Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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It begins with an investigation of the electrical protection of microgrids followed by a study of the power converters used and the utilization of multi-objective optimization for the selection of component ratings. Subsequent chapters address peer-to-peer energy trading in microgrids, local district heating and cooling systems, neighborhood generators used to supplement the utility electricity supplies in Iraq, and regulatory impediments to micro-wind generation in the United States.",isbn:"978-1-78984-531-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-530-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-556-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90649",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"microgrids-and-local-energy-systems",numberOfPages:204,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",bookSignature:"Nick Jenkins",publishedDate:"December 15th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1692,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 26th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 1st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 1st 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55219/images/system/55219.jpg",biography:"Nick Jenkins leads the Centre for Integrated Renewable Electricity Generation and Supply (CIREGS) at Cardiff University, Wales. Before moving to academia, his career included fourteen years of industrial experience, five of which were in developing countries. When in industry, Mr. Jenkins worked on electric power systems as well as for manufacturers of wind turbines and photovoltaic equipment. While at the university, he has developed teaching and research activities in electrical power engineering and renewable energy. He is a fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering, Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and Learning Society of Wales.",institutionString:"Cardiff University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"756",title:"Power Electronics",slug:"power-electronics"}],chapters:[{id:"77871",title:"Protection of Microgrids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99149",slug:"protection-of-microgrids",totalDownloads:285,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The concept of microgrids goes back to the early years of the electricity industry although the systems then were not formally called microgrids. Today, two types of microgrids can be seen: independent and grid connected. The protection requirement of these two types differs as the protection needs of an independent microgrid are intended for protecting components and systems within the microgrid, whereas a grid connected microgrid demands both internal and external protection. The first part of this chapter is dedicated to independent microgrids. How protection devices such as residual current circuit breakers, miniature and moulded case circuit breakers, and surge protective devices should be selected for an example microgrid is discussed while referring to the relevant standards. In the next section, the protection of a grid connected microgrid is discussed. Particularly, micro-source protection, microgrid protection, loss of mains protection and fault ride-through requirements are discussed while referring to two commonly used distributed generator connection codes. An example with simulations carried out in the IPSA simulation platform was used to explain different protection requirements and calculation procedures. Finally, grounding requirements are discussed while referring to different interfacing transformer connections and voltage source inverter connections.",signatures:"Janaka Ekanayake",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77871",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77871",authors:[{id:"328170",title:"Prof.",name:"Janake",surname:"Ekanayake",slug:"janake-ekanayake",fullName:"Janake Ekanayake"}],corrections:null},{id:"79509",title:"Power Electronic Converters for Microgrids",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101019",slug:"power-electronic-converters-for-microgrids",totalDownloads:262,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Power electronic converters are indispensable building blocks of microgrids. They are the enabling technology for many applications of microgrids, e.g., renewable energy integration, transportation electrification, energy storage, and power supplies for computing. In this chapter, the requirements, functions, and operation of power electronic converters are introduced. Then, different topologies of the converters used in microgrids are discussed, including DC/DC converters, single-phase DC/AC converters, three-phase three-wire, and four-wire DC/AC converters. The remaining parts of this chapter focus on how to optimally design and control these converters with the emerging wide-bandgap semiconductors. Correlated tradeoffs of converter efficiency, power density, and cost are analyzed using Artificial Neural Networks to find the optimal design of the converters.",signatures:"Wenlong Ming",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79509",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79509",authors:[{id:"328358",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenlong",surname:"Ming",slug:"wenlong-ming",fullName:"Wenlong Ming"}],corrections:null},{id:"78384",title:"Peer-to-Peer Energy Trading in Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99437",slug:"peer-to-peer-energy-trading-in-microgrids-and-local-energy-systems",totalDownloads:321,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Peer-to-peer (P2P) energy trading is an innovative approach for managing increasing numbers of Distributed Energy Resources in microgrids or local energy systems. In P2P energy trading, prosumers and consumers directly trade and exchange power and energy with each other. The development of P2P energy trading is described in five key aspects, that is, market design, trading platforms, power and ICT infrastructure, regulation and policy, and from a social science perspective. A general multiagent framework is established to simulate the behaviour of and interaction between multiple entities in P2P energy trading. A general evaluation index hierarchy is proposed to assess various P2P energy trading mechanisms. Finally, a residential community that is set in the context of Great Britain is studied using multiagent simulation and hierarchical evaluation methods. Both the technical and economic benefits of P2P energy trading are demonstrated.",signatures:"Yue Zhou and Jianzhong Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78384",authors:[{id:"328208",title:"Dr.",name:"Yue",surname:"Zhou",slug:"yue-zhou",fullName:"Yue Zhou"},{id:"424911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianzhong",surname:"Wu",slug:"jianzhong-wu",fullName:"Jianzhong Wu"}],corrections:null},{id:"78400",title:"District Heating and Cooling Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99740",slug:"district-heating-and-cooling-systems",totalDownloads:208,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Decarbonisation of the energy sector is a crucial ambition towards meeting net-zero targets and achieving climate change mitigation. Heating and cooling accounts for over a third of UK greenhouse emissions and, thus, decarbonisation of this sector has attracted significant attention from a range of stakeholders, including energy system operators, manufacturers, research institutions and policy makers. Particularly, the role of district heating and cooling (DHC) systems will be critical, as these two energy vectors are central to our lives not only for comfort and daily activities, but also to facilitate productive workplaces and to run a variety of industrial processes. The optimal operation of DHC systems and the design of efficient strategies to produce heat and cold, store thermal energy, and meet heating and cooling demands, together with an increased integration of low carbon technologies and local renewable energy sources, are vital to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions alike. This chapter reviews relevant aspects of DHC systems, their main elements, automatic control systems and optimal management.",signatures:"Iván De la Cruz and Carlos E. Ugalde-Loo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78400",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78400",authors:[{id:"313450",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos E.",surname:"Ugalde-Loo",slug:"carlos-e.-ugalde-loo",fullName:"Carlos E. Ugalde-Loo"},{id:"427057",title:"Mr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"De la Cruz",slug:"ivan-de-la-cruz",fullName:"Ivan De la Cruz"}],corrections:null},{id:"78626",title:"Electricity Storage in Local Energy Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99350",slug:"electricity-storage-in-local-energy-systems",totalDownloads:212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Traditionally, power system operation has relied on supply side flexibility from large fossil-based generation plants to managed swings in supply and/or demand. An increase in variable renewable generation has increased curtailment of renewable electricity and variations in electricity prices. Consumers can take advantage of volatile electricity prices and reduce their bills using electricity storage. With reduced fossil-based power generation, traditional methods for balancing supply and demand must change. Electricity storage offers an alternative to fossil-based flexibility, with an increase expected to support high levels of renewable generation. Electrochemical storage is a promising technology for local energy systems. In particular, lithium-ion batteries due to their high energy density and high efficiency. However, despite their 89% decrease in capital cost over the last 10 years, lithium-ion batteries are still relatively expensive. Local energy systems with battery storage can use their battery for different purposes such as maximising their self-consumption, minimising their operating cost through energy arbitrage which is storing energy when the electricity price is low and releasing the energy when the price increases, and increasing their revenue by providing flexibility services to the utility grid. Power rating and energy capacity are vitally important in the design of an electricity storage system. A case study is given for the purpose of providing a repeatable methodology for optimally sizing of a battery storage system for a local energy system. The methodology can be adapted to include any local energy system generation or demand profile.",signatures:"William Seward, Weiqi Hua and Meysam Qadrdan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78626",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78626",authors:[{id:"328166",title:"Dr.",name:"Meysam",surname:"Qadrdan",slug:"meysam-qadrdan",fullName:"Meysam Qadrdan"},{id:"427345",title:"Dr.",name:"William",surname:"Seward",slug:"william-seward",fullName:"William Seward"},{id:"427346",title:"Dr.",name:"Weiqi",surname:"Hua",slug:"weiqi-hua",fullName:"Weiqi Hua"}],corrections:null},{id:"74439",title:"Local Energy Systems in Iraq: Neighbourhood Diesel Generators and Solar Photovoltaic Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95280",slug:"local-energy-systems-in-iraq-neighbourhood-diesel-generators-and-solar-photovoltaic-generation",totalDownloads:258,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Iraqis experience interruptions of the public electricity supply of up to 18 hours a day. In response, private entrepreneurs and the Local Provincial Councils (LPCs) have installed an estimated 55,000–80,000 diesel generators, each rated typically between 100 and 500 kVA. The generators supply neighbourhoods through small, isolated distribution networks to operate lighting, fans and small appliances when power is not available from the public supply. A single radial live conductor connects each customer to the generator and payment for the electricity is based on a monthly charge per ampere. The operation and regulation of the neighbourhood diesel generator networks was reviewed through a comprehensive literature survey, site visits and interviews conducted with local operators and assemblers of the generator sets. The electricity is expensive, the generators can only supply small loads, have considerable environmental impact and the unusual single wire distribution practice is potentially hazardous. However, the use of the generators is likely to continue in the absence of any alternative electricity supply. The diesels and networks are poorly regulated and there is scope to enforce existing standards and develop a new standard to address the hazards of the connection practice. The chapter goes on to assess the possibilities of using small photovoltaic systems for power generation in Iraq.",signatures:"Ali Al-Wakeel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74439",authors:[{id:"327780",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Al-Wakeel",slug:"ali-al-wakeel",fullName:"Ali Al-Wakeel"}],corrections:null},{id:"78170",title:"Regulatory Impediments to Micro-Wind Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99688",slug:"regulatory-impediments-to-micro-wind-generation",totalDownloads:149,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Recent growth in the renewable energy industry has largely been driven by government support for alternative energy. Wind power in the United States is the second largest source of renewable energy, and has been heavily subsidized by state and federal government. There has also been an increasing interest in small scale environmental community projects, and this trend is expected to continue. Currently, there are 2 terawatt hours (TWh) of potential energy capacity through small- and micro-wind projects throughout the United States. Increased development of micro-wind energy could significantly impact America’s non-hydropower renewable energy generation. Micro-wind, the utilization of the flow of wind energy to produce electricity for a house, farm or other non-utility scale generation can be regulated at the federal level, as well as at the state and local/community level. We examine two cases of micro-wind energy production to explore the regulatory impediments these smaller projects face. We find that the level of complexity of the regulatory framework is discouraging for innovation and development, and that the benefits of installing energy-generation are often outweighed by the cost of implementation.",signatures:"Ryan M. 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1. Introduction
Corporate income taxes (CIT) are paid by companies including those operating in several countries. Therefore, there is a strong international aspect in its design, administration, and compliance. In scientific and professional literature, this aspect is covered under the topics of tax competition, tax coordination, and tax harmonization. The scientific interest in international tax competition and related topics is not new. The interest is sustained by a rising capital mobility in the last 40 years and increasing concerns over capital flight and loss of public revenue due to base erosion and profit shifting. The problem stems from the dual objectives of the governments. On the one hand, governments seek to attract investment into the country, or region, or locality, and therefore offer incentives to potential investors often in the form of preferential tax treatment. In doing so, governments engage in harmful or wasteful tax competition. On the other hand, governments need to collect enough tax revenue in order to provide a sufficient level and quality of public services and fulfill other functions demanded by the public. This calls for a rather complicated balancing between those objectives. Loss of revenue may lead to suboptimal provision of public services or require difficult policy decisions on the higher level of government or at the supranational level, including tax coordination and tax harmonization.
