Various components used in different nanoemulgel formulations.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2064",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Integrative Proteomics",title:"Integrative Proteomics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Proteomics was thought to be a natural extension after the field of genomics has deposited significant amount of data. However, simply taking a straight verbatim approach to catalog all proteins in all tissues of different organisms is not viable. Researchers may need to focus on the perspectives of proteomics that are essential to the functional outcome of the cells. In Integrative Proteomics, expert researchers contribute both historical perspectives, new developments in sample preparation, gel-based and non-gel-based protein separation and identification using mass spectrometry. Substantial chapters are describing studies of the sub-proteomes such as phosphoproteome or glycoproteomes which are directly related to functional outcomes of the cells. Structural proteomics related to pharmaceutics development is also a perspective of the essence. Bioinformatics tools that can mine proteomics data and lead to pathway analyses become an integral part of proteomics. Integrative proteomics covers both look-backs and look-outs of proteomics. It is an ideal reference for students, new researchers, and experienced scientists who want to get an overview or insights into new development of the proteomics field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0070-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4343-7",doi:"10.5772/2473",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"integrative-proteomics",numberOfPages:454,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"82fe979a574466e287d597db196c0d67",bookSignature:"Hon-Chiu Eastwood Leung, Tsz-Kwong Man and Ricardo J. Flores",publishedDate:"February 24th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2064.jpg",numberOfDownloads:119011,numberOfWosCitations:113,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:115,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:253,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 1st 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 29th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 3rd 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 2nd 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 31st 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"105582",title:"Dr.",name:"Hon-Chiu",middleName:"Eastwood",surname:"Leung",slug:"hon-chiu-leung",fullName:"Hon-Chiu Leung",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105582/images/5517_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Hon-Chiu Eastwood Leung finished his Ph.D. Degree in microbiology and molecular genetics from University of Texas, Houston in 1997. He did his post-doctoral training in Baylor College of Medicine studying genomics and proteomics profiles of pediatrics medulloblastoma and osteosarcoma. Dr. Leung was a research scientists in Ciphergen Biosystems Inc. Briefly, and then was recruited to Genome Institute of Singapore to lead the clinical proteomics section. In 2006 he returned to USA. He was the director of the genomics and proteomics core laboratory of the Texas Children´s Hospital and director of genomics profiling of Baylor College of Medicine. At present, he is the director of the mass spectrometry-proteomics core facility of Baylor College of Medicine.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Baylor College of Medicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"35047",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsz Kwong",middleName:null,surname:"Man",slug:"tsz-kwong-man",fullName:"Tsz Kwong Man",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35047/images/system/35047.jpg",biography:"Dr. Chris Man is an Associate Professor of Pediatrics at Baylor College of Medicine where he participates in the Bone Tumor Program and the Cancer Genetics and Genomics Program at Texas Children’s Cancer Center. Dr. Chris Man’s laboratory is interested in applying computational and OMICS approaches to improve both the diagnosis and prognosis of pediatric cancer patients. The main focus of his research is to identify circulating and tumor biomarkers for early detection of chemoresistance and metastasis in pediatric osteosarcoma. Dr. Man and his lab are also interested in using bioinformatic and meta-analysis approaches to identify novel drug targets and pathways in pediatric cancers. The current projects include: 1) molecular classification of pediatric cancers based on genomic and proteomic profiling; 2) development of computational tools to integrate and analyze large-scale datasets; and 3) biomarker and target discovery in pediatric cancers using novel technologies.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Baylor College of Medicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"252252",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:"J.",surname:"Flores",slug:"ricardo-flores",fullName:"Ricardo Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252252/images/system/252252.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ricardo J. Flores graduated from University of Puerto Rico School of Medicine with highest honors in 2004. He completed his training in Pediatrics at the University of Puerto Rico Pediatric Hospital in 2007, and his subspecialty training in pediatric hematology/oncology at Baylor College of Medicine and the Texas Children’s Cancer and Hematology Centers in 2010.\n\nWhile in medical school, Dr. Flores experienced the death of a very close family member who truly struggled against an aggressive type of leukemia. From this, he recognized that treating patients with cancer and blood diseases required an extremely concerted effort from family and health care providers, and decided to train in the field of hematology/oncology, which encompasses all aspects of the medical profession.\n\nDuring his initial year of hematology/oncology training, Dr. Flores became interested in pediatric bone tumors, especially in the patients who presented with aggressive disease and had limited treatment options. At that time, he resolved to focus his research efforts on the high-risk bone tumor pediatric patients.\n\nBeyond his clinical and research duties, Dr. Flores is actively involved in ongoing efforts to promote and advance underrepresented minorities in the fields of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM-fields). In 2010, the American STEM Association selected him as member of the Leadership Institute Training Program for the Advancement of Science. In 2011, he was invited to serve as Master of Ceremonies for the Society on the Advancement of Science Chicanos/Hispanics and Native Americans National Conference, with over 3,000 participants, including Nobel Prize and National Medal of Science recipients. As a result of his scientific and outreach work, he was selected as a 2012 distinguished young physician scientist and interviewed by the National Library of Medicine for their 'Career Pathways” video library. He has also been highly involved with mass media health education, and has participated on dozens of interviews on nationwide radio, newspapers, and TV networks, including Telemundo, Univision and PBS, among others.\n\nSince October 2016, Dr. Flores-Hernández has been the Clinical Director of Pediatric Hematology-Oncology at the Texas Children’s Hospital’s Woodlands location.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Baylor College of Medicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"384",title:"Chemical Biology",slug:"chemical-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"29626",title:"Strategies for Protein Separation",doi:"10.5772/29363",slug:"strategies-for-protein-separation",totalDownloads:4086,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Fernanda Salvato, Mayra Costa da Cruz Gallo de Carvalho and Aline de Lima Leite",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29626",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29626",authors:[{id:"77472",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",surname:"Salvato",slug:"fernanda-salvato",fullName:"Fernanda Salvato"},{id:"86792",title:"MSc.",name:"Aline",surname:"Leite",slug:"aline-leite",fullName:"Aline Leite"},{id:"86800",title:"Dr.",name:"Danielle Cristina Gregório Do Silva",surname:"Silva",slug:"danielle-cristina-gregorio-do-silva-silva",fullName:"Danielle Cristina Gregório Do Silva Silva"}],corrections:null},{id:"29627",title:"Evolution of Proteomic Methods for Analysis of Complex Biological Samples – Implications for Personalized Medicine",doi:"10.5772/29613",slug:"evolution-of-proteomic-methods-for-analysis-of-complex-biological-samples-implications-for-personali",totalDownloads:2339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Amanda Nouwens and Stephen Mahler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/29627",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/29627",authors:[{id:"78567",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Mahler",slug:"stephen-mahler",fullName:"Stephen Mahler"},{id:"84197",title:"Dr.",name:"Amanda",surname:"Nouwens",slug:"amanda-nouwens",fullName:"Amanda Nouwens"}],corrections:null},{id:"29628",title:"Proteomic Analyses of Cells Isolated by Laser Microdissection",doi:"10.5772/30603",slug:"proteomic-analyses-of-cells-isolated-by-laser-microdissection",totalDownloads:2948,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Valentina Fiorilli, Vincent P. 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Intellectual deficiencies, difficulties understanding the taught concepts, poverty, abuse and neglect are some of the hindrances that may negatively affect students’ ability to execute their studies to expected levels. The works of Solberg et al. [2] and McKechnie [3] found that numerous stressors such as higher crime rates, unemployment strain of parents, financial privation, teen pregnancy, violence, and drug and alcohol abuse cause personal psychological distress to students affecting all areas of their life. Usually, when students find themselves in difficult situations, they tend to be engrossed in their personal insufficiencies and on the obstacles, they encounter instead of concentrating on their learning so that they successfully perform. Some of them easily give up when they face challenges and may not recuperate their sense of efficacy following failure. They quickly lose faith in their competences and succumb to stress, depression and dropout [4]. In this chapter, types of abuse and neglect, intellectual deficiencies and poverty are explored showing how they affect students’ self-efficacy causing their learning hindrances. Furthermore, the chapter endeavours to outline the stratagems for developing or promoting self-efficacy that defies the power of these hindrances in future. The association between school counsellors’ self-efficacy beliefs concerning performance or skills related to giving classroom guidance and the agreed outcome about the frequency school counsellors implement classroom guidance is explored. It is therefore imperative that the concept of self-efficacy is clarified, and the role that school counsellors play is explained.
