Hepatic cell type and their functions [4].
\r\n\tVarious disciplines characterize the constituent components comprising mechatronics, which include physical systems modeling, sensors and actuators, signals and systems, computers and logic systems, and software and data acquisition.
\r\n\tMany new MEMS and Nanotechnology applications will emerge, expanding beyond that which is currently identified or known. Here are a few applications of current interest: new phenomena are addressed nowadays in science and technology.
\r\n\tIn this book, we will deal with physical systems modeling., discuss the physical phenomena involved, the adequate methodology to deal with them, and report a selection of papers recently published for possible applications for MEMS and Nanotechnology.
\r\n\r\n\tIn summary, Nano- and micro-electromechanical systems (NEMS/MEMS) are useful for applications ranging from: The design of MEMS accelerometers, gyroscopes, electrostatic actuators, and microresonators; Interfacial engineering for NEMS/MEMS; Biosensors, magnetic biochips, in vitro diagnostics, cell sorting, magnetic nanoparticles, spin electronic materials and sensors, magnetic inductive heads, and magnetic integrated inductors and transformer’s; Flexible substrates for electronics, sensors, and energy conversion platforms; Nanofabrication and nanopatterning technologies, including self-assembly for device fabrication.
\r\n\t
Liver is one the most vital organ of the human body and it is the largest among all other organs found in humans. There is incomplete separation of liver into lobes. These lobes are covered externally by a thin capsule of connective tissue. Liver is made up of different kinds of cells which interact with one another to perform specified functions. Hepatocytes or hepatic parenchymal cells are approximately 60% of the total cells found in the liver. Hepatocytes hold 80% of total volume of the organ. Hepatocytes are arranged into laminae in such a way that they connect with each other forming a 3 dimensional lattice. The space between the lattices is filled by hepatic sinusoid that performs the function of providing nourishment to the parenchymal cells of the 3 dimensional lattice. Other than the lattice, sinusoids and the non-parenchymal cells form the remaining volume of organ. The different types of non-parenchymal cells found are the inter-luminal kupffer cells, sinusoidal endothelial cell and perisinusoidal stellate cells [1].
When blood passes through the liver the hepatocytes behave as a filter for blood that enters the liver. This behavior of liver helps in production of plasma protein and in endocytic uptake of variety of substances like lipid, trophic agents and growth factors. As liver performs the function of purification and is always in contact of agents like alcohol, excessive fat, pathogens or drugs, it is at higher risk of damage by these agents. This chapter will briefly describe organelles of hepatocytes and the functions they perform in the body. Further the chapter will focus on the function of hepatocytes in metabolism. Moreover it will also explain the mechanism of hepatocyte damage [2].
The structure of hepatocytes is polyhedral in nature. It contains many faces but generally it is 6 in number. These faces are connected with face of other hepatocytes or in some cases it is in contact with sinusoids. Hepatocytes generally have diameters around 20 to 30 μm. They have a round shaped nucleus in the center of cytoplasm. Approximately 25% of hepatocytes found in an adult human contain two nuclei instead of one. Most of these nuclei contains twice the number of chromosomes than a normal cell; thus are deemed tetraploid. In the nuclei, heterochromatin are scattered. The presence of mitotic hepatocytes is not seen generally in normal conditions. However their number increases in conditions like liver injury or in the process of regeneration. Depending upon the physiological state, the cytoplasm of the hepatic cell varies and is influenced by fat or glycogen depots. In a hepatocyte, as many as 100 mitochondria can be seen. Moreover the number of Golgi apparatus found in a hepatocytes accounts to approximately 50. Each Golgi apparatus are arranged in 3–5 cisterns. These cisterns are located near biliary canaliculi, small canal like structures that collecting the bile secreted by hepatocytes. Peroxisomes found in hepatocytes are in numbers of 200 or 300 which is more than found in normal cells (Figure 1, Table 1) [3].
Hepatocyte ultrastructure [
Hepatic cell | Function of the cell |
---|---|
Parenchymal Hepatocytes | Chief cell of the liver, synthesis, storage, degredation of portal substance, metabolism, endocrine and exocrine function. |
Non parenchymal cells | |
Sinusoidal endothelial cells | Fenestrated plexus allows contact of portal blood with hepatoctyes. |
Kupffer cells | Liver phagocytes, release cytokines. |
Stellate cell | Injury, precursor to myofibroblast, vitamin A storage. |
Cholangiocyte | Transport bile, secrete bicarbonate and water. |
Hepatic cell type and their functions [4].
Kupffer cells are the macrophages that reside in liver and are the highest number of resident macrophages in body. Kupffer cells are basically phagocytes that remove pathogens that in the circulation. Their presence in hepatic sinusoids allows them to perform the above said function efficiently. They also act against substances which are immunoreactive that enter through the portal circulation from the gastrointestinal tract. As Kupffer cells act against immunoreactive substances that enter from the GIT to portal circulation so they can be regarded as a barrier in the gut. It inhibits many inflammation that may occur due to these immunoreactive substances by destroying them in hepatic sinusoids. The Kupffer cell also plays a major role in clearing the dead red blood cells and comprise the mononuclear phagocytic system due to its phagocytic activity. Though Kupffer cells plays a major role in in protecting the liver from injuries due to alcohol, drugs or toxins, however their inflammatory response leads to conditions like chronic inflammation in liver which may be due alcoholic as well as non-alcoholic liver disease [5].
The hepatic sinusoids are covered by specific endothelial cells that leads to formation of a barrier, which is porous in nature, that aid in exchange of materials among the hepatocytes and blood. The endothelial cells helps the clusters of differentiation markers such as CD14, CD16, CDw32, CD36, CD54, CD13 and CD4. They possess specific phenotype for portal venules, capillary endothelium, and terminal hepatic venule. It can be seen that the endothelium of portal tract arterioles, branches of portal vein and central veins binds with
Hepatic stellate cells belong to the family of myofibroblasts. Stellate cells show their activity in the process of fibrogenesis and regulate flow of sinusoidal blood [11, 12]. They play the role of antigen presenting cells as well. Stellate cells during the childhood or adolescence phases are positive for actin whereas they are negative in adults and become positive only when there is any pathological condition [13]. Whereas in the case of synaptophysin, which is one of the main synaptic vesicle protein p38 and is encoded by the SYP gene, activated as well as resting stellate cells are positive. Stellate cells normally cannot be seen in a healthy liver whereas in pathological conditions they can be identified by vacuolated cytoplasm and a nucleus that becomes scalloped. Hepatic stellate cells are also related to the synthesis of collagen [14, 15].
Hepatic cytochromes P450 enzymes found in hepatocytes are one of the major enzymes that metabolize drugs. Hepatocytes also act a factory for protein and biliary secretion. Moreover hepatocytes also behave as an endocytic blood-filtering machine. Hepatocytes aid in detoxification of blood.
The cytochromes P450 are terminal oxidase that comes under the superfamily of hemoproteins. This super family P450 has around 154 genes that can be seen in case of 23 eukaryotes in both plants and animal along with 6 prokaryotes. Among all the isoform of CYPP450, CYP1, CYP2 and CYP3 are known to play important roles in majority of drug metabolism. P450 are responsible for catalyzing some of the reactions such as hydroxylation, dealkylation, and oxygenation. These cytochromes also have ability to catalyze reductive reactions where the metabolite produced from the reaction leads to inactivation of P450 [16].
Most xenobiotics are eliminated from body after undergoing chemical modification. The process of chemical modification of drug can be referred as biotransformation. In the process of biotransformation, lipophilic drugs are rendered more hydrophilic so that they can be excreted easily. Biotransformation occurs through two phases namely: Phase I and Phase II. Phase I reaction is also termed as functionalization reaction whereas Phase II reaction is called as conjugation reaction. In phase I reactions, the parent compounds undergoes oxidative processes to form more polar metabolites. In some case more reactive metabolites are also produced. The Phase I reactions are broadly of three types namely oxidation, reduction and hydrolysis. In phase II reactions, the parent compound or its Phase I metabolites are conjugated with endogenous substances like sulfate, glutathione or glucuronic acids to from a more water soluble and less toxic product that easily excrete out from the body.
Examples of Phase II reactions are
Glucuronide conjugation: Compounds like Paracetamol, aspirin, chloramphenicol that are having carboxyl group or hydroxyl groups are conjugated with glucuronic acids.
Acetylation: occurs in compounds that has either amino or hydrazine in their structure. Examples of such compounds are sulfonamide, clonazepam.
Methylation: is generally seen in compounds like adrenaline, methyldopa or histamine which contain amines or phenols in their structure.
Sulfate conjugation: A phenolic compound also may undergo sulfate conjugation as well.
Glycine conjugation: Compounds such as salicylates which contain carboxylic group gets conjugated with glycine.
Metabolism of diverse ranges of xenobiotic are carried out by enzymes such as cytochrome (CYP) and flavin monooxygenases. CYP are found in liver predominantly and are also found in organs like gastrointestinal tract (GIT), lungs and placenta. 16 gene families and 29 sub families of CYP are found in human beings. Among these families, family 1, 2 and 3 are mostly responsible for biotransformation of xenobiotic. Most abundant CYP found in liver of adult humans is CYP3A4. CYP450 are also known to express more than 2000 mutation and ultimately shows polymorphisms. Some of the CYP also shows single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). Some important polymorphism are seen in 1A2, 2C9, 2C19 and 2D6. The genetic variation seen in the polymorphs are Mendelian inherited and are responsible for the catalytic variation they show in towards xenobiotic. Due to polymorphism, pharmacokinetic as well pharmacodynamics activities of drugs may show variations. When variability is seen in plasma concentration of drugs, it may lead to either toxicity due to exaggerated plasma concentration or suboptimal actions may be seen when plasma concentration is not achieved. If a new drug is metabolized by polymorphic enzyme then it can be considered as a drawback for the new drug because of the variation that can be shown to by the polymorphic enzyme [17, 18].
