\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8521",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Multicriteria Optimization - Pareto-Optimality and Threshold-Optimality",title:"Multicriteria Optimization",subtitle:"Pareto-Optimality and Threshold-Optimality",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Multi-criteria optimization problems naturally arise in practice when there is no single criterion for measuring the quality of a feasible solution. Since different criteria are contradictory, it is difficult and often impossible to find a single feasible solution that is good for all the criteria. Hence, some compromise is needed. As such, this book examines the commonly accepted compromise of the traditional Pareto-optimality approach. It also proposes one new alternative approach for generating feasible solutions to multi-criteria optimization problems. Finally, the book presents two chapters on the existing solution methods for two real-life, multi-criteria optimization problems.",isbn:"978-1-78984-719-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-718-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-265-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78897",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"multicriteria-optimization-pareto-optimality-and-threshold-optimality",numberOfPages:106,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"05baea741edde509bab2259dad7f6384",bookSignature:"Nodari Vakhania and Frank Werner",publishedDate:"November 26th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8521.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3202,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 12th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 31st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 20th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 19th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"202585",title:"Prof.",name:"Nodari",middleName:null,surname:"Vakhania",slug:"nodari-vakhania",fullName:"Nodari Vakhania",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202585/images/system/202585.jpg",biography:"Nodari Vakhania graduated with honors from the Faculty of Applied Mathematics and Cybernetics, Tbilisi State University, Georgia, in 1983. In 1989, he entered the PhD program in Computer Science at the Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, and obtained a degree in Mathematical Cybernetics in 1991. In 1992, he was a postdoctoral fellow at the Russian Academy of Sciences, and had a short-term visiting position at the University of Saarbrucken, Germany. In 1995, he became a professor at the Centro de Investigación en Ciencias at the State University of Morelos, Mexico. He also has an honorary position at the Institute of Computational Mathematics of the Georgian Academy of Sciences, where he received a doctoral degree in Mathematical Cybernetics in 2004. His research interests include design and analysis of algorithms, discrete optimization, computational complexity and scheduling theory. He is an author of nearly 100 refereed research papers including more than 60 publications in highly ranked international journals. He has also worked with different scientific committees, including those at the Mexican Science Foundation CONACyT. He is an editorial board member and a referee for a number of international scientific journals. He has obtained research grants and honors in Germany, France, the Netherlands, the United States, Russia, and Mexico, and has given more than forty invited talks throughout the world.",institutionString:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"278801",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Werner",slug:"frank-werner",fullName:"Frank Werner",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278801/images/system/278801.jpg",biography:"Frank Werner studied Mathematics from 1975 to 1980 and graduated from the Technical University Magdeburg (Germany) with honors. He defended his PhD thesis in 1984 (summa cum laude) and his habilitation thesis in 1989. In 1992, he received a grant from the Alexander von Humboldt Foundation. Currently, he works as Extraordinary Professor at the Faculty of Mathematics of the Otto-von-Guericke University Magdeburg (Germany). He is an author or editor of seven books, and he has published more than 280 papers. He is on the editorial board of seventeen journals; in particular, he is editor-in-chief of Algorithms and an associate editor of International Journal of Production Research and Journal of Scheduling. His research interests include operations research, combinatorial optimization, and scheduling.",institutionString:"MBA Magdeburg, Germany",position:null,outsideEditionCount:null,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"969",title:"Mathematical Optimization",slug:"mathematical-optimization"}],chapters:[{id:"68246",title:"Pareto Optimality and Equilibria in Noncooperative Games",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88184",slug:"pareto-optimality-and-equilibria-in-noncooperative-games",totalDownloads:421,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter considers the Nash equilibrium strategy profiles that are Pareto optimal with respect to the rest of the Nash equilibrium strategy profiles. The sufficient conditions for the existence of such pure strategy profiles are established. These conditions employ the Germeier convolutions of the payoff functions. For the noncooperative games with compact strategy sets and continuous payoff functions, the existence of the Pareto-optimal Nash equilibria (PoNE) in mixed strategies is proven.",signatures:"Vladislav Zhukovskiy and Konstantin Kudryavtsev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68246",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68246",authors:[{id:"285575",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladislav",surname:"Zhukovskiy",slug:"vladislav-zhukovskiy",fullName:"Vladislav Zhukovskiy"},{id:"285577",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantin",surname:"Kudryavtsev",slug:"konstantin-kudryavtsev",fullName:"Konstantin Kudryavtsev"}],corrections:null},{id:"73530",title:"Polynomial Algorithm for Constructing Pareto-Optimal Schedules for Problem 1∣rj∣Lmax,Cmax",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93677",slug:"polynomial-algorithm-for-constructing-pareto-optimal-schedules-for-problem-1-em-r-em-sub-j-sub-em-l-",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, we consider the single machine scheduling problem with given release dates, processing times, and due dates with two objective functions. The first one is to minimize the maximum lateness, that is, maximum difference between each job due date and its actual completion time. The second one is to minimize the maximum completion time, that is, to complete all the jobs as soon as possible. The problem is NP-hard in the strong sense. We provide a polynomial time algorithm for constructing a Pareto-optimal set of schedules on criteria of maximum lateness and maximum completion time, that is, problem \n\n1\n∣\n\nr\nj\n\n∣\n\nL\nmax\n\n,\n\nC\nmax\n\n\n, for the subcase of the problem: \n\n\nd\n1\n\n≤\n\nd\n2\n\n≤\n…\n≤\n\nd\nn\n\n;\n\nd\n1\n\n−\n\nr\n1\n\n−\n\np\n1\n\n≥\n\nd\n2\n\n−\n\nr\n2\n\n−\n\np\n2\n\n≥\n…\n≥\n\nd\nn\n\n−\n\nr\nn\n\n−\n\np\nn\n\n\n.",signatures:"Alexander A. Lazarev and Nikolay Pravdivets",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73530",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73530",authors:[{id:"326113",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Lazarev",slug:"alexander-lazarev",fullName:"Alexander Lazarev"},{id:"326114",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolay",surname:"Pravdivets",slug:"nikolay-pravdivets",fullName:"Nikolay Pravdivets"}],corrections:null},{id:"71174",title:"A Brief Look at Multi-Criteria Problems: Multi-Threshold Optimization versus Pareto-Optimization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91169",slug:"a-brief-look-at-multi-criteria-problems-multi-threshold-optimization-versus-pareto-optimization",totalDownloads:642,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Multi-objective optimization problems are important as they arise in many practical circumstances. In such problems, there is no general notion of optimality, as there are different objective criteria which can be contradictory. In practice, often there is no unique optimality criterion for measuring the solution quality. The latter is rather determined by the value of the solution for each objective criterion. In fact, a practitioner seeks for a solution that has an acceptable value of each of the objective functions and, in practice, there may be different tolerances to the quality of the delivered solution for different objective functions: for some objective criteria, solutions that are far away from an optimal one can be acceptable. Traditional Pareto-optimality approach aims to create all non-dominated feasible solutions in respect to all the optimality criteria. This often requires an inadmissible time. Besides, it is not evident how to choose an appropriate solution from the Pareto-optimal set of feasible solutions, which can be very large. Here we propose a new approach and call it multi-threshold optimization setting that takes into account different requirements for different objective criteria and so is more flexible and can often be solved in a more efficient way.",signatures:"Nodari Vakhania and Frank Werner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71174",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71174",authors:[{id:"202585",title:"Prof.",name:"Nodari",surname:"Vakhania",slug:"nodari-vakhania",fullName:"Nodari Vakhania"}],corrections:null},{id:"68118",title:"Overview of Multi-Objective Optimization Approaches in Construction Project Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88185",slug:"overview-of-multi-objective-optimization-approaches-in-construction-project-management",totalDownloads:1219,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The difficulties that are met in construction projects include budget issues, contractual time constraints, complying with sustainability rating systems, meeting local building codes, and achieving the desired quality level, to name but a few. Construction researchers have proposed and construction practitioners have used optimization strategies to meet various objectives over the years. They started out by optimizing one objective at a time (e.g., minimizing construction cost) while disregarding others. Because the objectives of construction projects often conflict with each other, single-objective optimization does not offer practical solutions as optimizing one objective would often adversely affect the other objectives that are not being optimized. They then experimented with multi-objective optimization. The many multi-objective optimization approaches that they used have their own advantages and drawbacks when used in some scenarios with different sets of objectives. In this chapter, a review is presented of 16 multi-objective optimization approaches used in 55 research studies performed in the construction industry and that were published in the period 2012–2016. The discussion highlights the strengths and weaknesses of these approaches when used in different scenarios.",signatures:"Ibraheem Alothaimeen and David Arditi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68118",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68118",authors:[{id:"304595",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Arditi",slug:"david-arditi",fullName:"David Arditi"},{id:"304596",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibraheem",surname:"Alothaimeen",slug:"ibraheem-alothaimeen",fullName:"Ibraheem Alothaimeen"}],corrections:null},{id:"72225",title:"On the Practical Consideration of Evaluators’ Credibility