Theoretical studies in public economics provide the conditions for the economic effects of tax competition to be either harmful or useful [1, 2, 3]. Those conditions are varied and often hard to reconcile in theoretical models. In empirical research, they lead to inconclusive results. Negative economic effects of tax competition include “base erosion” of taxes on mobile factors of production that ultimately leads to the underprovision of public services and frustrates governments’ efforts to redistribute income. The useful effects of tax competition are largely supported by the initiators and followers of public choice theory who find in tax competition efficiency-increasing effects. It limits the tendency of local governments to overexpansion and constrains the growth of a Leviathan state [4, 5]. Empirical literature on tax competition leaves us with a similarly diverse picture [1, 3].
This chapter attempts to synthesize growing scholarship on the economic effects of tax competition and includes the review of the latest trends in CIT, foreign direct investment (FDI), and profit shifting. The topic is of high relevance since tax avoidance and evasion through base erosion and profit shifting continue unabated for some time and may be on the rise due to the ever more sophisticated tax-reducing techniques used by multinationals and increasingly mobile individuals [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
The sections that follow will (1) review the theory of tax competition including “basic tax competition model” and its extensions, (2) present recent trends in corporate income tax rates and revenue in the EU and OECD countries, (3) survey empirical literature on tax competition, including evidence of the relationship between tax rates and FDI, and (4) outline what is known about the magnitude of tax avoidance through base erosion and profit shifting. Finally, the last section concludes.
2. Tax competition theory
There is an extensive literature on the theory of tax competition. The modern literature on tax competition began with Oates’s discussion on the potential efficiency problems associated with competition for capital by local governments [2, 11]. Under certain assumptions, small jurisdictions competing for mobile capital reduce tax rates to such level that leads “to less than efficient levels of output of local services” ([1] p. 654). In a small jurisdiction, competition leads to the abandonment of taxes on capital income altogether which produces “race to the bottom” ([1] p. 651). Oates’ concludes that this behavior is inefficient that rests on the idea that this a zero-sum game. When all governments behave this way, none gain and consequently communities are all worse off than they would have been if local managers had made decisions based on marginal costs [2]. More recent interest in the topic was prompted in part by fears that tax competition among the increasingly economically integrated EU nations will over time significantly reduce the level of capital income taxation to the extent of announcing the death of CIT [12]. Thus, governments must solely rely on financing their expenditures from the taxes on immobile factors of production (labor/land) and on consumption taxes, which have their own constraints and disadvantages.
“Basic tax competition model” has been built by Zodrow and Mieszkowski [13] and Wilson who formalized the notions on tax competition developed by Oates [2]. Alternatively, the model is known as a ZMW model or a simpler version, according to Wilson [2], is known as ZM model [14]. Similar to Tiebout’s model [15], the ZM model is built on those assumptions “(1) A large number of homogenous jurisdictions; (2) Perfectly competitive markets; (3) A Nash equilibrium in which each jurisdiction takes as fixed the after-tax return to capital and the tax rates set by other jurisdictions; (4) Fixed population and land in each jurisdiction; (5) Identical tastes and incomes for all residents of all jurisdictions; (6) A fixed national capital stock that is perfectly mobile across local jurisdictions; (7) A single good that is produced by capital and the fixed factor (labor/land) in each jurisdiction; (8) Government services that are “publicly provided private goods,” benefit only residents, have no spillover effects to other jurisdictions, and can be modeled as purchases of the single private good;(9) Two local tax instruments—a “property tax” that applies to capital income and a head tax; (10) Local governments that act to maximize the welfare of their (identical) residents” ([1, 15] p. 654).
In the ZM model, interjurisdictional competition results in “race to the bottom,” as all taxes on capital income are eliminated. Governments are only able to impose taxes on immobile factors of production only. The insight of this result serves as a model for a “small open economy” [16].
An important assumption of the basic tax competition model is that local public services are essentially another consumption good that enters individual utility functions. However, as Sinn correctly observes, one of the most important roles of government is to redistribute income which has nothing to do with consumption goods [17]. Income redistribution at least partially represents social protection against income uncertainty attributable to different macroeconomic shocks and, more broadly, differences in natural endowments and access to education. Private markets fail to insure against income uncertainty and other risks; therefore, public programs designed to smooth such shocks improve both equity and efficiency of resource allocation. Tax competition results in lower tax rates on mobile factors of production and thus limits the power of governments to engage in redistributive activities. It imposes important social costs. In case of perfect mobility of both capital and highly skilled labor, tax competition implies that only benefit taxes can be levied and the policy of income redistribution is given up. Though Sinn’s observation relaxes one of the assumptions of the basic model, it fundamentally reinforces the central message of the basic model.
Since the development of the basic tax competition model, many extensions have been added by changing one or several assumptions of the basic model; for complete list and details, see Zodrow [1]. Some of those modifications support the results of the basic model and find inefficiencies due to tax competition, while others find efficiency enhancing effects of tax competition. The extensions that assume heterogeneous rather than homogeneous jurisdictions and include trade among members of the union or trade with the rest of the world find harmful effects to tax competition. The modification of the model which assumes variable labor supply (instead of fixed) also does not change the results of the basic model.
Another departure from the ZM model is the existence of “interregional externalities.” In this case, the actions that one region’s government takes to increase the welfare of its own residents lead to reductions in the welfare of residents in other regions. In the tax competition literature, this externality is often described as a “fiscal externality,” which occurs through the effects of one region’s public policies on the government budgets in another region [18]. For example, when a region lowers its tax rate on mobile capital, it gains capital at the expense of other regions, causing their tax bases to fall and, hence, their tax revenues to decline. Because governments are assumed not to possess unlimited taxing powers, the presence of such externalities reinforces the message of the ZM model (Wilson [2]).
However, other extensions of the basic model, such as the existence of international trade with the presence of agglomeration economies [19] and international public good spillovers do not support the conclusion of the ZM model. Adding the combination of labor mobility and population scale economies to the model yields interesting results. With scale economies, underprovision of local public services tends to decline and disappears entirely in the limiting case of a pure public good [1]. Therefore, this extension contradicts the proposition of the basic tax competition model.
A special niche in this discussion is reserved for public choice literature, which traditionally argues that jurisdictional governments in the union do not act to maximize the welfare of their residents but to achieve their own objectives that are typically positively related to the size of the budget. Under this view, government bureaucrats strive to maximize the budgets of their agencies and increase their own power and prestige. In the public choice literature, tax competition is not a source of inefficiency. On the contrary, tax competition serves a valuable social purpose in constraining government officials who are naturally predisposed to raise revenue to serve their own rather than public interests. To Brennan and Buchanan for instance, “… tax competition among separate units … is an objective to be sought in its own right” ([4] p. 186). In this context, tax competition plays an important role in limiting budget-maximizing behavior of government officials. It restricts the growth of public finance and curbs the expansion of a Leviathan state.
The results of the tax competition literature are mixed to such a degree that it is difficult to draw unambiguous conclusions. It is obvious that the key point of the basic tax competition model (as well as those extensions that reinforce its conclusions) is that tax competition is harmful and leads to inefficient underprovision of public services. On the other hand, some of the extensions to the basic model suggest that tax competition may be desirable as it limits the undue expansion of public budgets.
