Analytical performances of various modified electrodes for BPA determination.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7827",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Relationships are a necessary part of life. This has always been true; community helped keep us safe as dangerous animals prowled outside our caves. We are now even more interconnected with each other. What do we know about interpersonal relationships? How do we develop the skills to connect with each other? Relationships can bring value and meaning to our lives, but, sometimes, they can have negative effects and impair our view of ourselves and others. We need to find ways to keep hope even if some relationships have scarred us. We need to recognize skills that we can use to form closer relationships in both our professional and personal lives. This book examines interpersonal relationships from many different angles. It will allow the reader to look at relationships in new ways and, perhaps, find tools to enhance and deepen connections within their lives.",isbn:"978-1-83962-695-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-694-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-696-8",doi:null,price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"interpersonal-relationships",numberOfPages:294,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",numberOfDownloads:7185,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:null,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:22,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186919/images/system/186919.png",biography:"Dr. Martha Peaslee Levine is an associate professor in Pediatrics, Psychiatry and Humanities at the Penn State College of Medicine. As a psychiatrist, she understands the importance of healthy relationships. She has also witnessed the impact of negative relationships on individuals’ self-esteem. She is the Director of the Office for Professional Mental Health and helps students, residents, fellows, and faculty navigate the stresses of medicine and life. She is blessed to have great relationships with her two children and finds much value and meaning in life through her work with others.",institutionString:"Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Penn State Milton S. Hershey Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"278",title:"Social Psychology",slug:"social-psychology"}],chapters:[{id:"74685",title:"Awareness, Groundedness, Embodiment: Intrapersonal Elements in Interpersonal Relationships",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95484",slug:"awareness-groundedness-embodiment-intrapersonal-elements-in-interpersonal-relationships",totalDownloads:327,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Human beings are inherently relational. To relate may mean to communicate, interact, transact, engage, involve and even just be with another person. It may imply fulfilling and satisfying the needs of one another. In a more altruistic tone, the relationship is giving and receiving. Others see a relationship as a social exchange. In contrast, others may see it as a social and ethical contract that ought to adhere. Others see a relationship as an instrument as a means to self-actualize or as a process of reaching the self-potential. There are many types of relationships. While others have a formal set of rules, there are interpersonal relationships that have loose code of affair. Among the dimensions of relationship, intimate interpersonal relationships are complicated. In contrast to business affair, marriage and in other intimate partnership, sanctions, roles and rules are not clearly defined. The ambiguity of interpersonal relationships reflects the dynamisms of its elements. Since its fluid, contextual and multi-faceted, there is no exact point of analysis. In this article, awareness, dialog, groundedness, embodiment are discussed in the light of intimate partner conflicts that are amplified using fictional case vignettes that are adopted from real cases of intimate conflict. This article concludes with the assertion that cultivation of relationships starts with the person.",signatures:"Emmanuel Villoria Hernani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74685",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74685",authors:[{id:"328146",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Emmanuel Villoria",surname:"Hernani",slug:"emmanuel-villoria-hernani",fullName:"Emmanuel Villoria Hernani"}],corrections:null},{id:"74542",title:"Rolefulness and Interpersonal Relationships",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95396",slug:"rolefulness-and-interpersonal-relationships",totalDownloads:420,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We developed the new psychological concept of Rolefulness and it is a defined as “the continuous sense of role satisfaction we have in our daily lives.” Rolefulness includes 2 sub factors of “social rolefulness” and “internal rolefulness.” Social rolefulness is role satisfaction based on social experiences such as interpersonal relationships. Internal rolefulness is a role satisfaction that is formed by internalizing social rolefulness and it includes identity and confidence. First, we introduce the theoretical background and