in Evaluating Relative Importance of Criteria for Some Real-Life Multicriteria Problems: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92541",slug:"on-the-practical-consideration-of-evaluators-credibility-in-evaluating-relative-importance-of-criter",totalDownloads:571,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A multicriteria (MC) problem usually consists of a set of predetermined alternatives or subjects to be analyzed, which is prescribed under a finite number of criteria. MC problems are found in various applications to solve various area problems. There are three goals in solving the problems: ranking, sorting or grouping the alternatives according to their overall scores. Most of MC methods require the criteria weights to be combined mathematically with the quality of the criteria in finding the overall score of each alternative. This chapter provides an overview on the practical consideration of evaluators’ credibility or superiority in calculating the criteria weights and overall scores of the alternatives. In order to show how the degree of credibility of evaluators can be practically considered in solving a real problem, a numerical example of evaluation of students’ academic performance is available in the Appendix at the end of the chapter. The degree of credibility of teachers who participated in weighting the academic subjects was determined objectively, and the rank-based criteria weighting methods were used in the example. Inclusion of the degree of credibility of evaluators who participated in solving multicriteria problems would make the results more realistic and accurate.",signatures:"Maznah Mat Kasim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72225",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72225",authors:[{id:"288050",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maznah",surname:"Kasim",slug:"maznah-kasim",fullName:"Maznah Kasim"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5165",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:"Methods and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"be6004a7c88dc524c5c277cac27d6022",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ozgur Baskan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5165.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15540",title:"Prof.",name:"Ozgur",surname:"Baskan",slug:"ozgur-baskan",fullName:"Ozgur 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Kumavath and Pratap Deverapalli",dateSubmitted:"October 10th 2012",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 2nd 2013",book:{id:"3547",title:"Applied Bioremediation",subtitle:"Active and Passive Approaches",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2013",bookSignature:"Yogesh B. 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\r\n\tThe pipeline system is an integral part of our current civilization. All across the globe, it ensures the economical transmission of essential fluids to different industries, including oil and gas production, food processing, residential and industrial buildings, water supply, pulp and paper mills, pharmaceutical/medical manufacturing, and chemical manufacturing. Pipeline transportation plays a significant role in running the world economy, similar to the contribution of blood vessels in ensuring life. In this background, it is imperative to disseminate a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental and advanced knowledge in various disciplines of pipeline engineering. The successful design, construction, and operation of a pipeline require establishing a balance of production, cost, safety, and integrity. This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in technology, networks, modeling, and management with a specific focus on the most important evidence-based developments in this important area. The exploration of the technological details would competently support the decision-making process.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-000-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83769-993-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-001-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a01da9c63fd3825818d1215bd7c283ff",bookSignature:"Dr. Sayeed Rushd, Dr. Mohamed Ismail and Dr. Kofi Freeman Adane",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11928.jpg",keywords:"Welding, Control, Coating, Inspection, Leak Detection, Valves, Oil, Gas, Hydraulic System, Hazard, Modeling, Management",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 24th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 23rd 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"An active researcher in different fields, including pipeline engineering, computational fluid mechanics, artificial intelligence, and separations processes, and a member of the society of petroleum engineers (SPE).",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Mohamed Anwar Ismail is involved in multiple research projects in pipeline engineering, biomass combustion and pyrolysis, fire dynamics, renewable energy, and emission reduction from diesel engines. He holds a Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Adane is a Supervisor at Advanced Materials and Asset Integrity, InnoTech Alberta Inc, a subsidiary of Alberta Innovates, Edmonton, Canada. He obtained his BSc in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Science & Technology, Ghana, in 2000, and MSc (2005) & Ph.D. (2009) in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, where he specialized in heat transfer and fluid engineering.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"267670",title:"Dr.",name:"Sayeed",middleName:null,surname:"Rushd",slug:"sayeed-rushd",fullName:"Sayeed Rushd",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267670/images/system/267670.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sayeed Rushd is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemical Engineering at King Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. He obtained his Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering from the University of Alberta, Canada. In addition to teaching, Dr. Rushd is heavily involved in multiple research projects in the fields of pipeline engineering, dynamics of multiphase-flows, rheology, water treatment, and desalination. He has authored or co-authored more than thirty-five technical papers. He works as a reviewer of different reputed journals, such as Chemical Engineering Science, Engineering Applications of Computational Fluid Mechanics, Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, and Journal of Clean Production. 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In addition to his long teaching experience, he is heavily involved in multiple research projects in the fields of pipeline engineering, biomass combustion and pyrolysis, fire dynamics, renewable energy, and emission reduction from diesel engines. He holds a Ph.D. degree in Mechanical Engineering from King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal, Saudi Arabia. Ismail has authored or co-authored more than twenty-three technical papers. He works as a reviewer of various reputed journals, such as Journal of Hydrogen Energy, International Journal of Ambient Energy, Fluid Mechanics Thermal Sciences, Advances in Mechanical Engineering, and Energy Strategy reviews. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"43455",title:"Gut Microbiome and Brain-Gut Axis in Autism — Aberrant Development of Gut-Brain Communication and Reward Circuitry",doi:"10.5772/55425",slug:"gut-microbiome-and-brain-gut-axis-in-autism-aberrant-development-of-gut-brain-communication-and-rewa",body:'The function of the gut microbiome and the bidirectional communication between the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and the brain is increasingly recognized in health and disease and disruption in its composition is not unique to the autistic pathology. However, the bidirectional communication between the gut and the brain, “the gut-brain/brain-gut axis” in autism has been relatively understudied. In general, this communication between gut and brain occurs through a direct neuronal pathway via the vagus nerve, the hormonal pathway of several hormones involved in the regulation of food intake, such as cholecystokinin (CCK), ghrelin, leptin and insulin, and by the immunological signaling pathway involving cytokines. Recent studies indicate that the vagus nerve is involved in immunomodulation as suggested by its ability to attenuate the production of proinflammatory cytokines in experimental models of inflammation (de Jonge and Ullola, 2007). Furthermore, the gut microbiome emerges as a major player not only in the maturation of GIT tissue and the gut brain axis but also in brain maturation, through its effect on both the immune and endocrine systems. Many toxins, toxicants, infectious agents, diet or stress, affect an individual’s gut microbiome, which may be especially sensitive during the critical developmental period. Disruption of the developing microbiome may have profound consequences on the developing gut-brain axis including the brain as well as long-term effects on both the physical and psychological development.
This chapter attempts to bridge basic animal studies with clinical findings pertaining to the brain-gut and gut microbiome in autism, and includes a discussion of various strategies in managing autistic symptoms. The discussion also includes possible changes in the reward system(s) in autism as a consequence of altered gut microbiome. It is possible that aberrant regulation of the reward system(s) underlines behavioral abnormalities in ASD that could be targeted by future microbiome-targeting therapies.
In a continuing quest to understand the nature of gene-environment interactions in ASD, we have recently completed two animal studies examining the effect of perinatal exposure of thimerosal (TM) and lipopolysaccharides (LPS) on the developing rat central nervous system (CNS). Both TM and infections (modeled by LPS exposure) have been implicated in autistic pathology.
Organic mercury compounds are powerful toxicants with a range of harmful neurological effects in humans and animals. TM, which is metabolized to ethyl mercury, has been discontinued as a preservative from infant vaccines but continues to be used in several vaccines including a flu vaccine administered to pregnant and lactating mothers (Sulkowski et al., 2012). Perinatal maternal exposure of two strains of rats, Sprague Dawley (SD) and spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats, to thimerosal (200 ug/kg body weight) resulted in both sex- and strain-specific abnormalities in the neonatal rats (Sulkowski et al., 2012). Behavioral abnormalities included delayed startle response and decreased motor learning, with the effects being both sex- and strain-specific. TM exposure also resulted in a significant increase in cerebellar levels of an oxidative stress marker (3-nitrotyrosine) and a decrease in cerebellar type 2 deiodinase, responsible for local intrabrain conversion of thyroxine to the active hormone, 3’,3,5,-triiodothyronine (T3). These effects were associated with an increased expression of several genes negatively regulated by T3 (Sulkowski et al., 2012); Khan et al., 2012) suggesting that perinatal exposure to TM impacts the developing brain at the genetic level. As TM exposure during the postnatal phase coincided with lactation, some of the TM was delivered through the milk to the GIT and may have had an effect on the developing gut microbiome known to be sensitive to heavy metal exposure (Lapanje et al., 2007). This effect may be in part due to competition with zinc resulting in a disturbance in metallothionein function and general chelating capacity for other metals. Thus, at least part of the neonatal impact of TM/mercury could be mediated via its action on the gut microbiome.