Self-efficacy is a concept that is more like academic confidence and is entrenched in Badura’s social cognitive theory which he describes as the degree to which a student feels proficient to effectively achieve in school-related tasks [1]. Reiterating on his earlier sentiments, Bandura [5] explains self-efficacy as the belief in one’s ability to influence events that effect one’s life and control over the way these events are experienced. In his later edition, Bandura [6] defines self-efficacy as ‘beliefs in one’s capabilities to organise and execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments’. Similarly, Nasiriyan et al. [7] refer to self-efficacy as student’s beliefs in their capability to learn new skills and tasks, frequently in a precise academic area. Consequently, apparent self-efficacy is a concept in which people believe that they can produce given attainments [8]. Explaining self-efficacy in the theoretical framework of social cognitive theory by [1, 9, 10] detailed that people’s achievement hinges on the interactions between an individual’s behaviours, personal issues and ecological circumstances. Self-efficacy can be perceived as negatively or positively influencing students’ achievement. Therefore, self-efficacy is the judgement one places on their capability, and not their anticipated performance or achievement.
Self-efficacy is comparable to terms such as self-concept, self-esteem and self-appraisal. Self-concept is the cognitive or intellectual facet of self usually referring to the entirety of a complex, organised, and dynamic system of learned beliefs, attitudes and opinions that each person embraces as the truth about his or her personal existence [11]. Just as self-efficacy, the concept of self-concept is believing in one’s ability to achieve in set assignments. Self-esteem is the affective emotional aspect of self and mostly referring to how one feels about or how one values themselves. It is how one views their self-worth. A student may feel they are worthy of performing or may feel they are not capable of achievement. Self-appraisal is self-assessment that is a descriptive and evaluative decision that the student makes concerning his or her own work and academic aptitudes.
Academic self-efficacy is the self-assurance revealed by the persons in their expertise to complete academic tasks at the desired outcome [12]. The scholars above advocate that when students have higher academic self-efficacy, their effort shows greater determination in doing academic tasks. Intrinsic motivation also drives them to overcome any challenging situations during learning sessions. An individual’s self-efficacy influences on how they reason, feel and perform. The works of Bandura [9, 13] have shown that when a person possesses a strong sense of self-efficacy, they usually set higher goals for themselves, are highly motivated, and have the desired resiliency to complete their set goals. While self-efficacy does not straight forwardly measure the skilfulness of an individual, it influences how they decide on engaging on the task, the amount of effort they will put forth, their performance and how they deal with failure [9]. To them, Bandura [6] assert that their beliefs about their skill level is more important and is the driving force to their achievement. For this reason, Van Dinther et al. [14] encourage educational psychologists to investigate the role of self-efficacy in learning. The focus of psychologists should be on adolescents because they are vulnerable to unstable emotions and augmented risk-taking tendencies. For this reason, Kia-Keating et al. [15] postulate that during adolescence, the instructional role is essential in developing effective habits and competencies that impact on young people’s well-being and resilience throughout their lives.
Extensive studies reveal that students who believe they can accomplish an academic task are far more likely to persevere and overcome obstacles to successfully achieve the assignment. Conversely, in the absence of self-confidence to perform a task or overcome a challenge, students are more likely to surrender and may even accept defeat by circumventing the assignment [6, 16]. Self-efficacy effectively predicts the imminent academic performance of students, and comparable research confirms that this hypothesis has sturdier predictive influence than other non-cognitive skills [17]. However, students may have high self-efficacy but due to challenges such as poverty, financial deprivation and teen pregnancy, they may postpone their studies to a later stage. On the other hand, these adversities may also motivate the student to work extra hard to liberate themselves from these hardships. Authors in Ref. [18] are of the opinion that the success of the students, predominantly depends on their responsiveness regarding their capabilities and the motivation to apply learning strategies.
In his works, Bandura [6, 19] proposes breaking down the concept self-efficacy into four empirical sources which have evolved over the years, but finally documented as (1) master/performance accomplishments, (2) modelling/vicarious experiences, (3) social/verbal persuasion and (4) affective/emotional arousal [19]. Furthermore, Bandura [1, 6] advocates that mastery/performance achievements have a greater impact on self-efficacy because the student is directly involved in completing specified tasks. In any given task, success enhances self-efficacy while failing to accomplish the work reduces self-efficacy. More scholars have concurred with Bandura’s [6] social cognitive theory proposing that self-efficacy is a domain-precise confidence in an individual’s capacity to fruitfully achieve in a given task, which positively impacts on action and success in completing the task [20, 21, 22].
Clearly, success or mastery is a factor that promotes self-efficacy and once it is firmly established in an individual, any other sporadic failures have little impact on self-efficacy [1, 6]. When someone is successful, self-efficacy increases; but, failure to complete the job lowers self-efficacy. Nevertheless, after self-efficacy is established through direct success in a specific field, intermittent failure has a limited effect. In addition, mastery in one area usually increases self-efficacy in the other area since the student generalises his or her self-efficacy to other areas.
Modelling/vicarious experiences is the second source of self-efficacy where an individual sees the other person achieving in a specific task and envisages how he or she might perform in the equivalent or comparable situation [1, 22]. Observation is another factor that inspires self-efficacy especially when one watches a classmate perform excellently in a task. Students usually admire highfliers in class and desire to associate with them; hence, they equally work harder to earn friendship. Observing peers succeed in given tasks elevates the observers’ beliefs that they too can equally succeed in similar activities. Modelling influences provide a social standard against which the observer judges their own abilities. The observer gains skills and strategies to manage performance tasks by emulating people who possess the competencies to which they aspire. Although vicarious experiences impact self-efficacy, Bandura [1] asserts that they are not as influential as effectively participating in the activity itself.
Social/verbal persuasion is the third source of self-efficacy in which individuals permit themselves to be convinced that they too can successfully deal with a difficult situation that they previously perceived to be beyond their capacities [1]. When one is verbally convinced that they can equally do the task, they are more likely to activate greater determination and succeed. On the other hand, harbouring self-doubts and dwelling on personal deficiencies when problems arise diminishes self-efficacy. Persuasion is putting pressure on someone leading them to give their best shot to succeed thereby promoting development of skills and boosting their self-efficacy. However, peer pressure in schools makes students conform to fit in the group. Affective/emotional arousal is proposed as the last source of self-efficacy [6]. The state of emotional stimulation of a person can influence their self-efficacy. Bandura [1] envisages that a high level of anxiety in a student due to a specific task or situation such as public speaking, may lower the sense of self-efficacy. However, continuous success in a task can lower the student’s anxiety level thereby increasing their self-efficacy.
Self-efficacy is developed through the way a student interprets their performance. Brown [23] defines appraisal as self-assessment which is ‘an evaluative and descriptive task done by the student regarding his or her own work and academic capabilities’. Correspondingly, Panadero et al. [24] describe it as a ‘various techniques and mechanisms which enable students to describe (i.e. assess) and conceivably allocate merit or worth to (i.e. evaluate) the potentials of their own educational processes and achievements’. According to Corkett et al. [25], this self-assessment ensures students of a positive correlation between self-efficacy and achievement. In this vein, appraisal of self-efficacy is the way a student assesses their performance and achievement in the learning environment. Studies have found that there is a correlation between students’ self-efficacy and their academic performance [26, 27].