Hepatocytes contains many organelles that are secretory in nature as well as many mitochondria. Because of the presence of large number of endoplasmic reticulum and golgi bodies, the secretory activity of hepatocytes get overshadowed. Generally proteins that are secreted from hepatocytes initiates with ribosomal synthesis after which the polypeptide formed get transported into the lumen of endoplasmic reticulum then it reaches the golgi apparatus where secretory vesicles of golgi apparatus encloses the protein and transport it through exocytosis from hepatocytes [19, 20]. The major proteins that are secreted from hepatocytes are namely albumin, fibrinogen, transferrin and clotting factors. Serum proteins are the most prominent proteins secreted by hepatocytes [21, 22, 23]. It is important in context of bile production as well as in production of complex molecular soap that contains conjugated bilirubin, bile acids, electrolytes and phospholipids. Bile has a role in emulsification of fats and their digestion in the intestine as well as in removing xenobiotics and waste products that are produced endogenously. Synthesis of bile takes place in hepatocytes and is then transported to the bile canaliculi. Because of osmotic gradient bile moves through ductules and eventually reaches bile duct. During the transit, the bile is further modified by cholangiocytes and ductular epithelial cells [24]. Then bile goes into the gall bladder and it is released into intestine when needed. An amount of approximately 800 ml bile is secreted daily in the gut. The apical surface of hepatocytes because of thier structure, are tolerant to the bile environment. The apical domain also helps in synthesis, transportation and release of bile acids. Transportation is carried out by the ATP-dependent ABC transporter [25]. Transportation of cytotoxins and foreign substances is carried out by the multidrug resistance protein 1 as well as the multidrug and extrusion protein 1. The remaning content of bile like sulfate conjugates and conjugate bilirubin are exported through the bile salt export pump and multidrug resistance related protein 2. Aquaporin types such as aquaporin 0 and aquaporin 8 carry out the transportation of water to bile [26]. Most of the apical membrane protein moves through transcytosis whereas transporters such as the ABC transporter comes either from Golgi apparatus or through subapical endosomes [27, 28]. The sinusoidal surface is made up with basolateral membrane that makes the connection with the portal blood. Sinusoidal surfaces possess receptosr such as tyrosine kinase and trophic receptors. Moreover it also contains ABC transporter that performs the function of retrieving bile acids and other component sof bile from circulating blood. Conjugated bile acids which are water soluble is retrieved by the help of a transporter called sodium taurocholate cotransporter (NTCP) whereas water insoluble bile acids are retrieved with the help of organic anion transporting polypeptides [29, 30].
Solute transporters perform the task of transporting bile acids whereas the protein that are found in the sinusoidal membrane plays an important role in internalizing essential components from blood through hepatocytes. Liver being the first organ that is in contact with the nutrients that comes to the gastrointestinal tract, it has evolved into a kind of biological filter that filter out unwanted and potentially damaging substances that could reach those organs which do not have the ability to detoxify them. Liver cells, by the process of endocytosis, internalize materials that are present in extracellular matrix. There are many endocytic mechanisms found in the hepatocytes such as the fluid-phase endocytic mechanism as well as caveolae-based endocytosis. However the most prominent endocytic mechanism is receptor mediated endocytosis (RME) [31, 32]. Hepatocytes are remarkably capable of RME. In the process of RME, basolateral plasma membrane binds with extracellular ligands that present in blood plasma followed by incorporation via clathrin coated pits. When they enter the cell the receptor, ligand and the carrier protein are transported to a different destination within the cell, and are then recycled back and finally degraded by the action of lysosomes and endosomes. Trafficking of endocytic vesicles are controlled by Rab GTPases. Rab GTPase is an enzyme which assists in regulating various steps in membrane trafficking, such as vesicle formation, vesicle movement along actin and tubulin networks, and membrane fusion. Which basically selects specific protein for binding [33, 34]. Rab effector also performs other functions such as vesicle fusion and remodeling of membrane. Uponn ligand stimulation, internalization of half of the insulin along with EGF receptors through clathrin coated pits takes place within one minute [35]. Due to this great ability of endocytosis, hepatocytes are capable of performing the task of filtering blood which enters the hepatic portal system [36].
After a meal, pancreatic β-cells secrete insulin in a pulsated manner. Insulin, by binding with insulin receptors, initiates the utilization of dietary glucose as well as its storage in the adipose tissue, muscles and in liver. Liver plays a major role in maintaining the homeostasis of glucose in the body. Hepatocyte stores around 100 g in glycogen polysaccharides [37, 38]. Postprandial release of insulin causes a decline in the blood glucose level. However to counteract this effect glucagon, a hormone that is secreted by pancreatic α cells stimulate the utilization of glucose through the cyclic AMP- protein kinase A (cAMP–PKA) pathway [39, 40]. Through RME hepatocytes clear around 80% of blood insulin before it reaches peripheral tissue [41]. The phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase- protein kinase B (PI3K–AKT) pathway initiates the storage of lipid and glucose. Whereas activation of the said pathway depends upon the endocytic uptake of insulin receptor [42]. When endocytosis of the insulin receptor takes place, it leads to dissociation of insulin ligand inside the endosomes and sorting of insulin receptors is done and through recycling pathway as they are trafficed back to the plasma membrane [43].
One of the essential functions that is performed by liver is maintaining systemic iron homeostasis. Iron is a vital component in processes like cellular function, gene transcription, DNA replication and mitochondrial respiration [44, 45]. The human body depends on the dietary sources to fulfill its iron requirements as it is not produced in the body itself. This iron gets stored in the liver cells and macrophages [46]. There are two different endocytosis mechanisms through which iron storage and release takes place. Within the circulation, iron gets circulated by combining with a protein called as transferrin. Transferrin acts a ligand for the transferrin receptors (TfRs). There are two types of transferrin receptors namely TfR1 and TfR2 which are found in different tissues and play a major role in homeostasis of iron [44, 45, 47]. TfR1 is abundantly expressed in the body and these receptors are concerned with iron uptake into the cells. Whereas TfR2 are found in erythroid cells and hepatocytes. These receptors aid in sensing of the presence or absence of iron in the human body and eventually helps in maintaining the homeostasis of iron [48]. Iron transferrin complex binds to the transferrin receptor and through a clathrin-mediated endocytosis process is internalized. Afterward the complex dissociatea inside the cell and transferrins along with TfR receptor are transported back to the cell membrane [49]. The iron that remains in the endosome is transported to the cytoplasm with by a transporter called DMT1. In the cytoplasm iron complexes with another protein called ferritin. The Mmajority of the ferritin stays in hepatocytes and sequesters around 4000 atoms of iron, making them available to structures of subcellular level such as DNA [50]. Moreover, hepatocytes also regulate iron release into the circulation by stimulating cells which are rich in iron stores such as macrophages and Kupffer cells [51]. TfR2 which is responsible to sense the level of iron in circulation stimulate the release a peptide called as hepcidin from liver cells whenever iron levels exceed normal. Hepcidin binds with ferroportin, an export transporter of iron [52, 53]. Hepcidin initiates ferroportin degradation in the endosomes by stimulating endocytosis and eventually reduces the export of iron and promotes its storage [54]. Hepatocytes are different from other epithelial cells as they participate in the internalization of iron through TfR1 and maintain homeostasis of with TfR2.
The liver plays an important role in metabolism of lipid. Liver act as a depot for storage of lipid that are taken up from circulation. Breakdown and release of the stored lipid also takes place through liver. Dietary lipids are taken up by the liver cells as chylomicron remnants, although a significant amount of the lipid is released back into the blood in the form of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL). Assembly of VLDL and translation and translocation of protein apoB100 inside the rough endoplasmic reticulum lumen occur simulateneously and binds to various neutral lipids. The lipoproteins which are secreted deliver lipid to tissues such as muscle or adipose either for storage or for utilization as an energy source. Hepatocytes clear 80–90% of these lipids from the blood stream [55]. Internalization of lipoproteins present in plasma into clathrin-coated vesicles is done by hepatocytes by the process of RME [56]. LDLR is the low-density lipoprotein receptor which helps lipoprotein-borne cholesterol enter into cells. LDLR identifies the surface proteins such as ApoE and ApoB100 present on low density lipoproteins and act as a station for retrieval of circulating lipids [57]. Conditions which affect the process of endocytosis of lipoprotein hugely impacts the level of cholesterols in the circulation and are the major reason for disease associated with heart and blood vessels [58]. Cholesterols, in the form HDL, also come back to the liver from macrophages that are present in artery as well as from peripheral tissues by a process called reverse cholesterol transport. Hepatocytes also takes up enterocyte-derived chylomicrons which contains retinyl esters (REs). Very small amounts of RE is taken up by hepatocytes for storage whereas maximum amounts are transported to hepatic stellate cells [59, 60, 61]. In endoplasmic reticulum lipid droplets (LDs) biosynthesis takes place leading to distention of neutral membrane lipids to cytoplasm [62]. Liver contains different types of lipolytic enzymes. These lipolytic enzymes, adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL) and this family of enzymes act as catalyst in lipolysis of triglycerides and catabolism of LDs present in cytoplasm [63]. Moreover carboxylesterases perform the task of mobilizing triglycerol (TAG) from hepatic cells and mediate distribution of stored fatty acids from LDs present in cytoplasm to VLDL which are formed in endoplasmic reticulum [64, 65]. This process of autophagy also is critical in LDs turnover. Lipophagy is a process where LDs are engulfed by hepatic autophagic membrane to form autophagosomes, then by the action of autolysosomes, LDs are broken down with by acidic lipase and hydrolases [66].