In a related study (Xu et al., submitted) we examined the effect of E.coli lipopolysaccharides (LPS) exposure during critical developmental periods on the developing brain employing the animal model of infection. Clinical and epidemiological data suggest that maternal infection during pregnancy and nursing increases the probability of neonatal brain injury and may have a long-lasting impact on brain functions. Maternal infection during pregnancy has been linked to neurological and neurobehavioral disorders in humans such as cerebral palsy (Schendel, 2001; Schendel et al., 2002), neonatal strokes (Ferrieo, 2004), schizophrenia (Watson et al., 1999; Pearce, 2001) and affective disorders (Watson et al., 1999). Animal studies implicate bacterial infection in the pathology of Parkinson’s disease (Carvey et al., 2003), and notably, schizophrenia and autism (Patterson, 2002). The triggering signals for cytokine production are endotoxins, major components of the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria.
LPS exposure is one of the most acceptable models of infection; LPS is a sufficient trigger for cytokine production. LPS administered to the pregnant mother are transferred to the fetus through the placenta (Kohmura et al., 2000), and result in increased cytokines levels in the amniotic fluid (Urakabo et al., 2001; Gayle et al., 2004) and the fetal brain (Urakabo et al., 2001). Bacterial infection of lactating mothers also results in an increased level of cytokines in milk (Bannerman et al., 2004). Pretreatment of suckling rats with LPS (10 mg/kg-day x 5 days – the dose which produces weak, transient signs of endotoxemia) results in reduced pancreatic secretion and attenuates acute pancreatitis at adult age due to an increased concentration of the antioxidative enzyme SO in the pancreatic tissue, and to the modulation of cytokines production (Jaworek at al., 2007a, b). This late-effect of LPS is accompanied by dose-dependent reduction of mRNA signal for CCK1 receptor on pancreatic acini as well as modified expression of acinar pro-apoptotic heat shock protein-60 (HSP60) and Bax proteins (Jaworek et al., 2007b, 2008). Early postnatal LPS exposure results in inceased expression of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and caspase-3 and 9- proteins in the pancreatic tissue of adult rats (Bonior et al., 2012). These studies clearly indicate that perinatal exposure to LPS may have long lasting consequences on the GIT function, and as expected, though not studied in detail, on the brain-gut axis.
Perinatal maternal exposure of two strains of rats, SHR or SD rat dams to LPS (200 µg/kg body weight) resulted in increased rollover time, delayed startle, and decreased motor learning, with the effects being both strain- and sex-specific. LPS challenge also resulted in a trend towards an increase in cerebellar levels of 3-NT and a decrease in D2 activities in LPS-exposed pups (Xu et al., submitted). Several genes were affected by LPS. Notably Type 2 deiodinase 2 (DIO2) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression was significantly elevated, while transthyretin (TTR) expression was decreased following LPS exposure.
Perinatal LPS exposure could have a profound effect on the gut microbiome similar to the effect of repeated treatment with antibiotics. Experiments in healthy mice have shown that disrupting the normal balance of the gut microbiome with antibiotics caused changes in mice behavior and was accompanied by changes in BDNF which has been linked to depression and anxiety (Bercik et al., 2011; Neufeld et al., 2011). Perinatal LPS exposure most likely affects gut motility as suggested by studies of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), where mild bacterial overgrowth-associated motility disorder can be reversed by antimicrobials (Scarpignato and Pelosini, 1999). Animal studies have also shown that stress can change the composition of the microbiome, where the changes are associated with increased vulnerability to inflammatory stimuli in the GIT. Could gut dysbiosis be induced by recurrent infections? We have observed an increase in neurotrophin levels in the cerebella of rats exposed to LPS (Sajdel-Sulkowska et al, unpublished observation) and brain region-specific changes in neurotrophin levels in ASD (Sajdel-Sulkowska et al., 2011). Together these observations suggest that a bacterial infection could trigger the gut microbiome to induce cytokine overproduction leading to an imbalance of brain neurotrophins and contribute to developmental abnormalities.
As indicated above the perinatal development of the CNS structure and function greatly depends on the gastrointestinal GIT function. Little is known about the regulation of embryonic gut epithelium or the effect of prenatal infection. The two key developmental time-points in the regulation of the GIT both occur postnatally, the first few days after birth when all gut digestive functions are launched by first colostrum ingestion and the second at weaning when the digestive system has to modify its function following a switch from mother’s milk to solid food. The first time-point is particularly relevant for all mammalian species since it is associated with a complex of dynamic changes in the GIT structure and function leading to a temporary drop in the gut permeability barrier. The secretion of digestive juices (e.g., gastric and pancreatic juice secretion) is obviously close to null before birth. Our studies indicate that in neonatal calves the exocrine pancreas secreted low but measurable amounts of pancreatic juice from the first postnatal day. The secretion responded to colostrum feeding showing a clear-cut cephalic phase associated with plasma pancreatic polypeptide (PP) elevation but no gastric or intestinal phase. Further studies involving vagal blockades and pharmacological cholecystokinin receptor antagonists indicated that in neonatal calves pancreatic response to first colostrum feeding is already controlled by a neuro-hormonal mechanism involving CCK and long vago-vagal reflex (Zabielski et al., 2002). Thus, the brain-gut axis control of the exocrine pancreas observed in one- and two-month old milk-fed calves is already present at birth, only the magnitude of the response increases with age reaching its peak at four weeks. The other GIT function in neonatal calves closely associated with the brain-gut axis control include periodic activity of GIT motility (migrating motor complex, MMC) and secretion (pancreatic juice periodic secretion) observed already two-three days after birth along with plasma PP oscillations (Zabielski et al., 2002). Plasma PP, a marker of efferent vagal activity, increased with age indicating that brain-gut axis further develops after birth (and may be potentially sensitive to any environmental modifications).
Intestinal functions in neonates are far more complex than in adults due to intensive developmental processes. The small intestine is one of the fastest body organs to grow in size postnatally as well as the fastest organ in rebuilding its structure. Relatively little is known regarding the development of the large intestine, a major organ inhabited by gut bacteria. At birth, the small intestinal mucosa is lined by enterocytes ready for rapid uptake of colostral macromolecules (open gut). These enterocytes, so called fetal type enterocytes, are equipped with a system of vesicles and cisterns (apical canalicular system, ACS) which form large size mobile vacuoles in the upper part of the cell enabling the transfer of intact colostral molecules into the blood (Baintner 2002). Approximately two days after birth, following substantial intake of colostral bioactive substances, the permeability of the gut epithelium is dramatically reduced to macromolecules due to the rapid replacement of fetal type enterocytes by adult type enterocytes, a phenomenon known as gut closure; the cell replacement is made by a receptor-mediated apoptosis involving TGF-β1 and TNF-α as mediators (Godlewski et al., 2005, Strzałkowski et al., 2007). Consequently, adult type enterocytes do not contain ACS and large vacuoles. Interestingly, in the gut of neonatal pigs the cells undergoing apoptosis, which is followed by unzipping-zipping events markedly disrupting epithelial cell continuity, are located on the entire length of the villi (Godlewski et al., 2005; see also Fig. 1). In contrast, in adult animals the apoptotic cells are observed only on the villi top, forming a so called extrusion zone. Therefore, in neonates there is a much wider absorptive surface that is potentially subject to environmental stimuli as compared to adults. Though, one population of fetal type enterocytes disappears within the first few days after birth, there is still another population of fetal type enterocytes existing in the lower small intestine, in piglets observed until approximately three weeks after birth. These enterocytes are important for the intracellular digestion of nutrients by lysosomal enzymes, and form digestive vacuoles as a result of non-selective macromolecule uptake. Their massive loss in piglets is observed 2-3 weeks after birth. Nevertheless the protection by intestinal mucus and colostral biologically active peptides and proteins, extensive apoptosis and unzipping-zipping of a great number of epithelial cells at the same time may potentially open epithelial gates for any xenobiotics and harmful bacteria, and thereby facilitate their transfer into blood circulation.
