Results of
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5924",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Epistemology and Transformation of Knowledge in Global Age",title:"Epistemology and Transformation of Knowledge in Global Age",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book consists of seven chapters containing multiple questions of the global socially epistemological situation in science and higher education. Despite the progress of techno-sciences, we are facing blind flaws in leading systems of knowledge and perception. The global era, in a paradox way, connects the new knowledge of economics, postpolitics, postdemocracy, and biopolitical regulation of live and unpresentable forms of the global geo-located violence. Techno-optimism and techno-dictatorship in the twenty-first century coincide with the ideology of market, biopolitics of mandatory satisfaction, religious revivalism, and collapse of higher education. In order for sciences to recover, it is necessary to make a globally epistemological and moral turn toward the truth. The book shows that, when joint desires of the new economics of knowledge and technology erase epistemology (in a way to assign definitions of knowledge and rules and practices of the public usage of the mind), then the time for epistemology is on its way.",isbn:"978-953-51-3388-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3387-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4727-5",doi:"10.5772/66020",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"epistemology-and-transformation-of-knowledge-in-global-age",numberOfPages:148,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"382d6a083d347e3753d199fa79c15fde",bookSignature:"Zlatan Delić",publishedDate:"July 26th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5924.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9675,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:10,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 27th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 13th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 14th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 13th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"31746",title:"Dr.",name:"Zlatan",middleName:null,surname:"Delic",slug:"zlatan-delic",fullName:"Zlatan Delic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31746/images/1245_n.jpg",biography:"Zlatan Delić was born in 1965 in Sarajevo, Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He has received his master’s degree at the Faculty of Philosophy in Sarajevo. He has received his PhD degree at the Faculty of Political Science in Sarajevo. He has written over 20 scientific papers and many chapters in various books. His scientific interests in the past several years include sociology of knowledge, discursive foundations of ideology, social epistemology, postwar violence, victimology, and methodology. In the past couple of years, he has been in institutional analysis of discursive practices of public denial of the genocide that occurred during the Great War against Bosnia in the past decade of the twentieth century. He teaches courses from the field of sociology at the integrated University of Tuzla.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Tuzla",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bosnia and Herzegovina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1332",title:"Epistemology",slug:"epistemology"}],chapters:[{id:"56390",title:"Introductory Chapter: Sociology of Knowledge and Epistemological Paradox of Globalization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70097",slug:"introductory-chapter-sociology-of-knowledge-and-epistemological-paradox-of-globalization",totalDownloads:1836,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:null,signatures:"Zlatan Delić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56390",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56390",authors:[{id:"31746",title:"Dr.",name:"Zlatan",surname:"Delic",slug:"zlatan-delic",fullName:"Zlatan Delic"}],corrections:null},{id:"55786",title:"Theoretical-Epistemological Perspectives of Knowledge in the Global Era: A Conceptual Proposal",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69322",slug:"theoretical-epistemological-perspectives-of-knowledge-in-the-global-era-a-conceptual-proposal",totalDownloads:1328,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"It deals with the perspectives of knowledge in the global era. It indicates as a starting point in the following question: how is it possible to represent knowledge in a theoretical-conceptual character in the global era considering the construction of knowledge in networked society, as well as the relations between knowledge of knowledge and other terminologies? It aims to investigate the main fundamentals and characteristics of knowledge in the global era, representing the multiple conceptual relations in the social, valuing, procedural, technical, and psychic context, aiming at the reflection and construction of an integrated concept on knowledge. It concludes that each typology of knowledge presents a concept, and the junction of concepts institutes a general concept about knowledge.",signatures:"Jonathas Luiz Carvalho Silva, Maria Cleide Rodrigues Bernardino\nand Henriette Ferreira Gomes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55786",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55786",authors:[{id:"201171",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonathas Carvalho",surname:"Silva",slug:"jonathas-carvalho-silva",fullName:"Jonathas Carvalho Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"55680",title:"The Post‐Modern Transcendental of Language in Science and Philosophy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68613",slug:"the-post-modern-transcendental-of-language-in-science-and-philosophy",totalDownloads:1620,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter I discuss the deep mutations occurring today in our society and in our culture, the natural and mathematical sciences included, from the standpoint of the “transcendental of language”, and of the primacy of language over knowledge. That is, from the standpoint of the “completion of the linguistic turn” in the foundations of logic and mathematics using Peirce’s algebra of relations. This evolved during the last century till the development of the Category Theory as universal language for mathematics, in many senses wider than set theory. Therefore, starting from the fundamental M. Stone’s representation theorem for Boolean algebras, computer scientists developed a coalgebraic first-order semantics defined on Stone’s spaces, for Boolean algebras, till arriving to the definition of a non-Turing paradigm of coalgebraic universality in computation. Independently, theoretical physicists developed a coalgebraic modelling of dissipative quantum systems in quantum field theory, interpreted as a thermo-field dynamics. The deep connection between these two coalgebraic constructions is the fact that the topologies of Stone spaces in computer science are the same of the C*-algebras of quantum physics. This allows the development of a new class of quantum computers based on coalgebras. This suggests also an intriguing explanation of why one of the most successful experimental applications of this coalgebraic modelling of dissipative quantum systems is just in cognitive neuroscience.",signatures:"Gianfranco Basti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55680",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55680",authors:[{id:"200456",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianfranco",surname:"Basti",slug:"gianfranco-basti",fullName:"Gianfranco Basti"}],corrections:null},{id:"55179",title:"What is ‘Fashion’ Really? The Promise of an Ecumenical Analytic for Fashion Studies and Beyond in a Globalized World",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68614",slug:"what-is-fashion-really-the-promise-of-an-ecumenical-analytic-for-fashion-studies-and-beyond-in-a-glo",totalDownloads:1270,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter addresses the increasingly complex question of the nature of fashion in a globalized world. While it is strikingly obvious that fashion is a global and globalized phenomenon, its specific character, and indeed geographical locations and origins, remain contested. Drawing inspiration from the Greek historian Polybius, and his ideas of an ecumenical analytical approach, to studying world-wide phenomena we discuss the current state of fashion studies in what we consider an ecumenical moment, holding many opportunities for the field. In order to lay out the roots of current debates, on such matters we review the history of fashion studies from the mid‐19th century through to today, drawing attention to both the ontological assumptions and the epistemological and methodological dilemmas that have shaped the field, and that in some ways continue to do so today. We finish with some suggestions as to what the future may hold for the field if the ecumenical promise of global fashion research is truly realized.",signatures:"Anna-Mari Almila and David Inglis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55179",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55179",authors:[{id:"202010",title:"Prof.",name:"David",surname:"Inglis",slug:"david-inglis",fullName:"David Inglis"},{id:"202118",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna-Mari",surname:"Almila",slug:"anna-mari-almila",fullName:"Anna-Mari Almila"}],corrections:null},{id:"55806",title:"Epistemology and the Transformation of Knowledge in the Global Age: God and the Epistemology of Mathematics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69129",slug:"epistemology-and-the-transformation-of-knowledge-in-the-global-age-god-and-the-epistemology-of-mathe",totalDownloads:1163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mathematics, as a scientific discipline, developed from the rather humble beginnings of practical counting and measurements. The Pythagoreans shifted this discipline to the ideal, intelligible world—the “Pythagorean paradise”—where it remains to this day. However, there have been doubts as to whether some of the more peculiar mathematical concepts (irrational numbers, zero, negative numbers, infinity…) also belong to this “Paradise”. Within Theo-Platonism of the fourth century, the Christian God legitimised the concept of infinity. God then acted as guarantor for the existence of infinity even in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Later, however, God was played down with explicit references to Him having been eliminated. He remained hidden, as it were, in the “supernatural axioms” of set theory. Attempts to “excommunicate” Him consistently from the foundation of mathematics had only a negligible impact on the mathematics itself. Was it due to the fact that those formal foundations of mathematics (the set theory) are not the true foundations, with the actual basis being in mathematical practice?",signatures:"Peter Zamarovský",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55806",authors:[{id:"199806",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",surname:"Zamarovský",slug:"peter-zamarovsky",fullName:"Peter Zamarovský"}],corrections:null},{id:"54802",title:"Revisiting John Locke for Thinking About the Global Age: Knowledge, Politics, Religion, and Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68243",slug:"revisiting-john-locke-for-thinking-about-the-global-age-knowledge-politics-religion-and-education",totalDownloads:1174,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Theme of this text: importance of John Locke´s thought, British empiricist philosopher, concerning knowledge, politics, religion and education in global age. Question one searches for answering: nowadays, in global age, why is a thinker like John Locke still so important in order to support reflections about epistemological, political, religious and educational questions? Kind of research reported is a theoretical approach. Discourse development has followed these steps: first, considerations about his theory of knowledge; second, approaches concerning his political theory; third, reflections under his ideas on religion; fourth, discussions concerning his thoughts over education. Results of this inquiry: he is one of the most eminent theorists of experience and it is essential to build knowledge; therefore, his thought must not be neglected; he is also very important to reflect about natural rights of mankind, which must be granted by Commonwealth; his ideas over toleration, which reinforce distinction between Church and Commonwealth, are still useful to think about how to deal with several religious beliefs and political opinions; his educational thought outlines that education is a psychophysical process that must equally treat both body and soul. Then, he must be recommended and also revisited in order to think about present global age.",signatures:"Gustavo Araújo Batista",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54802",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54802",authors:[{id:"200338",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gustavo",surname:"Batista",slug:"gustavo-batista",fullName:"Gustavo Batista"}],corrections:null},{id:"55176",title:"Post-industrial Virtue Epistemology on Globalized Games and Robotics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68624",slug:"post-industrial-virtue-epistemology-on-globalized-games-and-robotics",totalDownloads:1284,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"With the development of personalized and globalized technologies, a discussion regarding how and why virtue epistemology should be an essential part of post-industrial ethical analysis on augmented technologies and use of robotics in the global age becomes crucial. These globalized technologies in the form of either game apps (i.e., Pokémon Go) or robotics like drones become through the Internet multimedia a structural part of planetary digitalization. While this development takes place, traditional virtue epistemology responds insufficiently to the devitalization of knowledge regarding manners (savoir vivre) and ways (savoir faire) of practicing and the need to respond to the sudden expansion of augmented games and drone use with personal and social intellect, responsibility, and consequently safety. The chapter intends to discuss this analysis in order to argue that a postindustrial epistemic reconfiguration of digital ethics is necessary, since augmented reality games and robotics are taking the form of massive trends for adults and nonadults, while for the first time, digital gaming and robot entertainment exceed the limits of the personal space and the virtual mode of the screen, moving out into the public realm, where reality is mixed with virtuality and human environment with unmanned robots.",signatures:"Theodore Kabouridis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55176",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55176",authors:[{id:"200390",title:"Dr.",name:"Theodore",surname:"Kabouridis",slug:"theodore-kabouridis",fullName:"Theodore Kabouridis"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2205",title:"Globalization and Responsibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"46d98262d7d3b53c695cd7bc87f00040",slug:"globalization-and-responsibility",bookSignature:"Zlatan Delic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2205.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31746",title:"Dr.",name:"Zlatan",surname:"Delic",slug:"zlatan-delic",fullName:"Zlatan Delic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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One such technique to extract semantic information from multimedia data sources is Multimedia Information Retrieval (MMIR or MIR). MIR is a broad area covering both structural issues and intelligent content analysis and retrieval. These aspects must be integrated into a seamless whole, which involves expertise from a wide variety of fields. This book presents recent applications of MIR for content-based image retrieval, bioinformation analysis and processing, forensic multimedia retrieval techniques, and audio and music classification.",isbn:"978-1-83880-060-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-059-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-540-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83217",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"multimedia-information-retrieval",numberOfPages:136,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"d44f176ab7139d4d3d6fc65309c77c69",bookSignature:"Eduardo Quevedo",publishedDate:"June 2nd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9221.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2548,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 22nd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 13th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 12th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 29th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"With broad industry experience, Dr. Quevedo is an expert in image and video enhancement and has received several awards, including the Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Award at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"186525",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Quevedo",slug:"eduardo-quevedo",fullName:"Eduardo Quevedo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186525/images/system/186525.png",biography:"Eduardo Quevedo is Assistant Professor of Biostatics and Research Methodology, Mathematics Department, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC), Spain. He is also a researcher at the Institute for Applied Microelectronics (IUMA) at the same university. Dr. Quevedo received his Ph.D. from ULPGC in 2015 and received the ULPGC Outstanding Doctoral Thesis Award in 2016. He also holds degrees in Communications Engineering (2007) and Electronics Engineering (2009) from ULPGC. He was granted a national award for the best master’s thesis from the Official National Telecommunications Engineering Association in 2008. 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Brain functional imaging with SPECT and PET is based on the recording of the distribution of administered radionuclides in three dimensions, thus producing maps of brain biochemical and physiological processes. SPECT and PET techniques are able to image brain perfusion and metabolism, as well as various neurotransmission or other cellular processes using specific radioligands which mark in vivo receptors, transporters or enzymes.