Liver being one the most vascular metabolizing organs, a large amount of blood enters is filtered. However, as liver receives such a huge amount of blood, it is always exposed to variety pathogens such as bacteria, virus or fungus. To counteract these pathogens hepatocytes release proteins, which in turn lead to stimulation of an innate immune response [67]. However some of the viruses by pass this defense mechanism of liver and enter the hepatocytes. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus C (HCV) are viruses that enter hepatocytes. Infection caused by either these two can lead to severe liver disease [68]. HBV is a DNA virus and belongs to the family of Hepadnaviridae, it enters hepatic cells through a receptor called Na + taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide (NTCP) which is present on the surface of sinusoidal plasma membrane [69]. HBV is taken into hepatocytes by the process of endocytosis whereas there is no concrete idea about their escape [70]. According to studies, HBV replicates and releases infectious particles by hijacking the vesicular components such as multivesicular endosomes and autophagosomes [71]. Viral genomes enter the nucleus to undergo transcription, where the pregenomic RNA gets to cytosol and undergoes the process of reverse transcription and packs the resultant DNA into icosahedral nucleocapsid [72]. HBV then utilizes the secretary ability of the liver cells to release mature viruses into the circulation.
HCV is an RNA virus which belongs to Flaviviridae family. It enters hepatocytes by posing itself as a lipoprotein particle. Mature virus expresses two kind of apolipoproteins namely E1 and E2 on their surface that eventually leads to binding to receptors such as LDLR and CD81, which are found in sinusoidal membrane of hepatocytes, leading to internalization of virus by the process of RME [73]. Then the virus fuses with endosomes. Finally the RNA genome which freely acts as a template for synthesizing structural and nonstructural proteins of HCV. The core capsid and nonstructural protein namely NS5A promotes the assembly of nascent HCV near the endoplasmic reticulum [74]. Once they are assembled the mature virus particles are secreted out of the hepatocytes [75].
Alcohol is known to cause hepatic injury but it is the metabolite of alcohol that is produced during metabolism which is hepatotoxic. In the initial stage of alcoholic liver disease, steatosis occurs; whereas in case of acute or chronic exposure to alcohol leads to accumulation of triglycerides as well as enhances the expression of lipogenic enzyme. Moreover, the enzymes which are responsible for fatty acid oxidation are down regulated [76]. Advanced stages of alcoholic liver disease are associated with conditions like fibrosis and cirrhosis. In hepatic fibrosis extracellular matrix protein gets deposited and forms scars such as those that occur in cutaneous wounds [77, 78].
Hepatocytes are the site of alcohol metabolism. Metabolites of alcohol that are produced during its metabolism are the major reason of hepatic injury. Chronic consumption of alcohol is major risk factor for hepatic injury. In reversible alcoholic liver disease, hepatocyte shows a condition called as steatosis where accumulation of cytoplasmic LDs have accumulated. Whereas in acute or chronic stages of liver disease triglycerides accumulate because of enhanced expression of lipogenic enzymes as well as down regulation of those enzymes which are concerned in oxidation of fatty acid. Moreover LD metabolism, specifically its catabolism, is hampered due to impaired lipophagy [79]. Additionally lipolysis is impaired through cytoplasmic lipases [80]. Fibrosis and cirrhosis are the characteristics seen in later stages of alcoholic liver disease. In the process of alcohol metabolism, alcohol isconverted to acetaldehyde in the presence of an enzyme called alcohol dehydrogenase present in the cytosol. Acetaldehyde is converted to acetate in mitochondria. The acetate produced is utilized in the citric acid cycle for the formation of acetyl-CoA. For alcohol metabolism, co factor NAD+ is required in large amount, so it is depleted and in turn the reduction –oxidation (redox) state of ethanol exposed hepatocytes isaltered. This leads to dysregulation of carbohydrate and lipid metabolism as well as inhibition of NAD+ dependent enzymes that are responsible prevention of hepatic injury [81]. Cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) also metabolizes alcohol, in addition to alcohol dehydrogenase, and produces acetaldehyde along with highly reactive oxygen and hydroxyethyl radicals. These metabolites are capable of forming bonds with protein, DNA and lipids [82]. CYP2E1 also produces oxidative stress which is one of the major causes of alcohol induced hepatic dysfunction. Eventually oxidative stress leads to endoplasmic reticulum stress resulting in apoptosis of the hepatic cell, steatosis and inflammation due to build up of unfolded protein [83]. Moreover alcohol induces an increase in mitochondrial permeability leading to alteration in homeostasis of cellular energy and eventually apoptosis in addition to generation of reactive oxygen species [84]. These acetaldehyde and oxygen radicals are the major mechanism of liver injury as they stimulate hepatic dysfunction and inflammatory response [85]. Consumption of alcohol induces production of enzyme CYP2E1 and it reinforces this cycle of hepatic damage again.
This chapter it illustrates that hepatocytes have the unique ability to perform a variety of functions. It can be called a jack of all trades. Hepatocytes perform the task of detoxification of blood in one hand and also does the packaging and secretion of components such as lipid, protein and bile. In addition they take up nutrients from the blood stream. However, if there is any kind of compromise in the functioning of liver related to membrane trafficking it can lead to many diseases like cirrhosis, hepatitis, fibrosis and even carcinoma of the liver. The present chapter elaborated on the functioning of liver and the associated condition of liver when there is a variety malfunctions. Liver being the major organ in metabolism as well as in detoxification of blood and nutrient uptake, through a series of detailed future research on its function and effect of various pathogenic conditions on its functioning can be accurately estimated. This chapter concludes that an accurate estimate will eventually be a boon to develop better treatment of the disease conditions associated liver.
Due to the elevated level of population growth, energy consumption has risen over the recent decade [1]. This increase in energy demand over the years has changed the energy scenario through manufacturing [2]. Furthermore, even with the current low oil price, the world’s energy demand is anticipated to continue to rise in the future according to the international energy agency’s new policy situation [3], from 13.2% in 2011 up to 17.6% in 2035 as shown Figure 1.
Primary energy demand in Mtoe (million tonnes of oil equivalent) (a) 2011, (b) 2035 “new policies scenario” and (c) 2035 “450 scenario” (adapted from Ref. [
Currently, dependence on fossil fuels such as petroleum, gas and coal to satisfy energy demand has caused environmental issues owing to anthropogenic greenhouse gas generation. Methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are the most abundant greenhouse gasses and have lately contributed significantly to climate change issues [4]. While the level of methane in the environment is smaller than that of carbon dioxide [5], it is surprising that around 20% of worldwide warming occurs is caused by it [6]. Conventionally, there are two main sources of methane emissions including nature occurring activities and anthropogenic activities. Examples of the first source are termites, grasslands, coal beds, lakes, wetlands and forest fires, while examples from the second source are landfills, oil and gas treatment, wastewater treatment plants, coal mining, rice production, livestock and agricultural activities [7]. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency [8], methane manufacturing from landfill sites accounts for almost one-third of all methane produced in the United States alone, where landfill gas consists of 40–45% methane and 55–60% carbon dioxide by quantity by volume [9]. Notwithstanding, the reality that methane is a significant element of natural gas, a big quantity of natural gas is burned globally owing to technological constraints and the high price of carrying this valuable gas from its reservoirs, which are often far from industrial fields and the prospective market [10]. These actions have wasted an important source of hydrocarbons and contributed to global warming by releasing greenhouse gases into the atmosphere [11]. Carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) has been implemented globally to decrease carbon dioxide emissions due to pressure to combat global climate change and guarantee viable power sources [12]. In addition, renewable energy is required instantly to replace oil resources to decrease the heavy dependence on crude oil and its unwanted impacts on the atmosphere [13].
In the last few years, the resources of renewable energy, particularly, biogas, have gained massive attention around the world as a substitute for traditional fossil fuels [14]. In Southeast Asia, palm oil biomass is considered one of the most plentiful renewable resources and has enormous potential for the sustainable production of chemical substances and fuels. Liquid waste, known as palm oil mill effluent (POME) generated along with crude palm oil production, is one of Southeast Asia’s environmental problem due to its high pollution characteristics. Therefore, digestion, an aerobic treatment, is widely adopted in the oil palm industries as a reliable and effective treatment for POME. The biogas generated during POME’s anaerobic decomposition is not restored for use, but can be dissipated into the atmosphere [15]. The biogas produced contains two greenhouse gases: methane (60–70%) and carbon dioxide (30–40%) with traces of hydrogen sulfide which can be utilized after purification for heat generation, electricity production, bio-methane production and of synthesis gas (referred to as syngas, mixture of H2 and CO) [16]. In fact, POME could become a significant source for biogas production due to its high organic content [17]. According to the World Meteorological Organization [18], methane and carbon dioxide levels were reported at 1845 ppm (parts per million) and 400.1 ppm (parts per million) respectively in 2015. Methane levels in the environment have been revealed to be below carbon dioxide levels, but have caused about 20% of worldwide warming [19]. Methane production was estimated at 6875 million metric tons which equals the total amount of carbon dioxide from all anthropogenic sources in 2010 [20]. Methane is frequently considered an important natural gas component with small amounts of other hydrocarbons such as ethane, propane and butane containing inert substances such as molecular oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide [21]. When monitoring the negative impact of methane and carbon dioxide, it is paramount to reduce their concentrations so that to avoid the high concentration of the greenhouse gases that lead to negative environmental conditions and increased temperature.