Studies of preterm piglets and intrauterine growth retarded (IUGR) piglets demonstrated that the gut barrier in both groups of animals is open for a longer time than in full-term-appropriate weight piglets. Namely, the lower part of the small intestine of 28 day-old IUGR piglets still contained fetal type enterocytes expressing digestive vacuoles indicating marked delay in gut mucosa development (Mickiewicz et al. 2012 JPP). The gut epithelium continuity in IUGR and preterm neonates is not as finely controlled as in control rats; abnormalities of the gut epithelium may facilitate exposure of the gut and in turn the whole organism to external factors or xenobiotics. It is possible that gut permeability is altered in critically ill children and predispose them to bacterial translocation via a mechanism that creates a hostile environment in the gut and alters the gut microbiome favoring the growth of pathogens that promote bacterial translocation (Papoff et al., 2012).
Recent studies indicate that the vagus nerve is involved in immunomodulation as suggested by its ability to attenuate the production of proinflammatory cytokines in experimental models of inflammation (de Jonge and Ullola, 2007). Furthermore, functional development of the vagus nerve occurs at two stages with the neuronal population in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus (DMNV) maturing ahead of the sensory neuron population of the vagal sensory nucleus NTS (Islami et al., 2008). There appears to be an important link between the vagus nerve and memory recall in infancy suggesting that social learning, modulated by autonomic nervous system, may be jeopardized in preterm infants (Haley et al., 2010)
In conclusion, maturation of the autonomic nervous system may be delayed in preterm and IUGR animals. Furthermore, delayed development of the GIT in preterm and IUGR animals, including longer gut permeability, facilitates the toxic effect of external factors including bacterial translocation. Furthermore, the immature gut seemingly fails to stimulate the development of the vagus nerve. Importantly, there is some evidence pointing to altered gut permeability (leaky gut) in autism and possibly genetic predisposition to abnormalities in tight junctions in ASD (White, 2003; de Magistris et al, 2010).
Studies of the human microbiome revealed that even healthy individuals differ remarkably in the microbes of the gut. The gut microbiome is regulated by both extrinsic and intrinsic factors. While much of this biodiversity remains unexplained, extrinsic factors such as diet, environment, and early microbial exposure, and the intrinsic factors such as host genetics have been implicated (Human Microbiome Project Consortium, 2012); our own studies (Sulkowski et al., 2012) suggest that sex may play an important role. Diet-derived carbohydrates that are not fully digested in the upper gut are metabolized by bacteria in the human large intestine. These nondigestable carbohydrates influence microbial fermentation and total bacterial number in the colon. Human milk, unlike milk of other mammalian species, contains high amounts of oligosaccharides of yet unknown function, but one can speculate that dietary oligosaccharides may play an important function in the development of the microbiome in human neonates. Evidence exists that the amount and type of nondigestable carbohydrates influence the species composition of the intestinal microbiome. Individual variation in the gut microbiome may, in part reflect differences in dietary intake, but the response of the gut microbiome to dietary change can also differ among individuals (Flint, 2012)
Furthermore, an outcome of the exposure to infectious microbes or their toxins is also influenced by both microbial and host genes. Some host genes encode defense mechanisms, whereas others assist pathogen function. Extensive human diversity in cell lethality dependent on toxin binding and uptake has been observed (Martchenko et al., 2012). Furthermore, there is evidence that individuals may evolve their own specific microbiome (Clayton, 2012).
Results of our recent animal studies (Sulkowski et al, 2012; Khan et al, 2012, Xu et al, submitted; see also Fig. 2) indicate that the sensitivity of the developing CNS to both environmental toxins and infection, are both sex- and rat strain-dependent. It can be extrapolated that the sensitivity of the human microbiome is also sex-dependent. Because of this individual variability in host response it is not surprising that the results of human postmortem studies of ASD brains are difficult to interpret.
The human GIT harbors a large number (1000 to 1150) of bacterial species and is involved in maintaining homeostasis and well-being. Functions of this microbiome include the regulation of the mucosal immune system, GIT motility, epithelial barrier regulation, gut secretion, digestion and metabolism (Grenham et al., 2011). One of the main functions of gut microbes is to extract nutrients from otherwise indigestible fibers (Tremaroli and Backhed, 2012). The microbiome, absent at birth, is gradually colonized by facultative bacteria and anaerobic bacteria (Grenham et al., 2011).
Several lines of evidence point to both brain-gut axis and gut microbiome abnormalities in autism which are summarized in Fig 3. Children with ASD frequently present a variety of gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, although some claim that the data supporting increased GI symptomology in autistic children not to be rigorous enough (Erickson et al., 2005). The so-called “bacterial theory” of autism proposes the GIT symptoms are associated with changes in microbial composition and that these changes could be involved in the pathogenesis or progression of several childhood diseases including autism (Somma et al., 2010).
Altered gut microbiome and the brain gut axis in autism. S-R-CTR, social reward center; F-R CTR, food reward center.
It has been suggested that an abnormal gut microbiome in some ASD children may be due to certain antimicrobial drugs that play a key role in modifying the intestinal bacterial flora and selecting potentially harmful bacteria normally kept at bay by the innate intestinal flora. And so, both Clostridia (Finegold, 2011b) and Desulfovibrio (Finegold, 2011a) have been implicated in autistic pathology. Clostridia form spores and the spores could likely survive antibiotic treatment and subsequently flourish. Desulfovibrio is an anaerobic bacillus that does not produce spores and is resistant to some antibiotics such as cephalosporins used in treatment of common childhood diseases such as ear infections (Finegold, 2011a). An increase in Bacteroides, a decrease in Firmicutes with an overall increase in biodiversity has been observed in IBD, celiac disease and autism (Iebba et al., 2011). An increase in
A response to oral treatment with vancomycin, not absorbed from the GI tract, in autism suggests the importance of gut flora in a disease (Finegold, 2011a). Evidence suggests that ASD may be associated with altered innate immune response; thus children with GI problems may reflect inflammation as a reaction to an endotoxin produced by gut bacteria (Jyonouchi et al, 2002).
Our most recent studies suggest altered expression of ghrelin, the activating enzyme (ghrelin O-acyltransferase, GOAT) and the receptor in several brain areas of autistic children (Sajdel-Sulkowska, unpublished observation). A decrease in ghrelin mRNA has been also observed in the temporal gyrus of Alzheimer patients (Gahete et al., 2010) suggesting ghrelin may contribute to the severity of AD pathology. Since we have measured the levels of ghrelin mRNA, it can be assumed that the changes observed were due to the altered levels of brain ghrelin.
The majority of circulating ghrelin is synthesized by gastric mucosa X/A-like cells in response to negative energy status. These cells are not typical endocrine cells since the oxyntic mucosa cells produce HCl in the stomach lumen and ghrelin as a hormone. Ghrelin is the most potent orexigenic peptide, and plays an important role in glucose metabolism and also in GIT cytoprotection. In addition to its ability to stimulate appetite, ghrelin stimulates the release of growth hormone release via the growth secretagogue, GHS-R1a receptor. Ghrelin O-acyltransferase, GOAT, is the enzyme that activates ghrelin. The ghrelin/GHS-R/GOAT system may play an important role in metabolic disorders in children (Lim and Korbonits, 2012). In addition to the ghrelin of GIT origin, and the hypothalamus being the main source of brain ghrelin, ghrelin has been detected in the midbrain, hindbrain, hippocampus, spinal cord and several organs outside the brain. While the systemic endogenous ghrelin exerts a tonic stimulating effect on hypothalamic CRH (Rucinski et al., 2012), its function in the brain includes the modulation of membrane excitability, control of neurotransmitter release, neuronal gene expression, and neuronal survival and proliferation (Ferrini et al., 2009).
It has been reported that ghrelin of GIT origin interacts with bacterial toxins (Tiaka et al., 2011) and exerts a protective role in experimental colitis; is it possible that the ghrelin of brain origin plays a protective role as well? If so, changes in the level of brain-derived ghrelin could be detrimental to the developing brain.