\n\t\t\tBrain SPECT and PET imaging - or molecular imaging -, has been applied to the study of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) for over two decades. These functional neuroimaging approaches have the capability of identifying subtle pathophysiologic changes in the brain before structural changes are present (Xu et al., 2000)
Brain SPECT and PET imaging is performed using radiopharmaceuticals which utilize the highly selective properties of Blood Brain Barrier (BBB). The intact BBB has been a significant limitation whenever a nuclear imaging technique is employed to study the function of the living human brain since it may impede brain uptake of radiotracers (Jolliet Riant & Tillement, 1999)
Radiopharmaceuticals used for brain perfusion SPECT imaging are lipophilic and neutral compounds with limited protein binding, which penetrate freely the intact BBB by simple diffusion (Costa, 2004)
Brain perfusion SPECT radiopharmaceuticals are labeled with 99mTechnecium (99mTc) which has excellent physical characteristics for imaging purposes and dosimetry and it is always available at a low cost.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t99mTc-bicisate (ECD) and 99mTc-exametazime (HMPAO) are the most common radiopharmaceuticals used in routine clinical practice (Kung et al., 2003)
The PET radiopharmaceuticals are labeled with isotopes of elements that naturally occur in the various substrates (Newberg & Alavi, 2003)
The most common application of PET in AD is the study of regional cerebral glucose metabolism (rCGM) and to a lesser extent the measurements of regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) and oxygen metabolism, with the use of radiotracer concentrations in the picomolar range which rarely exerts any pharmacological or toxicological effect (Gee, 2003)
The radiofluorinated analogue 18F-2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (18F-FDG) is used for brain glucose metabolism studies. 18F-FDG is transported into the brain cells by facilitated diffusion, then phosphorylated to FDG-6-PO4 and trapped intracellularly where it can be measured, without further metabolism (Newberg & Alavi, 2003)
SPECT and PET receptor imaging radioligands are neutral and lipophilic compounds with high plasma clearance and low plasma protein binding, and the ability to pass the intact BBB by simple diffusion, while regional cerebral distribution reflect receptor density (Pimlott, 2005)
Although 99mTc has so far been incorporated in most SPECT imaging studies, a general problem with 99mTc complexes is the low brain uptake due to the large molecular weight of linking moieties required to radiolabel compounds with 99mTc (Johannsen & Pietzsch, 2002)
A substantial number of rCBF and rCGM studies with SPECT and PET have been performed in AD patients as well as in other neurodegenerative disorders. These studies have demonstrated characteristic patterns of perfusion and metabolism abnormalities which distinguish AD from other types of dementia and supported the use of SPECT and PET imaging as biomarkers of AD for the detection of the underlying changes of perfusion and metabolism and monitoring disease progression and response to treatment. In general, there is a concordance between brain perfusion and metabolism deficits, exhibited on SPECT and PET studies, respectively.
\n\t\t\t\tBrain perfusion SPECT imaging in AD patients typically shows bilateral hypoperfusion of the parietal and posterior temporal lobes (Ichimyia, 1998; Ishii et al., 1996; Lojkowska et al., 2002). The perfusion deficits are frequently symmetric but not necessarily of the same magnitude and severity. Motor and sensory cortices are usually spared. Hypoperfusion of the posterior association cortices is a finding that some authors consider specific for AD and positive evidence for its diagnosis, although other conditions may display a similar pattern (Hirao et al., 2006)
The pattern and degree of hypoperfusion have been correlated in many studies with the onset, the severity, the clinical features and the prognosis of the disease, although with contradictable results in several cases. Temporoparietal hypoperfusion has been shown to be more severe in early-onset than in late-onset AD (Weinstein et al., 1991). Late onset patients tend to present with the characteristic involvement of the medial temporal lobes producing marked memory loss whereas early onset patients present with predominant posterior cortical association area involvement (Kemp et al., 2003)
Brain perfusion SPECT study in a patient with Alzheimer’s disease. Reduced 99mTc-HMPAO uptake in parietal, temporal and frontal lobes. Hypoperfusion is more severe on the left hemisphere.
FDG PET studies in AD patients have demonstrated a typical pattern of reduced temporoparietal FDG uptake with sparing of the basal ganglia, thalamus and cerebellum (Coleman, 2005). Hypometabolism begins typically in the superior parietal cortex, then spreads inferiorly and anteriorly to involve the inferior parietal, superior temporal, and prefrontal cortices. The extent of hypometabolism correlates with the severity of cognitive impairment and often shows right/left hemispheric asymmetry (Haxby et al., 1990). More recent studies using higher resolution PET scanning have reported marked hypometabolism of the hippocampal head and amygdala in AD (Stein et al., 1998).
\n\t\t\t\tFDG PET demonstrated high sensitivity and specificity (94% and 73%, respectively) for detecting the presence of AD in histopathologically confirmed demented patients. In contrast, clinical evaluation without FDG PET showed lower sensitivity and specificity (83%–85% and 50%–55%, respectively), as determined by an entire series of evaluations repeated over a period of years (Silverman et al., 2002). Even early in the disease process, before the appearance of volume loss, FDG PET has been helpful in diagnosing AD, with a sensitivity and specificity of about 90%, irrespective of the degree of cognitive impairment (Hoffman et al., 2000). It is the neuroimaging technique that has been shown to yield the highest prognostic value for providing a diagnosis of presymptomatic AD 2 years or more before the full dementia picture is manifested (Silverman et al. 2001). Thus, PET is able to measure cognitive decline at some of the earliest possible stages, providing evidence of its usefulness for early AD detection.
\n\t\t\t\tSPECT and FDG PET studies have also been applied in patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) in order to predict progression from MCI to AD. Reduced glucose metabolism in the inferior parietal cortex and hypoperfusion in the parahippocampus, lateral parietal and posterior cingulate in converters as compared with non-converters have been reported (Ishiwata et al., 2006; Mosconi et al., 2004). Longitudinal FDG PET and perfusion SPECT studies have shown that hypometabolism in the parietal association areas and hypoperfusion in the bilateral inferior parietal areas, angular gyrus and the precunei had a high predictive value and discriminative ability of converters and non-converters, while hypometabolism in the posterior cingulate gyrus had a lower predictive value (Chetelat et al., 2003; Hirao et al., 2005). Combined baseline memory deficits and rCBF SPECT images identified pre-clinical AD with a sensitivity and specificity of 77.8% (Borroni et al., 2006). These SPECT and PET findings suggest that initial functional neuroimaging studies of individuals with MCI may be useful in predicting who will convert to AD in the near future.
\n\t\t\tIn the last years, the detection of senile plaques (SPs) and neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs) has been a target for nuclear molecular imaging in the field of AD. The development of radiotracers able to localize SPs and NFTs could be useful not only in the diagnosis of AD but also in the investigation of the temporal relationship between amyloid deposition, neuronal loss, and cognitive decline and assessment of the effects of drugs in disease progression. Also, these radiotracers could provide treatment for AD patients early in the course of the disease when response to treatment is usually better.
\n\t\t\t\tThe development of plaque-binding compounds started with monoclonal antibodies against beta-amyloid (Aβ) and self-associating Aβ fragments
Several radiolabeled anti-Αβ antibodies and self- associating Αβ amyloid fragments have been developed for potential in vivo SPECT amyloid imaging in AD. 99mTc-10H3, 111Indium (111In) AMY33 and 10D5 (Bickel et al., 1994; L.C. Walker et al., 1994) although gave promising results in vitro, however, they didn’t meet success for in vivo studies mainly due to poor BBB penetration. Despite the efforts that have been made to modify the structure of antibodies and to develop different drug delivery methods suitable for brain studies in vivo, significant problems still constrain the potential application of these probes in human subjects.
\n\t\t\t\tThe first chemically modified neutral thioflavin derivatives were labelled with I-123 in an effort to develop radioiodinated tracers for SPECT imaging of Aβ plaques. Radioiodinated TZDM, TZPI, IBOX and IMPY showed good Aβ plaque binding in vitro but low brain uptake in vivo since they lack sufficient hydrophobicity for diffusion through the BBB, except IMPY which exhibited more promising binding properties (Ono et al., 2002; Zhuang et al., 2001). [11C]-SB-13, a radiolabeled Congo Red derivative, (Verhoeff et al., 2004) has been recently evaluated in AD patients and healthy control subjects. [11C]-SB-13 showed increased retention in the frontal and posterior temporal-inferior parietal association cortices in the AD patients, but not in the comparison subjects.