A great deal of extensive studies has been conducted to discover efficient methods of converting methane and carbon dioxide into precious products and thus reducing their elevated atmospheric quantity. Because of its comparatively low price and stability relative to other methods, converting carbon dioxide and methane into syngas is one of the most prevalent technologies [22]. It is one of the most important processes to convert hydrocarbons in the chemical industries to produce syngas [23]. In many distinct applications, such as Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) petroleum synthesis and the manufacturing of methanol and other precious fluid fuels and chemicals, syngas can be regarded as a construction block [24].
Recently, there have been many attempts that have prompted interest in producing alternative fuels by using renewable and environmentally friendly sources of energy, one of the few alternative sources is biogas. Even so, it is not entirely greenhouse gas-free; it does not, however, lead to global warming. Biogas is an appealing alternative for converting fuel to transport and generate electricity [25]. The vital route that will be of benefit to the power generation industry is the direct conversion of biogas, composed of methane and carbon dioxide to hydrocarbons under catalytic decomposition processes.
The use of catalysts in the catalytic reaction is essential in growing syngas manufacturing, as they assist to alter and enhance the reaction rate without consumption in the process [26]. Catalysts operate by offering an alternative mechanism that decreases energy activation, which implies the system needs less energy to achieve the state of transition. While catalytic reaction needs elevated temperatures to operate due to its heat-absorbing nature, the existence of catalysts can significantly decrease the reaction temperature [27].
Recently, there have been many attempts to use monometallic catalysts such as Ni, Co, Fe and Cu in the catalytic process because they are cheap and have a strong magnetization ability [28, 29]. Furthermore, bimetallic such as Ni-Co, Ni-Fe, and Ni-Cu have become very attractive to researchers due to their properties and the diversity of applications when compared with their individual mono-metal counterparts. The incorporation of nickel into Co, Fe, and Cu metals decreases the use of expensive noble metals [30]. Bimetallic catalysts success is thought to be due to the synergy of their parent metals they consist of two separate metals that display elevated dispersion and active sites. Moreover, the physical and chemical properties of the bimetallic catalysts are enhanced due to the formation of the solid solution [31]. For example, Pudukudy et al. [32] and Pinilla et al. [33] revealed a greater carbon output from a bimetallic catalyst compared to a monometallic catalyst.
At the moment, the adverse effect on the environment from the burning of fossil fuels, coal and compressed natural gas has become one of the main global issues [34]. Climate change occurs when the greenhouse effect rises, as demonstrated by flash floods, wind storms, heat waves and sudden droughts in a number of nations [35]. In addition, worldwide demand for energy is growing while fossil-fuel energy sources are quickly declining. Fossil fuels are one of the non-renewable energy resources that will be depleted in several decades if large-scale sources of energy are continually used [36]. As shown in Figure 2, the world production of fossil oil is at the peak of the production, and it is expected to diminish by the year 2050 [37]. Because of these situations, it is essential to replace petroleum consumption, minimize future expenses and eliminate the adverse effect on health and the environment. Thus, the replacement of non-renewable energy source with renewable resources is imperative to fulfill the needs of the energy demand without causing harm to the environment and mankind [38]. Due to this crisis, various kinds of energy are used to meet the large demand for petroleum-based fuel such as wind turbines, river dams, solar panels, geothermal power and biofuels [39].
Oil and natural gas production in the NZE (adapted from Ref. [
The conversion of methane into liquid fuels or greater hydrocarbons has been performed extensively. Bradford and Vannice [40] studied the growth of methanol, formaldehyde, propanol, benzene and other aromatics through direct oxidative conversion of methane. Unfortunately, all the aforementioned processes produce low yields or they are not recommended for an industrial scale. Today, various technologies are available for the production of syngas from natural gas. This gas is a component of precious fluid fuels and chemicals like Fischer-Tropsch oil, methanol and dimethyl ether [41].
The most significant renewable energy sources in the globe are biomass and hydropower. However, the use of other renewable resources is necessary to minimize the negative climate impacts caused by the excessive use of fossil fuels. In that sense, biogas will play an important role in the future. The biogas primary energy has increased 70% between 2008 and 2013 [42] and its production is expected to double in 2022 up to 45 × 109 m3. Biogas is a gas consisting primarily of methane and carbon dioxide generated from anaerobic digestion of organic matter from agricultural waste, landfills, urban wastewater and industrial wastewater. It is considered, therefore, a renewable energy source [43].
Based on the residue, biogas can contain traces of other compounds that hinder its use in the production of energy, making it necessary to install costly purification systems. Among them, the most significant are H2S, NH3, halogenated hydrocarbons and siloxanes. Biogas has traditionally been regarded a non-value by-product usually burned in flares to avoid hazards to humans and the environment and then released into the atmosphere. Recently, various options for biogas use such as heat, electricity, mixed heat and energy or the manufacturing of bio-methane have been suggested. Nevertheless, from an economical point of view, all the previous biogas applications depend on government feed in tariff policies. Besides, different countries like Malaysia, Germany, Spain or Italy, have reduced or even removed the cost-based compensation creating an unstable scenario for the renewable energy producers [44]. Therefore, the manufacturing of fresh biogas products is not only interesting but essential in order to reduce the obstacles to profitability.
One of the alternatives considered is the manufacturing of syngas that consists of a blend of H2 and CO and is the basis of C1 chemistry [45]. Depending on the syngas H2:CO ratio, it can be used to produce methanol, dimethyl ether (DME), liquid hydrocarbons (Fischer-Tropsch process) or H2. Syngas can be acquired from several procedures such as methane steam reforming, partial methane oxidation or dry methane reforming.
Due to overdependence on fossil-based fuels and increasing environmental concerns, the resources of renewable energy, in particular biogas, have gained massive attention around the world as a substitute for traditional fossil fuels. Biogas is obtained from the process of the anaerobic digestion of organic compounds. Methane (40–70%) and carbon dioxide (30–60%) are the primary compounds of biogas [46]. One of its most common applications is the direct combustion for energy recovery through co-generation plants that produce electricity and heat. Nevertheless, the use of renewable sources of methane like the one contained in biogas (bio-methane) for different applications like the production of hydrogen is a more interesting option than the use of fossil methane [47].
In this context, the catalytic decomposition of methane (CDM) (Eq. (1)) is being studied as an alternative to steam reforming of methane (SRM) to produce CO2-free hydrogen. The CDM in a single step produces a mixture of hydrogen and unconverted methane, which can be directly used as fuel in internal combustion engines or, even directly used to power a fuel cell [47].
The catalysts traditionally used in the CDM consist of transition metals belonging to group VIII (Ni, Fe, Co) supported over different metal oxides such as Al2O3, MgO, La2O3, and CeO2 [48, 49]. These catalysts are characterized by promoting the formation of carbon nanostructures (carbon nanofibers or carbon nanotubes) varying their textural and structural properties as a function of the catalyst composition and the operational conditions [50]. These carbon nanostructures have very interesting properties for their use in applications where thermal and electrical conductivity of materials is a key factor. However, one of the problems of the CDM is the deactivation over time of the catalysts due to carbon deposition that encapsulates the metal particles disabling their active sites [51].
Co-feeding with CH4 different oxidizing agents such as H2, H2O or CO2, can increase the life of the catalyst. Co-feeding with H2, inhibits the deactivation of the catalyst at the expense of a desired product, which reduces the efficiency of the process while the use of CO2 as Co-feeding induces Boudouard reaction (Eq. (2)) thereby resulting in gasification of graphitic carbon produced during the CDM reaction.
The use of CO2 in the CDM process has been studied by two approaches: some authors have suggested a cyclical process consisting of a methane decomposition step followed by another stage of gasification of the deposited carbon with CO2. Other authors have studied the decomposition of mixtures CH4:CO2 in conditions that favor the formation of nanostructured carbon. Nagayasu et al. [52] observed a slow deactivation of a Ni based catalyst to be used in the CDM in the presence of CO2. They also noted an increase in carbon accumulation capacity in the form of nanotubes by increasing the partial pressure of CO2 co-fed along with that of CH4.
Asai et al. [53] confirmed the inhibition of the deactivation of the catalyst studied in the decomposition of methane in the presence of CO2, suggesting a mechanism based on the gasification of graphitic carbon layers that encapsulate the catalyst particles, allowing the formation of carbon in the form of nanotubes. Indeed, co-feeding of CH4 and CO2, which are the main components of biogas as previously mentioned, modifies the reaction mechanism of methane decomposition into carbon and H2, to a process called dry reforming, which produces a mixture of H2 and CO. This is a highly endothermic reaction that takes place by way of a catalyst in the temperature range between 600 and 800
This syngas can be used in multiple applications such as fuel for solid oxide fuel cells or Fischer-Tropsch synthesis to produce environmental friendly liquid fuels, when using a renewable source such as biogas [55]. If the aim is to produce H2, then a water gas shift reaction followed by CO2-H2 separation should be accomplished. The practical implementation of the dry reforming of methane (DRM) faces many key challenges, which also apply to the biogas decomposition, and one of the most important is the deactivation of the catalysts due to the formation of carbon during the reactions of CH4 decomposition and CO2 disproportionation [56]. Also, Edwards and Maitra [57] reported that it is convenient to work at high temperatures and low ratios of CH4:CO2 (<1), to minimize carbon formation from a thermodynamic point of view. However, from the industrial point of view it would be much more desirable to work at moderate temperatures and CH4:CO2 ratios close to one, despite these are conditions under which carbon formation is thermodynamically favored.