3. Empirical evidence of tax competition
3.1. Trends in corporate income taxes
As a consequence of the difficulty to develop one and conclusive theory, the empirical literature on tax competition burgeoned in recent years. However, meta-analysis reveals that results are as diverse as those in theoretical analyses [3]. First, the empirical evidence of tax competition and “race to the bottom” depend on the choice of parameters. Second, the findings are not conclusive. For example, there is mixed evidence if rate reductions in the face of increased international capital mobility are actually occurring. At first glance, the reduction of CIT rates is undisputable. CIT statutory rates1 have decreased substantially in the EU over the past 22 years, with the average rate falling from 35% in 1995 to 22% in 2017, which constitutes a fall of 37.4% from 1995 to 2017 in EU 28 countries [20]. As indicated in Figure 1, the decrease of CIT rates in new EU member states (those who joined EU in 2004 and later) is even more substantial. The average statutory rates have decreased from the average rate of 31% in 1995 to 18% in 2017. This constitutes a fall of 43.6% or an average annual rate of minus 3% during the same period. In old EU member states (EU-15), statutory rates fell at an average annual rate of −2% as shown in Figure 2.
Figure 1.
Statutory corporate income tax rates for new EU member states. Source: European Commission. Data on Taxation (2017).
Figure 2.
Statutory corporate income tax rates for old EU member states (EU-15). Source: European Commission. Data on Taxation (2017).
As indicated in Figure 3, in OECD countries combined central and local government, average statutory rates have fallen by 25.6% from an average CIT rate of 32.5% in 2000 to an average CIT rate of 24.2% in 2017 [21]. The statutory rates have fallen in virtually each OECD member state with an exception of Chile where CIT rate has increased by 10% points. The largest fall in the CIT statutory rate has occurred in Germany, albeit from a very high level of 52% in 2000 to 30.2% in 2017, while the change of CIT rate in the United States was incremental (−0.43% points).
Figure 3.
Statutory corporate income tax rates in OECD countries. Difference from 2000 to 2017. Source: OECD (2017).
However, this evidence becomes less remarkable when base-broadening measures2 are taken into account leading to much less conspicuous fall in average effective tax rates. As shown in Figure 4, average effective tax rates measured as CIT revenue as a % of GDP has stayed overall even. They have decreased by 15% from 2000 to 2014 or at an average annual rate of −1.12%, with the effects of the economic boom and recession standing out.
Figure 4.
Corporate Income Tax Revenue as percentage of GDP, OECD countries. Source: OECD (2017).
These trends support previous findings by Grubert that the greatest declines in tax rates were in small, open and relatively poor countries—the countries that are arguably most vulnerable to the effects of tax competition, like new EU member states [22]. These results suggest that the rate reductions predicted by the theory of tax competition are actually occurring. Indeed, governments engage in two-dimensional tax competition. They concurrently compete over effective marginal tax rates for capital and over statutory rates for profits [23]. Evidence from Belgium suggests of regional tax competition taking place between different regions, with a lower effective tax rate (ETR) in the peripheral region of Wallonia than in Flanders [24].
However, it should be noted that reasons other than the tax competition for mobile capital might explain the fall in statutory CIT rates. In particular, this result can be explained by the reforms undertaken by policy makers to adopt base-broadening, rate-reducing measures consistent with persisting reform recommendations to improve the efficiency, equity, and simplicity of the tax system [25]. Besides, reductions in statutory rates can also be explained as an attempt to minimize a country’s vulnerability to the use of transfer pricing by multinational enterprises to move deductions to high-tax countries and receipts to low-tax countries [26]. This is consistent with tax avoidance problem caused by capital mobility and tax rate differentials discussed in the following sections.
3.2. Tax rates and foreign direct investment
Since the 1980s, the relation between FDI and corporate taxation policy has been widely studied, and the pioneers in research have focused primarily on the FDI flows sensitivity to capital tax rate [3]. Despite abundant literature, the consensus on the effect of the corporate taxation on FDI in todays’ globalized economies has not been reached. Some of the studies find no impact of tax reduction on FDI, but the other studies argue about the negative relationship between taxation policies and FDI gravity.
Hunady and Orviska examine EU countries (except Estonia due to the unavailability of certain data) in the period between 2004 and 2011 and find no statistically significant effect of statutory corporate tax rate on the flow of FDI [27]. Similarly, Kersan-Skabic using data on EU transition economies fails to find evidence that tax rates significantly affect the long-run elasticity of FDI [28]. Studies of Daniels and Egger based on data from the US and other OECD countries basically do not confirm a precise impact of tax rates on the long-run elasticity of foreign investment [29, 30].
There exist even fewer studies which find any positive effect of corporate taxes on FDI. Herger finds that tax elasticity varies depending on the FDI strategy (with vertical FDI being in general more responsive) [31]. Salihu and Faria focus on emerging economies and they show that there is a positive relationship between FDI and the avoidance of corporate tax [32, 33]. Their research is based on Malaysian companies. The findings indicate that investors seek to avoid taxes in both host and parent countries.
The heterogeneity of empirical findings led to a need for concise and comprehensive review of the existing empirical evidence. In the meta-analysis undertaken by Feld and Heckemeyer, a pooled effect based on the median result taken from each primary study was found. It amounts to semi-elasticity for company taxes on FDI (percentage reaction of FDI to one percentage point change in the tax burden) of 1.68 in absolute terms [3].
4. Distortionary effects of differential tax regimes
4.1. Distortionary effects of corporate income tax
As stressed by Cnossen and many others, even confined to the tax system of one country, the defects of the corporate income tax are numerous as it causes distortions of asset mix, capital allocation, financing and payout decisions, and the choice of organizational form [1, 34]. The main problem with capital taxation is that effective corporate tax and personal tax rates on investment returns vary depending on the choice of financing [35]. Investment can be made either through equity or debt. As a rule, debt finance is favored against equity finance because interest payments are deductible under most tax systems. The tax-favored status of debt discriminates against corporations that face difficulties in attracting debt [35]. Therefore, newly founded corporations have to sustain higher capital costs because of taxation than older, established corporations with either easier access to debt financing or sufficient retained profits to finance new investments.
The corporation’s dividend policy produces yet another example of discrimination. Profits can be either distributed to shareholders as dividends or retained. When earnings are retained, the shareholders, instead of receiving dividends, benefit from an increase in the market value of the company. As a result of this bias in favor of retentions, equity funds may be locked in within certain companies rather than allocated between companies in the most efficient manner by financial markets [36]. Broadly, debt finance is favored against equity finance, and individual investors are discriminated relative to corporate investors. Therefore, differential tax rates and other tax structure features inherent to CIT distort investment decisions that should be based solely on economic costs and gains. Those features produce worldwide implications through the operations of multinationals.
4.2. Tax avoidance
As shown in Figure 5, OECD member states have widely diverging statutory CIT rates that may have externality effects on other member states. Statutory rates vary from 8.5% in Switzerland to 35% in the United States.
Figure 5.
Statutory corporate income tax rates of the OECD countries in 2017 (in %). Source: OECD, 2017.
Different tax regimes have a direct bearing on tax avoidance. The main difference between tax evasion and tax avoidance is usually illegality of the former. Avoidance usually implies using and somewhat bending the tax laws in order to pay the least possible amount of taxes. It covers a broad range of behaviors. One example is to pay a tax professional to alert one to the deductibility of income earned from already undertaken activities. Another example is to change the legal form of a given behavior, such as reorganizing a business from one form of corporation to another, recharacterizing ordinary income as capital income or retiming the transaction to alter the tax year it falls under [37].
International investors often have at their disposal numerous alternative methods of structuring and financing their investments, arranging transactions between related parties located in different countries and returning profits to investors. Sophisticated international tax avoidance typically entails reallocating taxable income from countries with high-tax rates to countries with low-tax rates and may also include the changing the timing of income recognition for tax purposes. Since interest, as a rule, is tax deductible while dividends are taxed, it is beneficial for the companies to use debt to finance foreign affiliates in high-tax countries and to use equity to finance affiliates in low-tax countries [8]. Another vehicle to reduce taxation of passive income is the use of hybrid entities or hybrid instruments that are treated differently in different jurisdictions. A new regulation has been introduced in the late 1990s in the USA with an intention to simplify questions of whether a firm was a corporation or a partnership. The application of the rule to foreign circumstances has led to a situation where an entity can be recognized as a corporation by one jurisdiction but not by another. For example, a US parent’s subsidiary in a low-tax country can lend to its subsidiary in a high-tax country, with the interest deductible because the high-tax country recognizes the firm as a separate corporation. There are also hybrid instruments that can avoid taxation by being treated as debt in one jurisdiction and equity in another [8].
The empirical evidence is broadly consistent with these incentives. The reported profitability of multinational firms is inversely related to local tax rates, a relationship that is at least partly the consequence of tax-motivated debt financing (thin capitalization)3, the pricing of intrafirm transfers, royalty payments4and other such methods. Grubert estimates separate equations for dividend, interest, and royalty payments by foreign subsidiaries to American parent companies and finds that high corporate tax rates in countries in which American subsidiaries are located are correlated with higher interest payments and lower dividend payout rates [22]. Patterns of reported profitability are consistent with other indicators of aggressive tax avoidance behavior. It is widely accepted that firms adjust prices used for within-firm transactions with the goal of reducing their total tax obligations. There is substantial evidence of tax-motivated transfer pricing in US trade prices. Multinational firms typically benefit by reducing prices charged by affiliates in high-tax prices for items and services provided to affiliates in low-tax countries [7, 38]. Prior research has found significant effects of tax rates in affiliate and parent countries on the profit shifting behavior of multinational entities; however, the magnitude of the effects varies. The results measured in semi-elasticities range from close to zero to well above one [39].
