjakou Bruno"},{id:"349790",title:"Prof.",name:"Gaber",middleName:null,surname:"El-Saber Batiha",slug:"gaber-el-saber-batiha",fullName:"Gaber El-Saber Batiha"},{id:"357350",title:"Dr.",name:"Iftikhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"iftikhar-ali",fullName:"Iftikhar Ali"}]},{id:"26491",title:"Homeopathy: Treatment of Cancer with the Banerji Protocols",slug:"homeopathy-treatment-of-cancer-with-the-banerji-protocols",totalDownloads:54048,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"542",slug:"a-compendium-of-essays-on-alternative-therapy",title:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy",fullTitle:"A Compendium of Essays on Alternative Therapy"},signatures:"Prasanta Banerji and Pratip Banerji",authors:[{id:"79939",title:"Dr",name:"Prasanta",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"prasanta-banerji",fullName:"Prasanta Banerji"},{id:"79943",title:"Dr.",name:"Pratip",middleName:null,surname:"Banerji",slug:"pratip-banerji",fullName:"Pratip Banerji"}]},{id:"54028",title:"Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Mentha Species",slug:"chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-mentha-species",totalDownloads:7474,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"The genus Mentha L. (Lamiaceae) is distributed all over the world and can be found in many environments. Mentha species, one of the world’s oldest and most popular herbs, are widely used in cooking, in cosmetics, and as alternative or complementary therapy, mainly for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders like flatulence, indigestion, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, and ulcerative colitis. Furthermore, it is well documented that the essential oil and extracts of Mentha species possess antimicrobial, fungicidal, antiviral, insecticidal, and antioxidant properties. The economic importance of mints is also evident; mint oil and its constituents and derivatives are used as flavoring agents throughout the world in food, pharmaceutical, herbal, perfumery, and flavoring industry. To provide a scientific basis for their traditional uses, several studies have been conducted to determine the chemical composition of mints and assess their biological activities. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, Mexico. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",slug:"juan-ignacio-guerrero-alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"w.-david-pan",fullName:"W. David Pan",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEI9QAO/Profile_Picture_1623656213532",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alabama in Huntsville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72920/images/system/72920.jpeg",institutionString:"Dalarna University, Faculty of Data and Information Sciences",institution:{name:"Dalarna University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:34,paginationItems:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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