developmental process of rolefulness. Second, the statistical study of relationship between rolefulness and maladjustment is shown. Then, the example of application in the area of education and art therapy is introduced. Finally, the future application of rolefulness for our social lives and social science studies is discussed.",signatures:"Daiki Kato and Mikie Suzuki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74542",authors:[{id:"198255",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Daiki",surname:"Kato",slug:"daiki-kato",fullName:"Daiki Kato"},{id:"324991",title:"Dr.",name:"Mikie",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"mikie-suzuki",fullName:"Mikie Suzuki"}],corrections:null},{id:"74682",title:"The Impact of Interpersonal Relationships on Dietary Habits",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95482",slug:"the-impact-of-interpersonal-relationships-on-dietary-habits",totalDownloads:317,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent times, there is significant level of evidence to suggest a transition in the eating pattern and dietary habits of people across the globe. Food, though a physiological necessity and required for good health and functionality, also contributes to the social, cultural, psychological and emotional well-being of our lives. There is no doubt that relationships contribute to how, what and when people eat. This chapter will review the impact of how different categories and levels of interpersonal relationships impact on the development of dietary habits among people. Additionally the chapter will explore how the advent of the novel corona virus, covid-19 has impacted on interpersonal relationships and consequently on dietary habits.",signatures:"Freda D. Intiful, Rebecca Steele-Dadzie, Patricia Mawusi Amos, Ruth Pobee, Joana Ainuson-Quampah, Christina Ammah, Theresa Antwi, Kwesi Nkum Wilson and Matilda Asante",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74682",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74682",authors:[{id:"162496",title:"Mrs.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Mawusi Amos",slug:"patricia-mawusi-amos",fullName:"Patricia Mawusi Amos"},{id:"325649",title:"Dr.",name:"Freda D.",surname:"Intiful",slug:"freda-d.-intiful",fullName:"Freda D. Intiful"},{id:"330009",title:"Dr.",name:"Rebecca",surname:"Steele-Dadzie",slug:"rebecca-steele-dadzie",fullName:"Rebecca Steele-Dadzie"},{id:"330011",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Pobee",slug:"ruth-pobee",fullName:"Ruth Pobee"},{id:"330012",title:"Dr.",name:"Joana",surname:"Ainuson-Quampah",slug:"joana-ainuson-quampah",fullName:"Joana Ainuson-Quampah"},{id:"330013",title:"Mrs.",name:"Christina",surname:"Ammah",slug:"christina-ammah",fullName:"Christina Ammah"},{id:"330014",title:"Dr.",name:"Theresa",surname:"Antwi",slug:"theresa-antwi",fullName:"Theresa Antwi"},{id:"330016",title:"Dr.",name:"Kwesi Nkum",surname:"Wilson",slug:"kwesi-nkum-wilson",fullName:"Kwesi Nkum Wilson"},{id:"330017",title:"Dr.",name:"Matilda",surname:"Asante",slug:"matilda-asante",fullName:"Matilda Asante"}],corrections:null},{id:"75234",title:"Human Behaviour Induced by Spatial Order",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96170",slug:"human-behaviour-induced-by-spatial-order",totalDownloads:256,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Space truly becomes a place not merely because of the built and the unbuilt that design it, but also because of the way its users use it, behave around it, interact with it, and interact with each other in it. Space that surrounds every individual, in which an individual exists, interacts and performs, is known as “Human Space”. Organization of the Built environment around the users within their ‘human space’ is known as “Spatial Order” which is the key to formulation of non-verbal communication. Non verbal communication refers to the body language an individual adopts in order to convey a message to the fellow users of the space. This Non-verbal language subsequently becomes the basis of verbal communication that lays the foundation of Human Behavior within a particular spatial order.",signatures:"Vaidehi Raipat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75234",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75234",authors:[{id:"329802",title:"Ms.",name:"Vaidehi",surname:"Raipat",slug:"vaidehi-raipat",fullName:"Vaidehi Raipat"}],corrections:null},{id:"74042",title:"Interpersonal Relationships in Early Childhood",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94859",slug:"interpersonal-relationships-in-early-childhood",totalDownloads:451,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Child interactions with the environment (adults, peers, materials) constitute the engine for development and learning, especially in early stages of development. Emotionally secure, responsive, and contingent interactions with adults and peers promote emotional, cognitive, and social development. Interpersonal interactions facilitate the acquisition of social skills and emotion regulation strategies, which are learned through the observation of the behaviors of adults and peers and through the direct interactions with them. This chapter presents the theoretical foundations for considering interpersonal