Students appraise their self-efficacy from four primary sources outlined by Bandura [6] as: (a). Enactive mastery experiences that serve as indicators of competence. Success enhances self-efficacy while failures depress it; (b) vicarious experiences that alter beliefs through communication of proficiencies in comparison with others’ achievements; (c) verbal encouragement by peers that they have certain abilities; and (d) physiological and affective states from which they conclude their ableness. Consequently, the most influential source of efficacy beliefs is enactive experiences because they prediction is based on personal experience outcomes, while vicarious influences depend on an observer’s self-comparison with as well as outcomes attained by a model. Verbal persuasion has less impact on students’ self-efficacy as the conclusions are described, not directly experienced, and thus depends on the integrity of the narrating person [28]. According to Corkett et al. [25], the four main constructs are not hierarchical and all of them can possibly influence a student’s self-efficacy simultaneously.
Faulty self-appraisal severely handicaps students especially when they perceive incredulity in their efficacy. Students who continually underperform fear taking up new challenges because of their idealistically low self-efficacy while those with quixotically high self-efficacy perform on faulty efficacy decisions preventing them from proper learning. Hoy and Spero [29] ascertain that when self-efficacy is created, it can be resistant to change; hence, they urge educators to put emphasis on young students’ self-efficacy. It becomes essential that students develop accurate self-appraisal and change all negatively inclined system of self-appraisal.
Besides faulty self-appraisal, Ünal [30] found that parent–child relationships in family environments can negatively affect children’s mental health, personality development and self-efficacy. Even though the household environment is expected to be a safe haven for children, some children have experienced numerous adversities such as abuse and exploitation, thus negatively affecting their physical, mental and social development, with many parents intentionally or unintentionally hurting their offspring [31]. Child neglect is usually described as the failure of an individual to fulfil his/her responsibility of caring for a child physically or mentally, take no notice of the child’s protection, nutrition, clothing, medical care, education and general well-being [3, 32].
Many studies reveal that exposure to a variety of life stressors, such as childhood abuse and neglect, can negatively affect social-psychological resources like self-efficacy [33] and increase vulnerability to risks health and life-threatening status. Prominently, an array of hardships and negative outcomes linked with stress affect self-efficacy which in turn influences the relationship between child abuse and negative outcomes [34, 35]. Contrasting neglect and abuse, Petersen et al. [36] assert that abuse is active while neglect is a passive occurrence. Self-efficacy is anchored on the attachment theory which underscores the prominence of a child’s relationship with their primary caregiver [37] and that the quality of this attachment provides the ‘secure-base’ where the child benefits mastery experience [38, 39, 40]. Research indicates that violating the attachment theory through childhood abuse has a negative influence on the individual’s self-cognitions [41]. Students who have secure attachments early in life can satisfy their needs through their own efforts while those with those with insecure attachments due to abuse and neglect tend to lack personal control affecting their self-efficacy. Abuse manifests in various forms such as emotional abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological and social problems and neglect which collectively cause trauma and depression, substance dependency, problems in interpersonal relations leading to lowered self-esteem [42, 43].
Self-efficacy has been meta-analysed for more than two decades revealing that efficacy beliefs contribute significantly to students’ level of motivation and learning [6], socio-cognitive functioning, emotional well-being and performance accomplishments [26, 44]. Thus, these are considered critical for educating young people [28, 45]. Self-efficacy influences cognitive and meta-cognitive functioning concepts such as analytical strategy use, decision-making, self-evaluation, problem-solving, time management and self-regulating stratagems, all which impact on academic achievement [6, 45]. Efficacy beliefs play an indispensable role in all stages of self-regulation and achievement [44]. Efficacy makes students to be highly motivated and have a sense of agency in their learning by setting themselves high goal which they monitor and evaluate regularly. Through this strategy they are able to judge their performance and setting more challenging goals for themselves and achieving them. This strategy contributes to quality education as students strive to produce good work [28].
Guidance and counselling programmes have been in existence in educational institutions over the years. However, the traditional approaches that have been used are no longer relevant to meet the needs of the students in the current environment. At present, learning effectiveness and efficiency are being stressed to realise the goal of educating responsible and productive citizens who have a global consciousness. In line with United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 4, where emphasis is on developing twenty-first century skills and competences among students, there is need for comprehensive guidance and counselling programmes which are critical to help prepare students to meet the challenges of the future [46, 47].
The terms guidance and counselling have engendered debate among scholars in the field concerning whether the two concepts reflect similar process activities or both terms should remain independent because there exist some differences between the two [48]. Scholars like Shertzer and Stone, cited in [48], maintain that differences between guidance and counselling often tend to be artificial, forced or contrived and theoretical rather than qualitative and practical in nature, hence, the terms should be used interchangeably. Yet, other authorities, such as Rao cited in [48], argue that even though the two terms are almost similar and appear to be two sides of the same coin, subtle differences exist between them. Hence, there is a need to clarify the two concepts, so that they are explicitly understood.
According to [49], guidance is a developmental process whereby an individual is helped to appreciate, accept and practise his/her abilities, skills and interests and attitudinal patterns relating to his/her aspirations. In educational settings, guidance comprises of those experiences that help each student to understand and accept him/herself, and effectually live in his/her society. This is over and above what the student experiences in the work places. In agreement, is the National Council of Educational Research and Training [50], which views guidance as what competent counsellors do to an individual or a group of students in the form of assistance that directs the progression in life, develop a point of view, decision-making and be better adjusted. Ideally, guidance is not giving directions, or imposing one’s point of view on another person. The person offering guidance does not take the responsibility of making decisions on behalf of the client. In reality, guidance is not giving ready-made solutions, but rather assisting people to navigate through their problems to come up with solutions.
UNESCO Guidance [49] views guidance as a needs-based programme or services to students facing various challenges in education or life in general. Through guidance, a student is assisted in setting realistic goals for themselves, so that they can adapt to the environment and improve in their education. Guidance, therefore, contains a succession of actions that are progressive towards goal achievement. Thus, from the given definitions, the subsequent salient points emerge:
Guidance is a purposeful helping relationship.
It is a planned educational programme provided for students by guidance specialists and educators on continuous basis.
Guidance is intended to assist the individual students to understand and accept themselves and the world around them, thereby becoming responsible and productive citizens.
Basically, four major guidance services can be singled out as educational, vocational, academic, personal and social guidance. These are discussed in the succeeding sections.
Educational guidance can be differentiated from any other form of guidance as its focus is on assisting students make choices in and adjusting to the school curriculum, career pursuit and life in general. Educational guidance is an essential counselling service for students to pursue the right type of education while ensuring that they choose appropriate career meeting the national human resource needs. It is a process through which students take up suitable educational programmes such as choice of subjects, courses, type of schools or colleges and progress in them. For example, female students should be encouraged to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering, mathematics and need to be guided away from those educational myths which contribute to the reluctance of females to pursue male dominated careers [49].
Educational guidance is important in higher and tertiary institutions in the following ways:
It assists students to pursue the right type of education which motivates them to effectively contribute to the society.
It assists individuals to make informed decisions between subjects, curricula, schools or colleges for their education to be meaningful to society.
It enables the smooth changeover for students from home to school, from elementary to high school, from high school to tertiary institutions and to the world of work or entrepreneurship, where the labour force is important and yet challenging for students.
It enables students to handle examination anxiety, as most of them are afraid of failure, and the desire for the higher grades is the key source of pressure among students.
It assists students to develop effective study habits, as that improves their capability in reading, note-taking and academic attainment.
It affords students the chance to relate the curriculum to occupational groups, so that they gain meaningful educational experiences [49].
Examination preparation includes study skills, time-tabling, note-taking and sitting for examinations. These are explained below.
Lack of effective study habits and skills leads to failure, hence students should be encouraged to spend a substantial amount of time on meaningful school activities and effectively studying to be productive and spend less time on leisure [49].
Students need to be encouraged to develop a formal time schedule and a personal study time-table, regulate their movements and avoid the tendency of procrastination in their work causing them to work under pressure. Effectively, time-tabling enables students to prioritise study times as considerate obligations while respecting times for home chores and recreation as they are equally essential [49].