Another issue that should be addressed is the high sulfur content of the biogas. This can provoke severe metal catalysts deactivation, therefore an exhaustive desulphurization of the biogas fed to the catalytic decomposition of biogas (CDB) reactor would be required when using a real biogas. The most commonly used methods for hydrogen sulphide removal can be found in [58]. The more active catalysts that promote the lower carbon deposition are precious metals, but its high price provokes that the most widely used catalysts for dry reforming are based on Ni, Co and Fe [59], which are the same catalysts traditionally used in the CDM.
Since the typical CH4:CO2 ratio in biogas composition is higher than 1 (CH4 concentration in biogas can be as high as 70% depending on its origin), avoiding carbon deposition in the biogas decomposition reaction is not a task easy to accomplish. Thus, as previously mentioned, the presence of CO2 along with the selection of optimum operating conditions for the deposition of carbon could prevent the rapid deactivation of the catalyst, resulting in a new biogas recovery process in which a gas with a suitable composition for its use in an internal combustion engine and carbon nanofibers (CNF) with multiple applications in sectors such as energy and transport are obtained. Direct decomposition of a gas simulating a typical biogas composition by means of metal catalysts under conditions that are favorable for carbon deposition has been studied by Muradov and Smith [60]. The problem associated to carbon deposition through decomposition of CH4:CO2 mixtures with ratio >1 was solved by adding small amounts of steam, prolonging the catalyst life. Some previous works by De Llobet et al. [61] focused on a study of CDB, conducted at moderate temperatures and using typical catalysts previously used in the CDM, promoting the formation of nanostructured carbon and syngas. As per their report, the Ni/Al2O3 catalyst exhibited high activity as well as stability, allowing them to obtain high CH4 conversion together with the high-yield production of fishbone-like nanocarbon.
Figure 3 illustrates a key aspect of the thermodynamics of any possible CO2 conversion. The figure also demonstrates the free emission of CO2 from Gibbs and its associated substances. It is evident that CO2 is an extremely stable molecule; it therefore requires significant energy input, optimized reaction conditions and (almost invariably) active catalysts for any chemical conversion of CO2 into a carbonaceous fuel.
Gibbs free energies of formation of selected chemicals (adapted from Ref. [
However, it is important to note that chemical reactions (conversions) arise due to the difference in the Gibbs free energy between the reactants and products of a chemical reaction (under certain conditions). This is illustrated by the Gibbs-Helmholtz relationship (Eq. (3)):
Therefore, the comparative stability of the ultimate response products must be taken into consideration in the effort to use CO2 as a chemical feedstock compared to the use of reactants. Both terms (Δ
Freund and Roberts [63] highlighted the significant contribution of CO2 surface chemistry. They claimed that any progress in the use of CO2 as a useful reactant can be achieved in relation to fuel synthesis by using novel catalytic chemistry wisely. They attempted to illustrate that the greatest potential impact lies in this area of material chemistry, physics and engineering. These researchers also pointed out that a positive change in free energy should not be considered as a reason enough not to pursue potentially useful CO2 reactions. This is because, Δ
Since the kinetics are favorable, CO2 decrease to CO (a key step in all conversion reactions), the primary step in all transformation responses, may also be feasible on metal surfaces or other catalytic materials, for instance on nano- and mesoporous metal particles [62]. Presently, a large number of industrial-scale chemical manufacturing processes worldwide operate on the basis of strong endothermic chemicals. The SRM to yield syngas and hydrogen is a classic example (Eq. (5)):
It is important to emphasize that the above-mentioned, highly endothermic reaction is used to produce large quantities of ‘merchant hydrogen’ in the gas, food and fertilizer industries worldwide. The corresponding DRM reflects the important reaction of CO2 with hydrocarbons, which will be central to our idea of converting CO2 into flue gases to produce chemical fuels (Eq. (6)):
The energy input for DRM requires about 20% more energy input than the SRM, but there is definitely no restricted additional energy cost for this chemical reaction. It is important that these two reactions lead to syngas with different H2:CO molar ratios. For the final production of liquid fuels, both are useful for the formation of horns.
Figure 4 shows the enthalpy of the chemical reactions of the CO2 conversion. This means that CO2 is thermodynamically much easier to use as a co-reactant, usually with a higher (i.e. less negative) Gibbs free energy, such as H2 or CH4. These hydrogen-containing energy carriers give their internal chemical energy to promote the conversion of CO2. Therefore, the heat of reaction (enthalpy of reaction) from CO2 to CO production is important and obvious as the individual reactive and CO2 energy as a key factor. Compare the thermal decomposition energies of CO2 (Eqs. (7) and (8)).
The enthalpy of reaction for syngas production and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthesis of methanol and dimethyl ether (adapted from Ref. [
With that of the reaction of CO2 with H2 (Eq. (8))
This aspect may be further illustrated by the process of ‘oxyforming’, whereby the amount of oxygen in the dry reforming reaction is increased deliberately. In doing so, the reaction enthalpy of reaction is significantly reduced (Eqs. (9) and (10)):
The fundamental material challenge in this area lies in the fact that, generally, the reaction between CO2 and H2 occurs at high temperatures on multi-component heterogeneous catalysts [64].
Syngas is a blend of carbon monoxide and coal with a tiny quantity of methane and carbon dioxide. In the ever changing energy landscape, it is not only versatile, but also an increasingly important commodity. There are various carbon sources that happen through gasification or catalytic reformation for the manufacturing of syngas. Coal, natural gas (mainly methane), petroleum, and biomass could be the sources of carbon. The primary technical problem with fossil fuel syngas manufacturing is the complicated purification and conditioning procedures of syngas. The main reasons why the world has become more interested in the producing of biomass-derived syngas are therefore to decrease over-dependence on fossil fuels, to impose stricter CO2 emission standards and to verify the accessibility of resources. Roddy [65] claimed that biomass could originate from industrial, domestic, agricultural and urban waste sources as a feedstock for syngas production. The use of biomass or waste as the raw material for syngas manufacturing is theoretically two-pronged: the generation of clean energy and an effective way to reduce waste as reported by Markets and Markets [66], a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.7% is anticipated to achieve 117,400 MW (Megawatts) heat in 2018. Boerrigter and Rauch [67] estimated the future market for syngas to increase to 50,000 petajoules (PJ) per annum, equivalent to 13.9 × 109 MWh per annum in, 2040. This amounts to replacing an average 30% fossil fuel usage is 10% of the complete world power consumption. They also projected that syngas will be used primarily in gas-to-liquid (GTL) procedures, with 49% for gas-to-product (GTP) procedures and 39% for renewable gas and hydrocarbon manufacturing. In, 1993, Shell Malaysia built the world’s first commercial GTL plant in Bintulu, Sarawak. Since, 2003, as many as for 14,700 barrels of high-quality GTL products have been produced per day. This is clearly an upgrade in the production from its original capacity of 12,500 barrels per day. As reported by the Borneo Post, Shell’s GTL plant plans to invest RM (Malaysian ringgit) 48.36 million to rejuvenate its plant in Bintulu in, 2015. The world’s largest GTL plant is located in Qatar, with a production capacity of 140,000 barrels of product per day.
In short, the development of the market for syngas is accelerating, the important increase in syngas consumption is due to its use as an energy precursor. The presence of CO, H2 and CH4 gases, which possess certain heating value, makes it highly in demand. Syngas also includes approximately 50% of natural gas’s power density. Subramani et al. [68] reported that 1 kg of H2 contains the same amount of energy as 2.6 kg of CH4, which is equivalent to 3.1 kg of gasoline. H2 is used at low temperatures because of its elevated energy content; fuel cells are used to produce electricity, power cars or even in the synthesis of Fischer – Tropsch. In addition to serving as an energy carrier, it has traditionally been used as a feedstock for the mass production of significant chemicals, such as methanol, ammonia or fertilizers.
Carbon nanofilaments are nanometric filaments with diameters between 1 and 200 nm and lengths of up to several microns. These materials are composed mainly of graphite type carbon whose basic structural component is graphene [69]. Graphene can be defined as the combination of carbon atoms with sp2 hybridization, where each carbon atom joins three others forming a flat hexagonal tessellation (basal plane or graphene layer) [70]. The parallel stacking of several of these layers’ outcomes in graphite characterized by an elevated structural order and a distance of 0.3354 nm between the distinct graphene layers (crystalline domain or interplanar distance, d002) (Figure 5).
Representative scheme of crystal structures of graphene (adapted from Ref. [
On the other hand, carbon nanofilaments have a structural order inferior to that of graphite and according to the Franklin classification [72] correspond to turbostratic type materials, that is, they have crystalline domains greater than graphite and smaller than non-graphitic carbons (0.3354 < d002 < 0.344 nm).
Within carbon nanofilaments we can distinguish two types: carbon nanotubes (CNT) and carbon nanofibers (CNF). The CNT can be considered as layers of graphene rolled into hollow tubes [73]. Depending on the number of layers that make up the CNT, they are classified as single wall CNT (SWCNT), formed by a single layer, or multiple wall CNT (MWCNT), formed by 2 or more concentrically coiled layers (Figure 6a) [73]. On the other side, the CNF can be hollow or strong and are categorized with regard to their longitudinal axis according to the angle they form graphene layers (α). The most common types of CNF are platelet, parallel (also named ribbon or tubular) and fishbone (Figure 6b) [73]. Platelet CNF are characterized by the fact that the graphene sheets are arranged perpendicular to the growth axis of the CNF (α ≈ 180°), while in the fishbone type the angle α is between approximately 20–160° [74].