\n\t\t\t\t\tAnother radiolabeled benzothiazole aniline (BTA) analogue [N-methyl-11C]-2-(4’-methylaminophenyl)-6-hydroxylbenzothiazole ([11C]6-OH-BTA-1), which is a neutral derivative of thioflavin T, has been studied extensively, in both preclinical and clinical studies (Klunk et al., 2001; Mathis et al., 2002). It was named “Pittsburgh Compound-B’ or PIB and exhibited high affinity for aggregated amyloid but not for NFTs (Ye et al., 2005), and reasonable lipophilicities for crossing the BBB. In AD patients, the distribution pattern of 11C-PIB is characterized by significantly great uptake in the frontal, temporal, parietal, and occipital cortices and the striatum but low entry into the cerebellum and subcortical white matter (Nordberg, 2008). The retention of PIB in cortical AD brain regions was found to be inversely related to the rCGM as measured by FDG PET in the same brain regions. 11C-PIB uptake did not show significant correlation with the degree of cognitive impairment. Similar PIB retention was observed in both AD patients and controls in areas with low Αβ amyloid deposition (Klunk et al., 2004). Elevated 11C-PIB uptake was also observed in dementia with lewy bodies and about 50% of mild cognitive impairment subjects, compared to healthy controls (Morris & Price, 2001)
Newer radioligands such as the radiofluorinated [18F]FDDNP and [18F]FENE, which are analogues of the 2-{1-[6-(dimethylamino)-2-naphthyl]ethylidene} malononitrile (DDNP), have been used to label not only SPs but also NFTs for the first time in the living brain of AD patients with PET (Agdeppa et al., 2003b). FDDNP and NSAIDs share a previously unrecognized common binding site on Aβ (1-40) fibrils and senile plaques and also exhibit anti-aggregation effects on Aβ peptides.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe PET imaging data showed increased retention of [18F]FDDNP in the hippocampus, amygdale, entorhinal and temporal lobe regions of the brain, which are consistent with areas known to develop SPs and NFTs. The findings were associated with hypometabolism, as measured with FDG PET, and atrophy, as observed with MRI, in the same brain areas and correlated with lower memory performance scores (Agdeppa et al., 2001; Shoghi-Jadid et al., 2002). [18F]FDDNP provides a disease-specific, in vivo imaging tool for localization and loading of AD-related lesions, which in turn, could aid in early diagnosis of AD in combination with other diagnostic tests (Agdeppa et al., 2003a). Indeed, [18F]FDDNP has greater sensitivity at early stages of AD, before clinical evidence of cognitive decline.
\n\t\t\t\t\tMoreover, [18F]FDDNP-PET may contribute in the elucidation of the relation between possible neuroprotective NSAIDs and Aβ aggregates
Flavonoids and their derivatives (chalcones and aurones) have been proved to have anti-oxidant effect due to matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) inhibitory activity (Calliste et al., 2001), as well as anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties by modulating microglia-related immune responses in the brain (Rezai-Zadeh et al., 2008). Radioiodinated flavones have also been used in experimental studies as possible amyloid imaging probes. They displayed high brain penetration, high brain uptake, fast washout from the brain and good binding affinity not only on Aβ1-40 aggregates but on Aβ1-42 aggregates as well. Moreover, they showed high binding affinity for NFTs, too (Ono et al., 2005, 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tPET and SPECT can evaluate noninvasively the acetylcholine system in the human brain with the use of appropriate radiotracers, in order to detect impairments even at the presymptomatic stage of AD as well as monitoring treatment outcomes of the drugs that enhance acetylcholine activity in AD.
\n\t\t\t\tThe available radiotracers target various elements and processes involved with cholinergic neurotransmission and function. These include the study of acetylcholine receptors and acetylcholine neuronal integrity.
\n\t\t\t\tRadioligands have been developed to measure both nicotinic and muscarinic receptors. 11C-labeled nicotine (Nordberg et al., 1991) as well as epibatidine and azetidine derivatives labeled with 11C or 18F were used to visualize and quantify nicotinic receptors in the brain. Although epibatidine demonstrated high affinity and specificity for nicotinic receptors, unfortunately is very toxic, which may preclude its use in humans (Villemagne et al., 1997). Nevertheless, epibatidine and azetidine analogs didn’t meet clinical application (Sihver et al., 1999). Early in the course of AD, PET studies revealed a reduced 11C-nicotine uptake to nicotinic receptors in frontal and temporal cortex and in the hippocampus in comparison with that of age-matched healthy control subjects (Volkow et al., 2001)
Several radiotracers have been developed for mapping muscarinic receptors. For the most part these radiotracers are limited by the lack of selectivity for the muscarinic receptor subtypes (M1–M4), except for [18F]FP-TZTP, which appears to bind predominantly to M2 receptors (Carson et al., 1998).
\n\t\t\t\tFor the study of acetylcholine neuronal integrity, radioigands have been developed to measure both the activity of acetylcholinesterase and the acetylcholine vesicular transporter.
\n\t\t\t\tThe activity of acetylcholinesterase can be measured with PET either using radiolabeled acetylcholine analogues that serve as substrates for acetylcholinesterase and hydrolyze to a hydrophilic product that is trapped in the cell or using radioligands that directly bind to acetylcholinesterase (Kuhl et al., 1999; Pappata et al., 1996). Radiolabeled acetylcholine analogues N-methyl-3-piperydyl-acetate [MP3A], N-methylpiperidin- 4-yl-acetate [MP4A], and N-methylpiperidin-4-yl-propionate [PMP] have been used for this purpose. PET studies in patients with AD demonstrated a widespread reduction of acetylcholinesterase activity in the cerebral cortex. In normal aging no changes were observed. Additionally, the early loss of cholinergic transmission in the cortex could be shown with these tracers, which precedes the loss of cholinergic neurons in the nucleus basalis of Meynert (Herholz et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\t\tSeveral radioligands that target the acetylcholine vesicular transporter have been labelled but only (2)-5 [123I]iodobenzovesamicol (123I-IBVM) has been used in SPECT studies to image the living human brain (Kuhl et al., 1994). 123I-IBVM is an analogue of vesamicol that binds to the acetylcholine vesicular transporter. Cortical binding of 123I-IBVM in normal subjects was found to decline only mildly with age (3.7% per decade), but it was markedly reduced in AD patients. The reductions predicted dementia severity while the binding levels were also determined by the age of disease onset (Kuhl et al., 1996). Patients with an early onset demonstrated reductions throughout the cortex and hippocampus, whereas patients with late onset had reductions only in the temporal cortex and hippocampus. This finding may reflect the greater cholinergic loss in early- rather than in late-onset AD (Rossor et al., 1984).
\n\t\t\tThe process of neurodegeneration in AD is associated with activation of resting microglial cells and local glial responses. Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors are the mediators of central nervous system inflammation. Radiolabelled isoquinoline ([11C]
\n\t\t\t\t\t123I-PK11195, a SPECT ligand for the peripheral benzodiazepine receptors, has been recently studied in AD patients. Significantly increased uptake was found in the frontal and right mesotemporal regions which correlated with cognitive deficits (Versijpt et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tSeveral SPECT and PET studies have investigated the implication of serotonin (5HT) in the modulation of cognitive and behaviorial/neuropsychiatric disturbances of neurodegenerative dementias (Meltzer et al., 1998). Post-synaptic 5HT2A receptors and pre- and post-synaptic 5HT1A receptors have been studied in vivo in AD.
\n\t\t\t\tPET studies with 18F-setoperone, a 5HT2A receptor antagonist, demonstrated reduced parietal, temporal, frontal and occipital cortical binding in untreated moderate-severe AD patients (Blin et al., 1993), while reduced 18F-altanserin binding were also observed in mild-moderate AD in the anterior cingulate, prefontal, temporal, and sensorimotor cortices (Meltzer et al., 1999). No correlation was found between cortical 18F-altanserin binding and MMSE scores. Pre- and post-synaptic 5HT1A receptors studies with 18F-MPPF have shown decreased binding in the hippocampus and the raphe nucleus of AD patients (Kepe et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\tThe discrimination of AD from dementia with lewy bodies (DLB) is difficult since these disorders share common scintigraphic findings. Temporoparietal hypoperfusion and hypometabolism on SPECT and FDG PET studies is common to both AD and DLB (Minoshima et al., 2001; Pasquier et al., 2002), although subtle differences in perfusion and metabolism patterns have been reported (Colloby et al., 2002), with a relative preservation of medial temporal lobe structures and rCBF in DLB and more extended biparietal hypoperfusion in DLB compared to AD patients.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe differential diagnosis of AD from DLB is based on the greater degree of occipital hypoperfusion or hypometabolism in DLB than in AD. The reported sensitivity and specificity for the accuracy of discriminating AD from DLB on the basis of the finding of hypoperfusion and hypometabolism in the occipital cortex ranged between 65-90% and 80-87%, respectively (Lobotesis et al., 2001; Minoshima et al., 2001).
\n\t\t\t\t\tPost mortem brain studies have shown that the presynaptic dopaminergic terminals in the putamen of DLB patients show a 57% reduction compared to controls. This reduction in dopaminergic terminals leads to loss of the presynaptic dopamine transporter system (DAT) (Piggott et al., 1999)
Recently, an alternative scintigraphic method - cardiac uptake of 123I-metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) - for differentiating AD from DLB was reported. Markedly decreased cardiac uptake was observed in DLB because of cardiac sympathetic denervation (Tateno et al., 2008). Thereafter, the combination of perfusion and [123I]-ioflupane SPECT and MIBG scintigraphy could increase the accuracy of clinical diagnosis of DLB.
\n\t\t\t\tThe pattern of hypoperfusion and hypometabolism on brain perfusion SPECT and FDG PET studies in vascular dementia (VaD) varies greatly and depends on the location of the ischemic lesions (Mori et al., 1999)
The great overlapping of hypoperfusion and hypometabolism patterns between AD and VaD, which some times reflect the presence of mixed dementia too, may complicate the interpretation of SPECT and PET images, making the differential diagnosis of AD and VaD difficult. In such cases the administration of acetazolamide has been proved to be a useful tool in the evaluation of vascular reserve capacity (Tikofsky & Hellman, 1991) and can contribute significantly in the differential diagnosis. Acetazolamide is a carbonic anhydrase inhibitor which increases the local pCO2 in the brain tissue leading to arteriolar dilatation and local increase of rCBF. In AD, vascular reserve capacity is preserved and the administration of acetazolamide results in increased rCBF in the hypoperfused areas seen on SPECT perfusion study. In VaD, acetazolamide fails to increase rCBF in areas with vascular lesions where the vascular reserve capacity is impaired (Pavics et al., 1999)
In patients with frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), PET and SPECT studies revealed the preferential involvement of the frontotemporal regions (Jeong et al., 2005; McNeill et al., 2007). More specifically, these studies demonstrated an extensive decrease of glucose metabolism and perfusion in the frontal and temporal areas, cingulate gyri, uncus, and insula, and subcortical areas, including the basal ganglia and medial thalamic regions (Fig. 2).
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe widespread abnormalities observed in FTLD patients may reflect the cumulative findings of the specific variants of FTLD i.e. the frontal or behavioural variant (bvFTD) and the temporal variants of semantic dementia (SD) and progressive non fluent aphasia (PNFA). FDG PET and perfusion SPECT studies in patients with PNFA and SD showed hypometabolism and hypoperfusion in the left hemisphere including the temporal, parietal and middle frontal lobe, whereas in bvFTD patients prominent frontal lobes deficits have been demonstrated (Perneczky et al., 2007; Sinnatamby et al., 1996).
\n\t\t\t\t\tPIB PET studies could potentially aid in differentiating between FTLD and AD patients. FTLD patients showed significantly lower PIB retention compared to AD in frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital cortices as well as in putamen. The PIB uptake in these FTLD patients did not differ significantly from the healthy controls in any region (Engler et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\t\tIn Creutzfeldt-Jakob encephalopathy, brain perfusion and metabolism studies have revealed various degrees of focal or diffuse hypoperfusion and hypometabolism, which correlated with the severity of the disease, while the use of [11C]-L deuterodeprenyl (DED) -a tracer to assess astrocytosis- showed parallel increases in DED uptake indicating astrocytosis (Engler et al., 2003). Use of iomazemil SPECT to bind with benzodiazepine receptors in a case of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease has been described with reduced uptake in later stages suggesting neuronal degeneration (Itoh et al., 1998).