Students are expected to take notes during class sessions, yet most of them find the task difficult. Due to lack note-taking skills, some teachers resort to prepare notes and distribute them to their students or write notes on the chalkboard for students on copy. Even though this strategy might prepare students for their examinations, it also deprives them of a chance to learn how to select major points from a lesson or lecture. Students tend to be truant for lessons relying on handouts which does not adequately prepare them for examinations [48, 49].
Examinations are valuable tools for assessing the effectiveness of educational programmes and appraising students’ progress but they are often misused and abused, particularly when accepting or eliminating students from some programmes. All the same, students face numerous limitations of examinations in measuring other skills that students might possibly have assimilated during their course of the year. Dealing with examinations related anxiety and stress becomes essential for every student to learn though proper guidance [49].
Academic counselling is a crucial facet of educational guidance which should be offered to students at various levels in their educational development. Students that are gifted and talented may require counselling that is different from the low achievers, the handicapped and delinquents, hence the need for an appraisal of the educational needs for every student [49]. This stance calls for professional guidance counselling to prepare a cumulative record so as to adequately assist all types of students in their dilemmas [48]. The school guidance counsellor must give students information such as:
How to effectively use of the library;
What to study;
Where to study;
When to study; and
How to study.
Choosing and preparing for a career can be a daunting experience for students in which vocational guidance becomes a necessary process for assisting students choose an occupation, be adequately prepared for it, be engage in it and advance themselves in it. Fundamentally, a student’s interests, aptitudes, personality and suitability for the type of work should be considered when giving vocational guidance [49].
Individual and societal guidance is a process that assists an individual or groups of people to relate considerably towards other people. Mostly, individual and societal guidance is beneficial for students with self-awareness, learn interpersonal skills, learn demeanours and etiquette, wisely pursue leisure time activities, develop family relationships and understand their roles and responsibilities in the society [49].
Counselling can be defined as a learning-oriented process, that develops an interactive relationship, whose main objective is to develop self-awareness so that one becomes more relevant as an effective member of society. Counselling is described as a process undertaken by a helper who expresses care and concern towards an individual with a problem in order to enable that individual’s personal growth which brings about transformation through self-awareness [14]. Concurring National Council of Educational Research and Training [50] refers to counselling as a therapeutic and interactive learning process through which the counsellor assists the counselee to identify the origin(s) of problems and guides them in categorising issues and making wise decisions. Although counselling is all-inclusive, addressing cultural, economic, emotional and social issues, it can be required at any time in life as people need change or face a crisis. Below are the aims of counselling as outlined by Van Dinther et al. [14]:
To assist students in understanding the origins and development of emotional hitches so that they develop the capacity to rationally control their feelings and actions.
To modify maladjusted conduct.
To help students to realise their potential and amalgamate conflicting elements within themselves.
To afford students with self-awareness skills and knowledge that enables them to confront social inadequacy.
Self-esteem or self-efficacy is an important aspect in the growth and development of students. It results from viewing oneself positively within the context of one’s surroundings. How well one gets along with peers and how they judge themselves in comparison with others, shapes their self-efficacy. Literature has identified self-efficacy as the area of interpersonal relationships. However, with proper guidance and counselling support, individuals with experiencing difficulties in learning can build the self-esteem they need to succeed in their life [51]. Owuor et al. [51] further explain that the main goal of guidance and counselling in the mainstream schools is to enhance the self-esteem or self-efficacy of students with emotional and behavioural problems. Guidance and counselling assist students in fulfilling their basic psychological needs, understanding themselves and acceptance of others, developing associations with peers, balancing between permissiveness and controls in the educational setting, realising successful achievement and providing opportunities to gain independence.
Florida Department of Education Division of Workforce Development [47] propounds that the student’s needs which manifest as the gap between the expected progress and the actual progress in the student’s personal, social, academic and career development are addressed in guidance and counselling programmes. The student’s learning and achievement are facilitated through competency in these developmental areas. A firm base of motivation, aspirations, positive attitudes, self-acceptance and knowledge of alternatives are essential elements for growth and development which should be acquired by students at an early age. It is, therefore, crucial for students to continuously build on these lifelong elements. The major competencies which should form the content of the student development programmes include decision-making, study skills, communication skills, test-taking skills, educational and career planning skills, conflict resolution, career awareness and exploration, problem-solving skills, community involvement, self-esteem and interpersonal and social skills among others. The stated competencies empower the student to be an active participant in using the available school and community learning opportunities. As such, all programmes’ learning achievements, long-term outcomes and accomplishment of the school mission goals are facilitated by these competencies. Accordingly, schools which expose their students to guidance and counselling programmes promote self-efficacy in their students. Thus, students are prepared for the future as well as acquiring suitable attitudes and values which empower them to productively and actively participate in the communities, they live in.
Of paramount importance is that, through guidance and counselling programmes, students are assisted in establishing a set of beliefs and a value system that will direct their behaviour and actions which results in developing a positive self-image and a sense of identity. These programmes should involve students in activities and dialogues that allow them to realise their rights and responsibilities within the family, school and other societal institutions. Such activities expose students to discover reality through participation in various fora as they share power with adults in decision-making [49].
Additionally, guidance and counselling programmes promote students’ self-efficacy since the programmes emphasise on providing students with a chance to learn more about themselves and others before they encounter glitches resulting from self-concept matters. The programmes concentrate on academic accomplishment, prevention and intervention activities, advocacy and social/personal/emotional and career development. Students acquire interpersonal skills before they experience interpersonal crisis. When faced with crisis, students can solve the problem by using the learnt skills. To achieve optimum benefits from the educational programmes, every student needs sound emotional and social skills. The four key areas of the programmes, which are academic, personal/social, career and community involvement, are fundamental to the individual uniqueness and maximum development of the student [47].
According to Nkechi et al. [52], some of the contributions of school guidance and counselling programmes in promoting students’ self-efficacy involve:
Encouraging facilitative, co-operative peer interactions;
Preparing students through academic, career, and personal/social development for the twenty-first century challenges;
Assuring equitable access to educational opportunities;
Broadening knowledge of the changing world;
Enhancing personal development;
Assisting in developing effective interpersonal relationship skills;
Providing advocacy for students;
Fostering resiliency factors for students;
Relating educational programmes to future success;
Facilitating career exploration and development;
Assisting in acquiring knowledge of self and others; and
Developing decision-making and problem-solving skills.
Likewise, most secondary school students are in the adolescent stage when they experience alienation, which is a syndrome comprising of distrust, anxiety, pessimism, egocentrism, meaninglessness, normlessness and powerlessness. At this stage, guidance and counselling programmes are, therefore, desirable to assist students understand their developmental stage and adjust to school life accordingly. Guidance and counselling programmes also help students choose and pursue achievable and sustainable careers. The complexity and dynamic nature of the world makes it difficult for students to decide on career choices. The changes in time, people and technological advancements challenge individuals to transform to new ways of living and working. Therefore, guidance and counselling programmes are necessary to enlighten students about several existing job opportunities required the qualifications, responsibilities involved and the nature of work so that they can make informed decisions and have clear occupational goals [52].
Furthermore, UNESCO Guidance [49] identifies the following functions of vocational guidance which can enhance self-efficacy among students if effectively implemented:
Assists students to realise their talents and make appropriate career choices;
Encourages students to maximise use of all educational opportunities, which will benefit them in life. Through vocational guidance, students recognise the relationship that exists between curricular and extracurricular activities;
Informs students about job prospects and the actual procedures required for getting employment and succeeding in it;
Encourages students to make informed decisions on the type of life they would like to lead depending on their interests, values, abilities, skills and motivation to learn; and
Helps students to adapt to change as they tackle various problems which emanate from the ever-changing society. For instance, currently in the world of work, the focus is on self-employment and entrepreneurship than in the past years.