The findings of the research based on the profit shifting behavior by US multinationals are supported by European evidence. Weichenrieder using data on German inbound and outbound FDI finds an empirical correlation between the home country tax rate of a parent and the net of tax profitability of its German affiliate that is consistent with profit shifting behavior. The result suggests that a 10% point increase in the parent’s home country tax rate leads to roughly half a percentage point increase in the profitability of the German subsidiary [40]. Using a unique dataset containing detailed firm-level information on the parent companies and subsidiaries of European multinationals, Huizinga and Laeven build a model and empirically examine the extent of intra-European profit shifting by European multinationals. On average, they find a semi-elasticity of reported profits with respect to the top statutory tax rate of 1.3, while shifting costs are estimated to be 0.6% of the tax base. They come to the conclusion that international profit shifting leads to a substantial redistribution of national corporate tax revenues [41]. Evidence of income shifting in response to differences in corporate tax rates and the substantial loss of revenues from a unilateral increase in the corporate tax rate is also supported by the research by using data on a large selection of OECD countries [42].
The exception to the findings that support the central message of the basic tax competition model is the paper by Han and Leach who develop a model in which competing governments offer financial incentives to induce individual firms to locate within their jurisdictions [43]. Equilibrium is described under three specifications of the supplementary taxes. There is no misallocation of capital under two of these specifications, and there might or might not be capital misallocation under the third. This result contrasts strongly with the basic tax competition model which finds that competition among governments almost always leads to inefficient allocation of resources.
International tax avoidance is evidently a successful activity. Very little tax is paid on the foreign source income of US firms [8]. This has grave implications for domestic tax policy. “The international mobility of economic activity now dramatically reduces the ability to tax domestic income-producing activity too heavily. Indeed, the importance of this consideration raises the very real question of whether any longer exists such a thing as purely domestic tax policy” ([38] p. 319). It is really another way of saying that greater tax coordination between countries may be an answer to this international problem.
4.3. The revenue loss estimates of base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS)
In the aftermath of the global financial crisis, and the fiscal problems that followed in many countries, the public and policy makers paid greater attention to the tax avoidance of multinational companies. Similarly, researchers devoted greater efforts to estimating the scale and nature of the associated tax losses.
Corporate tax is an important source of government revenue in all regions of the world. As shown in Figure 6, though there is an annual fluctuation, on average in the OECD governments raise around 10% of their total tax revenue from CIT, which is approximately 3% of GDP [44]. CIT accounts for a larger share of total tax revenues on average in lower-income countries than in high-income countries [6].
Figure 6.
Taxes on corporate income as percentage of total taxation, OECD average. Source: OECD, 2017.
Making estimates of the global losses due to base erosion and profit shifting requires complex and rigorous research. Currently, the most comprehensive studies available are from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) researchers Crivelli et al. and Cobham and Janský whose study has been recently published by the United Nations University World Institute for Development Economics Research (UNU-WIDER) in Helsinki [6, 9, 45].
Using panel data for 173 countries over 33 years, Crivelli et al. examine the magnitude and features of international fiscal externalities. In particular, they focus on the spillovers from tax policy decisions in individual jurisdictions onto others. They develop and use an innovative method allowing a distinction between spillover effects through real investment decisions and through avoidance techniques and quantify the revenue losses through the latter. In total, they estimate global revenue losses at around US$650 billion annually, of which around one-third relate to developing countries. The concentration as a share of gross domestic product (GDP) is somewhat higher in developing countries compared to OECD economies [45].
Cobham and Gibson combine this finding with data on the relatively greater reliance on corporate tax revenue in developing countries to show that the estimated losses are around 2–3% of total tax revenue in OECD countries, but 6–13% in developing countries [46].
Applying a methodology developed by researchers at the International Monetary Fund to an improved dataset Cobhan and Jansky estimate revenue losses of around US$500 billion per year globally [6]. Though the largest losses are suffered by rich economies such as the United States, relative losses are more intensive in lower-income countries. While any estimates of this intentionally hidden phenomenon are necessarily uncertain, the size of magnitude suggests that the economic development of countries may in some cases be substantially damaged by the activities of multinational companies.
In country-specific research, Clausing using Bureau of Economic Analysis survey data on US multinational corporations during 1983–2012 finds that profit shifting is likely costing the US government between $77 billion and $111 billion in corporate tax revenue by 2012, and these revenue losses have increased substantially in recent years [7]. Those findings are corroborated by other researchers who estimate that the US tax losses from profit shifting of multinational firms may approach or even exceed $100 billion per year [8].
However, accumulated losses are staggering. Recent estimates show that Fortune 500 corporations are avoiding up to $767 billion in US federal income taxes by holding more than $2.6 trillion of “permanently reinvested” profits offshore. In their latest annual financial reports, 29 of these corporations reveal that they have paid an income tax rate of 10% or less in countries where these profits are officially held, indicating that most of these profits are likely in offshore tax havens [47].
This might be viewed as evidence that lowering corporate tax rates is an effective tool against avoidance. Narrower studies, however, such as the studies by Cobham and Janský (2017) and Clausing [7] provide evidence that profit shifting has grown strongly even as effective tax rates have fallen. Cobham and Janský (2017) document effective tax rates for US-headquartered multinationals of 0–5% in the major misalignment jurisdictions to which most profit is shifted, compared to 15–20% in the USA and other economies on average [6].
5. Conclusions
The survey of the literature in this chapter suggests that tax competition and related problems remain high on the agenda of policy makers as well as researchers. Since governments have the dual mission to attract investment into their jurisdiction and collect enough public revenue to provide public services, the tensions arise. In order to encourage FDI and other forms of investment, the governments offer tax incentives to potential investors. However, that often means engaging in harmful competition with other jurisdictions. Such behavior is inefficient because it is a zero-sum game. When all governments behave this way, none gain and consequently communities are all worse off than they would have been if public managers had made decisions based on marginal costs. The tax competition may reduce tax revenues and lead to inefficient underprovision of public services.
The recent empiric evidence supports the central message of basic tax competition theory that competition for capital is actually occurring. It is manifested through the overall reduction in statutory and effective corporate income tax rates as well as sensitivity of FDI to tax burden. However, in addition to distortions in capital allocation arising from genuine productive activities, the differential tax regimes create other distortions, like tax arbitrage and tax avoidance by multinational companies. Governments throughout the world incur significant revenue losses through base erosion and profit shifting. Recent estimates show that accumulated losses for some countries are staggering and reach $767 billion in US federal income taxes [47].
The magnitude of revenue losses due to tax avoidance by multinational companies and other distortions arising from differential tax regimes call for the re-examination of CIT policies and tax coordination, and/or harmonization at the international level.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Kristina Kalasinskaite of Mykolas Romeris University for her assistance in preparing this chapter.
