Friction coefficients values and ball and disc wear scars measurements
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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Morozov leads research on microwave photonics, fiber optics sensors and its interrogtion as a radio engineer and a researcher. He was born in Kazan Tatarstan, Russia, on October 30, 1960. He became an Engineer in Radiotechnics, at the Aviation Institute, Kazan in 1983, and obtained his PhD degree in Tehnics at the Tupolev Aviation Institute, Kazan in 1987. Dr. Morozov became a Doctor of Technology at the Kazan National Research Technical University, Kazan in 2004. He was the head of Quantum Electronics and Laser Technology R&D Lab. from 1989 to 1993, and the head of the TV and Multimedia System Department, from 2005 to 2014. Currently he is the head of Radiophotonics and Microwave Tech. Department and of the R&D Institute of Applied Electrodynamics, Photonics and Live Systems.",institutionString:"Kazan National Research Technical University, n.a. A.N. Tupolev-KAI",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Kazan State Technological University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"531",title:"Cryptography",slug:"cryptography"}],chapters:[{id:"67370",title:"Introductory Chapter: Chromatic Dispersion Monitoring in Synchronization Channel of Quantum Key Distribution Systems with Carrier Modulation Coding",slug:"introductory-chapter-chromatic-dispersion-monitoring-in-synchronization-channel-of-quantum-key-distr",totalDownloads:744,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"69648",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",surname:"Morozov",slug:"oleg-morozov",fullName:"Oleg Morozov"}]},{id:"63116",title:"Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) over Software-Defined Optical Networks",slug:"quantum-key-distribution-qkd-over-software-defined-optical-networks",totalDownloads:1352,totalCrossrefCites:5,authors:[{id:"199527",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yongli",surname:"Zhao",slug:"yongli-zhao",fullName:"Yongli Zhao"}]},{id:"63621",title:"Free-Space-Optical Quantum Key Distribution Systems: Challenges and Trends",slug:"free-space-optical-quantum-key-distribution-systems-challenges-and-trends",totalDownloads:1516,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"261773",title:"Dr.",name:"Josue",surname:"Lopez-Leyva",slug:"josue-lopez-leyva",fullName:"Josue Lopez-Leyva"},{id:"261776",title:"Dr.",name:"Edith",surname:"Garcia",slug:"edith-garcia",fullName:"Edith Garcia"},{id:"269759",title:"Ms.",name:"Ariana",surname:"Talamantes-Alvarez",slug:"ariana-talamantes-alvarez",fullName:"Ariana Talamantes-Alvarez"},{id:"269760",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Ponce-Camacho",slug:"miguel-ponce-camacho",fullName:"Miguel Ponce-Camacho"},{id:"269761",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",surname:"Alvarez-Guzman",slug:"eduardo-alvarez-guzman",fullName:"Eduardo Alvarez-Guzman"}]},{id:"67225",title:"Coherence Proprieties of Entangled Bi-Modal Field and Its Application in Holography and Communication",slug:"coherence-proprieties-of-entangled-bi-modal-field-and-its-application-in-holography-and-communicatio",totalDownloads:813,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"249993",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolae",surname:"Enaki",slug:"nicolae-enaki",fullName:"Nicolae Enaki"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Bone and its several associated elements – cartilage, connective tissue, vascular elements and nervous components – act as a functional organ. They provide support and protection for soft tissues and act together with skeletal muscles to make body movements possible. Bones are relatively rigid structures and their shapes are closely related to their functions. Bone metabolism is mainly controlled by the endocrine, immune and neurovascular systems, and its metabolism and response to internal and external stimulations are still under assessment [1].
Long bones of the skeletal system are prone to injury, and internal or external fixation is a part of their treatment. Joint replacement is another major intervention where the bone is expected to host biomaterials. Response of the bone to biomaterial intervenes with the regeneration process. Materials implanted into the bone will, nevertheless, cause local and systemic biological responses even if they are known to be inert. Host responses with joint replacement and fixation materials will initiate an adaptive and reactive process [2].
The field of biomaterials is on a continuous increase due to the high demand of an aging population as well as the increasing average weight of people. Biomaterials are artificial or natural materials that are used to restore or replace the loss or failure of a biological structure to recover its form and function in order to improve the quality and longevity of human life. Biomaterials are used in different parts of the human body as artificial valves in the heart, stents in blood vessels, replacement implants in shoulders, knees, hips, elbows, ears and dental structures [3] [4] [5]. They are also employed as cardiac simulators and for urinary and digestive tract reconstructions. Among all of them, the highest number of implants is for spinal, hip and knee replacements. It is estimated that by the end of 2030, the number of total hip replacements will rise by 174% (572,000 procedures) and total knee arthroplasties are projected to grow by 673% from the present rate (3.48 million procedures) [6]. This is due to the fact that human joints suffer from degenerative diseases such as osteoarthritis (inflammation in the bone joints), osteoporosis (weakening of the bones) and trauma leading to pain or loss in function. The degenerative diseases lead to degradation of the mechanical properties of the bone due to excessive loading or absence of normal biological self-healing process. Artificial biomaterials are the solutions to these problems and the surgical implantation of these artificial biomaterials of suitable shapes help restore the function of the otherwise functionally compromised structures. However, not only the replacement surgeries have increased, simultaneously the revision surgery of hip and knee implants have also increased. These revision surgeries which cause pain for the patient are very expensive and also their success rate is rather small. The target of present researches is developing implants that can serve for much longer period or until lifetime without failure or revision surgery [7]. Thus, development of appropriate material with high longevity, superior corrosion resistance in body environment, excellent combination of high strength and low Young´s modulus, high fatigue and wear resistance, high ductibility, excellent biocompatibility and be without citotoxicity is highly essential [8] [9].
In general, metallic biomaterials are used for load bearing applications and must have sufficient fatigue strength to endure the rigors of daily activity. Ceramic biomaterials are generally used for their hardness and wear resistance for applications such as articulating surfaces in joints and in teeth as well as bone bonding surfaces in implants. Polymeric materials are usually used for their flexibility and stability, but have also been used for low friction articulating surfaces. Titanium is becoming one of the most promising engineering materials and the interest in the application of titanium alloys to mechanical and tribological components is growing rapidly in the biomedical field [10], due to their excellent properties.
This chapter is focused on the use of titanium and its alloys as biomaterials from a tribological point of view. The main limitation of these materials is their poor tribological behavior characterized by high friction coefficient and severe adhesive wear. A number of different surface modification techniques have been recently applied to titanium alloys in order to improve their tribological performance as well as osseointegration. This chapter includes the most recent developments carried out in the field of surface treatments on titanium with very promising results.
The main property required of a biomaterial is that it does not illicit an adverse reaction when placed into services, that means to be a biocompatible material. As well, good mechanical properties, osseointegration, high corrosion resistance and excellent wear resistance are required.
The materials used as implants are expected to be highly non toxic and should not cause any inflammatory or allergic reactions in the human body. The success of the biomaterials is mainly dependent on the reaction of the human body to the implant, and this measures the biocompatibility of a material [11]. The two main factors that influence the biocompatibility of a material are the host response induced by the material and the materials degradation in the body environment (Figure 1). According to the tissue reaction phenomena, the biocompatibility of orthopedic implant materials was classified into three categories by Heimke [12], such as “biotolerant”, showing distant osteogenesis (bone formation with indirect contact to the material); “bioinert”, showing contact osteogenesis (bone formation with direct contact to the material), and “bioactive”, showing bonding osteogenesis (bone formation with chemical or biological bonding to the material).
Biological effects of a biomaterial
When implants are exposed to human tissues and fluids, several reactions take place between the host and the implant material and these reactions dictate the acceptability of these materials by our system. The issues with regard to biocompatibility are (1) thrombosis, which involves blood coagulation and adhesion of blood platelets to biomaterial surface, and (2) the fibrous tissue encapsulation of biomaterials that are implanted in soft tissues.
The most important mechanical properties that help to decide the type of material are hardness, tensile strength, Young´s modulus and elongation. An implant fracture due to a mechanical failure is related to a biomechanical incompatibility. For this reason, it is expected that the material employed to replace the bone has similar mechanical properties to that of bone. The bone Young´s modulus varies in a range of 4 to 30 GPa depending on the type of the bone and the direction of measurement [13] [14].
The inability of an implant surface to integrate with the adjacent bone and other tissues due to micromotions, results in implant loosening [15]. Osseointegration (capacity for joining with bone and other tissue) is another important aspect of the use of metallic alloys in bone applications (Figure 2). A good integration of implant with the bone is essential to ensure the safety and efficacy of the implant over its useful life. It has been shown in previous studies [16], that enhancement of the bone response to implant surfaces can be achieved by increasing the roughness or by other surface treatments [17]. Although the precise molecular mechanisms are not well understood, it is clear that the chemical and physical properties of the surface play a major role in the implant – surface interactions through modulation of cell behavior, growth factor production and osteogenic gene expression [18] [19] [20].
Schematic drawing of the principles of osseointegration [
Furthermore, it is known that even if initial implant stability is achieved, the bone may retreat from or be isolated from the implant because of different reasons or situations listed below:
Reaction of the implant with a foreign body as debris from implant component degradation or wear, or to toxic emissions from the implant [22]
Damage or lesion to the bone through mechanical trauma surgery
Imposition of abnormal or unphysiological conditions on the bone, such as fluid pressures or motion against implant components
Alteration to the mechanical signals encouraging bone densification; strain reductions or stress-shielding of replaced or adjacent bone.