More so, Nkechi et al. [52] are of the view that guidance has a responsibility for developing and maintaining a co-operative relationship between students and the school. Teachers and counsellors should be mindful of students’ needs, whereas students are expected to adjust to the school environment. The students’ main obligation to the school is to use the school’s resources appropriately and work towards attainment of set standards. The provision of suggestions to improve the programmes through carrying out educational research, conducting counselling sessions to assist students, and encouraging positive school-home environment facilitates the mutual adjustment of students and the school. As a result, such mutual cooperation between the students and the school builds self-efficacy in students. The main focal point of guidance and counselling programmes will be to develop a balanced individual intellectually, spiritually, morally and socially. Thus, guidance and counselling programmes assist students to harmonise their abilities, interests and values, thereby enabling them to develop their potential fully. Such exposure to guidance and counselling programmes helps students to formulate realistic life goals and plans. Despite the valuable contribution of guidance and counselling programmes in promoting self-efficacy among students in high schools, a study conducted in Ghana by Owusu et al. [53] revealed that the staff acknowledged that guidance services are available in the schools while students who are the main beneficiaries of guidance and counselling programmes disputed the claim by the staff. The students indicated that they did not have any access to guidance services in the schools.
In Kenya, Ruttoh [54] conducted a study which revealed that 57.2% of the students had not attended counselling sessions with the counsellors. The reasons for non-attendance were that:
The school did not have the counselling programme.
The students therefore felt that they were not welcome. Some teacher counsellors did not adhere to counselling ethics. For example, some counsellors showed rudeness, lack of confidentiality, and negative attitude towards the students. Hence, the students felt that the atmosphere was not welcoming and there was poor quality of counselling services.
Some students favoured to be counselled by parents, whilst others preferred peer counselling instead of teacher counselling.
Since the counselling service was seldom offered, some students lacked the opportunity to attend even if they wished to do so.
Other students indicated that they preferred doing activities like games which were offered simultaneously with counselling session; hence, they did not have time to attend counselling session.
Due to lack of a counselling office and in cases where it was available, some students were shy and feared going for counselling because they were worried about lack of privacy in such offices. The location of guidance and counselling offices within the administration block and near the school heads’ and deputy heads’ offices hindered students from attending counselling sessions as they felt intimidated.
School counsellors serve a vital role in enhancing students’ self-efficacy and maximising student achievement. As professionals, school counsellors implement a comprehensive school counselling programme that promotes and enhances student achievement. By incorporating leadership, advocacy and collaboration, professional school counsellors promote equity and access to opportunities and rigorous educational experiences for all students [55].
Accordingly, guidance counsellors need to be equipped with skills required to design comprehensive guidance programmes, provide counselling service, and use assessment procedures with a gender perspective [49]. On the same note, Yusof et al. [56] add that in developing students’ character, the school counsellors’ personal attributes and professional competencies are necessary characteristics. To make sure that services rendered by school counsellors meet the goal of assisting students develop and grow, the counsellors are expected to have a high level of confidence and professional competencies. Examples of personal attributes include compassionate, empathetic, patience, research-oriented, good listener, and self-awareness, discrete, authentic and non-judgmental are fundamental in executing their role as counsellors. While, the professional competencies are critical in the provision of effective counselling services entail knowledge, abilities, skills and attitude related to school counselling programme as well as the foundations, management, delivery and counsellors’ accountability.
It is important that the stated qualities be combined with precise skills demanded by the profession. These skills involve listening, analytical and good observation. Apart from being professionally qualified, it is essential for the counsellors to have temperament as well as empathy towards students because the counsellors deal with students who encounter diverse problems in their lives. Hence, the counsellor should possess the skill of working with individuals as well as groups. Nonetheless, for counsellors to be recognised as professional counsellors, they should undergo special training to acquire the necessary skills in addition to qualities they possess [50].
In promoting self-efficacy among students, Nkechi et al. [52] affirm that the school counsellor is seen as a role model and highly respected by students. Through training, counsellors can create a friendly atmosphere with students by listening to the students’ complaints, short comings and offering relevant guidance in a quest of moulding the student in the right pursuit of life. The same authors further express that counsellors can provide data that serves as a basis for curriculum development and can help curriculum developers shape courses of study that more accurately reflect the needs of students. However, it has been observed that counsellors are not included in curriculum development efforts.
In order to effectively assist students in developing self-efficacy, the school counsellors should develop self-efficacy in executing their work. The concept of self-efficacy is based upon the assumption that awareness of self-efficacy will be a connection between a person’s knowledge about a task and the reality of doing the task. Devoted counselling efficacy will result in a continuous therapeutic and effective counselling process due to the positive influence of a confident counsellor on a client/student. This further proves that competent self-efficacy is important in managing the behaviour of students and improving the school climate [56]. However, Woods [57] argues that society’s diverse perspectives of the role and identity of the school counsellor would naturally lead the counsellor to question his/her role and weaken self-efficacy beliefs. In this respect, self-efficacy is an important component in the explanation of the school counsellors’ performance and effectiveness.
It is imperative for the counsellors to consider ethics as they execute their duties. Thus, effective counselling deals with ethical understanding, legal responsibilities and moral realities. UNESCO Counselling [58] expounds that counselling does not take place in a fantasy world, but in a world of reality where people are required to make ethical choices and decisions. Adherence to professional ethical standards protects both the public and the counsellor. Concurring National Council of Educational Research and Training [50] complements that counselling is a process involving responsibility and confidentiality; hence, guidance and counselling experts should follow certain ethical principles. These encompass consideration of students’ diverse individual and cultural differences, desisting from taking steps which are harmful to the student, practising within the scope of their competence and referring students to experts if they are unable to deal with the cases.
In spite of the above, UNESCO Counselling [58] warns of unethical practices by some counsellors. These ill practices involve incompetence, which is a result of lack of prerequisite knowledge and skills essential for professional behaviour, lack of integrity and moral commitment, violation of confidences, imposing values on students and creating dependence on the part of the student to meet the counsellor’s own needs, for example, sexual relations and social interactions [59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64].
There is need for schools to avail guidance and counselling services to all students who need such services in order to promote self-efficacy in students.
Schools should employ professionally qualified counsellors who will be in a position to assist students accordingly.
Well-equipped guidance and counselling facilities should be provided by schools so that counselling ethics are observed.
Schools should initiate guidance and counselling staff development programmes for teachers to acquaint them with knowledge and skills on how to assist students who need guidance and counselling services.
As authors of this chapter, we acknowledge our colleagues, Dr. M. Mpofu and Dr. J. Shumba for being supportive and providing valuable contribution in compiling this chapter. Much appreciation is extended to Dr. P. Makati for editing and proofreading. The authors declare that they have no funding for the publication of the book chapter.
Extensive research in the chemical synthetic approaches has led to a huge increment in the poorly water-soluble drug’s development [1]. In the present scenario, statistical reports suggest that there are approximately 70% of poor water-soluble new chemical entities (NCEs) [2]. These newly developed drugs possess lipophilic characteristic and are challenging to deliver through the oral route. They have poor oral bioavailability, show variation in intra- as well as intersubject pharmacokinetics, have poor dose proportionality, and have erratic absorption [3]. Researchers have made many strategies to overcome the limitation of poor solubility and bioavailability. Different delivery system formulation development and chemical and/or physical modification of drug moiety can be used to solve the poor solubility issue of drugs. Though there are many drug delivery system approaches, lipid-based drug delivery system has gained much interest in lipophilic drug delivery. It includes macroemulsion, nanoemulsion, niosomes, self-emulsifying formulation, liposomes, solid-lipid nanoparticle, etc. Among all these formulation approaches, emulsion-based preparation can be considered an industrially feasible approach to overcome the limitation of poor bioavailability [4]. Nanoemulsion is capable of improving the topical drug absorption thereby increasing the bioavailability and permeability of lipophilic drug; thus, it can be a good alternative option for drug delivery [5]. Nanoemulsion is further incorporated into gel matrix to prepare nanoemulgel which has even better permeation and stability. So far, there is no review article reported on the promising future of nanoemulgel applications as a delivery system in the treatment of various diseases. This article is a complete package of nanoemulgel comprising information of potent selected formulation component, formulation procedure, advantages over other delivery system, and widespread possible application of nanoemulgel in the treatment therapy. In this article, we have mentioned only reported applications, and there are many to still go in the upcoming future.