\n',keywords:"corporate income tax, tax competition, tax avoidance, foreign direct investment, multinationals",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59384.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59384.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59384",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59384",totalDownloads:1118,totalViews:344,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:1,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"August 11th 2017",dateReviewed:"January 19th 2018",datePrePublished:"March 1st 2018",datePublished:"April 20th 2018",dateFinished:"February 15th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to review the latest developments in corporate income tax (CIT) focusing on its international aspects and associated distortions. In this endeavor, the chapter draws on evidence provided by the leading tax experts as well as on the profound and rigorous research produced by academia. This chapter examines and synthesizes research on tax competition, relationship between tax rates and foreign direct investment (FDI), and tax avoidance as a result of differential tax regimes. Trends in the development of CIT are discerned using statistical data provided by OECD and European Commission. Numerous studies done on global, regional, and country-specific datasets support the premise that indeed tax competition for capital exists though the magnitude of effects varies. There is also enough evidence that tax avoidance and evasion through base erosion and profit shifting persist for some time and may be on the rise.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59384",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59384",book:{id:"6008",slug:"taxes-and-taxation-trends"},signatures:"Liucija Birskyte and Gintare Giriuniene",authors:[{id:"219882",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Liucija",middleName:null,surname:"Birskyte",fullName:"Liucija Birskyte",slug:"liucija-birskyte",email:"lbirskyte@mruni.eu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Mykolas Romeris University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}},{id:"221132",title:"Dr.",name:"Gintare",middleName:null,surname:"Giriuniene",fullName:"Gintare Giriuniene",slug:"gintare-giriuniene",email:"gintare.giriuniene@mruni.eu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Tax competition theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Empirical evidence of tax competition",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Trends in corporate income taxes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Tax rates and foreign direct investment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Distortionary effects of differential tax regimes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. Distortionary effects of corporate income tax",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Tax avoidance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3. The revenue loss estimates of base erosion and profit shifting (BEPS)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zodrow GR. Tax competition and tax coordination in the European Union. International Tax and Public Finance. 2003;10(6):651-671'},{id:"B2",body:'Wilson JD. Theories of tax competition. 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Journal of Contemporary Accounting & Economics. 2015;11(2):138-147'},{id:"B33",body:'Faria JR. Location clusters, FDI and local entrepreneurs: Consistent public policy. Journal of the Knowledge Economy. 2015;7(4):858-868'},{id:"B34",body:'Cnossen S. Company taxes in the European Union: Criteria and options for reform. Fiscal Studies. 1996;17:67-97'},{id:"B35",body:'Cnossen S. How much tax coordination in the European Union? International Tax and Public Finance. 2003;10(6):625-649'},{id:"B36",body:'Parthasarathi S. Tax Policy Handbook. Washington D.C: International Monetary Fund: International Monetary Fund; 1999'},{id:"B37",body:'Slemrod J, Yitzhaki S. Tax Avoidance, Evasion, and Administration. NBER Working Paper No. 74732000. DOI: 10.3386/w7473'},{id:"B38",body:'Hines JRJ. Lessons from behavioral responses to international taxation. National Tax Journal. 1999;52(2):305-322'},{id:"B39",body:'Dowd T, Landefeld P, Moore A. Profit shifting of U.S. multinationals. Journal of Public Economics. 2017;148:1-13'},{id:"B40",body:'Weichenrieder AJ. Profit shifting in the EU: evidence from Germany. International Tax and Public Finance. 2009;16(3):281-297'},{id:"B41",body:'Huizinga H, Laeven L. International profit shifting within multinationals: A multi-country perspective. Journal of Public Economics. 2008;92(5):1164-1182'},{id:"B42",body:'Bartelsman EJ, Beetsma RMWJ. Why pay more? Corporate tax avoidance through transfer pricing in OECD countries. Journal of Public Economics. 2003;87(9):2225-2252'},{id:"B43",body:'Han S, Leach J. A bargaining model of tax competition. Journal of Public Economics. 2008;92(5):1122-1141'},{id:"B44",body:'OECD, Tax on Corporate Profits (indicator). 2017'},{id:"B45",body:'Crivelli E, De Mooij R, Keen M. Base erosion, profit shifting and developing countries. FinanzArchiv: Public Finance Analysis. 2016;72(3)'},{id:"B46",body:'Cnossen S. Corporation taxes in the European Union: Slowly moving toward comprehensive business income taxation? International Tax and Public Finance. 2017'},{id:"B47",body:'Institute on Taxation and Tax Policy, Fortune 500 Companies Hold a Record $2.6 Trillion Offshore. 2017, Institute on Taxation and Tax Policy Washington, D.C'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Statutory, or nominal, tax rates are rates stated in a tax law (statute, code) expressed usually in percentage terms to be applied to a tax base, for example, taxable income."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Like taxation of previously untaxed items such as short-term capital gains."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"Thin or hidden capitalization of a subsidiary arises when a foreign investor substitutes foreign debt capital for equity capital, particularly in cases where debt financing exhibits some of the characteristics of equity and the debt is owed to a related lender. (Shome, 1995)"},{id:"fn4",explanation:"Withholding rates on cross-border interest and royalty payments are (which vary by class of payer and payee and by the financial instrument—in itself a source tax arbitrage) very low. (Cnossen, 2003)"}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Liucija Birskyte",address:"lbirskyte@mruni.eu",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
An accurate tool to evaluate training and development has perplexed academics, managers and policy makers around the world in their search for means to evaluate the outcomes of training to improve individual and organisational productivity. What makes training evaluation more perplexing is that different stakeholders look for different outcomes, so for instance, a training manager may aim at closing the skills gap, while senior managers may aim at creating value through improved achievement of strategic objectives. For these reasons, there remains a gap in our knowledge on training evaluation and a reason for ongoing research.
As any investor would like to know or evaluate the return on their investment, by comparing it to the cost thereof, so would an investor in training. Training evaluation enables an investor to value the cost versus the benefit of the investment in training, with the aim of quantifying or justifying the investment. Investors in corporate training are usually employers, who seek to capture value in the form of a competitive advantage over rivals.
It has become a pressing concern though, as strategy makers, boards of organisations, and even governments are growing frustrated with the lack of training impact evaluation. If managers continue to fail at producing evidence of it, future decisions about spending on training may be negatively impacted and the likelihood of personal accountability, followed by disciplinary steps for failure to execute strategy is not excluded. Management tends to reduce spending on training during turbulent times with the aim of reducing operating expenses, particularly as immediate return is not observable, while immediate cost cutting is. An investment in training may even be considered risky if the outcomes do not further the organisation’s efforts to achieve its strategic objectives.
In this chapter we will explore five areas related to training and its evaluation. The chapter starts off with the reasons managers invest in training and are interested in a return, then continues to explore the benefits of an excellent workforce. The discussion is followed by exploring various ways that training may be evaluated and the risks resulting from no evaluation or poor evaluation. The chapter is completed with a look into global investment practices and concluded with an overview.
2. Why develop human capital?
2.1 Knowing the value of investing in HCD
Human capital can be defined as the accumulation of marketable skills, on-the-job training, work experience and many years of exposure to a particular field. Collectively, the skills of individuals and groups contribute to the overall human capital of an organisation or a country, and can be developed through further education and training. From a strategic standpoint, organisations are interested in improving their productivity with the help of skilled employees, but employees also go to work to achieve their personal career objectives. Therefore, when the objectives of employers and employees are aligned, human capital development (HCD) helps both organisations and individuals achieve their respective objectives.
As far back as the 1950’s authors such as Becker [1] and Mincer [2] started taken an interest in the relationship between human productivity, education and training. It makes sense that organisations would favour investing in organisation-specific training, such that for instance, a news channel would only pay for journalist related training, while a bakery may only pay for confectionery training. The advantage is that the organisation alone benefits from their investment training, and not the rest of the competitive environment. But then economist such as Schultz [3] argue that through labour mobility, entire nations benefit from enhanced productivity levels among individuals who tend to move between jobs. That is why global organisations such as the African Development Bank [4] and the World Economic Forum [5] place major emphasis on skills development, improved country productivity and the competitive capabilities of entire continents.
Investing in an individual’s education is expected to enhance their talents and skills levels, their productivity or output at work, and ultimately the strategic performance of the organisation, but that that does not imply that the individual is enslaved or owned by the organisation. Individuals enjoy and prefer generic training, for example management training, since it makes them more marketable, flexible and mobile, particularly in these times of rapid change. Unlike earlier generations that used to have “jobs for life”, modern day individuals are not afraid to exercise their newfound mobility and move between jobs, cities or even countries, and the investing organisation is left with the duel loss of the money and time spent on training, in addition to employee attrition.
Wright [6] distinguishes between the value captured by the individual versus that captured by the organisation. The organisation would like to capture value from organisation specific skills in the form of improved competitive capability and the individual. However, individuals prefer to acquire generic skills, which have similar value across organisations and industries. Management scientists tend to lose focus of the psychology aspect, focusing only on the economic aspect of creating value and outcompeting rivals. Human psychology tells us that the very success in the form of profits and competitive advantages is afforded the organisation by the humans that work in it. Therefore human aspects, notably free will, identity, meaning and purpose, as well as community involvement are important considerations in an organisation’s efforts to develop human capital strategically [6]. Free will implies that individuals choose the level of commitment they have to creating value for themselves or their organisation whether investing in generic or organisation specific skills. Individuals who identify strongly with their workplace are more likely to act positively toward the organisation and are not likely to leave the organisation. Humans seeking meaning and life purpose through work help the organisation achieve success and community refers to our tendency to build relationships at work.
Apart from management commitment, there are countless factors at work that may impact HCD success and the extent to which overall productivity is enhanced through an investment in HCD. Other factors may include quality of secondary and tertiary education, individual motivation, organisational culture and incentives governments use to encourage training. Training increases the individual’s productivity, and subsequently, that of the nation, as the productivity cycle below illustrates [7].
In Figure 1, seven steps to productivity are illustrated, and form the productivity cycle. Through training, individual and national productivity is expected to increase, which ultimately leads to improved sustainability as countries become more competitive.
Figure 1.
The productive cycle [7].
While managers and leaders are expected to strive for productivity gains through HCD, it is frequently incentives such as tax breaks or spending allocated funds, also called ticking boxes, rather than the actual improved human capital and productivity gains that become the driving force behind spending on training. It remains important that as managers, we need to make informed decisions about the money spent on training, versus the return we receive through training evaluation. Over the years, many efforts at training evaluation have been researched, as we will explore later.
Functional managers work together as a team, and successful team efforts can lead to synergy in the organisation. In that sense, sometimes line managers need to perform a typical HR function, such as identifying a training need or even coach a team member or subordinate. Hence, the flatter and less hierarchical organisational structures we tend to see in modern organisations result in the roles of functional managers converging and it was found to improve the organisation’s performance. Indeed, managers are the implementers of the organisation’s strategy, but manager perceptions and personal interests may interfere with strategic goals. Although all managers are appointed to act as agents or representatives of the organisation they work for, not all of them buy equally into the vision and goals of the organisation. The extent to which managers are committed to and identify with the vision and goals, and work hard to implement the annual strategy, determines the effort they will exert in strategy implementation or organisational change.
2.2 Human capital as dynamic capabilities
Dynamic capabilities (DC) result when an organisation succeeds in an ever-changing external environment, at transforming itself, by sensing, seizing and reconfiguring its resources. By optimising and continuously transforming its successful, routine ways of doing things, while learning new knowledge, an organisation develops dynamic capabilities, which improves its ability to outperform rivals and build a sustainable competitive advantage [8].
Dynamic capabilities theory is based on four principles, being i) the resource-based view (RBV), ii) the knowledge-based view (KBV), iii) the evolutionary perspective and iv) the market-based view [9]. In this chapter, we will only explore the resource-based view (RBV) and the knowledge-based view (KBV) for its relevance to HCD. According to the RBV of dynamic capability theory, all organisations have similar access to technological and financial resources, and therefore it is the success with which each organisation can sense, seize and reconfigure its unique combination of valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable (VRIN) resources that will create competitive advantage. The RBV of dynamic capability theory supports the views of Schultz and Becker, that organisation specific HCD is most valuable to the investing organisation, than for any other. Thankfully, modern organisations invest not only in organisation specific human capital, but also in generic human capital. Since such generic skills are valuable to any organisation, the human capital of the entire nation is enhanced through labour mobility, giving the nation better global competitive abilities.