relations as engines of development, and synthetizes the latest results on the impact of interpersonal relationships on the development of children in natural environments (school, home, and the community).",signatures:"Catalina Morales-Murillo, Pau García-Grau and Rosa Fernández-Valero",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74042",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74042",authors:[{id:"324436",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Catalina",surname:"Morales-Murillo",slug:"catalina-morales-murillo",fullName:"Catalina Morales-Murillo"},{id:"330190",title:"Dr.",name:"Pau",surname:"García-Grau",slug:"pau-garcia-grau",fullName:"Pau García-Grau"},{id:"330192",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",surname:"Fernández-Valero",slug:"rosa-fernandez-valero",fullName:"Rosa Fernández-Valero"}],corrections:null},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95395",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2334,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74550",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74550",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}],corrections:null},{id:"75826",title:"Creating a Democratic Culture in Managing Classroom Contexts of Disability – Part 1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96433",slug:"creating-a-democratic-culture-in-managing-classroom-contexts-of-disability-part-1",totalDownloads:179,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Department of Basic Education (DBE) in South Africa ratified Education White Paper 6: Building an Inclusive Education and Training System- a policy document which made an explicit declaration to create inclusive classroom contexts within a targeted period of 20 years. Succinctly, this declaration has cast the year 2021, as a major social justice milestone for citizens with disabilities. The chapter strongly believes that this milestone deserves to attract both critical dialogue and empirical engagements as to determine the impact of the Education White Paper 6. Internationally, there are various policy guidelines available, in the quest to create a democratic classroom context with the objective of accommodating diversity, more specifically to address oppressive and non-inclusive disability contexts. The reader audience will be taken across various discourses on disability rights and literature readings responding to redress within the realm of the World Health Organisation and the International Labour Organisation, among others. Before the chapter concludes, a reflective activity is provided; together with a practical assessment activity where the authors create a democratic culture-centric lesson plan meant to support teachers in their inclusive education quest to create ideal democratic classroom contexts.",signatures:"Gregg Alexander and Duma Mhlongo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75826",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75826",authors:[{id:"326285",title:"Prof.",name:"Gregg",surname:"Alexander",slug:"gregg-alexander",fullName:"Gregg Alexander"},{id:"345593",title:"Dr.",name:"Duma",surname:"Mhlongo",slug:"duma-mhlongo",fullName:"Duma Mhlongo"}],corrections:null},{id:"76098",title:"Sustaining a Democratic Culture through Collaborative Engagements for Citizens with Disabilities – Part 2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96782",slug:"sustaining-a-democratic-culture-through-collaborative-engagements-for-citizens-with-disabilities-par",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The United Nations (UN) has since the year 2015 challenged countries to develop structures of collaboration between governments, businesses, and citizens to enhance the monitoring and evaluation of their social justice challenges, advocacy initiatives and the progress thereof. To achieve the UN’s Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development Goals, this chapter proposes for educational and workplace institutions to collaborate as sub-systems. Historically, citizens with disabilities have been hit the hardest regarding decent work opportunities and inaccessible basic education classroom amenities. The existence of a democratic culture in an ideal classroom setting should be where all learners are mentored to display the democratic principles of unity, uniformity, diversity and homogeneity. This chapter aims to contribute towards the imaging of teachers who succeed in creating and sustaining a democratic classroom environment, guided by the ethos of inclusive education, wherein both classrooms and workplaces of the year 2030 and beyond, iconise a democratic aura and praxis by adopting an institutional collaborative culture. As an ideal, all learners and employees will entrench the ethos of democratic co-existence by embracing diverse contexts of disability, when empathising with citizens with a disability. In this way a genuine democratic culture could possibly become spontaneously sustainable.",signatures:"Duma Mhlongo and Gregory Alexander",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76098",authors:[{id:"326285",title:"Prof.",name:"Gregg",surname:"Alexander",slug:"gregg-alexander",fullName:"Gregg Alexander"},{id:"345593",title:"Dr.",name:"Duma",surname:"Mhlongo",slug:"duma-mhlongo",fullName:"Duma