Though oral route offers better patient compliance, it has various limitations like gastric irritation, unavoidable side effects, systemic toxicity, and hepatic first-pass metabolism [6]. To avoid all these issues, a nonirritating, non-painful, and a noninvasive topical drug delivery system can be a suitable alternative. It has several advantages over oral route such as targeted site-specific delivery of drug with least systemic toxicity, no gastric irritation, first-pass metabolism bypass, and improved bioavailability of a drug [7, 8]. Apart from many advantages, traditional topical formulations, namely lotions, creams, and ointments suffer from sticky nature, stability issue, low spreadability, etc. which affect the patient’s compliance. Whereas, modern transdermal preparations like transparent gel, nanogel, and (micro/nano) emulgel not only have shown improved patient compliance but also improves the formulation efficacy, stability, and safety. Several studies have reported that topical drug delivery system improves the bioavailability of the drug [9, 10]. Bioavailability of lacidipine given through transdermal route was found to be increased by 3.5-fold than the oral route. It may be due to the avoidance of the first-pass metabolism of the drug [9]. In another study conducted by Bhaskar and team, it was found that the topical nanoemulsion of flurbiprofen exhibits 4.4 times more bioavailability than oral delivery [10]. Thus, the bioavailability of a lipophilic drug can be enhanced by the topical drug delivery system. Topical delivery not only reduces the drug metabolism but also improves the permeation across the skin by maintaining longer steady-state delivery of the drug [9].
Delivery of a lipophilic drug is a big obstacle for the conventional transdermal delivery system due to low therapeutic potential and poor skin permeability capability. Researches propose that nanoscale-sized transdermal preparation can increase the drug permeability by disrupting the skin bilayer of lipid [11] and extending the drug retention time at the site of action [12, 13]. Nanoemulsion can be a promising carrier delivery of hydrophobic drug, since it has greater thermodynamic stability and higher capability of drug solubilization over emulsion and other dispersion systems. It also has longer shelf life and requires a small amount of external energy for manufacturing [14]. Nanoemulsion is a dispersed system which consists of nanoscale-sized (20–200 nm diameter) droplets solvent composed of an oil phase and water phase and stabilized by the suitable surfactant. Drug is entrapped in the core which is surrounded by emulsifier layer as shown in Figure 1. Generally, permeation enhancers are not required when nanoemulsion is used as a carrier for delivery of the lipophilic drug [15]. It has less tendency of phase separation than other ordinary emulsions which makes it more stable [16]. Different studies have reported better permeation of drug into the skin through nanoemulsion delivery system than conventional ointment [17], cream [18], gel [19], and emulsion [20]. Depending on the type of nanoemulsion, viz. oil-in-water or water-in-oil, it can solubilize both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drug in its structure [21].
Structure of nanoemulsion.
In spite of lots of advantages, nanoemulsion suffers from low spreadability, low viscosity, and poor skin retention issue [22]. Due to these, the clinical application of topical nanoemulsion is restrained [23]. Researchers converted nanoemulsion into nanoemulgel by incorporating it into the gel matrix and solved this problem.
Nanoemulgel is the fusion of two systems: nanoemulsion system and hydrogel system. Both the systems have some limitations, such as nanoemulsion that suffers low spreadability and poor retention, whereas hydrogels are incapable of incorporating lipophilic molecule [24, 25]. Nanoemulgel has different types of polymeric materials, surfactants, and fatty substances of natural, synthetic, and semisynthetic nature with a droplet size range from 5 to 500 nm [26]. Nanoemulgel has the capability to overcome the limitation of both the systems. The lipophilic drug is dissolved in the oil phase of nanoemulsion which is then added to hydrogel base to form nanoemulgel [27] which enables the incorporation of lipophilic drug into a hydrogel, simultaneously improving the viscosity of nanoemulsion. In transdermal drug delivery, nanoemulgel acts as a reservoir of the drug. The drug is first to release from the inner phase to the outer phase and from there into the skin surface. When applied on skin, oily droplets were released from the gel matrix of nanoemulgel, which then penetrate deep into the skin via stratum corneum, and there they directly deliver the drug moiety [23]. The mechanism of drug release depends on the crosslink density as well as the composition of a network of polymer chains [28].
Nanoemulgel is a fusion of two separate systems, viz. the nanoemulsion and a gel system. Nanoemulsion acting as a vehicle for drug delivery can be either water-in-oil or oil-in-water type. In both cases, it consists of an oil phase, aqueous phase, surfactant, and sometime cosurfactant. Overview of commonly used major components of nanoemulgel formulation has been apprehended in this section (Figure 2).
Potent formulation component of nanoemulgel.
Oil is an important component of the nanoemulgel formulation that should be selected appropriately based on the solubility, stability, permeability, and viscosity of the formulation. Vegetable oils/edible oils are not frequently used in nanoemulgel formulation, since they had shown poor emulsification properties and drug solubility [29, 30, 31]. Thus, chemically modified oils such as mono or diglyceride or medium-chain triglycerides are commonly used as an oil phase in the nanoemulgel formulation for lipophilic drug delivery [15]. A medium-chain triglyceride, Labrafac, has been used by Syamala and his group to prepare butenafine nanoemulgel [32]. Capryol 90 is another example used as an oil phase in the preparation of nanoemulsion, which has shown better stability of the nanoemulsion formulation of leflunomide and paclitaxel [3, 33].
On the other hand, scientists are focusing on utilizing the supplementary benefit of natural oil in therapeutic effect. Antimicrobial activity of tea tree oil was combined with an antifungal agent itraconazole for a synergistic effect of nanoemulgel preparation against vaginal candidiasis [34]. Another nanoemulgel of curcumin has been reported by Jeengar and team with emu oil. Emu oil obtained from emu bird has analgesic, antipruritic, anesthetic, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory properties, and it has shown the improvement in permeability of drug in the treatment of joint synovial [35]. Various oils used by different researchers in nanoemulgel preparation are listed in Table 1.
Oil | Surfactant | Cosurfactant | Gelling agents | Reference | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Caprylic acid, isopropyl myristate, and tea tree oil | Tween 20 | PEG 400 | Carbopol 940 | [36] | |
Emu oil | Cremophor RH40 | Labrafil M2125CS | Carbopol | [35] | |
Linseed oil, isopropyl myristate and triacetin | Tween 80 | Ethanol + PEG 400 + propylene glycol | Carbopol 940 | [37] | |
Labrafac™ LipophileWL1349 | Tween 80 | PEG 400 | Carbopol | [38] | |
Oleic acid | Tween 80 | Transcutol P | Guar gum | [24] | |
Isosteryl isostearate | Labrasol | Plurol isostearique | Carbopol 940 | [39] | |
Capryol 90 | Tween 20 | Carbitol | Carbopol 934 | [15] | |
Labrafac | Cremophore RH40 | Ethanol | Carbopol | [32] | |
Oleic acid | Tween 80 | Transcutol P | Carbopol 940 | [40] | |
Oleic acid | Tween 80 | Ethanol | Carbopol 934 | [41] | |
Sefsol-218 | Tween 80 | Transcutol-P | Carbopol | [42] | |
Olive oil and miglyol | Polysorbate 80 | Transcutol | Propylene glycol | [43] | |
Liquid paraffin | Polysorbate 80 | Glycerin | Carbopol 940 | [44] | |
Labrafac and triacetin | Tween 80 | Diethylene glycol monorthyl ether | Carbopol 934 | [45] | |
Oleic acid and IPM | Tween 20 | Carbitol | Carbopol 934 | [46] | |
Labrafil | Acrysol | Carbitol | Carbopol | [47] |
Various components used in different nanoemulgel formulations.