All metallic implants electrochemically corrode to some extent. This is disadvantageous for two main reasons: (1) the process of degradation reduces the structural integrity and (2) degradation products may react unfavorably with the host. Metallic implant degradation results from both electrochemical dissolution and wear, but most frequently occurs through a synergistic combination of the two [23] [24]. Electrochemical corrosion process includes both generalized dissolution uniformly affecting the entire surface and localized areas of a component.
Metal implant corrosion is controlled by (1) the extent of the thermodynamic driving forces which cause corrosion (oxidation/reduction reactions) and (2) physical barriers which limit the kinetics of corrosion. In practice these two parameters that mediate the corrosion of orthopedic biomaterials can be broken down into a number of variables: geometric variables (e.g., taper geometry in modular component hip prostheses), metallurgical variables (e.g., surface micro-structure, oxide structure and composition), mechanical variables (e.g., stress and/or relative motion) and solution variables (e.g., pH, solution proteins and enzymes) [25].
The corrosion resistance of a surgically implanted alloy is an essential characteristic since the metal alloys are in contact with a very aggressive media such as the body fluid due to the presence of chloride ions and proteins. In the corrosion process, the metallic components of the alloy are oxidized to their ionic forms and dissolved oxygen is reduced to hydroxide ions.
The corrosion characteristics of an alloy are greatly influenced by the passive film formed on the surface of the alloy and the presence of the alloying elements.
Wear always occurs in the articulation of artificial joints as a result of the mixed lubrication regime. The movement of an artificial hip joint produces billions of microscopic particles that are rubbed off cutting motions. These particles are trapped inside the tissues of the joint capsule and may lead to unwanted foreign body reactions. Histocytes and giant cells phagocytose and “digest” the released particles and form granulomas or granuloma-like tissues. At the boundary layer between the implant and bone, these interfere with the transformation process of the bone leading to osteolysis. Hence, the materials used to make the femoral head and cup play a significant role in the device performance. Since the advent of endoprosthetics, attempts have been made to reduce wear by using a variety of different combinations of materials and surface treatments.
Nowadays, the materials used for biomedical applications are mainly metallic materials such as 316L stainless steel, cobalt chromium alloys (CoCrMo), titanium-based alloys (Ti-6Al-4V) and miscellaneous others (including tantalum, gold, dental amalgams and other “specialty” metals). Titanium alloys are fast emerging as the first choice for majority of applications due to the combination of their outstanding characteristics such as high strength, low density, high immunity to corrosion, complete inertness to body environment, enhanced compatibility, low Young´s modulus and high capacity to join with bone or other tissues. Their lower Young´s modulus, superior biocompatibility and better corrosion resistance in comparison with conventional stainless steels and cobalt-based alloys, make them an ideal choice for bio-applications [26]. Because of the mentioned desirable properties, titanium and titanium alloys are widely used as hard tissue replacements in artificial bones, joints and dental implants.
The elemental metal titanium was first discovered in England by William Gregor in 1790, but in 1795 Klaproth gave it the name of titanium. Combination of low density, high strength to weight ratio, good biocompatibility and improved corrosion resistance with good plasticity and mechanical properties determines the application of titanium and its alloys in such industries as aviation, automotive, power and shipbuilding industries or architecture as well as medicine and sports equipment.
Increased use of titanium and its alloys as biomaterials comes from their superior biocompatibility and excellent corrosion resistance because of the thin surface oxide layer, and good mechanical properties, as a certain elastic modulus and low density that make that these metals present a mechanical behaviour close to those of bones. Light, strong and totally biocompatible, titanium is one of the few materials that naturally match the requirements for implantation in the human body. Among all titanium and its alloys, the mainly used materials in biomedical field are the commercially pure titanium (cp Ti, grade 2) and Ti-6Al-4V (grade 5) alloy. They are widely used as hard tissue replacements in artificial bones, joints and dental implants. As a hard tissue replacement, the low elastic modulus of titanium and its alloys is generally viewed as a biomechanical advantage because the smaller elastic modulus can result in smaller stress shielding.
Other property that makes titanium and its alloys the most promising biomaterials for implants is that titanium-based materials in general rely on the formation of an extremely thin, adherent, protective titanium oxide film. The presence of this oxide film that forms spontaneously in the passivation or repassivation process is a major criterion for the excellent biocompatibility and corrosion resistance of titanium and its alloys.
Concerning the medical applications of these materials, the use of cp (commercially pure) Titanium is more limited to the dental implants because of its limited mechanical properties. In cases where good mechanical characteristics are required as in hip implants, knee implants, bone screws, and plates, Ti-6Al-4V alloy is being used [27] [28]. One of the most common applications of titanium alloys is artificial hip joints that consist of an articulating bearing (femoral head and cup) and stem [24], where metallic cup and hip stem components are made of titanium. As well, they are also often used in knee joint replacements, which consist of a femoral and tibial component made of titanium and a polyethylene articulating surface.
Schematic diagram of artificial hip joint (left) and knee implant [
The fundamental drawback of titanium and its alloys which limits wider use of these materials include their poor fretting fatigue resistance and poor tribological properties [30] [31], because of its low hardness [32]. Their poor tribological behavior is characterized by high coefficient of friction, severe adhesive wear with a strong tendency to seizing and low abrasion resistance [33]. Titanium tends to undergo severe wear when it is rubbed between itself or between other materials. Titanium has tendency for moving or sliding parts to gall and eventually seize. This causes a more intensive wear as a result of creation of adhesion couplings and mechanical instability of passive layer of oxides, particularly in presence of third bodies (Figure 4). Owing to this effect, in cases of total joint replacements made of titanium head and polymer cup, the 10%-20% of joints needs to be replaced within 15-20 years and the aseptic loosening accounts for approximately 80% of the revisions [34]. The reason for the failure of the implants is due to the high friction coefficient of these materials that can lead to the release of wear debris from the implant into the bloodstream that results in an inflammation of the surrounding tissue and gives rise to the bone resorption (osteolysis) [35] [36], which ultimately leads to loosening of the implant and hence the implant has to be replaced by a new one.
Schematic representation of a sliding tribological coating with the presence of third bodies [
All metals and alloys are subjected to corrosion when in contact with body fluid as the body environment is very aggressive owing to the presence of chloride ions and proteins. A variety of chemical reactions occur on the surface of a surgically implanted alloy. The metallic components of the alloy are oxidized to their ionic forms and dissolved oxygen is reduced to hydroxide ions.
Most metals and alloys that resist well against corrosion are in the passive state. Metals in the passive state (passive metals) have a thin oxide layer (TiO2 in case of titanium) on their surface, the passive film, which separates the metal from its environment [38]. Typically, the thickness of passive films formed on these metals is about 3-10 nm [39] and they consist of metal oxides (ceramic films). The natural oxide is amorphous and stoichiometrically defective. It is known that the protective and stable oxides on titanium surfaces (TiO2) are able to provide favorable osseointegration. The stability of the oxide depends strongly on the composition structure and thickness of the film [40].
Because of the presence of an oxide film, the dissolution rate of a passive metal at a given potential is much lower than that of an active metal. It depends mostly on the properties of the passive film and its solubility in the environment. These films which form spontaneously on the surface of the metal prevent further transport of metallic ions and/or electrons across the film. To be effective barriers, the films must be compact and fully cover the metal surface; they must have an atomic structure that limits the migration of ions and/or electrons across the metal oxide–solution interface; and they must be able to remain on the surface of these alloys even with mechanical stressing or abrasion, expected with orthopedic devices [25].
The relatively poor tribological properties and possible corrosion problems have led to the development of surface treatments to effectively increase near-surface strength, improving the hardness and abrasive wear resistance thereby reducing the coefficient of friction as well as avoiding or reducing the transference of ions from the surface or bulk material to the surrounding tissue.
When an implant is surgically placed within bone there are numerous biological, physical, chemical, thermal and other factors functioning that determine whether or not osseointegration will occur.
Titanium and its alloys have been widely used for dental and orthopedic implants under load-bearing conditions because of their good biocompatibility coupled with high strength and fracture toughness. Despite reports of direct bonding to bone, they do not form a chemical bond with bone tissue. For the last decade, various coatings have been attempted to provide titanium and its alloys with bond-bonding ability, which spontaneously bond to living bone. Hydroxyapatite plasma spray coatings are widely used in cementless hip replacement surgery, but the hydroxyapatite coating, although exhibiting a very good biocompatibility, presents some disadvantages including delamination of the coating layer from the substrate, difficulties in controlling the composition of the coating layer and degradation of the coating layer itself, which can release debris becoming a source of third body wear [41].
A strong and durable bone to implant connection can be achieved by the formation of a stable bone tissue at the bone-implant interface by proper implant surface treatments, as can be electrochemical deposition, dipping and physical vapor deposition techniques [42].
Surface engineering can play a significant role in extending the performance of orthopedic devices made of titanium several times beyond its natural capability.
The main objectives of surface treatments mainly consist of the improvement of the tribological behaviour, corrosion resistance and osseointegration of the implant. There are coatings for enhanced wear and corrosion resistance by improving the surface hardness of the material that can be applied by different surface modifications techniques such as surface oxidation, physical deposition methods like ion implantation and plasma spray coatings, as well as thermo-chemical surface treatments such as nitriding, carburizing and boriding [43] [44].
Great efforts have been devoted to thickening and stabilizing surface oxides on titanium to achieve desired biological responses. The biological response to titanium depends on the surface chemical composition, and the ability of titanium oxides to absorb molecules and incorporate elements. Surface topography plays a fundamental role in regulating cell behavior, e.g. the shape, orientation and adhesion of cells.