\n\t\t\t\t\tBrain perfusion SPECT study in a patient with Frontotemporal lobar degeneration. Reduced 99mTc-HMPAO uptake is observed in frontotemporal cortical areas, more marked in the frontal lobes.
In acute immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) dementia, brain perfusion SPECT and FDG PET images demonstrated randomly distributed multiple focal cortical and subcortical deficits of perfusion and metabolism with a predilection for the basal ganglia. These perfusion and metabolism abnormalities may be present even when patients are asymptomatic and correlate better with cognitive improvement after therapy than do structural images (Kim et al., 1996; Tatsch et al., 1990).
\n\t\t\t\t\tDemented patients with Parkinson’s disease or other parkinsonian syndromes such as corticobasal degeneration (CBD), progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP) and multiple system atrophy (MSA) may present overlapping perfusion and metabolism templates with AD patients. Demented patients with Parkinson’s disease and AD share a common pattern of marked posterior hypoperfusion involving the parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, as well as hypoperfusion in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (Eckert et al., 2005; Spampinato et al., 1991). In PSP, glucose metabolism and perfusion was decreased in the midbrain and medial frontal cortex (Eckert et al., 2005; Okuda et al., 2000). Relative hypometabolism and hypoperfusion in the basal ganglia and fronto-parietal cortex contralateral to the most affected side was a characteristic finding in CBD (Eckert et al., 2005; Hossain et al., 2003). MSA patients exhibited a pattern characterized by marked bilateral reductions of perfusion and metabolism in the lentiform nuclei, the pons and the cerebellum (Cilia et al., 2005; Eckert et al., 2005)
In symptomatic patients with Huntington’s disease (HD) brain perfusion SPECT imaging shows decreased or absent tracer uptake in the caudate nucleus or basal ganglia (Nagel et al., 1991). The impairment of basal ganglia may not be permanent and tracer uptake may return to normal after therapy with olanzapine (Etchebehere et al. 1999).
\n\t\t\t\tAcetylcholinesterase inhibitors have been the most widely used drugs to treat AD. Perfusion, metabolism and nicotinic receptors SPECT and PET imaging can be used to assess the efficacy of these drugs in inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, to determine the doses required to achieve optimal inhibition and identify patients in whom the concentration of acetylcholinesterase may be too low for acetylcholinesterase inhibitors to be effective (Kuhl et al., 2000).
\n\t\t\t\tPerfusion SPECT studies have shown that treatment with donepezil appeared to reduce the decline in rCBF, suggesting a preservation of functional brain activity (Nakano et al., 2001; Staff et al., 2000). Increases in rCBF in anterior cingulate, lateral orbitofrontal, dorsolateral prefrontal, and temporoparietal areas after short term acetylcholinesterase inhibitor therapy was significantly related to behaviors of irritability, disinhibition, and euphoria (Ceravolo et al., 2004; Nakano et al., 2001). These data suggest that cognitive or behavioral benefits after cholinesterase inhibitor therapy are related to clear increases in rCBF in crucial areas specifically involved in the attention and limbic networks.
\n\t\t\t\tIncreases in rCBF in AD patients have also been reported after acute and fairly short periods of treatment with other cholinesterase inhibitors such as tacrine and velnacrine, and with the acetylcholine releaser linopirdine (van Dyck et al., 1997). Tacrine treatment increased cerebral blood flow, cerebral glucose metabolism, and uptake of 11C-nicotine to the brain paralleled by improvement in neuropsychological performance. Though the effects of tacrine on nicotine receptors occurred early in the course of treatment (3 weeks), those in metabolism were observed only after months of treatment (Nordberg et al., 1998). Tacrine increased binding of 11C-nicotine in the temporal cortex of AD patients was interpreted as reflecting a restoration of nicotinic receptors (Nordberg et al., 1997). These results are in agreement with preclinical data showing that cholinergic stimulation leads to upregulation of nicotinic receptors (Svensson & Nordberg, 1996).
\n\t\t\t\tAcetylcholinesterase inhibitors can be labeled with positron emitters without changing their pharmacologic properties. This would allow for the investigation of their regional distribution and pharmacokinetics in the human brain. Studies that have assess the effects of these drugs at their molecular target show the relationship between doses of a drug and percent occupancy of receptors or transporters, or percent of enzyme inhibition. This can be achieved either by using the radiolabeled drug itself, if it has a good specific-to-nonspecific binding ratio, or by using a radioligand that binds to the same site as the drug (Traykov et al., 1999). This same strategy can be applied to measure the receptor occupancies achieved by nicotinic or muscarinic drugs at doses that improve cognitive or behavioral function (Ding et al., 2000). Equivalent studies can also be done to assess the efficacy of cholinesterase inhibitors in inhibiting acetylcholinesterase (Pappata et al., 1996). Acetylcholine-enhancing drugs that have been labelled with positron emitters include nicotine, tacrine, and physostigmine.
\n\t\t\tSubtle changes in brain function may occur prior to overt manifestations of the disease in genetically at-risk individuals. The combination of functional brain imaging with genetic risk factors may enhance the ability to detect differences predictive of disease development prior to onset and assist in the potential for increasing the efficacy of therapeutic treatments (Reiman et al., 2001). FDG PET studies in asymptomatic apolipoprotein ε4 allele (APOE e4) carriers demonstrated a decline of metabolism in the left posterior cingulated, inferior parietal, and lateral temporal regions (Kennedy et al., 1995; Small et al., 2000). Likewise, perfusion SPECT studies in asymptomatic presenilin-1 mutation subjects demonstrated reduced perfusion in the hippocampal complex, anterior and posterior cingulate, posterior parietal lobe, and anterior frontal lobe (Johnson et al., 2001).
\n\t\t\tThe application of SPECT and PET techniques to the study of AD patients has elucidated the in vivo understanding of the underlying pathology of the disease. The variety of the available radiotracers has rendered SPECT and PET objective biomarkers for monitoring of biochemical processes altered by neuronal loss. Nuclear molecular imaging of changes in brain Aβ deposition, perfusion, metabolism and neurotransmitter turnover, as well as alterations in receptor, transporter or enzyme concentrations can provide unique information not attainable by other methods. The noninvasive PET and SPECT imaging provided novel ways to improve early and differential diagnosis of AD and monitor the disease progression and the effects of symptomatic or disease modifying therapies.
\n\t\tTechnological innovations and work process automation play a key role in meeting the increased demands that organizations face in today’s competitive and fast-changing market [1]. To become and remain efficient, automation and robotics offer many solutions for the potential optimization of work processes. Robotic Process Automation (RPA) is currently one of the most used tools in business process automation that stimulates higher organizational productivity [2]. RPA is a software robot that uses the interface of an already present computer system and mimics the actions of a human employee. RPA can automate work processes that are administrative, well-structured, and repetitive of nature [3, 4, 5]. Typical tasks that can be done by RPA entail, for example, processing incoming emails and orders, transferring data from one digital system to another, and searching for and communicating with potential new hires. Organizations greatly benefit from the implementation of RPA, mainly due to increased process speed and production growth, as well as error reduction [6].
However, although there are many advantages to the commissioning of RPA, it is estimated that between 30 and 50% of all RPA implementations fail [7]. This relatively high number of unsuccessful RPA implementations is in line with the general notion that digital transitions often do not result in desired outcomes, such as enhanced productivity and efficiency. A potential explanation for failing technological implementations is the lack of consideration for the employees who have to work with a new technology [8]. With this study we aim to gain more insight in this human-technology interaction [9] by investigating to what extent the implementation of an RPA technology impacts work characteristics and employee well-being.
In-depth knowledge on the consequences of digital transitions for the work characteristics and employee well-being is increasingly important, because both are to a large extent predictive of overall employee performance and organizational productivity [10, 11]. By studying this issue we contribute to the existing body of knowledge on workplace automation and information systems in two important ways. First, this study aims to address the research gap concerning the impact of workplace automation on individual work experiences. Whereas earlier research has mainly focused on the effects of technological innovations on employment and labor market composition, we argue that more understanding of the relationship between the implementation of an automation system and work characteristics, as well as well-being of those who have to work with these new technologies can contribute to the successful implementation of technological innovations. This can help organizations that want to innovate and invest in better designed jobs, as well as lead to better implementations of new technologies such that sustainable employee performance can be consolidated and organizational efficiency can be achieved. Second, we aim to contribute to the growing body of literature on workplace automation and the application of RPA technology [5, 6, 12, 13]. More specifically, we examine to what extent RPA influences the work experiences of employees and whether RPA technology results in the desired outcomes with regard to a decrease in job demands, an increase in job resources, and in turn enhanced employee well-being. In sum, with this research we want to achieve a better understanding of how employees experience working with RPA, so that such an innovation in the future actually contributes to what it is intended for and does not generate negative side effects. In the following sections, we will explain how RPA can influence work characteristics and how these work characteristics are related to employee well-being.
Work process automation changes the way work is performed and perceived by employees. For example, the use of robots that automate heavy manual labor can result in less physically straining job tasks for employees, while at the same time requires them to handle new machinery. Similarly, the use of chatbots can significantly decrease interpersonal interactions at work, but can potentially also result in employees to feel alienated from their original work role. Hence, the introduction of a new technology and workplace automation can have both simultaneously positive and negative influences on employees’ work experiences.
The idea behind RPA technology is that administrative work processes become more streamlined and efficient, so that employees have to spend less time on performing repetitive work tasks [3]. Compared to traditional automation systems (e.g., BPM, CRM) RPA can automate many different work tasks, is easy to implement and use, and does not require modification of existing IT infrastructures [5]. As such, RPA is unique in a sense that it requires minimal human intervention, can be applied to a range of business applications, and is designed such that end users can make changes without the need to possess extensive programming skills. Although RPA does not automate and replace complete jobs, it does substantially change certain tasks and the way jobs are designed [9, 14]. Therefore, the implementation of RPA is likely to change the way employees (perceive their) work and thus can result in better or worse designed jobs, which likely has a profound impact on important outcomes related to employee work experiences and well-being [9].
From a work design perspective, the job demands-resources model states that all work characteristics can be divided into job demands and job resources [15]. Job demands, such as workload, time pressure, and role conflict, refer to all aspects of a job that require continuous cognitive or emotional effort and are related to physiological and/or psychological costs. Job resources are those aspects of a job that help employees cope with high job demands, attain work goals and performance, and stimulate professional growth. Examples of job resources are feedback, task variety, support, and autonomy [15]. In line with Demerouti [16] and Parker and Grote [9], we argue that during and after the implementation of a new technology and workplace automation both job demands and job resources are subject to substantial changes. A recent systematic literature review [17] on the impact of the implementation of technological innovations on core work characteristics, showed that the implementation of a new technology was associated with intensified job demands, including job complexity and workload. Additionally, the relationship between the implementation of a technological innovation and job resources was predominantly positive, especially with regard to autonomy and control. These findings suggest that although job demands tend to increase after the introduction of a new technology, job resources seem, at least to some extent, compensate for these increased demands. However, in finding an answer to the question which work characteristics are susceptible to change after the introduction of an RPA technology, it is important to take a closer look at the defining features of RPA.