Surfactant reduces the interfacial tension between the mixtures of two immiscible liquids and changes the dispersion entropy, thus stabilizing thermodynamically unstable emulsion system. Selection of appropriate surfactant for nanoemulgel is based on the safety, stability, high drug loading capacity as well as good emulsification properties [31]. Also, the surfactant should be selected based on the solubility with oil like Tween 20 that was used on the basis of solubility of Capryol 90 and oleic acid [15, 40].
Cosurfactant may combine with surfactant and help in the emulsification process by disrupting the interfacial film. It may also help in solubilization of oil [15]. Depending on the physicochemical properties, most frequently used cosurfactants in nanoemulsion and nanoemulgel preparation are propylene glycol, PEG 400, ethanol, transcutol P, carbitol, etc. [35, 40]. Studies suggest that with the increase in the concentration of cosurfactant, the area of nanoemulsion in phase diagram decreases [48, 49].
Aqueous solvents act as the aqueous phase in emulsion preparation. Worldwide widely used aqueous solvents are ethanol and water.
Carbapol 934, Carbapol 940, and hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) are widely used gelling agent for nanoemulgel. They increased the thickness of the formulation and may interact with the surfactant to modify the viscosity of the formulation [41]. It is added to the nanoemulsion preparation to change the physical state of nanoemulsion formulation from liquid to gel, thus solving the problem of low spreadability, low viscosity, and poor skin retention issue of nanoemulsion.
To protect the formulation from microbial attack and increase the shelf life of formulation, preservatives are added in the preparation. Most commonly used preservatives are methylparaben, benzoic acid, propylparaben, benzalkonium chloride, etc. Antioxidants like butylate hydroxyl toluene, butylate hydroxyl anisole, and ascorbyl palmitate are used to prevent oxidative degradation of formulation components and to prevent loss of moisture, glycerin and propylene glycol are used as humectants [50]. Hence, the stability of the nanoemulsion and nanoemulgel preparation increased.
Two steps are involved in the manufacturing of nanoemulgel. The first step is nanoemulsion formulation which is then incorporated into a gelling agent in the second step to form nanoemulgel. Figure 3 schematically represents the procedure of preparation of nanoemulgel.
Procedure of nanoemulgel preparation.
Methods used for the preparation of nanoemulsion can be high-energy emulsification methods or low-energy emulsification methods [49, 51]. In high-energy emulsification methods, external energy is applied which rupture the oil phase to form nanosized droplets in the aqueous phase. It includes ultrasonic emulsification and high-pressure homogenization. Solvent displacement method, phase inversion composition method, and phase inversion temperature method are low-energy emulsification in which low energy is required for prepared nanoemulsion [21].
The selected surfactant is dissolved in either the aqueous phase or the oil phase. Based on the solubility, the drug is then added and solubilized in the oil phase or aqueous phase followed by heating. Then one phase is gradually added into another with continuous stirring till the temperature of the mixture reaches to room temperature.
The appropriate gelling agent is dissolved in distilled water with continuous stirring to prepare gel base. The pH of prepared gel is adjusted, then the nanoemulsion system is incorporated slowly into the prepared gel at a particular ratio with continuous stirring to get nanoemulgel preparation.
Nanoemulgel preparations have various advantages over other topical as well as conventional preparation. Some of the advantages are listed as follows (Figure 4).
Advantages of nanoemulgel preparation.
The lipophilic drug moieties base show improper drug release mechanism in the gel due to its insolubility in aqueous base. Fusion of the hydrogel system with emulsion system enables the incorporation of lipophilic drug into the aqueous base, thus improving the release mechanism of the drug. Lipophilic drug is dissolved in the oil phase of emulsion which is then incorporated into hydrogel system [52].
Better loading capacity has been observed by nanoemulgel as compared to than other novel drug delivery systems. Due to its nanoscale size, it has a larger surface area and better entrapment efficiency which enable it to load more amount of drugs in its network-like system [52].
Nanoemulgel system is more stable than other transdermal drug delivery system, because it decreases the interfacial as well as the surface tension of the formulation, which make it superior from a conventional transdermal delivery system [53].
Nanoemulgel acts as a drug reservoir and has shown prolong residence time leading to sustain release of the drug. Thus, it is beneficial for the drugs having shorter half-life [52].
Nanoemulgel formulation gives higher Tmax and peak plasma concentration of lipophilic drugs than the conventional gel as well as oral formulation. Thereby, nanoemulgel preparation improves the bioavailability of lipophilic drug many folds than the other lipophilic drug formulations [53].
Major issue with the transdermal preparation is the sticky nature and low spreading coefficient which require rubbing mechanism. Nanoemulgel being nonsticky and easily spreadable preparation results in better patient compliance than other transdermal preparations [28].
Nanoemulgel has shown significant enhancement in the permeability of the drug through skin than other formulation since from nanoemulgel preparation, the drug can permeate the skin layer through both paracellular and transcellular route, whereas, in nanoemulsion, only transcellular permeation route is seen [53]. Comparison of cumulative drug permeability through the skin from different formulation is represented in Figure 5 [24].
Comparative representation of cumulative cyclosporine permeated through the skin of albino rat from different formulations. Regenerated from [
Nanoemulgel bypasses the first-pass metabolism, thus solving one of the major problems of drug, that is, the oral side effect. It does not cause skin irritation or any toxicity on the application [53].
A significant number of the nanoemulgel formulation of drugs has been carried out and reported by various researchers to show its application as a more potent and effective drug delivery system. Some of the studies have shown outstanding result over the conventional oral drug delivery system, suggesting a promising future of nanoemulgel application.
Thymol nanoemulgel formulation for acne vulgaris, a common chronic skin disease, was prepared by Ahmad and team. The preparation showed better efficacy [36].
It is the skin condition in which skin cells build up and form itchy, dry patches, and scales. A nanoemulgel formulation of leflunomide by Pund and team showed considerably higher anti-psoriatic and anti-melanoma activity in human keratinocyte cell line due to improved permeability of drug. Amount of drug deposited in the skin after 12 hours by nanoemulgel was found to be sixfold more than ordinary gel [33]. In another study by Somagoni and team, nanoemulgel showed 3.22- and 2.01-fold more reduction of ear swelling than drug solution and marketed product, respectively, in psoriatic-like model [43].
High skin permeability of nanoemulgel has made it a better alternative for the faster treatment of fungal infection. Syamala has reported that it took only 12 days to Butenafine nanoemulgel to cure fungus-infected rat skin, whereas cream took 16 days [32]. Nanoemulgel has also shown a notable increase in antifungal activity of the drug. Higher area of inhibition zone was observed with Ketoconazole nanoemulgel than drug solution when incubated for 48 hours [38]. Nanoemulgel of Amphotericin B can overcome formulation limitation of Amphotericin B making it a better alternative to painful intravenous administration. It could be used as a stable, effective, and safe carrier for sustained and enhanced localized delivery of Amphotericin B against fungal infection [42].
Nanoemulgel is a better alternative for poor water-soluble anti-inflammatory drugs, and it also bypasses the related oral side effects of drugs like gastrointestinal irritation, renal, and cardiovascular problems, etc. Many researchers have reported remarkably higher activity of anti-inflammatory drugs in nanoemulgel formulation than other drug carrier system [35, 40, 54, 55, 56, 57]. Nanoemulgel of ketoprofen, an extensively utilized non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis treatment, was developed by Arora and team. Along with enhancing the skin permeability and solubility of ketoprofen, it also bypasses the problems related to chronic oral delivery of ketoprofen. Comparison of the optimized formulation with the marketed product and drug solution showed 1.5- and 2-fold higher permeability, respectively [40].
Another common drug used in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis is piroxicam. It is also used in the treatment of the musculoskeletal and joint disorder. It also possesses the problem of poor solubility along with undesirable side effect on stomach and kidney. Dhawan and team reported that piroxicam nanoemulgel can be used as a feasible alternative [41].