One possible alternative to solve tribological problems and which is going to explain more detail consists of protecting the alloy surface by means of biocompatible Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) coatings. “Diamond-Like Carbon” is a generic term referring to amorphous carbon films, deposited by either Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD) or Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD). DLC coatings basically consist of a mixture of diamond (sp3) and graphite (sp2). The relative amounts of these two phases will determine much of the coating properties. They are thus metastable and mostly amorphous, “crystalline” clusters being too small or too defective to reach graphite or diamond structures. Both the mechanical and the tribological properties of DLC coatings have been studied for about 30 years, and several different types of DLC coatings can currently be found. DLC films are attractive biomedical materials due to their relatively high hardness, low friction coefficient, owing to the solid lubricant because of its graphite and amorphous carbon contents [31], good chemical stability and excellent bio and hemocompatibility [45] [44] [46] [47]. Cells are seen to grow well on these films coated on titanium and other materials without any cytotoxicity and inflammation.
Oxidation remains the most popular technique for the surface modification of Ti alloys; these oxide layers on titanium are commonly produced by either heat treatment [48] [49] [50] or electrolytic anodizing [51]. Thermal oxidation results in the formation of a 15-30 µm thick titanium dioxide layer of the rutile phase. However, due to their long-term high temperature action, thermal diffusion processes can also lead to the formation of a diffusion sub-layer consisting of an oxygen solid solution in α-Ti, and development of phase segregation and coalescence which may cause substrate embrittlement and worsened mechanical and/or corrosion performance.
Conventional anodic oxidation, which is carried out in various solutions providing passivation of the titanium surface, generates thin films of amorphous hydrated oxide or crystalline TiO2 in the anatase form [52]. These films exhibit poor corrosion resistance in some reducing acids and halide solutions, while rutile generally possesses much better protective properties. However, recent developments in high voltage anodizing allow the production of crystalline rutile/anatase films at near to ambient temperature [53]. By anodic oxidation, elements such as Ca and P can be imported into the surface oxide on titanium and the micro-topography can be varied through regulating electrolyte and electrochemical conditions. The presence of Ca-ions has been reported to be advantageous to cell growth, and in vivo data show implant surfaces containing both Ca and P enhance bone apposition on the implant surface.
Furthermore, there are alternative methods to improve the biocompatibility such as biocompatible chemicals [54] and materials such as ceramics for coating. In some studies, titanium surfaces were modified using phosphoric acid in an “in vitro” study to improve the biocompatibility of dental implants. Results indicated that pretreatment of the implant with phosphoric acid caused no citotoxicity to the osteoblasts [55]. Micro arc oxidation method in phosphoric acid on titanium implants provided chemical bonding sites for calcium ions during mineralization [56].
Moreover, there have been developed coatings for high osseointegration. Hydroxyapatite (HA) coating is a proven method to improve the implants´ mechanical bonding [57] [58], biocompatibility and improve the osseointegration. The higher the degree of osseointegration, the higher is the mechanical stability and the probability of implant loosening becomes smaller. The process of osseointegration depends upon the surface properties such as surface chemistry, surface topography, surface roughness and mainly the surface energy. TiO2, calcium phosphate, titania/hydroxiapatite composite and silica coating by the sol-gel method can be applied on the surface of the titanium and titanium alloys. Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) or Micro-Arc Oxidation (MAO) technique is used for the synthesize TiO2 layer. This technique is based on the modification of the growing anodic film by arc micro-discharges, which are initiated at potentials above the breakdown voltage of the growing oxide film and move rapidly across the anode surface. This technology provides a solution by transforming the surface into a dense layer of ceramic which not only prevents galling but also provides excellent dielectric insulation for contact metals, helping to protect them against aggressive galvanic corrosion. PEO process transforms the surface of titanium alloys into a complex ceramic matrix by passing a pulsed, bi-polar electrical current in a specific wave formation through a bath of low concentration aqueous solution. A plasma discharge is formed on the surface of the substrate, transforming it into a thin, protective layer of titanium oxide, without subjecting the substrate itself to damaging thermal exposure.
Among all the above mentioned surface treatments, Diamond-Like Carbon coating and Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation are the most promising ones applied on titanium surfaces. These two treatments are explained in more detail in the following sections.
In some biomedical applications continuously sliding contact is required, subjecting the implant to aggressive situations. To achieve and maintain higher efficiency and durability under such increasingly more severe sliding conditions, protective and/or solid coatings are becoming prevalent.
These coatings can generally be divided in two broad categories [59] : “soft coatings”, which are usually good for solid lubrication and exhibit low friction coefficients, and “hard coatings”, which are usually good for protection against wear, and exhibit low wear rates and hence longer durability (Figure 5).
Classification of coatings with respect to hardness and coefficient of friction, highlighting the special case of carbon-based coatings
It would thus seem to be difficult to associate low friction and high wear resistance with all types of coating in most tribological contacts. Some trade-offs can be found in combining both hard and soft materials in composite or multilayer coatings, which require complex procedures and further optimization of the deposition process. Nevertheless, a diverse family of carbon-based materials seems to “naturally” combine the desired set of tribological properties, providing not only low friction but also high wear resistance. These materials are widely known as the diamond and Diamond-Like Carbon (DLC) coatings. They are usually harder than most metals and/or alloys, thus affording very high wear resistance and, at the same time, impressive friction coefficients generally in the range of 0.05-0.2 [60] [61] [62]. In some cases, friction values lower than 0.01 have been reported [63] [64], offering a sliding regime often referred to as “superlubricity”. These exceptional tribological abilities explain the increasing success of Diamond-Like Carbon coatings over the years, both in industrial applications and in the laboratory. The exceptional tribological behavior of Diamond-Like Carbon films appears to be due to a unique combination of surface chemical, physical, and mechanical interactions at their sliding interfaces [65].
Since their initial discovery in the early 1950s, Diamond-Like Carbon coatings have attracted the most attention in recent years, mainly because they are cheap and easy to produce and offer exceptional properties for demanding engineering and medical applications. They can be used in invasive and implantable medical devices. These films are currently being evaluated for their durability and performance characteristics in certain biomedical implants including hip and knee joints and coronary stents.
Diamond-Like Carbon is the only coating that can provide both high hardness and low friction under dry sliding conditions. These films are metastable forms of carbon combining both sp2 and sp3 hybridizations, including hydrogen when a hydrocarbon precursor is used during deposition. The tribological behavior of Diamond-Like Carbon films requires a solid background on the chemical and structural nature of these films, which, in turn, depends on the deposition process and/or parameters. The chemical composition, such as the hydrogen and/or nitrogen content or the presence of other alloying elements, controls the mechanical and tribological properties of a sliding pair consisting of DLC on one or both sliding surfaces [66]. For example, DLC samples containing different concentrations of titanium (Figure 6) have also been examined “in vitro” to obtain a biocompatible surface that is hard, preventing abrasion and scratching [67].
Scheme of titanium doped DLC coating. In this case, the first titanium layer was deposited in order to improve adhesion of DLC coating to the substrate and relax stress of the coating
It is well known that Diamond-Like Carbon films usually present smooth surfaces, except maybe in the case of films formed by unfiltered cathodic vacuum arc deposition (Figure 7). Roughness of the films on industrial surfaces will then be mainly controlled by the substrate roughness and can therefore be minimized.
SEM (Scanning electron microscopy) micrograph of Ti-DLC coating deposited by physical vapour deposition technique using cathodic arc evaporation method
A frequently observed feature in tribological testing of Diamond-Like Carbon films is the formation of transfer layer. The formation of carbonous transfer layer on the sliding surface was observed to reduce the friction coefficient [68].
DLC coatings are usually applied by means of Cathodic Arc Evaporation Physical Vapor Deposition technology. An arc can be defined as a discharge of electricity between two electrodes. The arc evaporation process begins with the striking of a high current, low voltage arc on the surface of a cathode that gives rise to a small (usually a few microns wide) highly energetic emitting area known as a cathode spot. The localised temperature at the cathode spot is extremely high (around 15000 °C), which results in a high velocity (10 km/s) jet of vaporised cathode material, leaving a crater behind on the cathode surface.
The plasma jet intensity is greatest normal to the surface of the cathode and contains a high level of ionization (30%-100%) multiply charged ions, neutral particles, clusters and macro-particles (droplets). The metal is evaporated by the arc in a single step, and ionized and accelerated within an electric field. Theoretically the arc is a self-sustaining discharge capable of sustaining large currents through electron emission from the cathode surface and the re-bombardment of the surface by positive ions under high vacuum conditions.
If a reactive gas is introduced during the evaporation process dissociation, ionization and excitation can occur during interaction with the ion flux and a compound film will be deposited. Without the influence of an applied magnetic field the cathode spot moves around randomly evaporating microscopic asperities and creating craters. However if the cathode spot stays at one of these evaporative points for too long it can eject a large amount of macro-particles or droplets as seen above. These droplets are detrimental to the performance of the coating as they are poorly adhered and can extend through the coating.