Starting with job resources, as mentioned above, one of the main goals of RPA is to take over administrative and repetitive work tasks from employees [5]. This means that the use of RPA frees time that employees otherwise had to spend on monotonous tasks. Considering that RPA generates more time for other aspects of the job, this should allow employees to exert more control over their work structure and tasks. As such, we expect that RPA use relates to more autonomy at work for employees. This notion is also supported by a qualitative interview study of Engberg and Sördal [18], who found that the introduction of RPA enhanced the experienced freedom of employees to independently organize their work schedule and tasks.
Second, although RPA is useful in replacing structured and repetitive tasks, it is less suitable to take over complex work that requires more advanced problem-solving skills and abilities [3]. Taking into account that RPA technology releases employees from carrying out repetitive work duties, it simultaneously leaves more room to perform other and more challenging tasks. In line with this argumentation, several qualitative studies have shown that, overall, employees experienced that RPA enabled them to advance their skill set. In addition the introduction of RPA enabled them to devote time to their professional development and growth while performing new and challenging tasks [18, 19]. These findings suggest that RPA creates space for employees to focus on a variety of challenging work tasks. Therefore, we also expect that the use of RPA positively relates to task variety, which entails the extent to which employees experience variety in their job content and can perform a wide range of tasks that require different skills [20].
Turning to job demands, reference [21] indicates that RPA is able to take over and process up to 300% more information compared to human employees. This increase in productivity is due to the fact that RPA can complete a large range of administrative tasks in a fraction of the time compared to actual employees and can work throughout the night and weekend. Additionally, RPA is relatively easy to implement and configure, meaning that employees can use RPA, as well as make changes in how tasks are performed, without an extensive technical background [22]. This implies that employees are no longer bothered with continuously having to deal with processing and analyzing large amounts of information and are able to easily adjust the system during the implementation process based on the requirements and needs of their job. Information processing refers to the amount of data and information that employees are required to monitor and manage in their job [20, 23]. Considering that RPA takes over data and information processing tasks to a substantial extent, we propose that RPA completes a large range of administrative tasks in a fraction of the time compared to actual employees. Taken together, with regard to changes in job demands and job resources we formulate the following hypotheses: Hypothesis 1:RPA use is positively related to (a) autonomy and (b) task variety. Hypothesis 2:RPA use is negatively related to information processing.
Employee well-being refers to a passive or active work-related affect and individual’s evaluation of the quality of experiences at work [24]. In this study, we included work engagement and exhaustion as indicators of work-related well-being, considering that both are regarded as important factors in the operationalization of employee well-being [25, 26]. In relation to work-related well-being, the JD-R framework proposes two independent underlying processes [15]. First, a health impairment process, in which continued exposure to high job demands results in strain, burnout, and an overall decline in health-related outcomes. Second, a motivational process is proposed, in which access to sufficient job resources protects employees against high job demands and leads to motivation, work engagement, and increased productivity. Following these central assumptions, we argue that higher levels of autonomy and task variety associated with RPA use instigate the motivational process as proposed in the JD-R framework. To clarify, autonomy and task variety are key job resources, which consistently have been found to be predictive of work engagement and performance outcomes (for overviews see [27, 28]. Consequently, we propose that employees who can turn over their repetitive tasks to RPA are likely to experience more autonomy and task variety, and in turn feel more engaged. In addition, consistent exposure to high job demands, including workload and information processing, are linked to increased levels of exhaustion and burnout (e.g. [29]. With regard to information processing, we expect that employees who can transfer their administrative responsibilities to RPA and thus on a daily basis deal with substantially less repetitive job tasks, experience lower levels of information processing (see Hypothesis 2). In turn, lower levels of information processing are likely to relate to lower levels of exhaustion (i.e., a positive relationship). Therefore, we hypothesize the following: Hypothesis 3:(a) Autonomy and (b) task variety are positively related to work engagement. Hypothesis 4:RPA use is indirectly related to more work engagement through (a) autonomy and (b) task variety. Hypothesis 5:Information processing is positively related to exhaustion. Hypothesis 6:RPA use is indirectly related to less exhaustion through information processing.
Data for this study was collected via an online questionnaire. We recruited data from employees within two large departments of a Dutch Ministry (N = 420). The response rate was 37.33%. In 2019 this Ministry introduced and implemented RPA in their organization. Employees working in the two departments typically hold office jobs, such as administrative workers, financial and legal experts, project managers and members, and HR representatives. We invited both employees who could turn over certain aspects of their work to RPA (i.e., RPA users, who make or control work processes and provide input for the RPA robot; N = 140) and employees whose work was not directly impacted by RPA (N = 280). In the questionnaire employees were asked whether their work was somehow impacted by the introduction of RPA and if so, in what way their work has changed and how they interacted with the robot. Based on these answers a distinction could be made between RPA users and non-RPA users. The group of RPA users consisted of employees from whom RPA took over one or several administrative and repetitive work tasks, such as scanning and filing emails and documents, extracting data, and generating (mass) emails. Additionally, this group also consisted of employees that made or controlled RPA work processes and output, as well as provided new input for the RPA robot. All employees received an email from the Ministry with information about the aim of the study, a link to the online questionnaire, and an explanation of the confidentiality was offered to all respondents. This study obtained approval of the Ethics Review Board.
In the total sample, 54.90% was male and the average age was 48.96 years (SD = 10.85). The mean job tenure was 14.61 years (SD = 11.22) and on average respondents worked for 33.48 hours a week (SD = 4.87). Most employees worked in jobs that required a Bachelor’s Degree (48.10%) or an Associate Degree (12.10%). In terms of demographical variables (i.e., gender, age, weekly workhours, and contract type) RPA users did not differ significantly from non-RPA users. Additionally, we tested for differences between RPA users and non-RPA users on the study main variables by conducting independent samples t-tests in SPSS. Table 1 shows the results of these analyses. RPA users reported significantly lower levels of autonomy, task variety, and information processing compared to non-RPA users.
RPA users | Non-RPA users | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | SD | M | SD | ||
Autonomy | 3.62 | 0.74 | 3.97 | 0.65 | 4.86** |
Task variety | 3.33 | 0.82 | 3.68 | 0.70 | 4.59** |
Inform. Processing | 3.83 | 0.65 | 4.02 | 0.67 | 2.82** |
Work engagement | 4.71 | 0.99 | 4.69 | 0.90 | −0.22 |
Exhaustion | 2.07 | 0.75 | 2.01 | 0.68 | −1.15 |
Results of
Note:
Frist, autonomy was measured with a Dutch translation of three items of the Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ; [20]). An example item of this scale is: “The job allows me to make a lot of decisions on my own”. Cronbach’s α was 0.80. Task variety was measured with two items of the WDQ [20]. One of these items is “The job involves a great deal of task variety”. Information processing was measured with two items of the WDQ . An example of these items is: “The job requires me to monitor a great deal of information”. Work engagement was measured with the three-item version of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale [30]. An example item of this scale is: “At my work, I feel bursting with energy”. Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.82. Exhaustion was measured with three items of the Burnout Assessment Tool (BAT [31]). One of the items is: “I feel mentally exhausted at work”. Cronbach’s α for this scale was 0.81.
First, we evaluated the measurement model using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Latent variables (i.e., autonomy, task variety, information processing, work engagement, and exhaustion) were modeled with scale items. The following fit indices were used to evaluate model fit: the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA). With CFI and TLI values above 0.95, and RMSEA below 0.06, model fit is acceptable [32]. Second, we tested the proposed research model using structural equation (SEM) with the AMOS software package [33]. To assess the specific indirect effects of autonomy and task variety in the relationship between RPA use and work engagement, as well as the specific indirect effect of information processing in the relationship between RPA use and exhaustion, we applied the phantom model approach [34]. In addition, to test the robustness of our proposed research model, we tested an alternative model, that proposed a relationship between RPA use and work engagement, and in turn, autonomy and task variety. Additionally, this alternative model proposed an indirect relationship between RPA use, exhaustion, and information processing.
In Table 2 the descriptive statistics, including the means, standard deviations, and correlations of the variables in this study can be found. Job level was the only demographic variable that correlated significantly with several of the outcome variables (i.e., autonomy, task variety, and information processing). Therefore, we controlled for job level in our further analyses.
Mean | SD | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. Age | 48.96 | 10.85 | — | |||||||
2. Job level | 2.72 | 0.68 | −0.01 | — | ||||||
3. System use | 0.33 | 0.47 | −0.08 | −0.25** | — | |||||
4. Autonomy | 3.85 | 0.70 | 0.03 | 0.34** | −0.24** | — | ||||
5. Task variety | 3.56 | 0.76 | −0.05 | 0.48** | −0.23** | 0.47** | — | |||
6. Information processing | 3.96 | 0.67 | 0.07 | 0.37** | −0.14** | 0.36** | 0.36** | — | ||
7. Work engagement | 4.70 | 0.92 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.28** | 0.32** | −0.14*** | — | |
8. Exhaustion | 2.04 | 0.71 | −0.04 | −0.01 | 0.06 | −0.14** | −0.13** | 0.09 | −0.27** | — |
Descriptive statistics and inter-correlations of the study variables
Note:
The measurement model, including autonomy, task variety, information processing, work engagement, and exhaustion as latent variables, showed a very good fit to the data: χ2 = 144.00, df = 55, CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.06. All factor loadings loaded significantly on their respective latent factor and ranged between 0.63 and 0.97.
In Hypothesis 1a and 1b we predicted that RPA use was positively related to (a) autonomy and (b) task variety. Contrary to our expectations, our analysis showed an opposite relationship, namely that RPA use was significantly and negatively related to both autonomy (β = −0.19, p < 0.01) and task variety (β = −0.13, p < 0.05), thereby not supporting Hypotheses 1a and 1b.
In Hypothesis 2, we predicted that RPA use would be negatively associated with information processing. Although this relationship was indeed negative, it was not significant (β = −0.06, p = 0.17), and thereby not in support of Hypothesis 2.
In line with Hypotheses 3a and 3b, we found that autonomy (β = 0.13, p = 0.01) and task variety (β = 0.26, p < 0.05) were as expected indeed positively and significantly related to work engagement, thereby confirming Hypothesis 3.
Turning to Hypotheses 4a and 4b and the indirect relationship between system use and work engagement through both autonomy and task variety, the data showed that this combined indirect effect was negative and significant (estimate = −0.06, p < 0.02 with a bias-corrected confidence interval ranging from −0.10 to −0.02). To assess the specific indirect effects of autonomy and task variety separately in the relationship between system use and work engagement, the phantom model approach was applied [34]. The specific indirect effect of autonomy in the relation between system use and work engagement was indeed negative and significant (estimate = −0.10, p = 0.02), thereby not in support of Hypothesis 4a. The specific indirect effect of task variety in the relation between system use and work engagement was also negative and significant (estimate = −0.06, p = 0.02). As such, Hypothesis 4b was also not confirmed.
In contrast to Hypothesis 5, we found no significant relationship between information processing and exhaustion, (β = 0.08, p = 0.17). As such, Hypothesis 5 was not supported by the data.