Existing therapies targeting the gut microbiome include diet, antibiotics, and probiotics. Dietary restriction, including the removal of dairy casein-containing products, wheat and gluten sources, sugar, chocolate, preservatives, and food coloring have all been found to be therapeutic in autism. Interestingly, dairy casein-containing products stimulate ghrelin (a hunger hormone) and reduce CCK (a satiety agent) production in the periphery and in the brain. Gastrointestinal problems in autism appear to respond to antimicrobial agents. Treatments targeting Candida, and probiotics have been used to reduce disbiosis and control gut permeability (Kidd, 2002). Other strategies include the removal of heavy metals (including mercury) by chelation and sulfur-sulphydryl repletion. Supplementation with dimethylglycine, vitamin B6, magnesium, vitamin B3, C, folic acid, calcium and zinc, cod liver, digestive enzymes, all appear to be beneficial in a number of autistic children (Kidd, 2002). Immune therapies, including pentoxifyllin, immunoglobulin, transfer factors and colostrums appear to work in a limited number of cases,
The initial promising use of secretin, a triggering factor for digestion, in the treatment of autism has been more recently disclaimed. In multiple randomized controlled trials secretin offered no significant benefit (Krishnaswami et al., 2011; Williams et al., 2012).
Abnormalities in the primary pathway for carbohydrate digestion and transporters, involving disaccharidases and hexose transporters, have been reported and found to be accompanied by dysbiosis as evidenced by a decrease in Bactoroidetes and an increase in the ratio of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes (Williams et al., 2011). These abnormalities respond to probiotic and dietary responses (Williams et al., 2011). Probiotic therapy appears to influence microbiome composition, intestinal barrier function and mucosal immune responses (Critchfield et al., 2011). There is evidence to support alterations of fecal microbiome in autism, and in the majority of cases treatment with vancomycin, an antibiotic that targets gram positive anaerobes and is minimally absorbed by the gut, can improve symptoms (Sandler et al., 2000).
Recently therapies targeting the gut microbiome are emerging as a viable strategy in the treatment of CNS disorders (Forsythe et al., 2010). Preclinical studies of selected probiotics in healthy volunteers (Messaoudi et al., 2011) provided encouraging results for further studies exploring the concept of microbial targeting of the GIT under pathological conditions including autism. Individually tailored probiotic formulations, enriched in specific strains of gut bacteria, could one day be used in treatments of ASD even as an adjuvant to other treatments.
The intestinal microbiome participates in the development of the HPA axis (Sudo et al., 2004) and is critical to the development of appropriate stress response later in life, which occurs during a narrow, critical developmental window. This process involves both the regulation of the levels of brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and NMDA receptors (Sudo et al., 2004). The microbiome also plays an important role in anxiety-like behavior (Messaoudi et al., 2011), depressive behaviors (Neufield et al., 2011; Messaoudi et al., 2011), but the effects are diminished in vagatomized animals, suggesting either the direct communication between the bacteria and the brain (Bravo et al., 2011) or through the brain-gut axis. The latter possibility is an indirect action of bacteria on an afferent vagal pathway via gut immune, endocrine and enteric nervous system (ENS) controlling mechanisms.
Animal studies have also shown that stress can change the composition of the microbiome, where the changes are associated with increased vulnerability to inflammatory stimuli in the GIT (Gareau et al., 2006); here the microbiome plays an important role in memory dysfunction (Gareau et al., 2011). Stress is known to inhibit gut contraction, one of the crucial defense strategies against bacterial colonization of gut mucosa. Early psychological trauma of maternal separation resulted in persistent mucosal barrier dysfunction in neonatal rats, including host defense to luminal bacteria, by mechanisms involving peripheral CRH receptors (Gareau et al., 2006).
Oral antibiotics disrupt the microbiome and favor environment for opportunistic bacteria.
Autism is characterized by both severe deficits in social interaction and communication and significant eating difficulties with a highly restricted range of food choices (Williams et al., 2000). It seems logical to hypothesize that altered composition of the gut microbiome under a “leaky gut” condition in autism interferes with the normal activity of the reward circuitry including both social and feeding behavior, as illustrated in Fig. 3. In support of this hypothesis are the neuroimaging, electrophysiological and neurochemical data suggesting a disruption in reward seeking tendencies in ASD, and especially in social contexts (Kohls et al., 2012). It has been proposed that this disruption is caused by abnormalities of the dopaminergic-oxytocinergic “wanting circuitry” that includes the ventral striatum, amygdale, and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (Kohls et al., 2012). Indeed, Individuals with ASD are characterized by low responsiveness to social rewards (Dawson et al., 2005; Schultz, 2005; Neuhaus et al, 2010). Recent studies of the left amygdala and orbito-frontal cortex, which are the main components of the social brain, showed neuronal dysfunctions in these structures in autism (Mori et al, 2012). Furthermore, brain levels of serotonin, the “happy hormone” are regulated by gut bacteria as evidenced by studies involving germ-free animals (Clarke et al., 2012). Abnormalities in blood serotonin levels are consistently altered in a subset of children with ASD.
It is also possible that the abnormalities in vagus nerve functions may further contribute to social deficits in autism (Goetz et al., 2010). ). It is thus of interest (Ito and Craig, 2008) that there is a possibility that the vicerosensory information is sent via the vagus nerve directly to the reward centers. The vagus nerve is involved in our emotional responses and in feelings of compassion as shown in vagal stimulation, suggesting that the social bond is related to the gut-brain axis (Goetz et al., 2010). Studies utilizing single-photon emission tomography (SPET) provide evidence for the limbic system-vagal nerve connection (Barnes et al., 2003). Vagotomy was for decades a method of choice in treating a number of gastric diseases in adults; it would be of interest to address it in context of autistic pathology.
Furthermore, the intestinal microbiome regulates the HPA during both development and adulthood (Sudo et al., 2004) and plays an important role in the stress response. Activation of the HPA axis involves the release of endogenous opioids which are components of the brain reward system (Adam et al., 2007).
In humans, sensory factors, such as taste and smell, have an important role in reward-related feeding (Rolls, 2011); gustatory, olfactory, visual and somatosensory aspects of food are regulated by the orbitofrontal cortex. Environmental cues, as well as cognitive, reward, and emotional factors play an important role in food intake which may override the homeostatic requirements (Berthoud, 2006). Environmental cues regulate endocannabinoid and opioid systems which play an important role in reward-related feeding and have wide receptor distributions within the CNS (Cota et al., 2006). Hypothalamic endocannabinoids increase food intake through a leptin-regulated mechanism. The nucleus accumbens is a key limbic pathway and may be implicated in regulation of hedonistic and homeostatic feeding (Berthoud, 2006). Dopamine appears to be associated with reward-related food intake and with behaviors required to maintain feeding essential for survival (Di Marzo et al., 2001).
The neural circuit mediating reward-related behavior is a complex network that includes the midbrain, substantia nigra, the amygdala, the ventral striatum, the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and ventral anterior cingulated cortex with the central relay located in ventral striatum (Kohls et al., 2012).
It is interesting, that the ventral striatum is associated with both social-reward and food-reward circuitry (Adam et al., 2007). Although it is generally assumed that the two centers are separate, the observation of altered sucrose preference and positive correlation with ventral striatum dopamine levels under conditions of social isolation stress in perinatal rats lends support to the speculation of inter-connectivity of the two centers (Brenes and Fornaguera, 2008).
The “leaky gut” during development may be potentially more vulnerable to environmental insults than the normally developing GIT. Consequently, alterations in the gut microbiome may play an important role in autistic pathology. Evidence is growing that points to an early developmental abnormality in establishing GIT and innate microbial milieu. The gut microbiome, regulated by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors, may be further jeopardized by recurrent infections and/or recurrent use of antibiotics. A developmentally abnormal gut microbiome may in turn affect both the gut-brain axis and brain development and contribute to the etiology of ASD. Abnormalities in the gut-brain axis may further lead to the aberrant development of both the social and the food reward system(s) in autism. Future studies targeting the gut-brain/brain-gut axis in autism and the gut microbiome are warranted, but must take into consideration individual variation in gut microbiomes and intrinsic and extrinsic sensitivities and sex. Results of these studies will likely contribute to our understanding of ASD and advance new and viable therapies.
Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique whose purpose is discovering new molecules, determining quantities of known components and determining structural and chemical properties of a molecule.
The detection capability in mass spectrometry is very small, of about 10−12 grams and its application field is multifaceted, being used in industries such as: chemical, pharmaceutical, biotechnology, food, among others. It is frequently used in environmental and medical sciences, and in molecular biology.
Some of its most common uses are related to:
Performing doping tests in athletes [1].
Locating petroleum reservoirs through the use of precursors in the rocks [2].
Controlling fermentation of products in biotechnology processes [3].