The knowledge-based view (KBV) is an extension of the RBV and theorises that knowledge can be used to create dynamic capabilities, competitive advantage and subsequently, value for an organisation’s stakeholders. Knowledge is a strategic asset, especially if management can collect, manage and retain valuable, rare, inimitable and non-substitutable (VRIN) knowledge sources [10]. Value creation is optimised when internal knowledge sources are complemented with other relevant, available knowledge to create new knowledge. However, the acquisition of knowledge through means such as formal education or on-the-job training is contingent on management’s bounded rationality, or the finite knowledge, time and other resources they have at their disposal at the time knowledge acquisition decisions are made. Care should be taken that the cognitive limitations of managers or their personal agendas do not interfere with knowledge acquisition.
The three micro-foundations referred to by Teece [11], sensing, seizing and reconfiguring, warrant more in-depth exploration. Sensing is management’s savoir-faire to attract human capital, and seizing refers to transforming existing human capital to develop capabilities with the aim of seizing new market opportunities. Reconfiguration refers to the reordering and reformation of human capital resources to give the organisation the best possible chance against competitors. Sensing is a vital first step in securing the best possible team but what can managers do if they lack certain capabilities and time to develop them? They need to recruit or acquire human capital. This could be done through the normal recruitment channels, or through acqui-hiring. Acqui-hiring takes place when an organisation acquires an entire outside team or separate organisation to gain access to the expertise they need [12]. We see such practices often, with Google and Facebook probably the leading organisations to acquire skills in that manner. Facebook acquired WhatsApp for its talent and to drive innovation more than the organisation’s assets or products.
Seizing talent gives management the option of retraining existing employees, using consultants temporarily or by acquiring individuals or teams externally. The large scale use of information and communication technology (ICT), the world-wide-web and the onset of social media has enabled the formation of virtual communities of practice (COP’s), a virtual group who share the same concerns or their passions about a particular or variety of topics. Such a COP can source of shared knowledge, innovation and expertise, which the organisation can seize to build on its existing knowledge base.
Reconfiguring as the final leg of Teece’s micro-foundation is the management action of combining existing and newly-acquired skills to improve organisational performance and enhance value. A frequently reconfigured VRIN resource base, makes an organisation agile, flexible and much more competent to align their resources to a turbulent external environment. The combination and fine-tuning of the three micro-foundations all come back to building the organisation’s VRIN resources.
Since the seminal work of Teece, Pisano and Shuen [8] more than 2 000 articles were published on the dynamic capabilities theory. Major criticism against the theory is its continuing foundation level and conceptual nature, with no material empirical research to back up the theory. A number of empirical studies in the last two decades on dynamic capabilities have tried to remove the vagueness around the concept. In these studies dynamic capabilities were analysed based on more specific strategic efforts, such as customer centricity, competitor orientation and strategic investment in technology [13, 14, 15].
The knowledge based view suggests that organisations can use knowledge to create value, meaning that knowledge can be an asset to be invested in. In a knowledge economy, knowledge workers make an organisation very valuable for the shareholders [12]. Think about Facebook acquiring WhatsApp and a variety of other lucrative business, not for their intellectual properties, but for their human capital and more specifically, for their abilities to innovate. Knowledge is a difficult investment to manage, but what a manager would most appreciate is to see newly acquired knowledge have a practical impact on behaviour [16]. Behaviour is expected to change in the individual when they acquire new knowledge through learning, assimilate and apply that knowledge to improve their work and the organisation’s business processes. Humans build newly acquired knowledge upon existing knowledge and the intensity of effort increases our absorptive capacity [17]. Collectively, the absorptive capacity of individuals build the absorptive capacity of the organisation and in organisations with a functioning knowledge management strategy, higher absorptive capacity is a dynamic capability.
2.3 Evaluation practices in HCD
The calculation of the costs and benefits of an investment in training is not a new academic or business challenge. Schultz [3] noted that it is far easier to calculate the quantitative aspects of training that the qualitative ones. Quantitative aspects are the costs related to the training venue, the cost of the trainer, possible travel to the venue, even the time away from the offices is calculable. However, the benefits of training are far more elusive to determine, because managers cannot estimate increased productivity from training, considering the many factors involved, such as the employee’s prior knowledge, retention of acquired knowledge, and their intensity of effort after the training. We already know that the effects of training seems to wear off as time passes, and the timing of evaluation will therefore produce varied results. Understandably, it is not viable to try and determine the value of knowledge acquired and retained during training. Although researchers in the 1960s questioned whether it was worthwhile to put a value on training and education, the scene was set for subsequent research on how individuals and organisations may benefit from training. That would only be possible if a formal evaluation technique is employed.
Such a technique was first formalised by Donald Kirkpatrick [18] who developed the Kirkpatrick-Philips Model of Training Evaluation as a doctoral thesis. Soon it became the industry standard for the evaluation of human capital development, and although often criticised by subsequent researchers and authors, it remains the industry’s most acceptable evaluation tool. The model is summarised below as Table 1.
Step
Action
Description
1
Reaction
The extent to which the training participant enjoyed or accepted the training attended.
2
Learning
The skills or knowledge acquired during the training.
3
Behaviour
On-the-job application of the newly acquired skills and knowledge.
4
Results
Business improvement in the form of reduced costs, increased morale or customer satisfaction.
Table 1.
The Kirkpatrick four-step training evaluation model [19].
In short, the Kirkpatrick Training Evaluation Model contains four steps to evaluate training interventions, being participant satisfaction, learning that took place, the application in the workplace or training transfer, and impact on organisational results. As we progress through the actions, from Level 1 to Level 4, placing an accurate value on training outcomes become increasingly difficult and therefore, avoided. Whether it was the individual, the workplace or government that invested in the training, return on investment needs to be measured. As the knowledge based view suggests, it is the determination with which we change our behaviour after training, and apply our newly acquired skills and knowledge, that can become a dynamic capability. It is human nature to change our behaviour immediately after training, and with the passage of time, to resort to old and ingrained habits. Nevertheless, the measurement of training transfer may be hypothetical at best, but managers can manage it through incentives and disincentives, by encouraging their employees to apply newly acquired skills continuously.
Another author who criticised the Kirkpatrick Training Evaluation Model was Jack Phillips [20] who contributed a fifth level, that of return on investment (ROI). This level intends to measure the financial benefit of the training intervention in relation to its costs and was dubbed Five-Level ROI Framework. See Table 2. Typically the financial benefit is observed in improved customer service, product quality and organisational performance.
Level
Description
1
Reaction and planned action
Measures participant’s reaction to the programme and outlines specific plans for implementation.
2
Learning
Measures skills, knowledge or attitude changes.
3
Job application
Measures change in behaviour on-the-job and specific application of the training material.
4
Business results
Measures business impact of the programme.
5
Return on investment (ROI)
Measures the monetary value of the results and costs of the programme usually expressed as a percentage.
Table 2.
Five-level ROI framework. Source: Adapted from Phillips [20].
Measuring, recording and reporting on the benefits from any organisational intervention are not equally simple to conduct. Any good management tool such as the Five-Level ROI Framework should serve its purpose of informing management of the advantages and disadvantages of a management decision. Perhaps Phillips should have named his contribution to the Kirkpatrick model a “cost–benefit-analysis. Either way, another solution may be to verbalise expected benefits, and compare actual benefits against it. Training evaluation should not be the emphasis, but rather the realignment of training to key business outcomes such as creating stakeholder value, career progress and employee retention.
Training evaluation and effectiveness remains evasive, and although the questions of the learning environment, trainer efficacy and training design have been researched, it was found to be less influential in HCD effectiveness. Individual motivation to learn is not automatic and varies among employees. However, in addition to our own determination and effort, workplace factors such as managerial and even peer support, may negatively impact how much training is absorbed and transferred to the job and the rest of the team (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
The Baldwin-ford transfer of training model [21].
The Baldwin-Ford Learning Transfer Model [21] was one of the first conceptual models to explain training transfer, and it was developed to overcome some of the shortcomings of the Kirkpatrick Phillips model. The three main elements are training inputs, outputs and conditions of transfer. Training inputs include the characteristics of the trainee, the design of the programme and the workplace conditions following training. Training outputs relate to the extent of which learning and retention occurs and the conditions of transfer relate to the maintenance of the learning over time. Subsequent models [22] suggest that other factors such as timing and key stakeholder influences also impact training transfer. Clearly, these factors point to the complexity and multifaceted nature of training transfer.
Nevertheless, it remains regrettable that most organisations fail to evaluate training beyond Kirkpatrick-Phillips’s Level 1, which measures participant satisfaction. This takes place immediately following a training intervention, and participants are asked to complete a “smile sheet”. Most managers do not evaluate the impact training has on business results and therefore are unable to improve results.
2.4 Risk in HCD
The continued failure to calculate benefits from investments in training could eventually lead to enterprise risks, embodied in various forms that range from strategic and operational risk, to the risk of legal non-compliance. According to risk literature there are three vital components present in enterprise risk management, being uncertainty, risk and opportunity. Uncertainty implies that we are unsure about the outcome of an event, and in turbulent times such as the present, volatility increases uncertainty. Risk implies an undesirable outcome, and possible negative consequences that follow, whereas opportunity implies potential positive outcomes and consequences. Considering that risk may present a potential positive outcome, managers should actively pursue opportunities, but manage risks discretely and carefully, rather than avoid it.