Hypothesis 6, in which an indirect effect of information processing in the relationship between RPA use and exhaustion was hypothesized, was not supported by the data (estimate = −0.01, p = 0.16 with a bias-corrected confidence interval ranging from −0.02 to 0.00). As such, Hypothesis 6 was not confirmed.
Overall, the proposed structural model showed a good fit to the data: χ2 = 210.235, df = 78, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.92, RMSEA = 0.06. Figure 1 shows a schematic representation of all study’s results.
Overview of results of structural equation modeling. Note:
Last, we tested a plausible alternative model, in which system use was related to autonomy and task variety, through work engagement. Additionally, in this alternative model we proposed that system use was indirectly related to information processing through exhaustion. The alternative model showed a lower overall fit with the data (χ2 = 248.549 df = 80, CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.90, RMSEA = 0.07). After comparison of the two models, the proposed research model yielded a significantly better fit (Δχ2 = 38.314, Δdf = 2, p < 0.01).
To gain a better understanding of the impact of workplace automation on the quality of work and employee well-being, we examined to what extent the introduction of RPA relates to work characteristics and subsequent work-related employee well-being. We drew on the JD-R framework [15] to argue for a positive relationship between RPA use (vs. non-use) and the job resources autonomy and task variety, and in turn work engagement. Additionally, we proposed a negative association between RPA use and information processing and subsequently exhaustion. Contrary to our expectations, the results showed that RPA use was negatively related to both autonomy and task variety, which in turn were positively related to work engagement. Moreover, the indirect effects of both autonomy and task variety were negative in the relationship between RPA use and work engagement. These results indicate that the introduction of a workplace automation, and more specifically the use of RPA, is at the expense of work engagement for employees who have to deal with this new technology through a decrease in job resources. Furthermore, we found no significant relationship between RPA use and information processing and in turn exhaustion, suggesting that job demands were not significantly affected by the introduction of a new workplace technology.
Unexpectedly and remarkably, the findings of this study demonstrate that working with RPA as a new technology is associated with lower levels of both autonomy and task variety. This is a worrying finding in itself, especially because autonomy and task variety are important predictors of work engagement, as also underlined by the results of this study. Moreover, many studies have demonstrated that a lack of job resources, including autonomy and task variety, is also associated with other negative work outcomes such as burnout, turnover intentions, lower levels of learning behaviors, as well as a decrease in motivation, proactivity, and performance [35, 36, 37]. This further underlines that it is very important to conserve job resources when introducing a new work process automation.
A possible explanation for the negative association between RPA use and autonomy and task variety - and thus the opposite intended effect of RPA - could lie in the ongoing implementation process of a workplace automation [9]. In this case, RPA was relatively recently introduced within the organization, meaning that the system was still in continuous adjustment to the specific demands of the organization and employees. Although RPA takes over well-structured and repetitive work tasks, the provided output still needs to be regularly checked by human employees. Therefore, it could be that employees working with RPA were still spending considerable time to examine and correct potential system mistakes and updating the robot to certain tasks and needs [38]. Considering that employees needed to search, report, and adjust RPA system errors, this could lead to a decreased sense of autonomy and control. Additionally, because this also requires a different set of work skills, room to engage in new and challenging tasks could be limited. Moreover, employees who had to work with RPA could not freely choose whether RPA took over certain work tasks they previously performed themselves. It could be the case that this lack of individual influence on the use of RPA resulted in a decreased feeling of control. As such, because employees were required to use and learn RPA and did not have a final say in whether RPA was implemented in their work or not, their autonomy may be threatened and thus reduced.
Taken together, the present study findings implicate that after the implementation of a work process automation technology, employee engagement, and thus well-being, is at risk due to a significant decrease in core job resources for RPA users. Additionally, the results of this study showed that RPA use is not related at all to information processing. A possible explanation for this finding may be that information processing simultaneously increases and decreases for RPA users, thereby canceling out any effects. More specifically, it could be that while RPA use relates to less administrative information that has to be analyzed and processed, employees do have to process more information associated with learning to work and getting familiar with RPA, as well as controlling and adjusting RPA processes. In that case, it would be useful to distinguish between different types of information processing related to a digital transition. For instance, information processing associated with the eventual effects of a new technology on individuals work content (and thus an expected decrease in simple and monotonous work tasks), and information processing related to the implementation process and learning a new technology.
Alternatively, other job demands than information processing could be taken into account when examining the impact of RPA on work characteristics. For instance, workload and role conflict could be potential interesting factors in light of the implementation of RPA, considering that the job content is likely to change due to the implementation of a new work process automation technology. Additionally, in the initial phase after a digital transition a new system requires new routines and knowledge, which is likely to have an impact on employees’ workload [39].
Last, we did not found the expected positive relationship between information processing and exhaustion. Exhaustion is often regarded as a more distal outcome compared to work engagement, because employee exhaustion only develops after repeated exposure of (high) job demands [40]. Due to the cross-sectional design of this study that also was conducted only two months after the implementation of RPA, it could be that the health impairment processes, as proposed by the JD-R framework, had not been set in motion yet.
A first important contribution of the current study is that it demonstrates that the relationship between the implementation of technological innovations at work and employee well-being via work characteristics is not straightforward. Our results show that, although RPA is often introduced with the intention to lessen the burden on employees concerning monotonous, repetitive work tasks, this goal is not necessarily achieved. Based on the present study, it seems that job demands do not decrease for those employees that work with the new technology. More importantly and also contrary to our expectations, the use of a new system at work was related to lower instead of higher levels of autonomy and task variety, meaning that job resources of system users seem to decrease after implementation of a work process automation. Thus, our findings demonstrated that the introduction of a new technology did not lower demands. In fact, it even generated less resources in that it created less space for employees to take control over their work and engage in challenging and a wider variety of tasks. Taken together, these findings provide support for the existence of a technology paradox, in that the potential of a new workplace technology does not necessarily results in desired organizational and individual outcomes. Specifically, the implementation of a work process automation should not be at the expense of employee job resources.
Second, the present study contributes to the emerging literature on RPA [5, 6] and offers more insight into workplace automation, and specifically the implementation of RPA, on employee experiences. Whereas earlier studies on the impact of workplace automation and RPA showed overall positive associations with job resources [18, 41, 42], the results of this study present a different picture. Our findings suggest that automation does not always result in a desired reduction of demands, and more importantly, that it poses a potential treat to well-being via a decrease in job resources. To the best of our knowledge this is one of the first papers that focusses on both job resources and a job demand following the implementation of a workplace automation. To gain a deeper understanding of the complex human-technology interaction, future research should place emphasis on changes in both challenging and hindering demands following a digital transition, as well as on job resources that can help employees cope and perform with automation and RPA.
This study has several limitations. First, due to the cross-sectional study design, we cannot draw conclusions about the causal relationships between RPA use, the examined job resources and demand, and work engagement and exhaustion. Although we carefully followed the core premises by the JD-R model [15], it could be the case that some proposed relationships are reciprocal. For instance, it might be that employees who experience high levels of work engagement also perceive more job resources in their work [43]. Earlier studies (e.g. [44, 45] indeed found that job resources and work engagement influence each other in both directions, suggesting a gain cycle in which the presence of job resources and work engagement reinforce each other reciprocally. These findings further underline the importance of more longitudinal research to investigate such bidirectional relationships in a digital transition context. Additionally, when investigating the influence of a technological implementation on employees’ job quality and work experiences, future research could apply a longitudinal study design, in which users and non-users are compared at several measurement points, including pre- and post-implementation. Since employees included in the present study were not randomly assigned to use RPA, the selection of employees to use RPA could be correlated with their perceptions of task variety and job automation. For instance, some employees are more capable and can handle more task variety, so they may be more likely to be selected to use RPA. Thus, it is a challenge to determine the causal effect. Therefore, a within-group pre-post design would have been better and is recommended for future studies.
In addition, the use of self-reports could lead to common method bias [46]. However, additional to the good fit of the measurement model, we conducted Harman’s single-factor test, which demonstrated that variance in the data was not due to a single underlying factor and thus indicating that common method bias was not a problem in this study. Moreover, it can be argued that constructs reflecting individual states, such as work engagement and exhaustion, as well as perceived work characteristics, can best be evaluated by the individual actor, and are not necessarily suitable to cross-validate with other-ratings.
Finally, in this study we focused on (only) three specific work characteristics that were likely to be influenced by the introduction and use of RPA, namely autonomy, task variety, and information processing. The choice of these work characteristics was based on earlier qualitative research findings on the impact of RPA on job resources [18]. Moreover, we reasoned that the implementation of RPA lessens the amount of information that needs to be processed by human employees, as well as generates more control and room for other challenging tasks. Considering that we found no relationship between RPA use and information processing, it would be particularly interesting to uncover if and how other job demands of system users are affected by the implementation of a workplace automation. For instance, future research could further differentiate between challenging and hindering job demands, were job hindrances (e.g., job insecurity, role conflict, and constraints) are associated with exhaustion and job challenges (e.g., workload and cognitive demands) with engagement [47]. It could be that the implementation of new technologies at work simultaneously incite hinderances and challenges for employees. More insight into how workplace automation affects these specific job demands could contribute to a better implementation of new technologies and optimize adaption among employees who have to work with these technologies [9]. Similarly, it would be relevant to examine what and how job resources can help employees to achieve their goals and stay motivated during the introduction of a new technology [16]. In sum, it is of key importance to design jobs in such a way that a digital transition involves both challenging and realizable job demands, as well as sufficient job resources to stimulate employee performance and well-being. A human-centered approach to workplace automation and job design with particular consideration for employee work experiences is of key importance in reducing the technology-paradox and optimizing the full potential of technology [8].
The present study connects to a broader debate on the quality of work in the rapid-changing contemporary world of work [48, 49]. Both employees and managers benefit greatly from a healthy and motivating work environment, especially in times of digital transition and widespread automation within organizations. The findings of this study provide further insight into how technological innovations relate to employee well-being through work characteristics and underline the importance of stimulating autonomy and task variety in order to safeguard employee motivation after introducing a workplace automation.
Facilitating a work environment in which employees have access to sufficient job resources that help them deal and work with technological advancements, as well as enabling good performance, is one of the most important implications for practice. Based on the results of this study and in line with the recommendations of reference [16], organizations and HR practitioners should take responsibility during and after the implementation of new technologies. One of the focal points should be to (re)design jobs in such a way that technological innovations turn into a resource itself by closely paying attention to the needs and concerns of users. Carefully identifying how job demands may change after a digital transition can also help organizations to offer appropriate job resources for employees to cope with changes in their job demands. For instance, access to sufficient training and education can help employees to become acquainted and more proficient in using a new technology, and thereby also reducing workload, anxiety, and job insecurity [50]. Additionally, providing feedback and support from the organization and managers are two main resources for employees that help them deal with the negative consequences of job demands [51]. Furthermore, another way to successfully gain and maintain well-being and motivation during a digital transition, is by facilitating employee job crafting [52] which refers to an individual proactive strategy to seek out relevant job resources that can help employees during technological change. Managers and organizations play a key role in creating a work environment in which employees feel encouraged to engage in job crafting and proactively seek out resources they need to adjust and perform [53].
In sum, during and following the implementation of a technological innovation, organizations and managers should be aware of changes in job demands and needs from employees, as well as focus on providing adequate resources for employees to cope with these demands and to stimulate optimal performance with a new technology.