Determining genetic damages [4].
Determining the presence of contaminants in food [5].
Identifying the structure of biomolecules, such as nucleic acids [4].
Analyzing the biodegradation of medications [6].
Establishing the age of geochemical and archeological samples [7].
The origin of mass spectrometry goes back to the experiments by J. J. Thompson, which evidenced, on one side, the presence of electrons, and on the other side, the presence of positive radiation, when energy falls into a vacuum tube to which a difference in electric potential was applied [8]. Thompson remarked the importance that this new technique might have in the field of chemical analysis and described it in his book “Rays of Positive Electricity and Their Application to Chemical Analysis” [9]; however, despite this interesting possibility of use, mass spectrometry was relegated to the field of experiments in physics. It was not until the 1940s, that the first analytical mass spectrometers started to be developed.
At present, Mass Spectrometry and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, are the most complete and widespread techniques in educational and research labs around the world, regarding the study and discovery of organic molecules. In the field of natural products many of the studies about secondary metabolites have been validated in a mass spectrometer, since it is a very complete technique for the identification and control of this type of substances.
A mass spectrometer is an instrument with the capability of measuring the mass of a molecule after it has been ionized. Due to the extremely small mass of a molecule expressed in grams or kilograms, it is more convenient to measure its molecular mass, expressed as mols; for example, the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1.66 x 10−24 grams, but its mol is approximately 1 gram, or if it is desired in Daltons, considering that this unit is equivalent to 1/12 of the mass of an isotope carbon-12.
The spectrometry does not directly measure the mass of an isotope, but rather its mass-to-charge ratio of the ions that are formed (m/z), where z is the charge, most of the ions formed in the mass spectrometry have a value of charge of z = 1.
The mass spectrometers are constituted by various components, namely: 1) system for introducing the sample, 2) ionization source, 3) mass analyzer, 4) detection system and 5) data analysis system. Components 2, 3 and 4 should be necessarily subject to a vacuum system; a summarized scheme of the instrument may be seen in Figure 1.
Scheme of a mass spectrometer.
The parts that diversify and create the different instrumentation variants are the ionization source and the mass analyzer.
A classic system requires the formation of ions in gaseous phase; however, the latest instrumentation advances have generated methodologies that enable introducing molecules in liquid phase or even in solid phase. The process for generating the mass spectrum is:
Production of ions and fragmentation
Separation of the ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio
Detection
The ion production, also known as ionization, occurs in different manners. The classic one is by means of the interaction of an electric current (electronic ionization) with a substance in vapor phase. The energy is considered as high and has been standardized at 70 eV, which is greater than the energy of the bonds of any molecule.
Another method is chemical ionization (Cl) where the rupture is produced due to the incidence of a gaseous substance with an extra proton, for example CH5+, on substances in vapor phase. Chemical ionization is less energetic than electronic ionization and produces less fragmentation.
Other types of ionization of recent development are:
(Fast Atom Bombardment, FAB): impact of atoms at high velocity on a sample dissolved in a liquid matrix.
(Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry, SIMS): impact of ions at high velocity on a thin film of sample deposited on a metal substrate, or dissolved in a liquid matrix (Liquid SIMS).
(Plasma Desorption, PD): impact of fragments of nuclear fission, for example, of the 252Cf on a solid sample deposited on a metal foil.
(Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization, MALDI): impact of high energy photons on a sample enclosed in an organic solid matrix.
(Field Desorption, FD): imposition of a strong electric field on a sample deposited on a special metal probe.
(Electrospray Ionization, ESI): formation of charged liquid particles which are emitted by desorption or desolvation.
The purpose of the mass analyzers is to separate the ions according to their mass-to-charge ratio. The mass analyzers have different features, namely:
Magnetic sector mass spectrometry. They deviate the trajectory of the ions in circular trajectories that depend on the momentum/charge ratio.
Quadrupole. Consists of 4 poles or bars arranged parallelly, the separation of the ions is the result of the application of a combination of continuous (DC) and alternating at a radiofrequency (RF) electric fields.
Ion trap. The ion trap operates similarly to the quadrupole, with the difference that it may hold and store the ions inside the trap.
Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR). The ions are trapped electrostatically in a cubic cell inside a constant magnetic field.
Time off flight (TOF). They separate ions according to the time employed to travel a particular distance; an ion of smaller mass will have a larger velocity, based on equation Ec = mv2/2 that relates kinetic energy with mass and velocity.
Figure 2 shows the ionization sources, as well as the diverse analyzers which will finally determine the types of instruments that are found in the market.
Ionization sources and analyzers in mass spectrometry.
In most mass spectrometry analyzers, with the exception of the FT-ICR, ions are detected after the separation, transforming the collision energy of the ions on the detector, in order to produce in it further emission of electron and photon ions that are opportunely measured in charge or light detectors.
A mass spectrometer of recent development is the orbitrap, which is a modification of the ionic trap; in this the ions are injected tangentially in an electric field, and they remain turning around a central electrode, highlighting a high mass resolution of them [10].
A mass spectrum consists of a diagram of ionic abundance as a function of its mass-to-charge ratio. The mass spectra are reported as simple histograms, such as the one seen in Figure 3.
Mass spectrum of the methanol.
In this example all the ions are positively charged; it is observed the molecular ion at a value m/z of 32, a majority ion at m/z 31 due to the loss of the H from the OH group, and an ion at m/z 15 which is due to the loss of the hydroxyl (OH).
Depending on the ionization source and the energy employed, spectra will be available with more or less positive fragments aside from the information about the molecular weight of the molecule.
High purity solid samples may be directly placed in a probe inside the instrument, in which it occurs the evaporation of the sample that has been introduced in the vacuum system. Gaseous or liquid samples require special systems for feeding the regulated flow.
When the sample to be analyzed is a complex mixture of compounds, chromatography equipment may be coupled to the mass spectrometer, such as gas chromatography (GC) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The GC/MS systems were developed in the 60s, because the samples that enter to chromatographic column are already in gaseous phase and this facilitates its introduction in the mass spectrometer; an instrument of this type is observed in Figure 4. The coupling with liquid chromatography did not occur until the 80s, due to difficulty of producing an operational vacuum system.
Gas chromatography equipment coupled to mass spectrometer. Life Sciences Laboratory, Salesian Polytechnic University.
At present, the development of GC/MS and LC/MS systems provide a great variety of instruments that facilitate the separation and analysis work, both for quantifying as well as for discovering new structures, with the field of natural products being one of the most benefited from these latest advances.
The coupling of two MS–MS mass analysis states is useful for analyzing compounds in complex mixtures and for determining the structure of unknown molecules. The MS–MS evaluation offers the possibility of analyzing the ions formed in a further fragmentation of those ions formed in the first test.
If the first ionization technique offers the possibility of having various fragments in a highly purified sample, the second ionization offers the possibility of acquiring valuable structural information, and through it achieve a high possibility of determining the structure of a new molecule.
The high development achieved in the last hundred years by mass spectrometry with a great variability of techniques and instruments, makes possible that basically all molecules that are part of natural products may be analyzed, both qualitatively and quantitatively [11, 12], Figure 5 shows various spectra of natural substances obtained by electronic ionization. The extracts coming from biological matrices with natural products are generally a mixture of various compounds, and thus it is very common the use of GC or LC coupled systems [13, 14].
Spectra of natural molecules obtained by electronic ionization.
New techniques such as Electrospray Ionization, have increased the number of possible biomolecules to be analyzed, including those of high molecular weights [15]. Similarly, the use of powerful mass analyzers makes it possible to analyze molecular ions or fractionated ions with an extremely efficient resolution [16].
Essential oils are metabolites of volatile nature; therefore, studies of chemical composition are relatively simple, generally achieving percentages above 90% when investigating the molecules that compose these natural products [17, 18].
The combination of evaluations of mass spectra and retention indices provide information that may be verified in specific databases for this type of compounds [19]. Further studies of GC/MS in molecules separated in TLC, may reveal specific biological properties such as antibacterial or antioxidant [20].
Various plant species contain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, studies are generally carried out by GC/MS, although the compounds of high molecular weight are non-volatile, this is solved employing chemical derivatization methodologies, forming methyl or ethyl esters [21, 22]. Numerous species of nutritional and pharmaceutical interest such as
The aromas and flavors in fruits and vegetables are fundamental for distinguishing their taste features, given their volatility the GC/MS equipment is the ideal for understanding the chemistry of this group of substances. Many of these molecules are very volatile and therefore are not removable in vapor stream, for introducing them in the chromatographic system they are previously extracted with non-polar solvents [26] or may be directly injected with head space introduction systems [27, 28].