Enterprise risk management has been a vital element in corporate governance for a few decades, despite which the world has seen a fair quantity of corporate scandals, involving agents who act in their own interest, leading to reputational and financial loss and even bankruptcy. Risk is also perceived differently by different people and risk perception includes subjective judgement, expectations and bounded rationality. Management’s response to risk depends on these factors in addition to their risk appetite. However, to adopt a holistic vantage point on enterprise risk, not only financial risk, but indeed systems and people risk must be considered. A holistic enterprise risk approach is one where all managers, including those responsible for human capital, are involved in managing risk. Human capital risk is defined as an investment in the improvement of human capital that does not meet the expected outcomes [23].
To date, measuring, reporting on and managing human capital risk is an emerging concept and still very foreign to most policy makers, in private as well as public organisations. It is no surprise then that managers do consider the loss of pivotal employees, adverse employee conduct leading to reputational damage, or union militancy as material enterprise risks, but do not record and quantify it as such. Equally, many hidden risks and opportunities may be present when managers fail to evaluate the cost and benefits of their investment in training.
Since organisations achieve their strategic objectives by optimising the dynamic capabilities of its human capital, the human capital strategy should be aligned to the organisation’s annual strategy. Human capital is a significant distinguishing factor in the competitive strategies of all organisations and every part of the organisation depends on human involvement. Apart from the obvious risks in human capital development, such as losing key personnel or compliance risk, there are also less obvious risks such as management attitudes and perceptions or risk, or the earnestness with which we implement newly acquired knowledge after training (see the KBV above). What is most important though is that all levels of management need to be aware of, record and report on human capital risks. Such a strategy, formalised in a policy, will remove uncertainty, provide management with more information and improve their chances of making informed decisions.
Acqui-hiring is an example of management striking a fine balance between active opportunity pursuit, and managing the parallel risk. In the case of acqui-hiring, usually the acquiring organisation pays lucrative salaries to attract this expertise and if knowledge is not transferred, the acquired expertise leaves the organisation or the team does not achieve its goals [12], there is a risk of financial loss. The emphasis of acqui-hiring is the human capital acquisition, and not the customer base, products, or goodwill of the target organisation, and could introduce major risks,
Early studies in human capital risk have presented a holistic view of the Kirkpatrick-Phillips Five-Level Training Evaluation Model, and innovatively added a pre-training assessment step and a risk management component, in what is referred to as The Risk and Return Framework for Human Capital Development [24]. Although not previously tested, this study findings were based on empirical research. It is important that a holistic and systematic view is adopted of training evaluation, commencing with understanding the performance gap, and concluding with the measures executed to manage the risk of not closing the gap. So much remains contingent on management attitude, ability and willingness to manage human capital risk, their bounded rationality, and that in itself presents a risk [25].
2.5 Global practices in HCD
Globalisation continues to lead to interconnectedness among economies everywhere in the world [16]. Through globalisation, money, skills, improved livelihoods and prosperity are channelled from rich countries, where investors are perhaps running out of investment opportunities, to developing or emerging economies. This process is called foreign direct investment (FDI) and is defined as the acquisition of a foreign enterprise with the aim of obtaining lasting control [26]. Through globalisation and FDI, a multinational community is resulting, and everybody, including HCD practitioners has to adjust to new ways of working. For example, e-learning is taking the place of instructor-led training, and immediately language becomes a consideration, as well as access to computers and the internet. Many host nations expect the foreign investor to make available expatriates, albeit temporarily, who will create jobs, recruit and empower the local workforce, and through the systematic transfer of skills and expertise, which is ultimately expected to improve organisational efficiency. For example, the branded sport shoes you find in your local store could have been partially manufactured in your home country, by your compatriots, through foreign direct investment in skills, expertise and capacity building.
In general, a country’s prosperity is expected to improve due to FDI. In addition, human capital is also expected to improve, as multinationals provide on-the-job training, and through labour turnover, those imparted skills spill over into other organisations. FDI can be in the form of government policies and priorities to help create human capital, by providing incentives to FDI investors who provide on the job training, and by encouraging higher education to train students the skills demanded by industry [26]. Cognitive skills have been found to be a major drawcard for foreign FDI [27].
Foreign direct investment is already complex, and further complicated by language proficiency and the host nation’s human capital endowment [28]. Language proficiency refers to that of the investor and that of the host nation. Researchers found that the effectiveness of HCD is greatly dependent on language proficiency, implying that the effective absorption and retention of knowledge can be improved when the language barrier is reduced or eliminated. A significant consideration is the lack of acceptance, and therefore low trust level of foreign investors and the expatriates working for them. The use of expatriates and their eventual repatriation to their home country is expensive, and multinationals prefer to use local human capital for menial tasks that do not require specialised skills. Furthermore, an investment in the human capital of the host nation helps to increase the perceived legitimacy and acceptance of the multinational investor, who are often not welcomed in the host nation, due to perceptions of plundering and exploitation. Foreignness increases mistrust, conflict and low levels of acceptance between host country nationals and multinational investors, translating into a risk for the investor. However, high language proficiency, coupled with the perceptions of expatriate professional competence, improve acceptance, social integration and therefore knowledge transfer improves [6].
When multinationals invest in identified countries, the quality of human capital is an important consideration [27]. In the absence of standardised evaluation tools, the number of years of university education is often used, although that measure is inaccurate, as it does not reflect skill attainment through short courses attended or on-the-job training. In that sense, a host country with an abundant endowment of skilled knowledge workers, may be more attractive to foreign direct investors, who expect to exchange knowledge easier, thereby lowering their operating costs [16]. High quality human capital therefore becomes an important attractor of FDI, while on the contrary, perceived insufficient human capital translates into a risk of attracting FDI.
Many more emerging market multinationals (notably Brazil, India, China and South Africa), compared to mature market multinationals, have invested in Africa in recent years [27] and the observed differences in investment practices are thought-provoking. For instance, emerging market multinationals seem to value access to the market more than access to skills and talent. Corruption and bribery in the host-nation is of little consideration, and in some instances, even welcomed. To that end, Chinese MNC’s do not capacitate the host-nation workforce, and instead employ expatriates for menial jobs, regardless of the risk of lawsuits, bribes demanded or the socio-political chagrin this may attract [28]. The local workforce is not capacitated for the duration of the investment, especially if the multinational’s top management does not support HCD practices other than organisation-specific HCD, for fear of employee mobility or demands for higher salaries [29]. These practices introduce other risks as well, such as low levels of trust, isolation of the expatriates, or in extreme circumstances, xenophobia [30].
3. Wrapping up and looking back
The importance of a dynamic national stock of human capital, with world class education, skills and competencies, can never be emphasised enough for its significance in improving country competitiveness. Country competitiveness is enhanced through training or human capital development, which is the collective skills and competencies of a team, including on-the-job training, built upon high school or university education. Collectively, the human capital possessed by a team, contribute to both individual and organisational productivity, national wealth and long-term sustainability. However, although it has been proven over and over that human productivity improves as human capital improves, the matter of estimating the benefits versus the cost to investors who are typically employers, remains top of mind for management practitioners, academics and policy makers alike.
The complexity of the operating environment and the myriad of influences from the external environment, necessitates the continuous monitoring, fine-tuning and impact evaluation of human capital development. Dynamic teams that can adapt to a volatile external environment with greater ease and a management team that is able to anticipate volatility and market demands, sense, seize and reconfigure VRIN resources in good time, is in itself a dynamic capability for any organisation. However, the agents involved may have varied agendas, such as legal compliance or spending allocated budgets, and not necessarily real outcomes in the form of productivity gains. Continuous management efforts to calculate the benefits of training will help inform future spending on human capital development, for which more and more justification is required in the face of tightening financial constraints. If management can perform training evaluation systematically, and with the use of an accurate instrument, the benefits of training on a micro and macro level will become visible and manageable. On the contrary, continuous failure to prove the return on an investment in human capital, may lead to a number of risks, such as ill-informed spending decisions, loss of critical members of a workforce, and non-compliance to organisational policies or strategies. Management may be held personally accountable for such failure.
Good corporate governance makes it a management responsibility to ensure adequate human capital and the efficient enhancement of it through training. Efficiency can only be determined with the use of a tool, such as the Kirkpatrick-Phillips Five-level ROI framework or similar recognised evaluation tools. Risk management is an integral element of corporate governance following a number of corporate scandals and a terrorist attack such as 9/11 that led to the loss of entire teams. However, early research has found that human capital development risk is not yet a vital consideration for many organisations. Not managing human capital development risk may be material, but due to the novelty and complexity of the concept, not widely researched and there is definite scope for future investigation.
Making informed management decisions about the costs and benefits of human capital development and the resultant risk of failing of such a calculation, may have further reaching consequences than merely meeting compliance requirements. As western multinationals are exploring new corners of the earth as investment targets, they are attracted by the quality of the country’s human capital. A country failing to attract FDI due to inefficient levels of HCD may lose out on such investments, and eventually find its sustainability under threat.