The current study demonstrates that the introduction of a workplace automation system may have a profound negative impact on employee job resources. More specifically, the findings indicate that use of an automation system relates to lower levels of autonomy and variation in work tasks, forming a serious threat to the work engagement of employees who have to work with the new system. As such, this study shows that organizations should take a close look at and take into account potentially affected job resources due to the implementation of a workplace automation. Importantly, focusing on stimulating relevant job resources, such as autonomy and task variety, during and after digital transitions is necessary to maintain and promote employee well-being and motivation.
This research was funded by a grant from A + O fonds Rijk, an independent Dutch Foundation for innovation and research within the Dutch Government.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of 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2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"235",title:"Gerontology",slug:"gerontology",parent:{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:72,numberOfWosCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitations:42,numberOfDimensionsCitations:80,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"235",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7904",title:"Aging",subtitle:"Life Span and Life Expectancy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4507619de679dfa85bc6e073d163f3c8",slug:"aging-life-span-and-life-expectancy",bookSignature:"Robert J. Reynolds and Steven M. Day",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7904.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"220737",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"J. Reynolds",slug:"robert-j.-reynolds",fullName:"Robert J. Reynolds"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6704",title:"Geriatrics Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cac7767e0b34391318cd4a680ca0d68",slug:"geriatrics-health",bookSignature:"Hülya Çakmur",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6704.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190636",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hülya",middleName:null,surname:"Çakmur",slug:"hulya-cakmur",fullName:"Hülya Çakmur"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6381",title:"Gerontology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf232563c8fe15ef0848ed6ffb8f832d",slug:"gerontology",bookSignature:"Grazia D’Onofrio, Antonio Greco and Daniele Sancarlo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6381.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"272628",title:"Dr.",name:"Grazia",middleName:null,surname:"D'Onofrio",slug:"grazia-d'onofrio",fullName:"Grazia D'Onofrio"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5925",title:"Perception of Beauty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11f483d631557ad26d48b577e23a724f",slug:"perception-of-beauty",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5925.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"60564",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76249",title:"Ageing Process and Physiological Changes",slug:"ageing-process-and-physiological-changes",totalDownloads:6978,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:33,abstract:"Ageing is a natural process. Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"55388",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68944",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7750,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]},{id:"59227",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73385",title:"Differentiating Normal Cognitive Aging from Cognitive Impairment No Dementia: A Focus on Constructive and Visuospatial Abilities",slug:"differentiating-normal-cognitive-aging-from-cognitive-impairment-no-dementia-a-focus-on-constructive",totalDownloads:1347,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Constructive and visuospatial abilities in normal and in pathological aging (cognitive impairment, no dementia, CIND) are investigated. The sample includes 188 participants over 60 years of age, divided in 2 groups: healthy subjects (MMSE ≥28), without cognitive complaints, and individuals with CIND (MMSE between 24 and 27 and subjective cognitive complains). Drawing of cube and drawing of house, Benton Visual Retention Test (BVRT), and Block design are used to test the hypothesis that short visuoconstructive and visuospatial tests can distinguish normal from pathological cognitive aging in its very early stages. Results proved the discriminative sensitivity of BVRT general assessment criteria and of omissions and distortions in CIND. The diagnostic sensitivity of a modification of Moore and Wike [1984] scoring system for house and cube drawing tasks was confirmed as well. Drawing of cube and house could be used for quick screening of CIND in subjects over 60. Principal component analysis with oblimin rotation was performed to explore the different dimensions in the visuospatial and visuoconstructive abilities in old age. A four-factor structure was established, all four factors explaining 71% of the variance.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Radka Ivanova Massaldjieva",authors:[{id:"75907",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Radka Ivanova",middleName:null,surname:"Massaldjieva",slug:"radka-ivanova-massaldjieva",fullName:"Radka Ivanova Massaldjieva"}]},{id:"59658",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74748",title:"Ageing Better in the Netherlands",slug:"ageing-better-in-the-netherlands",totalDownloads:1189,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Dutch National Care for the Elderly Programme was an initiative organized by the Netherlands Organisation for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) between 2008 and 2016. The aim of the programme was to collect knowledge about frail elderly, to assess their needs and to provide person-centred and integrated care better suited to their needs. The budget of EUR 88 million was provided by the Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare and Sports. Putting the needs of elderly people at the heart of the programme and ensuring their active participation were key to the programme’s success. The programme outcomes included the establishment of eight geriatric networks around the medical universities with 650 organisations and the completion of 218 projects. These projects, involving 43,000 elderly people and 8500 central caregivers, resulted in the completion of 45 PhD theses and the publication of more than 400 articles and the development of 300 practice toolkits, one database and a website, www.beteroud.nl. The Dutch National Care for the Elderly Programme has since developed into a movement and continues under the consortium Ageing Better, made up of eight organisations. Through the use of ambassadors, Ageing Better promotes the message that ageing is not a disease but a new phase of life.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Betty Meyboom-de Jong, Klaske Wynia and Anjo Geluk-Bleumink",authors:[{id:"224997",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Betty",middleName:null,surname:"Meyboom-De Jong",slug:"betty-meyboom-de-jong",fullName:"Betty Meyboom-De Jong"},{id:"232900",title:"Dr.",name:"Klaske",middleName:null,surname:"Wynia",slug:"klaske-wynia",fullName:"Klaske Wynia"},{id:"232901",title:"Mrs.",name:"Anjo",middleName:null,surname:"Geluk-Bleumink",slug:"anjo-geluk-bleumink",fullName:"Anjo Geluk-Bleumink"}]},{id:"57952",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71904",title:"Neurocognitive Implications of Tangential Speech in Patients with Focal Brain Damage",slug:"neurocognitive-implications-of-tangential-speech-in-patients-with-focal-brain-damage",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"There are no studies on the neurocognitive implications of tangential speech (TS). This research aims to take a step forward in the study of narrative processing, by evaluating TS in a sample that helps to detect this deficit when it is neurogenic and recently manifested. The relationship between TS, secondary to focal brain injury, and neuropsychological and neuroanatomical variables was explored. A comprehensive neuropsychological battery was administered to 175 volunteers: 95 alert inpatients, without aphasia, without psychiatric history and without TS history, and 80 healthy participants, without TS. Results: TS (prevalence 16%) was independent of type or site of injury. An adverse effect of TS on global neuropsychological performance was observed. This effect was significantly related to attentional errors along with prolonged processing times but not to correct responses. Reliability and validity indices for the present TS screening scale were provided. Conclusion: Present results support the hypothesis that this neurogenic inability to spontaneously find, organize and communicate verbal information, beyond single words, depends on extended brain networks involving processes such as sustained attention, complex-syntax comprehension, the (implicit) interpretation and spontaneous recall of a narrative, and emotional and behavioral alterations. Early TS detection is advisable for prevention and treatment at any age.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Nora Silvana Vigliecca",authors:[{id:"202008",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora",middleName:"Silvana",surname:"Vigliecca",slug:"nora-vigliecca",fullName:"Nora Vigliecca"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60564",title:"Ageing Process and Physiological Changes",slug:"ageing-process-and-physiological-changes",totalDownloads:6996,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:"Ageing is a natural process. Everyone must undergo this phase of life at his or her own time and pace. In the broader sense, ageing reflects all the changes taking place over the course of life. These changes start from birth—one grows, develops and attains maturity. To the young, ageing is exciting. Middle age is the time when people notice the age-related changes like greying of hair, wrinkled skin and a fair amount of physical decline. Even the healthiest, aesthetically fit cannot escape these changes. Slow and steady physical impairment and functional disability are noticed resulting in increased dependency in the period of old age. According to World Health Organization, ageing is a course of biological reality which starts at conception and ends with death. It has its own dynamics, much beyond human control. However, this process of ageing is also subject to the constructions by which each society makes sense of old age. In most of the developed countries, the age of 60 is considered equivalent to retirement age and it is said to be the beginning of old age. In this chapter, you understand the details of ageing processes and associated physiological changes.",book:{id:"6381",slug:"gerontology",title:"Gerontology",fullTitle:"Gerontology"},signatures:"Shilpa Amarya, Kalyani Singh and Manisha Sabharwal",authors:[{id:"226573",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Shilpa",middleName:null,surname:"Amarya",slug:"shilpa-amarya",fullName:"Shilpa Amarya"},{id:"226593",title:"Dr.",name:"Kalyani",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kalyani-singh",fullName:"Kalyani Singh"},{id:"243264",title:"Dr.",name:"Manisha",middleName:null,surname:"Sabharwal",slug:"manisha-sabharwal",fullName:"Manisha Sabharwal"}]},{id:"55388",title:"Beauty, Body Image, and the Media",slug:"beauty-body-image-and-the-media",totalDownloads:7764,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter analyses the role of the mass media in people’s perceptions of beauty. We summarize the research literature on the mass media, both traditional media and online social media, and how they appear to interact with psychological factors to impact appearance concerns and body image disturbances. There is a strong support for the idea that traditional forms of media (e.g. magazines and music videos) affect perceptions of beauty and appearance concerns by leading women to internalize a very slender body type as ideal or beautiful. Rather than simply being passive recipients of unrealistic beauty ideals communicated to them via the media, a great number of individuals actually seek out idealized images in the media. Finally, we review what is known about the role of social media in impacting society’s perception of beauty and notions of idealized physical forms. Social media are more interactive than traditional media and the effects of self‐presentation strategies on perceptions of beauty have just begun to be studied. This is an emerging area of research that is of high relevance to researchers and clinicians interested in body image and appearance concerns.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Jennifer S. Mills, Amy Shannon and Jacqueline Hogue",authors:[{id:"202110",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mills",slug:"jennifer-s.-mills",fullName:"Jennifer S. Mills"}]},{id:"56505",title:"Aesthetics of the Naked Human Body: From Pornography (Sexualised Lust Object) to Iconography (Aesthetics of Human Nobility and Wisdom) in an Anthropology of Physical Beauty",slug:"aesthetics-of-the-naked-human-body-from-pornography-sexualised-lust-object-to-iconography-aesthetics",totalDownloads:2100,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"In many religious circles and philosophies of life, the human body is excluded from the realm of spirituality and meaning. Due to a dualistic approach, nudity is viewed as merely a physical and corporeal category. In social media, there is the real danger that the naked human body is exploited for commercial gain. Advertisements often leave the impression that the body, very specifically the genitals, is designed merely for physical desire and corporeal chemistry. They become easily objects for lust, excluded from the beauty of graceful existence and noble courage. It is argued that the naked human body is not designed for pornographic exploitation and promiscuous sensuality but for compassionate intimacy and nurturing care in order to instil a humane dimension in human and sexual encounters. In this regard, antiquity and the Michelangelesque perspective can contribute to a paradigm shift from abusive exploitation to the beauty of vulnerable sensitivity. In order to foster an integrative approach to theory formation in anthropology, the methodology of stereometric thinking is proposed.