Few phenolic compounds may be directly analyzed in an GC/MS system, generally those structures of low molecular weight [29].
Most of the phenolic and polyphenolic compounds are non-volatile and have two analytic paths for their structures to be determined, the first is through chemical derivatization, using the mechanism of sylitation, which make them volatile [30, 31].
The second is through instruments that couple HPLC to mass spectrometry, which has made that a large part of the tests are carried out directly, after their separation in one column. The advantage of the electrospray ionization technique is the possibility of ionizing molecules that lack of volatility [32, 33].
The use of mass analyzers of resolution greater than the quadrupole, such as the TOF or the orbitrap, has resulted in values of m/z that reach more precise levels, which has resulted in greater confidence in the identification of a substance [34, 35, 36].
The alkaloids are active ingredients whose structural feature is to have nitrogen in their structure, many of these molecules have a significant biological activity. Some alkaloids may be directly analyzed in GC/MS equipment, such as nicotine and other present in tobacco [37], caffeine and xanthine alkaloids [38, 39], and others whose volatility enables its separation in gas chromatography such as tropane alkaloids [40].
The most frequently used method in the test of these metabolites is the LC/MS in its diverse variants, such as the LC/MS [41], LC/MS–MS [42], some with a greater mass resolution such as the HPLC-TOF-MS [43]. The use of powerful mass analyzers such as Orbitrap, may lead to the discovery of new structures of this nature [44].
The cannabinols constitute a family of natural products of about 70 compounds, of which the most important are the THC and the CBD [45]. The discovery of the endocannabinoid 1 and endocannabinoid 2 systems, 4 decades ago, awakened the medicinal interest of these substances [46]. These compounds have a high solubility in non-polar solvents and are volatile at the injection temperatures in a gas chromatography equipment, consequently a qualification and quantification of them occur in a very good manner in GC/MS systems [47, 48]. The LC/MS is also useful in the analysis of these substances [49, 50].
Practically all the natural products may be analyzed by means of mass spectrometry, its high sensitivity and detailed structural information, make it an essential tool in research and product development labs.
Equipment with analyzers that have high resolutions can provide us with extremely exact values of molecular ions, and thus being able to differentiate the nature of the molecules.
At present there is a great variety of equipment coupled to LC or GC separation systems, which is ideal for the natural extracts that are generally a mixture of substances of diverse nature. Similarly, the combination of ionization and analyzer techniques, has been able to provide an instrumental variability that currently convert it in a technique highly appreciated for the discovery of new natural structures.
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This has compromised the ability of the environment to foster life and render its intrinsic values. Heavy metals are known to be naturally occurring compounds, but anthropogenic activities introduce them in large quantities in different environmental compartments. This leads to the environment’s ability to foster life being reduced as human, animal, and plant health become threatened. This occurs due to bioaccumulation in the food chains as a result of the nondegradable state of the heavy metals. Remediation of heavy metals requires special attention to protect soil quality, air quality, water quality, human health, animal health, and all spheres as a collection. Developed physical and chemical heavy metal remediation technologies are demanding costs which are not feasible, time-consuming, and release additional waste to the environment. This chapter summarises the problems related to heavy metal pollution and various remediation technologies. A case study in South Africa mines were also used.",book:{id:"6534",slug:"heavy-metals",title:"Heavy Metals",fullTitle:"Heavy Metals"},signatures:"Vhahangwele Masindi and Khathutshelo L. 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H. Gulrez, Saphwan Al-Assaf and Glyn O Phillips",authors:[{id:"58120",title:"Prof.",name:"Saphwan",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Assaf",slug:"saphwan-al-assaf",fullName:"Saphwan Al-Assaf"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"35255",title:"Mechanical Transmissions Parameter Modelling",slug:"mechanical-transmissions-parameter-modelling",totalDownloads:7458,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"1982",slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Isad Saric, Nedzad Repcic and Adil Muminovic",authors:[{id:"101313",title:"Prof.",name:"Isad",middleName:null,surname:"Saric",slug:"isad-saric",fullName:"Isad Saric"}]},{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:25181,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"67558",title:"Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR): Principle and Applications",slug:"polymerase-chain-reaction-pcr-principle-and-applications",totalDownloads:10685,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"The characterization of the diversity of species living within ecosystems is of major scientific interest to understand the functioning of these ecosystems. It is also becoming a societal issue since it is necessary to implement the conservation or even the restoration of biodiversity. Historically, species have been described and characterized on the basis of morphological criteria, which are closely linked by environmental conditions or which find their limits especially in groups where they are difficult to access, as is the case for many species of microorganisms. The need to understand the molecular mechanisms in species has made the PCR an indispensable tool for understanding the functioning of these biological systems. A number of markers are now available to detect nuclear DNA polymorphisms. In genetic diversity studies, the most frequently used markers are microsatellites. The study of biological complexity is a new frontier that requires high-throughput molecular technology, high speed computer memory, new approaches to data analysis, and the integration of interdisciplinary skills.",book:{id:"7728",slug:"synthetic-biology-new-interdisciplinary-science",title:"Synthetic Biology",fullTitle:"Synthetic Biology - New Interdisciplinary Science"},signatures:"Karim Kadri",authors:[{id:"290766",title:"Dr.",name:"Kadri",middleName:null,surname:"Karim",slug:"kadri-karim",fullName:"Kadri Karim"}]},{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:12466,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"HVAC systems are milestones of building mechanical systems that provide thermal comfort for occupants accompanied with indoor air quality. HVAC systems can be classified into central and local systems according to multiple zones, location, and distribution. Primary HVAC equipment includes heating equipment, ventilation equipment, and cooling or air-conditioning equipment. Central HVAC systems locate away from buildings in a central equipment room and deliver the conditioned air by a delivery ductwork system. Central HVAC systems contain all-air, air-water, all-water systems. Two systems should be considered as central such as heating and cooling panels and water-source heat pumps. Local HVAC systems can be located inside a conditioned zone or adjacent to it and no requirement for ductwork. Local systems include local heating, local air-conditioning, local ventilation, and split systems.",book:{id:"6807",slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"395618",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"70315",title:"Some Basic and Key Issues of Switched-Reluctance Machine Systems",slug:"some-basic-and-key-issues-of-switched-reluctance-machine-systems",totalDownloads:1268,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Although switched-reluctance machine (SRM) possesses many structural advantages and application potential, it is rather difficult to successfully control with high performance being comparable to other machines. Many critical affairs must be properly treated to obtain the improved operating characteristics. This chapter presents the basic and key technologies of switched-reluctance machine in motor and generator operations. The contents in this chapter include: (1) structures and governing equations of SRM; (2) some commonly used SRM converters; (3) estimation of key parameters and performance evaluation of SRM drive; (4) commutation scheme, current control scheme, and speed control scheme of SRM drive; (5) some commonly used front-end converters and their operation controls for SRM drive; (6) reversible and regenerative braking operation controls for SRM drive; (7) some tuning issues for SRM drive; (8) operation control and some tuning issues of switched-reluctance generators; and (9) experimental application exploration for SRM systems—(a) wind generator and microgrid and (b) EV SRM drive.",book:{id:"8899",slug:"modelling-and-control-of-switched-reluctance-machines",title:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines",fullTitle:"Modelling and Control of Switched Reluctance Machines"},signatures:"Chang-Ming Liaw, Min-Ze Lu, Ping-Hong Jhou and Kuan-Yu Chou",authors:[{id:"37616",title:"Prof.",name:"Chang-Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liaw",slug:"chang-ming-liaw",fullName:"Chang-Ming Liaw"},{id:"306461",title:"Mr.",name:"Min-Ze",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"min-ze-lu",fullName:"Min-Ze Lu"},{id:"306463",title:"Mr.",name:"Ping-Hong",middleName:null,surname:"Jhou",slug:"ping-hong-jhou",fullName:"Ping-Hong Jhou"},{id:"306464",title:"Mr.",name:"Kuan-Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Chou",slug:"kuan-yu-chou",fullName:"Kuan-Yu Chou"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83153",title:"Perspective Chapter: Cryptocurrencies Effectiveness for Nature",slug:"perspective-chapter-cryptocurrencies-effectiveness-for-nature",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106493",abstract:"The rise of cryptocurrencies based on Blockchain platforms have provided multiple solutions for social and nature projects supported by concerned investors with sustainable development initiatives. Speculation and unclear uses of a cryptocurrency plays a negative role for the projects they claim to support. A positive relationship between coin investors and supported projects must position the coin value on the scale of the community involvement among the coin and project issues, thus placing the project results above speculative moves. Coin nature and social based projects may include a decentralized autonomous organization (DAO), combined with a digital currency to contribute to social and nature improvements. This