Apart from these, attempt has also made to establish the stability, efficacy, and safety of certain drugs with anti-inflammatory activity which has poor solubility and permeability profile and/or oral side effect like curcumin [35], Swietenia macrophylla [27], Lornoxicam [54], Nimesulide [55], mangosteen [56], and diclofenac diethylamine [57]. Figure 6 represents the comparison of anti-inflammatory effect of flurbiprofen nanoemulgel by Radhika and Guruprasad with marketed preparation [37].
Graphical representation of improvement in anti-inflammatory effect of nanoemulgel of flurbiprofen. Regenerated from [
Dental nanoemulgel preparation is intended for periodontal delivery of drug to treat chronic bacterial infection of the gum and bone supporting teeth. Periodontal disease causes inflammation of gum forming pockets which may lead to gum tissue and bone damage. Srivastava and team formulated syringeable ketoprofen nanoemulgel for intra-pocket delivery and found satisfied pharmaceutical characterization offering sustained release of ketoprofen into the pocket. Significant reduction was observed in alveolar bone loss, gingival index, and tooth motility by ketoprofen nanoemulgel due to decreased cytokine levels [58]. Whereas, the study of Nayak and team suggested that controlled released delivery of Quercetin nanoemulgel can be used successfully in periodontitis [59].
Ocular nanoemulgel can be better alternative drug delivery system to the conventional eye drops to cure corneal fungal infection. Permeation of fluconazole from nanoemulgel preparation was found four times that of commercial fluconazole eye drop due to high permeation, sustained release of drug, and prolongation in the precorneal residence time. Prolong release was achieved by in situ gelation of Gellan gum due to its crosslinking with tear fluid. Fluconazole nanoemulgel formulation showed no sign of any ocular irritation and tissue damage [60]. Whereas, Tayel used a rabbit model to successfully control the release rate of terbinafine-HCL nanoemulgel, which can be an effective alternative to conventional eye drop for ocular fungal infection, into the rabbit aqueous humor [61].
A thermo-sensitive nanoemulgel of itraconazole with tea tree oil was prepared for patients suffering from periodic vaginal candidiasis. Antimicrobial activity of itraconazole and tea tree oil combined to give synergistic effect covering cure for wide range microbial infection [34].
Minoxidil is the commonly used drug for the treatment of hair loss also known as alopecia. Nanoemulgel is capable of increasing solubility and permeability of drug through the skin; hence, nanoemulgel preparation of minoxidil will be more effective and safer than conventional preparation present in the market for the treatment of alopecia areata [62].
Nasal nanoemulgel of zaleplon was formulated by Hosny and Banjar for the treatment of insomnia. The main objective was to solve the problem with marketed zaleplon tablet. Zaleplon tablet suffers from poor bioavailability due to extensive first-pass metabolism and delayed onset of action due to poor aqueous solubility. Nasal zaleplon nanoemulgel showed eight times more bioavailability than the marketed zaleplon tablet [63].
Selegiline HCL-loaded nanoemulgel possess better sustains release effect of the drug and higher bioavailability than the conventional gel and a marketed tablet. Bioavailability was reported to be 5.53 and 6.56 times that of normal gel and tablet [64]. Microemulgel loaded with rotigotine has also shown significantly higher bioavailability than marketed patch of rotigotine in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease [65].
Use of nanotechnology in cosmetics is very common. Fullerenes, solid-lipid nanoparticle, liposomes, nanosomes, etc., are already nourishing in cosmetic industries. Ferulic acid nanoemulgel was developed by Harwansh and team to protect the skin damage from harmful UV radiation. Ferulic acid strongly absorbs the UV radiation. Its incorporation into nanoemulgel system made it effective for more than 4 hours on the UV-exposed skin [39].
Currently available marketed emulgel products for the treatment of acne and pimple, inflammation, and pain caused by osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis and skin infection have been listed in Table 2.
Product brand name | Active pharmaceutical ingredient(s) | Manufacturers | Application |
---|---|---|---|
Benzolait AZ emulgel | Benzoylperoxide | Roydermal | Pimple and blacks on skin |
Coolnac Gel emulgel 1% | Diclofenac diethyl ammonium | Chumchon | Inflammation and pain due to trauma |
Diclobar emulgel | Diclofenac diethyl amine | Barakat Pharma | Inflammation due to trauma and rheumatic diseases |
Levorage emulgel | Liquorice, hibiscus, and natural extract | THD Ltd | Anal fissures |
Meloxic emulgel | Meloxicum | Laboratories Provet | Musculoskeletal pain management and inflammation |
Miconaz-H-emulgel | Miconazole nitrate, hydrocortisone | Medical Union Pharmaceutics | Skin infection by candida |
Reumadep emulgel | Ashwagandha, myrrh, arnica, rosemary, mint, and cloves | Erbozeta | Inflammation and pain due to trauma |
Voltaren emulgel | Diclofenac diethyl ammonium | Novartis Pharma | Osteoarthritis joint pain |
Voveron emulgel | Diclofenac diethyl amine | Novartis Pharma | Osteoarthritis joint pain |
Available marketed emulgel preparations.
The skin permeability as well as bioavailability of nanoemulgel may be enhanced by various mechanisms. Some of the studied mechanisms with types of nanoemulgel are listed in Table 3.
Types of nanoemulgel | Mechanism of permeability/bioavailability | References |
---|---|---|
Conjugate of curcumin | Induced apoptosis in cancer cells, suppressing the expression of NF-κB, TNF-α, and COX-2 cellular targets | [66] |
Clove essential oil | Dispersion of the nanoemulsion in the polymeric matrices of the prepared nanoemulgel | [67] |
Snakehead fish (pphiocephalus striatus) | Ex vivo transdermal permeation value | [68] |
Methotrexate | Change in temperature experienced by the nanogel | [69] |
Terbinafine | Ex vivo drug permeation and in vivo antifungal activity | [70] |
Paclitaxel | Nanogel exerts high cytotoxicity to cancer cells and reverses multidrug resistance effectively | [71] |
Diphenhydramine | First-order kinetics and Fickian diffusion | [72] |
Raloxifene hydrochloride | Ex vivo permeation, histopathology, SEM, DSC, and CLSM studies | [73] |
Desonide | DES, Franz diffusion cell system, CLSM | [74] |
Ketoconazole | Ex vivo permeation | [75] |
Telmisartan | Ex vivo permeation, first-order reaction, and Higuchi model with non-Fickian diffusion | [76] |
Ibuprofen | Drug diffusion, however, drug partition, and matrix erosion | [77] |
Piroxicam | Franz diffusion cell | [78] |
Mechanism involved in enhancing permeability and bioavailability of some nanoemulgel preparations.
NF: nuclear factor, TNF: tumor necrosis factor, SEM: scanning electron microscopy, DSC: differential scan calorimetry, DES: dielectric spectroscopy, CLSM: confocal laser scanning microscopy.
Nanoemulgel has been found to be extraordinarily good vehicle system for hydrophobic drug delivery. High drug loading due to better solubilizing efficacy, improved bioavailability due to better permeability, and capability to control the release of drug make it a potent alternative delivery system in the treatment of various diseases. Application of nanoemulgel preparation in the treatment of acne, pimple, psoriasis, fungal infection, and inflammation due to osteoarthritis as well as rheumatoid arthritis has shown significantly higher efficacy. Besides transdermal application, it can also be applied for ocular, vaginal, dental, and nose to brain delivery of drug for the treatment of diverse local and systemic ailments such as alopecia, periodontitis, and Parkinson’s disease. Nanoemulgel has also shown its application in the cosmetic industries as a UV absorber nanoemulgel to protect skin from sunburn. Precisely, the nanoemulgel system has a marvelous ability to be applied in various local and systemic ailments. Some preparations are already present in the market, whereas others need a further clinical study to launch the product in the market.
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