A recent tribological study carried out about the effect of deposition of Diamond-Like Carbon coatings on a substrate of Ti-6Al-4V for knee implants has confirmed that these types of coating improve the tribological response of substrate decreasing the coefficient of friction (µ) (Table 1) and reducing the wear of the surface (Figure 8) [69]. For this study fretting tests were performed using alumina balls as counter body, bovine serum as lubricant and a continuous temperature of 37 ºC, trying to simulate real environment.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Ti-6Al-4V | \n\t\t\t0.86 ± 0.08 | \n\t\t\t10 ± 3 | \n\t\t
Ti-DLC | \n\t\t\t0.24 ± 0.01 | \n\t\t\tPolishing Effect | \n\t\t
Friction coefficients values and ball and disc wear scars measurements
SEM micrographs of the fretting tests wear scars. Ti-6Al-4V (left), Ti-DLC (right)
In biomedical application titanium is the most employed alloy due to its biocompatibility as an implant material, attributed to surface oxides spontaneously formed in air and/or physiological fluids [70]. Cellular behaviors, e.g. adhesion, morphologic change, functional alteration, proliferation and differentiation are greatly affected by surface properties, including composition, roughness, hydrophilicity, texture and morphology of the oxide on titanium [71] [72]. The natural oxide is thin (about 3–10nm in thickness [39] ) amorphous and stoichiometrically defective. It is known that the protective and stable oxides on titanium surfaces are able to provide favorable osseointegration [73] [74]. The stability of the oxide depends strongly on the composition structure and thickness of the film [75].
On titanium and its alloys a thin oxide layer is formed naturally on the surface of titanium metal in exposure to air at room temperature [76] [77] [78]. Titania (TiO2) exists in three polymorphic forms: rutile, anatase and brookite. Rutile, stable form of titania at ambient condition, possesses unique properties [79]. The metastable anatase and brookite phases convert to rutile upon heating. However, contact loads damage this thin native oxide film and cause galvanic and crevice corrosion as well as corrosion embrittlement. Moreover, the low wear resistance and high friction coefficient without applied protective coatings on the surface gravely limit its extensive applications. The most accepted technique for the surface modification of Ti alloys is oxidation. Anodizing produces anatase phase of titania that shows poor corrosion resistance in comparison with rutile phase. Recent developments in high voltage anodizing cause a crystalline rutile/anatase film at near to room temperature.
Attempts to improve surface properties of titanium and its alloys over the last few decades have led to development of Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) technique by Kurze et al. [80] [81], which is a process to synthesize the ceramic-like oxide films at high voltages. This technique is based on the modification of the growing anodic film by spark/arc micro-discharges in aqueous solutions (Figure 9), which are initiated at potentials above the breakdown voltage of the growing oxide film and move rapidly across the anode surface [53]. Since they rapidly develop and extinguish (within 10-4-10-5 s), the discharges heat the metal substrate to less than 100-150 ºC. At the same time the local temperature and pressure inside the discharge channel can reach 10-3-10-4 K and 10-2-10-3 MPa, respectively, which is high enough to give rise to plasma thermo-chemical interactions between the substrate and the electrolyte. These interactions result in the formation of melt-quenched high-temperature oxides and complex compounds on the surface, composed of oxides of both the substrate material and electrolyte-borne modifying elements. The result is a porous oxide coating.
Photography of the arc micro-discharges in PEO process
The PEO coating shows a significantly higher thickness (18 µm ± 4 µm) than PVD coatings and also a different morphology. The external part of the layer is porous (with pore diameter ranging from 3 to 8 µm) (Figure 10). The coating becomes increasingly compact on going towards the interface with the substrate. This kind of morphology leads to a relatively high surface roughness.
SEM micrographs of porosity of the external layer in PEO treatment. a) overview and b) detail
This method is characterized by the titanium surface, at near-to-ambient bulk temperature, into the high temperature titanium oxide (rutile) modified by other oxide constituents. Economic efficiency, ecological friendliness, corrosion resistance, high hardness, good wear resistance, and excellent bonding strength with the substrate are the other characteristics of this treatment [82] [83] [84].
The main conversion products formed by the PEO treatment are titanium oxides: rutile and anatase, typical anodic oxidation products of titanium. The structure and composition of anodic oxide films are known to be strongly dependent on film formation temperature and potential [85] [86]. In the case of PEO coatings, both the electrolyte composition and the current density regime have an influence on the phase composition and morphology of the anodic oxide layer [87]. A higher spark voltage causes a higher level of discharge energy, which provides a larger pore [88].
The influence of electrolyte characteristics on the phase composition of PEO films on titanium has previously been studied [89] [90]. It has been shown that surface layers composed of rutile, anatase, rutile/anatase, as well as oxides of electrolyte elements (e.g. Al2O3, MgO, WO3), their hydroxides and complex oxides (e.g. Al2TiO5, AlPO4, CaWO4, BaTiO3, MnTiO3, etc.) can be produced.
Surfaces containing Ca and/or P induce osteoinduction of new bones and become bioactive. Ca and P ions can be incorporated into the layer, controlling the electrolyte employed during the electro oxidation process, and they further transform it into hydroxyapatite by a hydrothermal treatment [41].
One technique that could show the effect of the electrolyte in the chemical composition of the coating could be the EDS (Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy) technique. In the following graphs a comparative study can be observed. The results of different samples, uncoated cp Ti, a coating obtained with a commercial electrolyte and a coating prepared in an aqueous electrolyte containing calcium phosphate and β-glycerophosphate, are showed in the following spectrums. The Ca- and P-containing titania coatings produced by PEO improve the bioactivity of the titanium-constructed orthopedic implant [91]. In Figure 11, in spectrum b) and c) can be observed the difference in the calcium quantity presented into the coating.
a) Microchemical analysis of cp Ti, b) microchemical analysis of coating prepared with commercial electrolyte, c) microchemical analysis of coating prepared with calcium phosphate and β-glycerophosphate electrolyte.
The biological response to titanium depends on the surface chemical composition and the ability of titanium oxides to absorb molecules and incorporate elements [92]. Surface topography plays a fundamental role in regulating cell behaviour, e.g. the shape, orientation and adhesion of cells [93] [94]. As a surface begins to contact with biological tissues, water molecules first reach the surface. Hence, surface wettability, initially, may play a major role in adsorption of proteins onto the surface, as well as cell adhesion. Cell adhesion is generally better on hydrophilic surfaces. It is known that changes in the physicochemical properties, which influence the hydrophilicity of Ti dioxide, will modulate the protein adsorption and further cell attachment [39]. By anodic oxidation, elements such as Ca and P can be imported into the surface oxide on titanium and the micro-topography can be varied through regulating electrolyte and electrochemical conditions. The presence of Ca-ions has been reported to be advantageous to cell growth, and “in vivo” data show implant surfaces containing both Ca and P enhance bone apposition on the implant surface.
Some experiments carried out to study the tribological behaviour of the PEO-treated Ti-6Al-4V by means of dry sliding tests against PS (plasma sprayed) Al2O3–TiO2 and compared with that of thin PVD coatings showed that the best tribological behavior, both in terms of low coefficient of friction and high wear resistance (i.e. low wear damage) was displayed by the PEO treated samples. The highest wear resistance was displayed by the PEO-treated samples, with negligible wear loss even under the highest applied load of 35 N. This good tribological behavior should be mainly related to the superior thickness of this coating that can better support the applied load.
The PEO treatment leads to a very good tribological behavior, significantly reducing both wear and friction of the Ti-6Al-4V alloy, even under high applied loads (up to 35 N). This good tribological behaviour should be mainly related to the superior thickness of this coating, which can better support the applied load. The main wear mechanism is micro-polishing and the coating thickness dictates its tribological life [95].
Last studies carried out have concluded that the PEO surface treatments enhance the biological response “in vitro”, promoting early osteoblast adhesion, and the osseointegrative properties “in vivo”, accelerating the primary osteogenic response, as they confirmed by the more extensive bone-implant contact reached after 2 weeks of study [94].
Titanium and its alloys are considered to be among the most promising engineering materials across a range of application sectors. Due to a unique combination of high strength-to-weight ratio, melting temperature and corrosion resistance, interest in the application of titanium alloys to mechanical and tribological components is growing rapidly in a wide range of industries, especially in biomedical field, also due to their excellent biocompatibility and good osseointegration. In such application, components made from Ti-alloys are often in tribological contact with different materials (metals, polymers or ceramics) and media, under stationary or dynamic loading and at various temperatures. These contact loads can cause damage of the thin native oxide film which passivates the titanium surface; and the metal can undergo intensive interactions with the counterface material and/or the surrounding environment. These interactions can generate various adverse effects on titanium components, such as high friction or even seizure (galvanic and crevice corrosion) as well as corrosion embrittlement, which lead to the premature failure of the implanted systems. The development of new specialized surface modification techniques for titanium and its alloys is therefore an increasingly critical requirement in order to control or prevent these effects and improve osseointegration, hence extending the lifetime of the implant.
Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) technique allows develop Diamond-Like Carbon coatings that can be doped with different elements as titanium, tantalum, silver… which are biocompatible and increase the corrosion and wear resistance of the substrate, diminishing friction coefficient.
Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation (PEO) technique provides a possibility for the variation of composition and structure of the surface oxide film and attracts special interest for the corrosion protection and the optimization of friction and wear of titanium alloys as well as enhance the osseointegration.