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Daniel J Louw",authors:[{id:"200645",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Johannes",surname:"Louw",slug:"daniel-louw",fullName:"Daniel Louw"}]},{id:"56059",title:"A Plastic Surgeon’s Perspective on Stereotyping and the Perception of Beauty",slug:"a-plastic-surgeon-s-perspective-on-stereotyping-and-the-perception-of-beauty",totalDownloads:1918,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In the world of plastic surgery, misconceptions may lead to irrational requests or outcomes not appreciated by patients. Those who manage aesthetics should always listen and recognize the variability of cultural identities, desires, attitudes, anxieties and uncertainties of the patient. Emerging from a diversity of cultures and its transforming trends, the scope of cosmetic surgery and its practice reflect not only the individual’s personality, but also the culture as a whole. When counseling an individual, one has to recognize that even in groups of seemingly identical social or cultural standards; there are subtle differences in expectations. To illustrate the potential for inaccuracy of ethnic profiling in the field of plastic surgery authors quote their own work on Asian subjects and facial beauty and resort to experience of others. To reaffirm their opinion and to exemplify how sometimes “fine” differences in the perception of beauty exist, an original study that evaluates the preferences among selected groups of Latina women in respect to buttock aesthetics has been included. This dissertation will focus on how cultural factors influence beauty perception; strengthen the fact that beauty is in the eye of the beholder and how variable differences exist even between small subgroups.",book:{id:"5925",slug:"perception-of-beauty",title:"Perception of Beauty",fullTitle:"Perception of Beauty"},signatures:"Johanna D’Agostino and Marek Dobke",authors:[{id:"17590",title:"Dr.",name:"Marek K.",middleName:null,surname:"Dobke",slug:"marek-k.-dobke",fullName:"Marek K. Dobke"},{id:"201244",title:"Dr.",name:"Johanna",middleName:null,surname:"D'Agostino",slug:"johanna-d'agostino",fullName:"Johanna D'Agostino"}]},{id:"80326",title:"Anti-Senescence Therapy",slug:"anti-senescence-therapy",totalDownloads:110,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The development of therapeutic strategies aimed at the aging process of cells has attracted increasing attention in recent decades due to the involvement of this process in the development of many chronic and age-related diseases. Interestingly, preclinical studies have shown the success of a number of anti-aging approaches in the treatment of a range of chronic diseases. These approaches are directed against aging processes such as oxidative stress, telomerase shortening, inflammation, and deficient autophagy. Many strategies has been shown to be effective in delaying aging, including antiaging strategies based on establishing healthy lifestyle habits and pharmacological interventions aimed at disrupting senescent cells and senescent-associated secretory phenotype. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting were reported to activate autophagy and reduce inflammation. In turn, immune-based strategies, senolytic agents, and senomorphics mediate their effects either by eliminating senescent cells through inducing apoptosis or by disrupting pathways by which senescent cells mediate their detrimental effects. In addition, given the association of the decline in the regenerative potential of stem cells with aging, many experimental and clinical studies indicate the effectiveness of stem cell transplantation in preventing or slowing the progress of age-related diseases by enhancing the repairing mechanisms and the secretion of many growth factors and cytokines.",book:{id:"10935",slug:null,title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",fullTitle:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence"},signatures:"Raghad Alshadidi",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"235",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",slug:"comparative-senescence-and-lifespan",totalDownloads:17,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",abstract:"The word senescence is derived from the Latin word “senex” (meaning old). In biology, senescence is a process by which a cell ages and permanently stops dividing. Senescence is a natural universal phenomenon affecting all living organisms (e.g., humans, animals, and plants). It is the process of growing old (aging). The underlying mechanisms of senescence and aging at the cellular level are not fully understood. Senescence is a multifactorial process that can be induced by several stimuli including cellular stress, DNA damage, telomere shortening, and oncogene activation. The most popular theory to explain aging is the free radical theory. Senescence plays a role in the development of several age-related chronic diseases in humans (e.g., ischemic heart disease, osteoporosis, and cancer). Lifespan is a biological characteristic of every species. The lifespan of living organisms ranges from few hours (with mayfly) to potential eternity (with jellyfish and hydra). The maximum theoretical lifespan in humans is around 120 years. The lifespan in humans is influenced by multiple factors including genetic, epigenetic, lifestyle, environmental, metabolic, and endocrine factors. There are several ways to potentially extend the lifespan of humans and eventually surpass the maximum theoretical lifespan of 120 years. The tools that can be proposed include lifestyle, reduction of several life-threatening diseases and disabilities, hormonal replacement, antioxidants, autophagy inducers, senolytic drugs, stem cell therapy, and gene therapy.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Hassan M. Heshmati"},{id:"81638",title:"Aging and Neuropsychiatric Disease: A General Overview of Prevalence and Trends",slug:"aging-and-neuropsychiatric-disease-a-general-overview-of-prevalence-and-trends",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103102",abstract:"The increasing trend of life-expectancy is becoming a significant demographic, societal and economic challenge. Currently, global number of people above sixty years of age is 900 million, while United Nations expect this number to rise to over 1.4 billion in 2030 and over 2.5 billion by 2050. Concordant to this trend, numerous physiological changes are associated with aging and brain-related ones are associated with neuropsychiatric diseases. The main goal of this chapter is to identify the most important neuropsychiatric diseases to assess in older patients to help to promote health and prevent diseases and complications associated with chronic illness, as these changes are progressive and require important psychological and setting-related social adjustments. Findings identify several health-aspects highly present in elderly: stroke, white matter lesions, dementia rise with age, changes in levels of neurotransmitters and hormones, depression as well as the bereavement following loss of the loved one, and the most common neurodegenerative disease—Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s. In conclusion, studying the aging process should include all developmental, circumstantial, and individual aspects of aging. This offers opportunities to improve the health of elderly by using a wide range of skills and knowledge. Thus, further studies are necessary to elucidate what can be done do to improve the aging process and health of elderly in the future.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Jelena Milić"},{id:"80326",title:"Anti-Senescence Therapy",slug:"anti-senescence-therapy",totalDownloads:110,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101585",abstract:"The development of therapeutic strategies aimed at the aging process of cells has attracted increasing attention in recent decades due to the involvement of this process in the development of many chronic and age-related diseases. Interestingly, preclinical studies have shown the success of a number of anti-aging approaches in the treatment of a range of chronic diseases. These approaches are directed against aging processes such as oxidative stress, telomerase shortening, inflammation, and deficient autophagy. Many strategies has been shown to be effective in delaying aging, including antiaging strategies based on establishing healthy lifestyle habits and pharmacological interventions aimed at disrupting senescent cells and senescent-associated secretory phenotype. Caloric restriction and intermittent fasting were reported to activate autophagy and reduce inflammation. In turn, immune-based strategies, senolytic agents, and senomorphics mediate their effects either by eliminating senescent cells through inducing apoptosis or by disrupting pathways by which senescent cells mediate their detrimental effects. In addition, given the association of the decline in the regenerative potential of stem cells with aging, many experimental and clinical studies indicate the effectiveness of stem cell transplantation in preventing or slowing the progress of age-related diseases by enhancing the repairing mechanisms and the secretion of many growth factors and cytokines.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Raghad Alshadidi"},{id:"79828",title:"Cellular Senescence in Bone",slug:"cellular-senescence-in-bone",totalDownloads:119,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101803",abstract:"Senescence is an irreversible cell-cycle arrest process induced by environmental, genetic, and epigenetic factors. An accumulation of senescent cells in bone results in age-related disorders, and one of the common problems is osteoporosis. Deciphering the basic mechanisms contributing to the chronic ailments of aging may uncover new avenues for targeted treatment. This review focuses on the mechanisms and the most relevant research advancements in skeletal cellular senescence. To identify new options for the treatment or prevention of age-related chronic diseases, researchers have targeted hallmarks of aging, including telomere attrition, genomic instability, cellular senescence, and epigenetic alterations. First, this chapter provides an overview of the fundamentals of bone tissue, the causes of skeletal involution, and the role of cellular senescence in bone and bone diseases such as osteoporosis. Next, this review will discuss the utilization of pharmacological interventions in aging tissues and, more specifically, highlight the role of senescent cells to identify the most effective and safe strategies.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Danielle Wang and Haitao Wang"},{id:"79668",title:"Identification of RNA Species That Bind to the hnRNP A1 in Normal and Senescent Human Fibroblasts",slug:"identification-of-rna-species-that-bind-to-the-hnrnp-a1-in-normal-and-senescent-human-fibroblasts",totalDownloads:81,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101525",abstract:"hnRNP A1 is a member of the hnRNPs (heterogeneous nuclear ribonucleoproteins) family of proteins that play a central role in regulating genes responsible for cell proliferation, DNA repair, apoptosis, and telomere biogenesis. Previous studies have shown that hnRNPA1 had reduced protein levels and increased cytoplasmic accumulation in senescent human diploid fibroblasts. The consequence of reduced protein expression and altered cellular localization may account for the alterations in gene expression observed during senescence. There is limited information for gene targets of hnRNP A1 as well as its in vivo function. In these studies, we performed RNA co-immunoprecipitation experiments using hnRNP A1 as the target protein to identify potential mRNA species in ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes. Using this approach, we identified the human double minute 2 (HDM2) mRNA as a binding target for hnRNP A1 in young and senescent human diploid fibroblasts cells. It was also observed that alterations of hnRNP A1 expression modulate HDM2 mRNA levels in young IMR-90 cells. We also demonstrated that the levels of HDM2 mRNA increased with the downregulation of hnRNP A1 and decrease with the overexpression of hnRNP A1. Although we did not observe a significant decrease in HDM2 protein level, a concomitant increase in p53 protein level was detected with the overexpression of hnRNP A1. Our studies also show that hnRNP A1 directly interacts with HDM2 mRNA at a region corresponding to its 3′ UTR (untranslated region of a gene). The results from this study demonstrate that hnRNP A1 has a novel role in participating in the regulation of HDM2 gene expression.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Heriberto Moran, Shanaz A. Ghandhi, Naoko Shimada and Karen Hubbard"},{id:"79295",title:"Genetic and Epigenetic Influences on Cutaneous Cellular Senescence",slug:"genetic-and-epigenetic-influences-on-cutaneous-cellular-senescence",totalDownloads:133,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101152",abstract:"Skin is the largest human organ system, and its protective function is critical to survival. The epithelial, dermal, and subcutaneous compartments are heterogeneous mixtures of cell types, yet they all display age-related skin dysfunction through the accumulation of an altered phenotypic cellular state called senescence. Cellular senescence is triggered by complex and dynamic genetic and epigenetic processes. A senescence steady state is achieved in different cell types under various and overlapping conditions of chronological age, toxic injury, oxidative stress, replicative exhaustion, DNA damage, metabolic dysfunction, and chromosomal structural changes. These inputs lead to outputs of cell-cycle withdrawal and the appearance of a senescence-associated secretory phenotype, both of which accumulate as tissue pathology observed clinically in aged skin. This review details the influence of genetic and epigenetic factors that converge on normal cutaneous cellular processes to create the senescent state, thereby dictating the response of the skin to the forces of both intrinsic and extrinsic aging. From this work, it is clear that no single biomarker or process leads to senescence, but that it is a convergence of factors resulting in an overt aging phenotype.",book:{id:"10935",title:"Mechanisms and Management of Senescence",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10935.jpg"},signatures:"Tapash Jay Sarkar, Maiko Hermsmeier, Jessica L. Ross and G. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. 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Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"6",type:"subseries",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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