organization provides a framework for the engagement of investors, beneficiaries, and implementation partners, with results measured by reliable third parties. The potential funding from non fiduciary sources for sustainable development targets may be framed under the fundraising and financial solutions models, addressing the cryptocurrency volatility risks with responsible tokenomics in attention to transaction and regulatory issues. Overall, the more clear are the object and transaction issues of a nature conservation project supported by a currency, the more successful it will be in terms of nature and social improvements and the currency valuation for all parties involved.",book:{id:"11551",title:"Blockchain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11551.jpg"},signatures:"Luiz Cruz Villares"},{id:"82490",title:"Precision Agriculture for Sustainable Soil and Crop Management",slug:"precision-agriculture-for-sustainable-soil-and-crop-management",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101759",abstract:"Precision agriculture (PA) transforms traditional practices into a new world of production of agriculture. It uses a range of technologies or diagnostic tools such as global navigation satellite system (GNSS), geographic information systems (GIS), yield monitors, near-infrared reflectance sensing, and remote sensing in collecting and analyzing the in-field spatial variability data, thereby enabling farmers to monitor and make site-specific management decisions for soils and crops. PA technology enables visualization of spatial and temporal variations of production resources and supports spatially varying treatments using variable rate application technologies installed on farm agricultural field machinery. The demand for PA is driven by recognition within-field variability and opportunities for treating areas within a field or production unit differently. PA can be applied to multiple cultural practices including tillage, precision seeding, variable rate fertilizer application, precision irrigation and selective pesticide application; and facilitates other management decisions making, for example, site-specific deep tillage to remove soil compaction. PA technology ensures optimal use of production inputs and contributes to a significant increase in farm profitability. By reducing crop production inputs and managing farmland in an environmentally sensible manner, PA technology plays a vital role in sustainable soil and crop management in modern agriculture.",book:{id:"10952",title:"Soil Science - Emerging Technologies, Global Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10952.jpg"},signatures:"Md. Rayhan Shaheb, Ayesha Sarker and Scott A. Shearer"},{id:"83163",title:"Robust Control Algorithm for Drones",slug:"robust-control-algorithm-for-drones",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105966",abstract:"Drones, also known as Crewless Aircrafts (CAs), are by far the most multi - level and multi developing technologies of the modern period. This technology has recently found various uses in the transportation area, spanning from traffic monitoring applicability to traffic engineering for overall traffic flow and efficiency improvements. Because of its non-linear characteristics and under-actuated design, the CA seems to be an excellent platform to control systems study. Following a brief overview of the system, the various evolutionary and robust control algorithms were examined, along with their benefits and drawbacks. In this chapter, a mathematical and theoretical model of a CA’s dynamics is derived, using Euler’s and Newton’s laws. The result is a linearized version of the model, from which a linear controller, the Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), is generated. Furthermore, the performance of these nonlinear control techniques is compared to that of the LQR. Feedback-linearization controller when implemented in the simulation for the chapter, the results for the same was better than any other algorithm when compared with. The suggested regulatory paradigm of the CA-based monitoring system and analysis study will be the subject of future research, with a particular emphasis on practical applications.",book:{id:"11522",title:"Aeronautics - New Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11522.jpg"},signatures:"Parul Priya and Sushma S. Kamlu"},{id:"83171",title:"Some Results on the Non-Homogeneous Hofmann Process",slug:"some-results-on-the-non-homogeneous-hofmann-process",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106422",abstract:"The classical counting processes (Poisson and negative binomial) are the most traditional discrete counting processes (DCPs); however, these are based on a set of rigid assumptions. We consider a non-homogeneous counting process (which we name non-homogeneous Hofmann process – NHP) that can generate the classical counting processes (CCPs) as special cases, and also allows modeling counting processes for event history data, which usually exhibit under- or over-dispersion. We present some results of this process that will allow us to use it in other areas and establish both the probability mass function (pmf) and the cumulative distribution function (cdf) using transition intensities. This counting process (CP) will allow other researchers to work on modelling the CP, where data dispersion exists in an efficient and more flexible way.",book:{id:"12021",title:"Applied Probability Theory - New Perspectives, Recent Advances and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12021.jpg"},signatures:"Gerson Yahir Palomino Velandia and José Alfredo Jiménez Moscoso"},{id:"83152",title:"Recycled Synthetic Polymer-Based Electrospun Membranes for Filtering Applications",slug:"recycled-synthetic-polymer-based-electrospun-membranes-for-filtering-applications",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106683",abstract:"Synthetic polymers have been widely applied in various commercial and household applications owing to their fascinating properties of low-cost, lightweight, and processability. However, increasing population and living standards and rising demand for non-biodegradable polymers have led to the accumulation of plastic pollution resulting in the current environmental crisis. Current waste management methods such as landfilling or incineration do not solve these environmental issues. On the other hand, recycling plastic waste is the most valuable strategy for dealing with waste as raw material for high-value products. One of such products is filter membranes. Polymer fiber membranes as masks in pandemics have been one of the most sought-after products in recent years. Some types of plastic waste became a material source for the development of filter materials, which could contribute to the protection of human health. Utilizing the simple, cheap, and industrially available technological solution is also needed. Given the number of advantages, electrospinning is such a beneficial solution. The electrospun polymer waste-based membranes show excellent filtration performance and can carry many other functionalities. Therefore, this review article presents a brief overview of electrospun nanofibrous membranes based on synthetic plastic waste and summarizes the filtration performance of such membranes. This review will discuss the future perspectives of electrospun membranes as well.",book:{id:"11462",title:"Recent Developments in Nanofibers Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11462.jpg"},signatures:"Alena Opálková Šišková, Heba M. Abdallah, Smaher Mosad Elbayomi and Anita Eckstein Andicsová"},{id:"83166",title:"General Drag Correlations for Particle-Fluid System",slug:"general-drag-correlations-for-particle-fluid-system",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106427",abstract:"Particle-fluid flows are commonly encountered in industrial applications. It is of great importance to understand the fundamentals governing the behavior of such a flow system for better process design, control, and optimization. Generally, the particle-fluid flow behavior is strongly influenced by the interaction forces between fluid and particles. Among the various kinds of particle-fluid interaction forces, the drag force is the most essential. This chapter reviews the modeling of drag force for particle-fluid systems: from single particle to multiple particles, monosize to multisize, spherical to nonspherical, and Newtonian fluid to non-Newtonian fluid. Typical drag correlations in the literature are compared and assessed in terms of physical meaning, consistency, and generality.",book:{id:"11498",title:"Boundary Layer Flows - Modelling, Computation, and Applications of Laminar, Turbulent Incompressible and Compressible Flows",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11498.jpg"},signatures:"Zheng Qi, Shibo Kuang, Liangwan Rong, Kejun Dong and Aibing Yu"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:766},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. 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Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:61,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"417317",title:"Mrs.",name:"Chiedza",middleName:null,surname:"Elvina Mashiri",slug:"chiedza-elvina-mashiri",fullName:"Chiedza Elvina Mashiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"352140",title:"Dr.",name:"Edina",middleName:null,surname:"Chandiwana",slug:"edina-chandiwana",fullName:"Edina Chandiwana",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"342259",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Leonard",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"leonard-mushunje",fullName:"Leonard Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"347042",title:"Mr.",name:"Maxwell",middleName:null,surname:"Mashasha",slug:"maxwell-mashasha",fullName:"Maxwell Mashasha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Midlands State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"2941",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto J.",middleName:"Jorge",surname:"Rosales-Silva",slug:"alberto-j.-rosales-silva",fullName:"Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"437913",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Urriolagoitia-Sosa",slug:"guillermo-urriolagoitia-sosa",fullName:"Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"435126",title:"Prof.",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"José de Castro Ferreira",slug:"joaquim-jose-de-castro-ferreira",fullName:"Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"437899",title:"MSc.",name:"Miguel Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Ángel Castillo-Martínez",slug:"miguel-angel-angel-castillo-martinez",fullName:"Miguel Angel Ángel Castillo-Martínez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"289955",title:"Dr.",name:"Raja",middleName:null,surname:"Kishor Duggirala",slug:"raja-kishor-duggirala",fullName:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. 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