Risk is defined, according to ISO 31000, as the effect of uncertainty on the objectives to be achieved [1]. The last decades have been marked by notable developments in terms of infrastructure construction projects but also by unfulfilled objectives which challenge the construction industry. Strong gaps are identified in terms of organization and general management at the project level, in particular relating to the interfaces between the project actors whose specific objectives may be different or even contradict. This results in a persistent difficulty for controlling risks with the increase of the number of stakeholders. These difficulties are further heightened for complex and strategic projects. A complex and strategic project is a project that requires during its life cycle, an organization and a specific approach to manage the project, risk and opportunities [2]. Whether a project is classified as complex and strategic depends on several criteria. These criteria may relate to the organization or company which manages the project such as the level of fit with the general strategy, the main objectives of the organization, its culture and financial state. Other criteria relate to the nature of the project such as the commercial environment, the financial plan, the brand image, the organizational plan, and the technical features. External criteria are the environmental factors such as politic factors, legal factors, social factors, international aspects when the project is abroad. External factors occur outside the organization but can lead to internal changes and are, for the most part, beyond the control of the organization [3].
Infrastructure construction projects belong to this type of strategic and complex projects as they focus on the development and maintenance of services, facilities, and systems. Infrastructure construction projects include bridges, power & energy infrastructures, roads and railroads, airports, water infrastructures and dams, and waste management plants. Infrastructure projects have a long life-cycle including the maintenance-exploitation phase. Moreover, infrastructure projects must manage complex organizational aspects, complex resource management, and complex technical and financial aspects. Such projects can be also affected easily by the environmental factors, for instance the macro-economic conditions or the politic factors of the country. These types of projects are major investment projects and can be funded by private companies, publicly, or combined as a public-private partnership (a collaboration of government entities and private sector companies). Because of all these aspects, the risk and opportunities to the project are critical and need to be identified and analyzed before any decision-making process takes place. The ITA/AITES report highlights how risk management is important in the early phase of complex tunneling projects. The report recommends a set of good practices with include the shared analysis of the risk of both the client and the potential contractors [4].
In addition, the contractual framework of infrastructure projects can be very complex; it leads to redefining the role of the project actors, their responsibilities and missions. Risk management is essential in order to identify and assess the risk and opportunity events throughout the project life cycle. Especially for the private contractor, identification of the risk and opportunity events is crucial in the early phase of the project. In this phase, the candidate contractor needs to make a strategic decision for making an offer to the tender for the project or to pull out. This decision will lead to the initial risk assessment, then offer submission with a detailed risk analysis to be able to negotiate the contract terms with the client, and to define the risk allocation plan when contract awarded [5, 6].
The risk analysis in the early phase enriches the decision-making process. The risk analysis provides rational arguments which help to avoid or mitigate the probability or impacts of negative risk events and to increase the probability and impacts of positive events which are called opportunities [7]. However, literature review shows a gap in terms of risk identification and assessment methods concerning the early phase of a complex infrastructure project [2]. The project risk identification and assessment methods in the literature consider the risk factors in a static way. Therefore, these methods have some limitations in term of adaptability and even applicability to the early phase. The difficulty is that, in the early phase of a complex project, the identification of risk events can be limited because of a scarce level of information about the project and uncertainties. With the project progresses, more information becomes available, and more precise risk identification and assessment can be performed. For this reason, developing a formalized risk management method in the early phase is necessary to identify and analyze the major risks and opportunities of an infrastructure project and to make a strategic decision for the project’s future.
Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to propose a strategic and environmental risk analysis process which is applicable to the early stage and at the strategic level of an infrastructure project. In the process, the environmental risk and opportunity factors are analyzed using a formalized multi-criteria approach. This approach supports to take an optimal strategic decision for assigning some resources to a given (possible) project and later, after preliminary studies, to adequately consider detailed studies. For the client or project owner, the strategic decision corresponds to the validation of the project program and starting the step “call for tenders.” For the contractor, the strategic decision corresponds to the decision to respond to the call for tenders or to pull out of the project. Then, various possible projects can be compared in order to choose and pursue the most beneficial ones, allocate the project risk optimally and control it as the project progresses. On the other hand, the strategic and environmental risk analysis process can be adapted to the evolving nature of the infrastructure project, refining the first identification of risk factors performed in the early phase of the project [8]. In the method proposed, special attention will be paid to the point of view of a private contractor with the option of adapting for multiple stakeholders if necessary.
In this perspective, Section 2 of the book chapter provides the modeling of the strategic and environmental risk analysis process in early phase of complex infrastructure projects. In the development of the process, we emphasized on a hybrid approach for the identification and analysis of risk factors which combines literature analysis, case studies of complex infrastructure projects and the Delphi technique. In Section 3, the qualitative risk assessment method and decision-making process will be explained following the principles presented in Section 2.
We call “project risks” as the effects of uncertainties on the project objectives in terms of time, cost, performance, quality and safety. The project risks must be managed and controlled optimally in order to achieve the project objectives. Project risk management consists of identifying risk events and analyzing them qualitatively and quantitatively. Risk analysis qualifies and/or quantifies the probability of occurrence of an identified risk and/or opportunity event and their possible negative and/or positive impact(s) on the project objectives. Finally, action plans can be proposed to the risk to a level where the residual risk is accepted. In the development of an effective risk management method, it is necessary to take into account the project objectives, the project’s environmental factors and integrate the vision of the various project partners. The most classic objective of an infrastructure construction project is to manage and optimize costs and deadlines, to ensure quality and performance [9, 10, 11]. In the context of infrastructure projects, performance is understood over the long term, because it may include the entire period of maintenance and operation.
For analyzing the environmental factors in a complex project environment and understanding different stakeholders’ perspectives, we followed a hybrid analysis methodology with:
a literature review about risk management in the early phase of infrastructure projects,
case studies of infrastructure projects for identifying the main risk and opportunity factors,
Delphi-technique sessions for understanding the perspectives of the main project stakeholders (project owner, principal contractor, consultant and other contracted parties) about risk management in a complex project environment in the early phase, defining the process of the strategic and environmental risk analysis method, identifying and assessing main risk and opportunity factors in the early phase of the project.
The results of the literature review and the case studies revealed that in most cases of complex and strategic infrastructure projects, the main risk and opportunity factors are financial, economic, political-legal, organizational, managerial, strategic and technical factors, payment issues, construction design and technical risk, and inappropriate risk allocation across the project stakeholders [12, 13, 14, 15].
Then, Delphi-technique sessions were carried out with the main stakeholders of infrastructure projects such as project owner, contractor, financial partners, and external stakeholders for defining a risk management strategy in the early phase.
Following the literature review, analysis of case studies and the Delphi-technique sessions, we developed the strategic and environmental risk analysis method with an external and internal risk analysis. The external risk analysis carries out the identification and analysis of the risk and opportunity factors related to the external environment of the project, such as political-legal, economic, social, technological, contractual, competitive, client’s influence and force majeure factors [15, 16]. In parallel, the internal risk analysis identifies and analyzes the risk and opportunity factors related to the internal environment of the project facing the project stakeholders. These factors comprise the stakeholders’ financial situation, technical strength/weakness, organizational dynamics, relationships with other project stakeholders, project client’s influence, project competitors’ influence and the interface between project stakeholders [17, 18, 19].
The life cycle of infrastructure construction projects can be very long with multiple phases such as feasibility studies, preliminary studies, technical studies and design, competitive dialog or tendering and contracting, administrative procedures, construction, maintenance and operation (Figure 1). The aforementioned risk analysis in the early phase of the project which includes strategic studies and the project’s feasibility is essential for managing the risk across the whole project’s life [20, 21]. In these phases, project managers do not have detailed information about the project, they have only information about project scope, program and project environment. For this reason, the identification and assessment of project risks can be very challenging because of the lack of knowledge and uncertainties. Therefore, a strategic and environmental analysis can be used for identifying the main risk and opportunity factors to take a strategic decision about the project’s future (GO or STOP decision) and to define a risk allocation strategy or/and preliminary risk response planning before the contracting phase (Table 1). The goal is to qualify the threats-opportunities and strengths-weaknesses of the project related to its environment [22, 23, 24]. Then, we detailed the risk and opportunity factors related to the external and internal environment of an infrastructure project and defined a qualitative risk assessment method to analyze the overall risk level of the project in the early phase.
Life-cycle of an infrastructure construction project.
Following the literature review and the Delphi-Technique sessions with the project stakeholders, in the first step, a set of risk factors is defined for both the external and internal environment as part of the strategic and environmental risk analysis process (Table 2). The objective is to identify the risk and opportunity factors of a complex project related to the external and internal environment, to carry out a qualitative or quantitative risk assessment in the early phases, and to make a strategic decision for the project’s future. Then, a risk breakdown structure is developed with factors and sub-factors, and a qualitative evaluation method is proposed for the risk and opportunity assessment.
In project management, it is common to analyze the factors that are closer and more directly related to management, such as time management, resource or cost management. It will be more difficult to control the more general factors from the exterior perimeter to the project. It is therefore essential to be aware of the environmental factors that can represent restrictions and favorable circumstances in order to propose accurate risk response planning for the project success. This analysis will also apply to the project risks related to adverse environmental factors. In all cases, organizations must be prepared to mitigate the negative risk. The external environment covers the factors that can influence the project from outside the organizations [25, 26, 27]. We can distinguish the macro-environment from the micro-environment. The macro-environment analysis focuses on the broad scope that will influence the project directly or indirectly, such as political, legal, macro-economic and social factors. The micro-environment analysis highlights the interactions and relationships with other project stakeholders, the influence of the stakeholders on the project, the competitive analysis, and the technological factors. The interface between the macro-environment and the micro-environment includes lobbying, conventions, and contracts which determine the effects of the global environmental factors on the project perimeter.
In the external environmental risk and opportunity analysis, a risk breakdown structure has been elaborated with the external environmental factors and sub-factors of an infrastructure construction project (Table 3).