\n',keywords:"risk, return, evaluation, dynamic capabilities, human capital development, foreign direct investment",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75366.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75366.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75366",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75366",totalDownloads:282,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 29th 2021",dateReviewed:"February 2nd 2021",datePrePublished:"March 9th 2021",datePublished:"December 15th 2021",dateFinished:"February 23rd 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Performance improvement has been the focus of both public and private sector organisations for decades, but the extent to which human capital and human capital resources play a central role, has come into sharp focus only in recent years. Human capital, whether it is enhanced through local or foreign direct investment, can be turned into a dynamic capability, optimising and continually transforming collective human skills, competencies and expertise to improve performance and competitive capability. However, to understand the true contribution of human capital to dynamic capabilities, managers and team leaders require the ability to measure and manage the results of human capital improvement or training. Yet, they hardly do, for various reasons. In this chapter, the risk and return on human capital is highlighted, as well as the successes and improved relations organisations and countries may enjoy from understanding, managing and reporting on this important building block to human capital development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75366",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75366",signatures:"Cashandra C. Mara",book:{id:"10551",type:"book",title:"Beyond Human Resources",subtitle:"Research Paths Towards a New Understanding of Workforce Management Within Organizations",fullTitle:"Beyond Human Resources - Research Paths Towards a New Understanding of Workforce Management Within Organizations",slug:"beyond-human-resources-research-paths-towards-a-new-understanding-of-workforce-management-within-organizations",publishedDate:"December 15th 2021",bookSignature:"Gonzalo Sánchez-Gardey, Fernando Martín-Alcázar and Natalia García-Carbonell",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10551.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-273-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-272-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-274-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"332101",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonzalo",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez",slug:"gonzalo-sanchez",fullName:"Gonzalo Sánchez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"339919",title:"Dr.",name:"Cashandra C.",middleName:null,surname:"Mara",fullName:"Cashandra C. Mara",slug:"cashandra-c.-mara",email:"cmara@uj.ac.za",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Why develop human capital?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Knowing the value of investing in HCD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Human capital as dynamic capabilities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Evaluation practices in HCD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Risk in HCD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Global practices in HCD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Wrapping up and looking back",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Becker, G.S. Human Capital. New York, USA: Columbia University Press; 1962.'},{id:"B2",body:'Mincer, J. Investment in human capital and personal income distribution. 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Human Resource Management. 2014; 53: 179-201.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Cashandra C. Mara",address:"cmara@uj.ac.za",affiliation:'
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However, despite the existing belief, there is no universal RFID system on the commercial market that could be used in all user applications. All components of a developed solution should be carefully selected or designed according to the specification of objects being recognized and characteristics of their environment. In order to determine parameters of propagation or inductively coupled system, especially when it is dedicated to uncommon applications, a multiaspect analysis has to be taken into consideration. Due to complexity, the problem is reduced to analytical or experimental determination of RFID system operation range and a “trial and error” method is mostly used in the industry practice. In order to cope with the barriers existing in the RFID technology, the authors give the review of latest achievements in this field. They focus on the definition, comprehensive characteristics and determination of the antenna parameters. They also pay attention to the 3D interrogation zone (IZ) that is the main parameter in which multitude technical aspects of the RFID systems are gathered simultaneously, as regards the theoretical synthesis as well as market needs.",book:{id:"5368",slug:"radio-frequency-identification",title:"Radio Frequency Identification",fullTitle:"Radio Frequency Identification"},signatures:"Piotr Jankowski-Mihułowicz and Mariusz Węglarski",authors:[{id:"5982",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Jankowski-Mihułowicz",slug:"piotr-jankowski-mihulowicz",fullName:"Piotr Jankowski-Mihułowicz"}]},{id:"66114",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85075",title:"Combined Deep Learning and Traditional NLP Approaches for Fire Burst Detection Based on Twitter Posts",slug:"combined-deep-learning-and-traditional-nlp-approaches-for-fire-burst-detection-based-on-twitter-post",totalDownloads:828,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The current chapter introduces a procedure that aims at determining regions that are on fire, based on Twitter posts, as soon as possible. The proposed scheme utilizes a deep learning approach for analyzing the text of Twitter posts announcing fire bursts. Deep learning is becoming very popular within different text applications involving text generalization, text summarization, and extracting text information. A deep learning network is to be trained so as to distinguish valid Twitter fire-announcing posts from junk posts. Next, the posts labeled as valid by the network have undergone traditional NLP-based information extraction where the initial unstructured text is converted into a structured one, from which potential location and timestamp of the incident for further exploitation are derived. Analytic processing is then implemented in order to output aggregated reports which are used to finally detect potential geographical areas that are probably threatened by fire. So far, the part that has been implemented is the traditional NLP-based and has already derived promising results under real-world conditions’ testing. The deep learning enrichment is to be implemented and expected to build upon the performance of the existing architecture and further improve it.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Konstantinos-George Thanos, Andrianna Polydouri, Antonios Danelakis, Dimitris Kyriazanos and Stelios C.A. Thomopoulos",authors:null},{id:"66610",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85362",title:"Text Mining to Facilitate Domain Knowledge Discovery",slug:"text-mining-to-facilitate-domain-knowledge-discovery",totalDownloads:1080,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The high-precision observation and measurement techniques have accelerated the rapid development of geoscience research in the past decades and have produced large amounts of research outputs. Many findings and discoveries were recorded in the geological literature, which is regarded as unstructured data. For these data, traditional research methods have limited functions for integrating and mining them to make knowledge discovery. Text mining based on natural language processing (NLP) provides the necessary method and technology to analyze unstructured geological literature. In this book chapter, we will review the latest researches of text mining in the domain of geoscience and present results from a few case studies. The research includes three major parts: (1) structuralization of geological literature, (2) information extraction and visualization for geological literature, and (3) geological text mining to assist database construction and knowledge discovery.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Chengbin Wang and Xiaogang Ma",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:24839,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. 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Then, the chapter will discuss three aspects of 5G which are, namely, (1) Regulations, (2) security, and (3) the 5 enabling Technologies. Then, the chapter will discuss the real-life case of South Korea mobile carrier.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Issam H. Al Hadid and Ali Zolait",authors:null},{id:"68561",title:"Cyberspace and Artificial Intelligence: The New Face of Cyber-Enhanced Hybrid Threats",slug:"cyberspace-and-artificial-intelligence-the-new-face-of-cyber-enhanced-hybrid-threats",totalDownloads:1236,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"While, until recently, cyber operations have constituted a specific subset of defense and security concerns, the synergization of cyberspace and artificial intelligence (AI), which are driving the Fourth Industrial Revolution, has raised the threat level of cyber operations, making them a centerpiece of what are called hybrid threats. The concept of hybrid threat is presently a key concern for the defense and security community; cyber-enabled and cyber-enhanced hybrid operations have been amplified in scope, frequency, speed, and threat level due to the synergies that come from the use of cyberspace and machine learning (ML)-based solutions. In the present work, we address the relevance of cyberspace-based operations and artificial intelligence for the implementation of hybrid operations and reflect on what this cyber dimension of hybrid operations implies for the concept of what constitutes a cyberweapon, the concept of hybrid human intelligence (hybrid HUMINT) and possible responses to the hybrid threat patterns.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",authors:[{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves"}]},{id:"52156",title:"Case Study: Installing RFID Systems in Supermarkets",slug:"case-study-installing-rfid-systems-in-supermarkets",totalDownloads:2471,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Radio frequency identification technology (RFID) is considered as the reference technology for wireless identification and item traceability. Supermarkets are one of those scenarios where the RFID potential can be harnessed. In theory, RFID in supermarkets shows several advantages compared with traditional barcode systems, offering real‐time inventory, stock control, cash queues, among others. In practice, its massive and global implementation is still being delayed due to the high quantity of factors that degrade the RFID system performance in these scenarios, causing uncontrolled items and identification losses and, at the end, economical losses. Some works in the scientific literature studied a single or a set of problems related to RFID performance, mostly focused on a specific communication layer: antennas and hardware design, interferences at physical layer, medium access control (MAC) protocols, security issues, or middleware challenges. However, there are no works describing in depth the set of factors affecting RFID performance in a specific scenario and contemplating the entire communication layer stack. The first challenge of this chapter is to provide a complete analysis of those physical and environmental factors, hardware and software limitations, and standard and regulation restrictions that have a direct impact on the RFID system performance in supermarkets. This analysis is addressed by communication layers, paying attention to the point of view of providers, supermarket companies, and final customers. Some of the most feasible and influential research works that address individual problems are also enumerated. Finally, taking the results extracted from this study, this chapter provides a Guide of Good Practices (GGPs), giving a global vision for addressing a successful RFID implementation project, useful for researchers, developers, and installers.",book:{id:"5368",slug:"radio-frequency-identification",title:"Radio Frequency Identification",fullTitle:"Radio Frequency Identification"},signatures:"María-Victoria Bueno‐Delgado, Francesc Burrull and Pablo Pavón‐\nMariño",authors:[{id:"186584",title:"Dr.",name:"M.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Bueno-Delgado",slug:"m.v.-bueno-delgado",fullName:"M.V. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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\r\n\tIf we aim to prosper as a society and as a species, there is no alternative to sustainability-oriented development and growth. Sustainable development is no longer a choice but a necessity for us all. Ecosystems and preserving ecosystem services and inclusive urban development present promising solutions to environmental problems. Contextually, the emphasis on studying these fields will enable us to identify and define the critical factors for territorial success in the upcoming decades to be considered by the main-actors, decision and policy makers, technicians, and public in general.
\r\n
\r\n\tHolistic urban planning and environmental management are therefore crucial spheres that will define sustainable trajectories for our urbanizing planet. This urban and environmental planning topic aims to attract contributions that address sustainable urban development challenges and solutions, including integrated urban water management, planning for the urban circular economy, monitoring of risks, contingency planning and response to disasters, among several other challenges and solutions.
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Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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