Simplified representation of the different kinds of (a) carbon nanotubes (SWCNT and MWCNT), and (b) carbon nanofibers (platelet, tubular, fishbone) (adapted from Ref. [
They are also called Herringbone. Finally, the parallel types would be those in which the sheets are parallel to the longitudinal axis of the CNF (α ≈ 0°). Unlike Figure 6b, this sort of structure can also be tubular and therefore it is not feasible to distinguish them from MWCNT by using electronic microscopy methods. However, there is some controversy, parallel type CNF tend to present areas along their structure in which the graphene layers are not oriented in parallel (α > 0°) as well as numerous imperfections such as the union of the layers’ graphene inside the nanofiber (loops). Along with these three morphologies, in the CNF world there are other types of less common structures such as bamboo CNF, which are characterized by having internal holes that occur periodically due to the movement of the catalytic particle during the growth of the CNF, or the octopus-type NFCs that are generally produced when a Ni catalyst doped with Cu [75] is employed. Although there is a bibliography related to the formation of carbon filaments since the late nineteenth century, it was the discovery of the transmission electron microscope (TEM) in 1939 that really represented a breakthrough in this field since it allowed the observation in detail the morphology of this type of structures [76]. Initially, the interest in carbon formation derived from the problems that its accumulation caused in the processes of conversion of hydrocarbons (deactivation and destruction of catalysts or plugging of reactors) and therefore, the objective was to understand how and why it was generated in order to avoid their formation [77]. However, since the discovery of CNT by Iijima [78] in the 90s and due to the properties that carbon nanofilaments present (high specific surfaces and high electrical conductivities and thermal, the approach changed and numerous studies were initiated to optimize their production [79].
Numerous reform techniques have been created to fulfill the long list of demands required in downstream chemicals procedures. Dry Reforming of methane is the most prevalent technique used in the syngas sector through one of three reforming procedures: (1) steam reforming of methane (SRM), (2) partial oxidation of methane (POM) and (3) dry reforming of methane (DRM). The difference between the three techniques is based on the oxidant used, the kinetics and reaction energy, and the percentage of syngas produced (H2:CO).
The SRM approach produces a higher H2:CO ratio of 3:1 compared to the ratio required for Fischer-Tropsch (F-T) synthesis of 2:1 [80]. Due to its endothermic nature, SRM requires an extensive energy input so it is very expensive. In addition, a higher H2O:CH4 ratio is required to achieve a higher H2 output, making the SRM process less favorable and speeding up the activation of catalysis. Moreover, SRM faces corrosion problems and requires a desulfurization unit [81].
In the case of POM approach, this process is suitable for producing larger amounts of hydrocarbons and naphtha. Typically, POM has a very short residence time, high selectivity, and high conversion rates [82]. However, the exothermic nature of the reaction causes the induction of hot spots in the catalyst and makes it difficult to control the process. In addition, POM requires a cryogenic unit to separate oxygen from air. In the case of POM, this process is suitable for producing larger amounts of hydrocarbons and naphtha. POM typically has a very short period of residence, high selectivity and high conversion rates. The exothermic nature of the response, however, allows warm spots in the catalyst to be induced and makes the method hard to regulate and POM requires a cryogenic unit to separate oxygen from air [83].
DRM approach is the most promising of all techniques, as it utilizes two greenhouse gases (CO2 and CH4) to generate industry-significant syngas while at the same moment lowering excessive greenhouse gas emissions. The DRM method is also cheaper than other techniques, as it eliminates the complicated gas separation of finished products. It generates the ratio H2:CO that can be used to synthesize oxidized chemicals and F-T synthesis long-chain hydrocarbons. DRM can also be extended to biogas (CO2, CO, and CH4) as a raw material for cleaner and eco-friendly fuels. DRM syngas is also a solar or nuclear energy storage facility [84]. Since reaction is endothermic, the process is generally carried out at temperatures between 450 and 900°C. In addition, the utilization of a catalyst is required in order to obtain acceptable CH4 conversions. The practical application of the DRM faces many significant obstacles and one of the most significant is the deactivation of the catalysts due to carbon formation during CH4 decomposition and CO2 disproportionate responses. Working at elevated temperatures and low CH4:CO2 ratios (<1) is useful from a thermodynamic point of perspective to prevent carbon formation. From an industrial point of perspective, however, work at mild temperatures and CH4 would be much more desirable: CO2 ratios close to one. Nevertheless, circumstances under which thermodynamic carbon formation is favored [85].
In this context, the DRM’s attempts focus on developing a catalyst that demonstrates elevated activity and stability and low carbon formation and price at the same moment. In one of the first works related to the DRM, Fischer and Tropsch studied different metals belonging to groups 8, 9 and 10 (Ni, Co, Fe, Mo, W, Y, Cu). Among them, only Ni and Co showed a good activity (XCH4 ≈ 90%). Years later, Gadalla et al. [86] tested different commercial Ni-based catalysts, obtaining CH4 conversions near 100% during 70 h of operation. Nonetheless, in order to avoid carbon deposition and catalyst deactivation they used CH4:CO2 ratios below 0.5 and temperatures above 900°C. Due to their high activity and lower carbon formation as compared to Ni, noble metals have been extensively studied as catalysts for the DRM [87]. However, their high cost and low availability make other metals more attractive from an industrial point of view. Due to their reduced cost compared to noble metals, Ni, Co and Fe were also widely researched and in the last years, bimetallic catalysts have stood out.
In order to synthesize an enhanced catalyst, these catalysts aim to potentiate the features of both metals. Ni-Co bimetallic catalysts showed a very healthy conduct among them. In any event, carbon deposition issues are even more important when using biogas. Biogas usually has higher CH4:CO2 ratios than one that ultimately leads to bigger quantities of carbon depositions that quickly deactivate the catalysts. However, distinct types of carbon are created during the decomposition of hydrocarbons and luckily not all of them are directly liable for the deactivation of catalysts. The sort and location of carbon atoms is more important than the amount generated when considering catalytic activity, according to Pinilla et al. [88]. Generally, only carbon encapsulation is directly liable for deactivation of the catalyst owing to active center coverage, while other carbon structures, such as carbon nanofilaments, can only cause operational issues when manufactured in big amounts as reactor blockage.
Studies of DRM’s kinetics and mechanisms were conducted to determine an appropriate reaction rate model, either empirically or on the basis of a theoretical response mechanism to best suit the relevant experimental information and possibly describe the response rate and the chemical process. This understanding can further optimize the design and layout of the chemical system catalysts (the reactor), which can further improve DRM’s overall development with more cost-effective technology [89]. Although, from a mechanistic point of perspective, steam reforming has received much attention, there has been a resurgence of interest in dry reforming over the previous centuries. A series of catalysts for DRM were researched as a consequence. This has resulted in a number of mechanistic measures for DRM being published in the literature. The DRM reaction mechanism was explored by Aldana et al. [90] over a Ni-based catalyst.
Aldana et al. reported that H2 dissociates on Ni0 locations while carbon dioxide is activated on ceria-zirconia assistance to generate carbonates that can be hydrogenated into formats and then into methoxy species. This mechanism includes weak fundamental support sites for carbon dioxide adsorption and includes a stable interface between metal and support. Compared to Ni-silica, which activates both carbon dioxide and hydrogen on Ni0 particles, these characteristics lead in much better operations of these catalysts [90]. This mechanism is also supported by Pan et al. [91]. Meanwhile, Ayodele et al. [92] conducted a DFT analysis of the DRM over Ru nanoparticles supported on TiO2 (101).
Extensive research was carried out to study the impacts of altering process variables on catalyst performance for the DRM reaction. This inquiry is essential as various process factors may result in variable catalyst performance [93]. The notion of activation energy should be considered as it will determine the response rate. Table 1 tabulates the activation energy (
Catalyst | Preparation method | Total flowrate (mg) | Catalyst Amount (kJ/mol) | Ea(CH4) (kJ/mol) | Ea(CO2) (kJ/mol) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ni/Al2O3 (400–650°C) | Wet impregnation | 28 | 500 | — | 64.4 | [94] |
4.82Ni/Al2O3 (750–850°C) | Incipient wetness | 100–980 | — | 242.67 | 115.86 | [95] |
7Ni/MgO (550–750°C) | Incipient wetness-impregnation | — | 10 | 105 | 99 | [96] |
5Ni/MgAl2O4 (600–800°C) | Co-precipitation | 30 | 20 | 26.39 | 40.43 | [97] |
13.5Ni-2K/5MnO-Al2O3 (550–800°C) | Impregnation | 400 | 50 | 113.8 | — | [98] |
0.3Pt-10Ni/Al2O3 (580–620°C) | Sequential impregnation | 100 | 5 | 112.55 | 98.74 | [99] |
8%Ni/α-Al2O3 (550–750°C) | Wet impregnation | 360 | 40 | 89.1 | 88.6 | [100] |
Ea values over several Ni-based catalysts for DRM reaction.
In the meantime, Cui et al. [100] conducted a thorough study of the DRM mechanism over Ni/α-Al2O3 using steady-state and transient kinetic methods at 550–750°C temperatures. Their results show that the CH4 dissociation and CO2 conversion
According to Kathiraser et al. [93], distinct gas hourly space velocities (GHSVs) need to be tested to eliminate internal mass transport resistance. The aim of this experiment is to verify that the conversions have reached a stable value and that a further shift in GHSV does not influence the conversion of reactants. The contact time, which plays a significant part in CO2 and CH4 conversions, is another consideration. When the contact time value is high, CO2 or CH4 conversions stay unaffected. The particle size of the catalyst should be held as small as possible to eliminate inner mass transport resistance, so that a further reduction in size does not impact conversions.
Kim et al. [101], explored the use of a CO2-photoacoustic signal (PAS) to analyze kinetically the DRM reaction on a Ni catalyst supported on Al2O3 and TiO2. They discovered that the reason why mass flow rates low are used is because this method generates heat periodically because when a material absorbs a modulated laser beam, the photoacoustic signal is produced. It is essential to remember the characteristics of kinetic curves that act as the reaction mechanism’s blueprints. These include the point of inflection, a brief period of induction or breakpoints. No particular GHSV can be found from all the results to eliminate the impacts of constraints on mass transfer. This indicates that the development of inherent kinetic models is critical in preliminary research.