Phase(s) | Strategic studies - feasibility |
---|---|
Objective | Realize the strategic analysis and environmental analysis before the decision GO/STOP for the project, identify the risk and opportunity factors |
Available information | Project scope, program, localization of the project, project life-cycle, client, commercial environment, contract information, budget, competitive environment, technical information, financial information, project life-cycle, organization, resource information, external and internal environmental factors of the project |
Method /tool | Strategic and environmental analysis |
Strategic and environmental analysis in the early phases of an infrastructure construction project.
Project environmental factors | |
---|---|
1. External environmental factors | 2. Internal environmental factors |
1.1. Political-legal | 2.1. Project life-cycle |
1.2. Contractual | 2.2. Organization |
1.3. Economic | 2.3. Technical features |
1.4. Social | 2.4. Financial features |
1.5. Client influence | |
1.6. Competitive environment | |
1.7. Technology | |
1.8 Force Majeure |
External and internal environmental factors.
1. External environmental factors | Sub-factors | Qualitative evaluation | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.1. Political-legal | HIGH RISK | RISK | NEUTRAL | OPPORTUNITY | HIGH OPPORTUNITY | |
1.2. Contractual | ||||||
1.3. Economic | ||||||
1.4. Social | ||||||
1.5. Client influence | 1.5.1. Image of the client | |||||
1.5.2. Relations with the client | ||||||
1.5.3. Communication frequency | ||||||
1.5.4. Feed-back | ||||||
1.5.5. Experience of the client | ||||||
1.5.6. PM assistance | ||||||
1.5.7. Project budget | ||||||
1.5.8. Financial capacity of the client | ||||||
1.5.9. Change management ability | ||||||
1.6. Competitive environment | 1.6.1. Number of the competitors | |||||
1.6.2. Competitor’s size | ||||||
1.6.3. Technical capacity | ||||||
1.6.4. Financial capacity | ||||||
1.6.5. Partners | ||||||
1.7. Technology | 1.7.1. Technical difficulties | |||||
1.7.2. Special products | ||||||
1.7.3. Material price fluctuation | ||||||
1.8. Force majeure |
Factors and sub-factors of the external environment of a complex project.
In the external environment eight risk factors are defined: (1.1) political-legal, (1.2) contractual, (1.3) economic, (1.4) social, (1.5) client influence, (1.6) competitive environment, (1.7) technology, and (1.8) force majeure.
Then, a qualitative multi-criteria evaluation takes place for assessing the risk level of the external environmental factors. As a result, a qualitative risk matrix is obtained. Each criterion is evaluated on a qualitative 5-level Likert scale [28]: High Risk, Risk, Neutral, Opportunity, High Opportunity.
Political-legal factors determine the extent to which government and government policy may impact on an organization or a specific industry as well as trade, fiscal and taxation policies, employment legislation, consumer law, trade regulation, health and safety regulations, unexpected legislation and international rules.
Contractual factors consider complexities and uncertainties which belong to the general contractual frame such as the repartition of roles and missions of stakeholders, responsibility limits and risk allocation between the stakeholders.
Economic factors influence the economy and its performance, which can give impacts on the organization and its profitability directly such as interest rates, unemployment rates, material costs and foreign exchange rates.
Social factors focus on the social environment and help an organization to understand its clients’ needs and requirements. Social factors can include changing education levels, cultural trends, attitude changes and changes in lifestyles, and social security factors such as sabotage against the project, mobbing, strikes, criminal activities.
The influence of the stakeholders on the project and the relationship between project stakeholders is another external environmental factor. Mainly the client or project owner’s needs must be analyzed for the project success. For the client influence factor, nine sub-factors are defined: image of the client, relations with the client, communication frequency with the client, feedback from last common projects, experience of the client for complex and strategic construction projects, project management assistance of the client, project budget allowance, financial capacity, and organizational change management-acceptance for value propositions.
The competitive factor is very challenging in the early phase for analyzing the strengths and weakness of the competitors. For the competitive environment, five sub-factors are defined: the number of competitors, competitor’s size, technical capacity, financial capacity, and partners.
Technological factors indicate the rate of technological innovation and development that could affect a market or industry such as changes in technology, automation, new methods of distribution, manufacturing, logistics, research, and development. For the technology factor, three sub-factors are defined: technical difficulties, special products or innovations requested for the project and material price fluctuations.
Force majeure factor refers to an event or effect that can be neither anticipated nor controlled. There are dozens of circumstances or events that can be classed as examples of force majeure: earthquakes, hurricanes, explosions, floods, energy blackouts, epidemic diseases and war.
The internal environment covers the risk and opportunity factors that can influence the project from the inside of the organization or company. These factors comprise inter alia the features and complexities related to long project life-cycle, project management issues associated with a long life-cycle, and organizational structure. The organizational structure issues include resources, competences, communication and decision-making flows, corporate missions, corporate culture, technical features and financial properties of the project [17, 18, 19].
In the internal environmental risk and opportunity analysis, a risk breakdown structure has been elaborated with the internal environmental factors and sub-factors of an infrastructure project (Table 4).
2. Internal environmental factors | Sub-factors | Qualitative evaluation | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2.1. Project life-cycle | 2.1.1. Strategic studies | HIGH RISK | RISK | MEDIUM | OPPORTUNITY | HIGH OPPORTUNITY |
2.1.2. Design-Technical studies | ||||||
2.1.3. Call for tenders-Contracting | ||||||
2.1.4. Construction | ||||||
2.1.5. Maintenance-Exploitation | ||||||
2.1.6. Demolishing-Removal | ||||||
2.2. Organization | 2.2.1. Project Management Office | |||||
2.2.2. Engineering Department | ||||||
2.2.3. Construction Department | ||||||
2.2.4. Financial Department | ||||||
2.2.5. Legal Department | ||||||
2.2.6. Architecture Office | ||||||
2.2.7. Sub-contractors | ||||||
2.2.8. Consultants | ||||||
2.2.9. Maintainers | ||||||
2.2.10. Suppliers | ||||||
2.3. Technical aspects | 2.3.1. Technical complexity | |||||
2.3.2. Mastery of constructive technique | ||||||
2.3.3. Innovation proposition | ||||||
2.3.4. Resource availability | ||||||
2.3.5. Quality management | ||||||
2.3.6. Safety management | ||||||
2.4. Financial aspects | 2.4.1. Financial resource | |||||
2.4.2. Project cost estimation | ||||||
2.4.3. Profitability forecast | ||||||
2.4.4. Reserves |
Factors and sub-factors of the internal environment of a complex project.
In the internal environmental analysis four factors are defined: (2.1) project life-cycle, (2.2) organization, (2.3) technical aspects, and (2.4) financial aspects.
Then a qualitative multi-criteria evaluation takes place for assessing the risk level of the internal environmental factors. As a result, a qualitative risk matrix is obtained. Each sub-factor is evaluated on a qualitative 5-level Likert scale alike as in the external environmental analysis: High Risk, Risk, Neutral, Opportunity, High Opportunity.
The project life-cycle can be long for an infrastructure construction project with several phases, tasks, and milestones. For the project life-cycle factor, six sub-factors are defined: strategic studies, design-technical-price studies, call for tenders-contracting, construction, maintenance-exploitation, and demolishing-removal. The objective is to evaluate the risk and opportunity factors related to the project planning and time management, the cost management for the whole project life-cycle, the complexity of tasks, and the knowledge and/or available information about the project features.
The structural organization is composed of various stakeholders with multiple organizational structures, services, and partners. There are risk and opportunity factors related to stakeholder’s availability, competence, degree of experience, collaboration skills, communication skills, coordination, managerial skills and management of project resources such as resource availability, resource acquisition and transportation, resource planning and optimization.
For the organization factor, ten sub-factors are defined: Project Management Office (PMO), engineering department, construction department, financial department, legal department, architecture office, sub-contractors, consultants, maintainers, and suppliers.
For the technical features, six sub-factors are defined: technical complexity of the project, mastery of construction techniques, innovation proposition, resource availability, quality management, and safety management.
For the financial features, we can consider the factors related to financial resources, project estimation, profitability, managerial costs, and reserves. For the financial features factor, four sub-factors are defined: financial resource, project cost estimation, profitability forecast and, reserves.
In the definition of the project execution model, a stakeholder uses resources for realizing the project activities or tasks [2]. According to this definition, the main dimensions of a project are the project stakeholders or the structural organization, the project life cycle and the resources. The internal and external environmental factors can induce risk events which may have positive and negative consequences for the project stakeholders, resources and the project progression. In the end, these factors may impact the project objectives in terms of time, cost, quality, and safety [4] (Figure 2).
Effects of environmental factors on the project realization.
For instance, the macro-economic factors can influence the project funding or raw material costs; a politic or social factor can influence a stakeholder behavior; a legal factor can influence the project progression; the behavior of the public client can influence the relational flows between the stakeholders; positive public opinion about the project can induce opportunities for the project’s realization.
Following the modeling of the risk breakdown structure of the environmental factors, the next step is to define a qualitative risk evaluation method to assess the external and internal environmental risk factors and to develop a global risk evaluation for the project. This assessment can be conducted at two levels:
in an early stage and at a strategic level for taking a strategic decision about the project,
before the contracting phase in order to develop a risk allocation plan.
The first assessment corresponds to a qualitative multi-criteria risk analysis, as part of a formalized decision-making process. The definition of the multi-criteria analysis is based on the risk breakdown structure of both sets of environmental risk factors and sub-factors. The qualitative risk assessment is realized by evaluating the environmental factors and the sub-factors in the Likert-scale from High Risk (HR) to High Opportunity (HO) as indicated in Table 5. In this way, we obtain a qualitative risk matrix for the external and internal environmental factors. An example of a risk matrix with the qualitative evaluations is illustrated in Table 6.
Risk/opportunity level | Score | Color code |
---|---|---|
High risk (HR) | 1 | Red |
Risk (R) | 2 | Orange |
Neutral (N) | 3 | Yellow |
Opportunity (O) | 4 | Green |
High opportunity (HO) | 5 | Dark Green |
Qualitative scale for risk and opportunity levels.
1. External environmental factors | Sub-factors | Qualitative evaluation | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HR | R | N | O | HO | ||
1.1. Political-legal | X | |||||
1.2. Contractual | X | |||||
1.3. Economic | X | |||||
1.4. Social | X | |||||
1.5. Client influence | 1.5.1. Image of the client | X | ||||
1.5.2. Relations with the client | X | |||||
1.5.3. Communication frequency | X | |||||
1.5.4. Feed-back | X | |||||
1.5.5. Experience of the client | X | |||||
1.5.6. PM assistance | X | |||||
1.5.7. Project budget | X | |||||
1.5.8. Financial capacity of the client | X | |||||
1.5.9. Change management ability | X | |||||
1.6. Competitive environment | 1.6.1. Number of the competitors | X | ||||
1.6.2. Competitor’s size | X | |||||
1.6.3. Technical capacity | X | |||||
1.6.4. Financial capacity | X | |||||
1.6.5. Partners | X | |||||
1.7. Technology | 1.7.1. Technical difficulties | X | ||||
1.7.2. Special products | X | |||||
1.7.3. Material price fluctuation | X | |||||
1.8. Force majeure | X |
Qualitative risk matrix for environmental risk and opportunity factors.
After codifying the Likert scale using the values in Table 5, the arithmetic mean “N
Evaluation of external environmental factors:
where N
For the factors such as “Client influence” where there are multiple sub-factors attached, the factor’s evaluation “N
where n
Evaluation of internal environmental factors:
where N
For the internal factors with multiple sub-factors attached, the calculation of the evaluation score N
where n
For the risk matrix example illustrated in Table 6, the resulting evaluation score for the “external risk environment” of the project is:
If the resulting evaluation score N
Following the analysis of the project’s external and internal environments, the risk evaluation scores help to assess if the project will be opportune or not for the company. Based on this assessment, the company can take a go/no go decision for the project. Figure 3 shows the decision-making process. If the evaluation score of the external environmental analysis “N
Decision-making process for the environmental risk analysis.
If the evaluation score of the internal environmental analysis “N
If the evaluation score N
The strategic and environmental analysis permits to identify and assess the main opportunity and risk factors in the early phase of the project. With the help of the multi-criteria analysis, project managers can also compare multiple projects and choose the most beneficial ones for the corporate strategy.
When a GO or ACCEPT decision is taken for the project, a response planning should be developed for the risk factors deemed critical. For instance, if a potential risk is identified attached to the contractual frame of the project, this factor should be analyzed in detail. Action plans should be developed to minimize the possible legal and administrative disruptions and prepare a realistic risk allocation agreement.
In the later phases, with the project progress, more information will be available about the project. Then, the strategic and environmental risk analysis of the project evolves towards a formalized risk management process. In this approach, the risk and opportunity factors can be identified and analyzed in a more detailed structure and tracked during the project life-cycle [2, 5].
In Figure 4 some risk events examples are illustrated, attached to the organizational factors in the internal environmental analysis, such as inaction of decision makers, unavailability of stakeholders, communication problems, poor definition and allocation of responsibilities. In this step, a formalized risk register can be developed with the risk and opportunity events, the qualitative or quantitative assessment of probability of occurrence and possible impacts in terms of cost, delay, quality and safety. Then, a risk response planning can be developed and implemented in order to mitigate the risk during the project life-cycle.
Detailed risk analysis in later phases of the project based on the environmental analysis.
For complex projects such as infrastructure construction projects, implementing a risk management strategy is essential to achieve the project goals. It is essential to be aware of project risks related to environmental factors in order to develop the appropriate action plans. Structuring a risk management strategy that includes not only risk events but also opportunities will be beneficial for the business strategy. However, developing a robust and reliable risk management strategy can be quite difficult for complex infrastructure construction projects. Complex projects may have a long and complex life-cycle, multiple stakeholders with a complex organizational plan, and contractual complexities. For these types of projects, the identification and assessment of risks is a difficult task and may depend upon the project’s characteristics and the project’s environmental conditions. Since complex projects can also be of strategic importance, the early project phases play an important role in risk analysis. During this period, the project managers should analyze whether the project could be beneficial or risky to the company, carry out strategic and feasibility studies, and decide to continue or not with the project. In this step, a robust decision-making strategy should be developed for the project’s future, which includes a careful analysis of the risk and possible opportunities. However, the lack of precise information about the project and a large number of uncertainties may lead to certain limitations in the reliable identification and analysis of the risk and possible opportunities during the early project phase.
This paper outlines a formalized process of strategic and project environmental risk analysis at a very early stage of a complex infrastructure construction project. Examples show how this methodology has been put into practice.
In the process, the external and internal environmental risk and opportunity factors are identified and analyzed in a formalized approach to develop an optimal strategic decision to allocate certain resources to a prospective project and later, after preliminary studies, effectively consider the project for detailed studies. Then, a qualitative multi-criteria analysis is undertaken in order to evaluate the risk and opportunity factors attached to the external and internal environment of the project and to assess the overall risk level in the early project phases. At this level, highlighting the presence of uncertainties and the lack of detailed information about the project, the risk evaluation scores cannot present a firm conclusion on the overall risk assessment. However, the methodology can provide important elements to the project management and allows risk managers to discuss in detail the risk and possible opportunities to the project. In fact, the strategic and environmental analysis should be considered as a project analysis element before any decision-making process. The environmental risk analysis may provide insight for a realistic negotiation of risk allocation with the other project stakeholders. In addition, the process may provide an accurate global vision of the project and a good understanding of the project’s environmental factors. The integration proposed in the model between environmental analysis and risk management received good feed-back from project experts when applying he process in operational cases.
During later project phases, the project and risk managers can perform a more detailed risk identification and analysis; identify risk and opportunity events in a more detailed breakdown structure, assess them qualitatively and quantitatively, provide risk response planning and monitor risks during the project life-cycle. The analysis can be conducted more thoroughly when the project data permits. The formalized approach integrated into the environmental risk analysis process can provide feedback on the project, and this information could be used in the analysis of future projects.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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\n\nSara Uhac, COO
\n\nSara Uhac was appointed Managing Director of IntechOpen at the beginning of 2014. She directs and controls the company’s operations. Sara joined IntechOpen in 2010 as Head of Journal Publishing, a new strategically underdeveloped department at that time. After obtaining a Master's degree in Media Management, she completed her Ph.D. at the University of Lugano, Switzerland. She holds a BA in Financial Market Management from the Bocconi University in Milan, Italy, where she started her career in the American publishing house Condé Nast and further collaborated with the UK-based publishing company Time Out. Sara was awarded a professional degree in Publishing from Yale University (2012). She is a member of the professional branch association of "Publishers, Designers and Graphic Artists" at the Croatian Chamber of Commerce.
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\n\nDr Alex Lazinica
\n\nAlex Lazinica is co-founder and Board member of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his Ph.D. in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. There, he worked as a robotics researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group, as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and, most importantly, co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems, the world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career since it proved to be the pathway to the foundation of IntechOpen with its focus on addressing academic researchers’ needs. Alex personifies many of IntechOpen´s key values, including the commitment to developing mutual trust, openness, and a spirit of entrepreneurialism. Today, his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.