Numerous studies on the development of active and coking-resistant DRM reaction catalysts have been published [102, 103]. Common DRM catalysts are backed by noble metal catalysts like Ru, Rh and Pt and backed by transition metal catalysts like Ni and Co [104, 105, 106]. The calculations for the result showed that noble Ru and Rh metals exhibit greater activity than Ni as long as the particle sizes and dispersion are the same [106]. While noble metals such as Ru, Rh and Pt in the DRM response are very effective and more resistant to coking than other transition metals, they are not readily accessible and are also costly [104].
Ni-based catalysts are the most frequently used for commercial purposes on an industrial scale. In order to commercialize the industrial sector DRM response, the primary focus is on developing inexpensive and cost-effective catalysts with high activity and high carbon deposition resistance. Researchers performed research on the sort of assistance used and the impacts of adding promoters to Ni-based catalysts in order to define the most efficient way to enhance their coking resistance. In addition, latest efforts to enhance catalytic activity and inhibit carbon formation are aimed at combining two or three metals as active locations [105, 107]. Pre-treatment process preparation method and catalyst also play a crucial role in altering structural characteristics, implementing behavior decrease and enhancing catalytic efficiency [108]. Besides establishing the Ni-based catalyst with certain modifying agents in the catalyst preparation, the incorporation of Ni particles in the mesoporous aid could also enhance the conversion of reactants and the yield of products by preventing the sintering of metal particles and improving the metal-supporting connection. This metal produces desirable results due to the high specific region of mesoporous materials which can increase the dispersion of Ni particles on the supported catalyst [109].
In addition, the strong interaction between metal and support stabilizes the Ni particles incorporated in the mesoporous matrix. Multiple contact regions between the Ni particles and the support could improve thermal stability and support metal cooperation and support. The incorporation of Ni-based catalysts into mesoporous supports such as MCM-41, SBA-16, TUD-1, meso-Al2O3 and meso-ZrO2 has, as reported in the literature, demonstrated high catalytic activity and high carbon resistance in DRM. Catalyst supports can also be synthesized from plants, which is crucial for the effectiveness of DRM catalysts. The use of polymers from trees has been an interesting region among scientists in latest years with the aim of increasing the velocity of chemical reactions. In addition to generating high-quality chemicals, catalysts installed on commonly accessible cellulose incur low manufacturing expenses [110].
Abimanyu et al. [111] reported that the main steps to synthesize catalyst supports are pretreatment and hydrolysis. Ni-based catalysts have been used industrially as metal precursors in DRM, but the need to refine the metal to improve catalyst performance has recently attracted the interest of many scientists, as these particles demonstrated promising physical and chemical properties with elevated technological applications potential.
The preparation technique significantly affected a catalyst’s physico-chemical characteristics and efficiency, according to Jang et al. [112]. It has therefore been noted that impregnation and co-precipitation are the most commonly used standard techniques of catalyst preparing. Another less prevalent technique for preparing catalysts is sol-gel, which generates a distribution of fine size. This method reduces the deactivation rate, offers high thermal resistance to agglomeration and creates a product of high quality compared to conventional methods.
A new non-thermal glow discharge plasma method has recently been developed to improve metal support interaction, boost the distribution of Ni particles and improve the activity and stability of the catalyst [113]. However, in comparison with simpler preparation techniques, plasma therapy is comparatively costly. This would improve the activity and stability of the catalyst in the DRM response by combining novel catalytic material and techniques.
Supported bimetallic catalysts demonstrate increased DRM activity and stability based on Zhang et al. [114] study. The preparation technique is one of the main variables responsible for the bimetallic catalyst’s outstanding catalytic results. During catalyst preparing, the use of high calcining temperature outcomes in strong interactions between metal and support, which converts the catalyst into stable frame-like constructions. In particular, carbon formation is efficiently blocked during the catalyst decrease by using Ni-Co alloy compared to using single Ni sites. The synthesis method of different catalysts also affects the reaction effectiveness. For example, the method of co-precipitation may produce smaller sizes of metal particles compared to the use of wet impregnation.
There are focuses on the development of DRM catalysts for catalysts with the following features: greater activity and greater stability towards coke formation, sintering, the formation of inactive chemical species and metal oxidation [115]. The catalytic efficiency could be improved by changing the catalyst’s active sites by adding supports and promoters during catalyst preparing to increase conversion and selectivity [116]. Table 2 shows several catalysts that have been developed recently, including Ni-based catalysts applied to the DRM reaction.
Catalyst | Preparation method | GHSV (mL/gh) | Temperature (°C) | CH4 conversion (%) | CO2 conversion (%) | H2/CO ratio | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Co-, Cu- and Fe-doped Ni/Al2O3 | Fusion | 12,000 | 650 | 34–40 | NA | NA | [30] |
25–55%Ni/MeOx(Me = Al, Mg, Ti, and Si) | Evaporation-induced self-assembly | 48,000 | 600 | 76 | NA | NA | [50] |
Ni/Ce-Al2O3 and Ni/Ce-Zr-Al2O3 | Wet impregnation | 21,000 | 800 | 66.7–79.5 | 45.2–86.9 | NA | [58] |
5% Ni/MgAl2O4 | Microwave-assisted combustion | NA | 850 | 83 | — | ≈1 | [102] |
5,10,15%Ni/MgAl2O4 | Homogenous precipitation | 12,000 | 700 | 78 | 89 | NA | [103] |
K,Mg,Ce-2,8%Ni/Al2O3 | Wet impregnation | NA | 160 | 31.6 | 22.8 | 2.2 | [107] |
5–100%NiH-Ce | Co-precipitation | 20,000 | 550 | 35–55 | 35–45 | 0.55–1.60 | [115] |
5,10,15%NiMgAlCe | Co-precipitation | 29,000 | 750 | 33–48 | 57–69 | 0.78–0.96 | [116] |
Pd, Pt-55%Ni-Cu/MgO·Al2O3 | Wet impregnation | 48,000 | 675 | 84 | NA | 0.55–1.50 | [103] |
15%Ni/ZrTiAlOx | Sol-gel & impregnation | 45,000 | 600 | 85 | 95 | 0.95 | [117] |
10Ni + 3%Ce/8%PO4 + ZrO2 | Wet impregnation | 28,115.4 | 800 | 95 | 96 | NA | [118] |
Ni-Mo2C/MgO | Sol-gel | 30,000 | 850 | 90 | 85 | NA | [119] |
NiO–10Al2O3–ZrO2 | One-step synthesis method | 48,000 | 700 | 92 | 90 | 0.73 | [120] |
Ni-W/Al2O3-MgO | Co-precipitation | 36,000 | 777.29 | 87.6 | 93.3 | 1 | [121] |
Catalysts developed for the DRM reaction.
Deactivation of catalyst relates to loss of activity of catalyst during the response. It is the significant drawback of metal-based catalysts, as it not only creates product reductions that affect the response rate, but also costs industry millions of cash to replace the catalyst. Catalyst deactivation basically relates to three elements, according to Bartholomew and Farrauto [122] chemical, mechanical and thermal. Catalysts for metal reforming are frequently deactivated by coking, poisoning, fouling and sintering. Table 3 describes the mechanisms of catalyst deactivation.
Poisoning relates to the powerful adsorption in the feed of chemical substances such as impurities. Poisoning of catalysts may be reversible (temporary) or irreversible (permanent) [122]. The catalyst may be retrieved by air oxidation or steaming to wash its surface for reversible toxicity. For irreversible poisoning, however, the toxins cannot be removed, so replacing current catalysts with a fresh batch is essential. Sulfur species such as hydrogen sulfide are common poisons in all catalytic processes with reduced metals as the active site. S-poisoning, as in procedures of F-T synthesis and steam reform, is always a disaster.
In 2011, Bartholomew and Farrauto illustrated the mechanism of sulfur poisoning [122]. Firstly, the S atom adsorbs or blocks the reaction or active sites of the catalyst physically (geometric effect). Then, the S atom alters the metal atoms electronically. The metal ions subsequently alter their adsorbability or their capacity to dissociate with reactant molecules like H2 and CO. The S atom also alters the surface area and creates major catalytic characteristics alterations. This hinders the accessibility of adsorbed reactants to each other and thus slows down the adsorbed reactants’ surface propagation. Table 4 describes the typical poisons of industrial catalysts for different types of reaction. The avoidance of sulfur toxicity and sulfur strength can be improved by modifying the structure of the catalysts by incorporating certain additives, such as molybdenum and boron, which adsorb sulfur selectively or change the response circumstances. According to Bartholomew and Farrauto [122], reduction in the temperature of steam reforming over Ni/Al2O3 catalysts from 800 to 500
Mechanism | Type | Definition |
---|---|---|
Poisoning | Chemical | Strong chemisorption of species on catalytic sites, thereby blocking sites for catalytic reaction |
Fouling | Mechanical | Physical deposition of species from fluid phase onto the catalytic surface and in catalyst pores |
Thermal degradation (Sintering) | Thermal | Thermally induced loss of the catalytic surface area due to crystalline growth, support area and active phase support reactions |
Vapor formation | Chemical | Reaction of gas with catalyst phase to produce volatile compound |
Vapor-solid and solid-solid reactions | Chemical | Reaction of fluid, support, or promoter with catalytic phase to produce inactive phase |
Attrition/crushing | Mechanical | Loss of catalytic material due to abrasion Loss of internal surface area due to mechanical induced crushing of the catalyst particle |
Mechanisms of catalyst deactivation.