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Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"40180",title:"Plant Tissue Culture: Current Status and Opportunities",slug:"plant-tissue-culture-current-status-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:66541,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:95,abstract:null,book:{id:"3568",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture"},signatures:"Altaf Hussain, Iqbal Ahmed Qarshi, Hummera Nazir and Ikram Ullah",authors:[{id:"147617",title:"Dr.",name:"Altaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"altaf-hussain",fullName:"Altaf Hussain"}]},{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. 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Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4126,totalCrossrefCites:30,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"59402",title:"Robotic Harvesting of Fruiting Vegetables: A Simulation Approach in V-REP, ROS and MATLAB",slug:"robotic-harvesting-of-fruiting-vegetables-a-simulation-approach-in-v-rep-ros-and-matlab",totalDownloads:2807,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"In modern agriculture, there is a high demand to move from tedious manual harvesting to a continuously automated operation. This chapter reports on designing a simulation and control platform in V-REP, ROS, and MATLAB for experimenting with sensors and manipulators in robotic harvesting of sweet pepper. The objective was to provide a completely simulated environment for improvement of visual servoing task through easy testing and debugging of control algorithms with zero damage risk to the real robot and to the actual equipment. A simulated workspace, including an exact replica of different robot manipulators, sensing mechanisms, and sweet pepper plant, and fruit system was created in V-REP. Image moment method visual servoing with eye-in-hand configuration was implemented in MATLAB, and was tested on four robotic platforms including Fanuc LR Mate 200iD, NOVABOT, multiple linear actuators, and multiple SCARA arms. Data from simulation experiments were used as inputs of the control algorithm in MATLAB, whose outputs were sent back to the simulated workspace and to the actual robots. ROS was used for exchanging data between the simulated environment and the real workspace via its publish-and-subscribe architecture. Results provided a framework for experimenting with different sensing and acting scenarios, and verified the performance functionality of the simulator.",book:{id:"6265",slug:"automation-in-agriculture-securing-food-supplies-for-future-generations",title:"Automation in Agriculture",fullTitle:"Automation in Agriculture - Securing Food Supplies for Future Generations"},signatures:"Redmond R. Shamshiri, Ibrahim A. Hameed, Manoj Karkee and\nCornelia Weltzien",authors:[{id:"182449",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:"A.",surname:"Hameed",slug:"ibrahim-hameed",fullName:"Ibrahim Hameed"},{id:"203413",title:"Dr.",name:"Redmond R.",middleName:null,surname:"Shamshiri",slug:"redmond-r.-shamshiri",fullName:"Redmond R. Shamshiri"},{id:"241193",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:null,surname:"Karkee",slug:"manoj-karkee",fullName:"Manoj Karkee"},{id:"241194",title:"Dr.",name:"Cornelia",middleName:null,surname:"Weltzien",slug:"cornelia-weltzien",fullName:"Cornelia Weltzien"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"5",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82476",title:"Joint Action of Herbicides on Weeds and Their Risk Assessment on Earthworm (Eisenia fetida L.)",slug:"joint-action-of-herbicides-on-weeds-and-their-risk-assessment-on-earthworm-eisenia-fetida-l",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105462",abstract:"Frequent and intensive use of similar modes of action herbicides increases selection pressure resulting in nature adapt and a number of herbicide-resistant weeds. The most effective methods to prevent and delay herbicide-resistant weeds are herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. This chapter intends to explain the advantages of herbicide tank mixture and adjuvant mixed herbicides. In addition, the models of estimated herbicide mixture interaction response have been explained. Although herbicide mixtures have benefits, they may present risks leading to soil pollution and affecting soil fauna such as earthworms. Therefore, we discussed the negative effect of mixture herbicides on Eisenia fetida. On the other hand, various models to calculate mixture herbicide toxicity on earthworms will be present in this chapter.",book:{id:"11610",title:"New Insights in Herbicide Science",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11610.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammad Taghi Alebrahim, Elham Samadi Kalkhoran and Te-Ming Paul Tseng"},{id:"82937",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-1",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105944",abstract:"Stress in plants refers to external conditions, which drastically affect the growth, development, or productivity of plants. Stress triggers a wide range of plant responses, such as altered gene expression, cellular metabolism, changes in growth rates, and crop yields. Some abiotic stresses, such as low or high temperature, deficient water, and ultraviolet radiation, make plant growth and development unfavorable, leading to a fall in crop yield worldwide. The following writeup incorporated the abiotic stress factors related to the growth and development of plants, such as temperature, drought, heat, cold, and many more. Abiotic stress factors are the nonliving factors influencing the metabolism, growth, and development of the plant tissues at that particular time when such abiotic stress affects them. As a result of such abiotic stresses, the plants have generated many stress tolerance factors. Various stress-responsive genes are thus being formulated in response to the abiotic stresses, so the plants can survive even in such extreme conditions as well. Henceforth, it can be concluded that the abiotic stress factors imposed on the plants adversely impact their growth and developmental procedures, and at the same time, they also produce some stress tolerance factors to minimize the damage.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Shubham Dey and Ayan Raichaudhuri"},{id:"82943",title:"Laboratory Diagnosis of Candidiasis",slug:"laboratory-diagnosis-of-candidiasis",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106359",abstract:"The burden of Candidiasis continues to increase and so does the Candida species. Although Candida species are closely similar phenotypically, they differ from each other in terms of epidemiology, genetic characteristics, antifungal susceptibility and virulence profile. Therefore, reliable and accurate laboratory methods for identification of Candida species can determine the Candidiasis burden and enable the administration of the most appropriate antifungal drug therapy to reduce fungal mortality rates. Conventional and biochemical methods are often used in identification of Candida species. However, these techniques are specific and sensitive enough in detecting the non albicans candida (NAC) species. Molecular techniques have improved the laboratory diagnosis and management of Candidiasis due to improved sensitivity and specificity threshold. This chapter provides an overview of different laboratory methods for diagnosis of Candidiasis.",book:{id:"11608",title:"Candida and Candidiasis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11608.jpg"},signatures:"Benson Musinguzi, Obondo J. Sande, Gerald Mboowa, Andrew Baguma, Herbert Itabangi and Beatrice Achan"},{id:"82732",title:"Role of Microorganisms in Alleviating the Abiotic Stress Conditions Affecting Plant Growth",slug:"role-of-microorganisms-in-alleviating-the-abiotic-stress-conditions-affecting-plant-growth",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105943",abstract:"Agriculture is one of the main sectors that participate in building up world economy, and offers the main source of food, income, and employment to their rural populations. Despite the necessity of doubling agricultural production, quantitatively and qualitatively, to cope with the worsening increase in the global population and to meet the increasing humanitarian needs, the agricultural sector faces many abiotic stress conditions. Additionally, the great climate changes lead to an increase in the negative impact of these stressors. There are many conventional and nonconventional ways that could directly or indirectly mitigate the adverse effects of these stressors, each of them has its advantages and disadvantages. The biological tool is one of the promising methods; it depends on the effective use of beneficial microorganisms to alleviate stress conditions that affect plant growth, development, and therefore productivity. This method is economically inexpensive and eco-friendly toward the environment. Beneficial soil microorganisms such as PGPRs and AMF colonize the root zone of many plant species and help to enhance plant growth and development. Thus, this chapter is aiming to highlight the role of microorganisms in alleviating the abiotic stress conditions affecting in plant growth.",book:{id:"11330",title:"Plant Response Mechanisms to Abiotic Stresses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11330.jpg"},signatures:"Talaat El Sebai and Maha Abdallah"},{id:"81786",title:"Mycotoxins … Silent Death",slug:"mycotoxins-silent-death",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104382",abstract:"There are many types of fungi that produce secondary metabolites called mycotoxins. These compounds are very dangerous to humans and animals, as exposure to them causes acute or chronic toxicity. Temperature, humidity and pH are important environmental factors in the production of mycotoxins. There are about 500 types of mycotoxins that are found in many agricultural products such as peanut, cereals, wines, fruit juice, dried fruits, feed, and other foodstuffs. Among the most important genera of fungi that produce mycotoxins are Aspergillus, Penicillium, Altenaria, Fusarium, and others. Some of them infect plants in the field and produce mycotoxin, while others infect agricultural crops, foodstuffs, and feed in the store and produce mycotoxin during storage conditions. Mycotoxins are divided into various groups according to the degree of their impact and danger, into highly toxic, low toxic, carcinogenic, and mutagenic. This is depends on the chemical composition of the different types of mycotoxins, which are an open hydrocarbon chain with low molecular weights ranging between 100 and 697 Da. The biological effects of mycotoxins include damage to living tissues, suppression of immunity, and neurological disorders. Aflatoxins are one of the most dangerous mycotoxins as they are the main cause of hepatocellular carcinoma and the fifth most common carcinogen in the world.",book:{id:"11023",title:"Mycotoxins and Food Safety - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11023.jpg"},signatures:"Azhar A. Alhaddad"},{id:"82849",title:"Influence of Abiotic Stresses on Seed Production and Quality",slug:"influence-of-abiotic-stresses-on-seed-production-and-quality",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106045",abstract:"Climate change is exerting detrimental impacts on agriculture through various biotic and abiotic stresses. Abiotic stresses such as drought, flood, temperature extremes, salinity, chemicals, heavy metals, nutrient scarcity/toxicity, wind and light in combination more adversely affect the seed production and quality by hampering plant’s morphological, physiological, cellular, biochemical and molecular activities than alone, resulting in poor production of high-quality seeds. Deterioration of yield and quality arises also under abiotic stresses. Under abiotic stresses, plant activates its own defensive mechanisms by escaping, avoiding and tolerating stresses. Some of the plant’s defensive mechanisms include plant’s morphological, cellular, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes to adapt the stresses, synthesis of compounds such as ABA, proline, polyamines increasing the activities of ROS quenchers, expression of stress-resisting genes and activation of enzymes. Further, exogenous application of phytohormones, stress-alleviating compounds, modification of agronomic management, modern breeding strategies such as development of resistant varieties can also help to cope up with stresses and produce quality seeds. Financial and policy support of government or NGOs regarding development of infrastructure, research technologies and thereby, multi-locational trials as well as technology transfusion through extension activities are needed to curtail down the devastating impact of abiotic stresses on quality seed production.",book:{id:"11322",title:"Seed Biology Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11322.jpg"},signatures:"Rupa Das and Saikat Biswas"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:320},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"203609",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hanna",middleName:null,surname:"Gorska-Warsewicz",slug:"hanna-gorska-warsewicz",fullName:"Hanna Gorska-Warsewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD9pQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-14T11:58:32.jpeg",biography:"Hanna Górska-Warsewicz, Ph.D. is Associate Professor at Warsaw University of Life Sciences and Head of Department of Food Market and Consumption Research. She specializes in the subject of brands, brand equity, and brand management in production, service, and trade enterprises. She combines this subject with marketing and marketing management in both theoretical and practical aspects. Prof. Hanna Górska-Warsewicz also analyzes brands in the context of trademarks, legal regulations and the protection of intangible. She is an author or co-author of over 200 publications in this field, including 8 books. 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In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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