Reactions | Catalyst | Poisons |
---|---|---|
Steam reforming | Ni/Al2O3, Ni | H2S, As, HCl |
CO hydrogenation | Ni, CO, Fe | H2S, As, COS, NH3, HCN, metal carbonyls |
Automotive catalytic converters | Pt, Pd | Pb, P, Zn, S |
Ammonia synthesis | Fe | CO, CO2, H2O, O2, S, C2H2, Bi, Se, Te, P, VSO4 |
Catalytic cracking | SiO2-Al2O3, Zeolites | Organic bases, NH3, hydrocarbon, Na, heavy metals |
Poisons of the industrial catalysts.
Bartholomew and Farrauto [122], Christensen et al. [123], and Argyle and Bartholomew [124] describe the sintering of a heterogeneous catalyst as the loss of the catalytic layer, which is generally irreversible owing to the development of crystallite either on the supporting material or after thermal degradation in the active stage. Bartholomew and Farrauto [122] revealed two significant sintering parameters. The first is the sintering of temperature, including above the catalyst atmospheric temperature. The next is the sintering rate, which is impacted by the support structure and morphology, the metal particle size distribution, and the support’s phase transition. These two catalyst sintering processes are crystallite migration (coalescence) and nuclear or vapor transport (ripening of Ostwald). Christensen et al. [123] outlined that crystallite migration involves entire crystallite migration followed by collision and coalescence. In the meantime, Argyle and Bartholomew [124] addressed that Ostwald ripening relates to the migration of metal transport species emitted from one crystallite over the assistance or through the gas phase and caught by another crystallite. The author also stated that the sintering method is due to elevated temperatures and that owing to the presence of water vapor there is an increase in the sintering speed. Due to sintering impacts, Figure 7 demonstrates the conceptual models of crystallite development.
Conceptual models for crystallite growth due to sintering by (A) Ostwald ripening and (B) crystallite migration (adapted from Ref. [
Lif and Skoglundh [125] found that the co-impregnation of nickel catalysts with the oxides of alkali metals, alkaline earths or lanthanides suppresses the sintering effect. In addition, it was also shown that the catalyst preparation sequential impregnation technique improves the catalyst’s stability towards sintering. To conclude, it is extremely desirable that it possesses the following characteristics for the growth of a fresh catalyst: heat resistance, coking resistance and stability in syngas manufacturing.
Fouling is a physical (mechanical) deactivation that causes the loss of catalyst activity owing to coke deposition that blocks the reactive sites. Steam reforming utilizes catalysts primarily based on Ni. Coke deposition is a prevalent cause of deactivation of Ni-based catalysts. Temperature-programmed hydrogenation (TPH) and Temperature-programmed oxidation (TPO) methods are used to analyze carbon deposition on the used catalyst. The methods of TPH and TPO are used to define the features of the kinds of carbon species created during reaction on the catalysts [126]. According to Bartholomew and Farrauto [122], the types of carbon that may be formed during reforming are
No. | Structural type | Designation | Temperature of formation (K) | Peak temperature (K) for reaction with H2 | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Adsorbed, atomic (dispersed, surface carbide) | Cα | 473–673 | 473 | [127, 128] |
2 | Polymeric, amorphous films or filament | Cβ | 523–773 | 673 | [127, 129, 130] |
3 | Vermicular (polymeric amorphous)
| Cν | 573–1273 | 673–873 | [127, 131, 132, 133] |
4 | Nickel carbide (bulk) | Cγ | 423–523 | 548 | [127] |
5 | Graphitic (crystalline)
| CC | 773–823 | 823–1123 | [127, 128, 131, 132, 134] |
Forms and reactivity of carbon formed by decomposition of CO on Ni.
CH4 cracking (Eq. (1)) and CO disproportionation are the two primary reasons for coke deposition during DRM (Eq. (6)). There are three possible carbon fouling mechanisms for the metal catalyst. The first mechanism is carbon, which deposits reactive sites on the catalyst and impedes binding of the reactants to the active locations. The carbon would otherwise encapsulate the catalyst’s reactive site and deactivate the catalysts. Another deactivation option resides in the coke being deposited in the catalyst pores, thereby stopping the reactants from crystallizing on it. The third mechanism involves carbon-forming needle-like filaments in the active site of the nickel catalyst, to some extent breaking the catalysts. Figure 8 shows the conceptual model of the mechanisms of carbon fouling of a catalyst.
Conceptual models of fouling, crystalline encapsulation and pore plugging of a supported metal catalyst (adapted from Ref [
Quincoces et al. [135] used DRM catalyst Ni/γ-Al2O3. They found that there were no rises in carbon deposition while the molar ratio of the reactants, CH4/CO2, was maintained in unity. This finding shows that by changing the response circumstances, such as the molar ratio of reactant feed, carbon deposition can be minimized. In their research, they discovered that a filamentous or whisker-like morphology was shown by the carbon deposit on Ni/γ-Al2O3. This finding is comparable to Kępiński et al. [136] reporting. Meanwhile, on a backed metal catalyst, Toebes et al. [137] recorded carbon formation with metal crystallites in addition to carbon filaments. The growth of carbon filaments has pushed the metal crystallites from the surface of the catalyst support.
Ito et al. [138] also proposed that CO2 could reduce the impacts of the fouling system. While the increasing carbon filaments remove the Ni metal, the introduced CO2 responds to CO through a reverse-Boudouard response with the carbon whiskers. One of the findings of their study was that after the removal of the carbon whisker, there is a decrease in bulk Ni. This renders the catalyst to be inactive for carbon deposition. However, there is an increase in the reforming activity of CH4, which is due to the newly exposed Ni active sites from the bulk Ni.
Cheng et al. [139] report a reduction in the Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) surface area and the amount of pore used carbon catalyst. As a result of this phenomenon, catalyst activity is lost. Wagner et al. [140] noted that a vapor reforming catalyst’s acidity is proportional to its coke formation tendency. They also asserted that using basic support or basic mixed oxide support named K, the coking strength of the reforming catalysts could be improved. Li et al. [141] and Zanganeh et al. [142] also endorsed this argument, whereby nickel catalyst deactivation can be weakened if the nickel is backed by a strong Lewis base oxide like MgO, CaO, SrO or BaO.
Subsequently, the present research project introduces DRM to investigate the level of resistance of the catalyst towards carbon formation. Zanganeh et al. [142] suggested that an increase in the CO2/CH4 ratio during DRM and increasing the temperature to a high level may minimize carbon formation thermodynamically.
Ito et al. [138] also agreed that the increased CO2-to-CH4 feed ratio would eliminate the CH4 decomposition reaction. Koo et al. [143] found that introducing less than 1wt percent of Mg into the Ni catalyst would enhance their coking strength. Adding promoter like Mo could therefore allay the coke formation phenomenon on the Ni catalyst. Another proposal to reduce the carbon deposition of a catalyst with a small surface area is to reduce the Ni load of the assistance. A CO2/CH4 molar ratio of more than 3.0 should be used to prevent the boudouard reaction.
Throughout this work, it has been shown that biogas is a very interesting source of renewable energy. Because of its elevated CH4 content, biogas has excellent potential, as reflected in its year-over-year rise in production. This is because its manufacturing promotes the use of organic waste, prevents uncontrolled dumping and minimizes atmospheric CH4 and CO2 emissions. In addition, its use as an energy source is in some cases an alternative to fossil fuels and can help to minimize energy dependence. Another aspect of interest is that it can be used insitu, allowing agro-livestock farms or small industrial plants to achieve energy self-sufficiency. A lot of studies on DRM over Ni-based catalysts has been carried out in latest decades to better comprehend the mechanism and techniques of response to improve carbon deposition resistance. Several methods were suggested to minimize the trend of Ni-based catalyst coke formation. One is the use of the appropriate catalyst preparation technique. Another is the use of metal oxides with strong Lewis basicity as supports or promoters (since Lewis acidity is identified to encourage coke buildup). Future study in this area is likely to focus on the use of catalysts based on bimetallic nickel, such as the incorporation of Co with Ni catalyst.
The bimetallic catalysts showed stable activity and elevated inactivation resistance, although carbon deposition occurs. Catalyst activity should be considered, as the primary reason for catalytic inactivation is the encapsulating carbon, which is deposited directly in the catalyst’s active places instead of the carrier’s surface. Also, when it is generated in large quantities, it can cause clogging of the reactor. The problem of carbon formation is exacerbated when biogas is used for this process, because the CH4:CO2 ratio of biogas is greater than that which can lead to the formation of large carbon deposits in a short time. However, carbon atoms are more essential in type and place than the quantity of carbon generated. Averting the deposition of carbon is therefore a challenging task. Also, this problem can be addressed from a completely different perspective. Rather than trying to avert carbon formation, it can be promoted as carbon filamentous. Previously, many researchers have effectively accomplished the synthesis of carbon filamentous thru electric arc-discharge and laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition techniques. Nevertheless, the cost-efficient and the controlled synthesis of carbon filamentous with varies morphologies by those techniques has not been reported.
Given the broad range of applications and the growing demand for biogas in different areas, the superb characteristics of biogas indicate its growing potential as a source of syngas for a broad range of renewable energies, where high purity and low manufacturing costs are significant factors. Thus, producing high-purity syngas and the controlled production of value-added carbon filamentous over cheap, efficient, tunable and simply synthesized catalysts is very important and is the main interest in this subject.
The authors would like to acknowledge UKM, grant number (FRGS/1/2019/TK02/UKM/01/2), for financial support and for material analysis.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. 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In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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