Mhlongo"}],corrections:null},{id:"75185",title:"Citizen X: Exploring Connectedness and Engagement: Among Engaged Youth - An Existential Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96062",slug:"citizen-x-exploring-connectedness-and-engagement-among-engaged-youth-an-existential-analysis",totalDownloads:288,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"What value do we place on being engaged? Civic engagement connects us to social institutions that enhance well-being, self-worth and quality of life satisfaction. Yet, for youth (ages 18–22), there exists the phenomena of civic engagement in spite of isolation, lack of skills or discrimination. This article explores the explicit and implicit meanings of civic engagement among our youth, and the elements needed to achieve meaning in their lives – even through civic engagement. This analysis explores the interpretation of civic engagement among youth, and the individuals who present as connected and engaged. Forty individuals were surveyed with 18 comprising the youth group (ages 20–22). The results show the types of civic duties they participated in and the relationship to their satisfaction with their quality of life. It is believed that the respondents who presented as most connected and engaged were those who were saturated with strong civic messages pre-adolescence. These individuals presented a strong sense of hope, a conscious choice in serving others and a strong sense of community that are central to existential theory.",signatures:"Diann Cameron Kelly",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75185",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75185",authors:[{id:"325207",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diann",surname:"Cameron Kelly",slug:"diann-cameron-kelly",fullName:"Diann Cameron Kelly"}],corrections:null},{id:"74135",title:"Information and Communication Technologies and Work-Life Balance: Practical Recommendations for Employers and Individuals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94429",slug:"information-and-communication-technologies-and-work-life-balance-practical-recommendations-for-emplo",totalDownloads:618,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For decades, the number and frequency of individuals who work from home has gradually increased, in many ways as a result of emergent Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). This gradual increase, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, has weathered away boundaries between work at work and work at home, with some positive and many negative outcomes. Currently, however, because of a global pandemic which necessitates ICTs for working from home, the impact that organizational technology assimilation has on the way that people engage with each other is increasingly important. This chapter reviews theory and research regarding organizational technology and concludes with pragmatic recommendations for individuals and organizations regarding work-related technology use at home.",signatures:"Diane Jackson, Valerie Young and Alyson Sander",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74135",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74135",authors:[{id:"325185",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Valerie",surname:"Young",slug:"valerie-young",fullName:"Valerie Young"},{id:"325214",title:"MSc.",name:"Diane",surname:"Jackson",slug:"diane-jackson",fullName:"Diane Jackson"},{id:"325630",title:"M.A.",name:"Alyson",surname:"Sander",slug:"alyson-sander",fullName:"Alyson Sander"}],corrections:null},{id:"74658",title:"Building Effective Working Relationships among Academics through Participation in Communities of Practice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95449",slug:"building-effective-working-relationships-among-academics-through-participation-in-communities-of-pra",totalDownloads:264,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter addresses the significance and importance of communities of practice in the professional development of academics as university teachers. Its documents the role of communities of practice in enabling and enhancing the development of a professional knowledge base, the acquisition of skills, and competencies for effective teaching practice, as well as the dissemination of practical knowledge needed within a community of teaching practitioners. It provides details of how a community of practice comes into being, and how working relations within a community of practice are fostered. There is an elaboration on how members of a community of practice come to perceive their substantive issues the same way, and how a common agenda is formed around those issues. It also discusses peculiar ways of dealing with the identified issues, and the manner in which expertise, resources, resourcefulness and experiences are exchanged and shared with improvement, change and further development of academics’ teaching practices in sight.",signatures:"Adeola Folasade Akinyemi, Vuyisile Nkonki, Lulekwa Sweet-Lily Baleni and Florence Rutendo Mudehwe-Gonhovi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74658",authors:[{id:"325812",title:"Dr.",name:"Adeola Folasade",surname:"Akinyemi",slug:"adeola-folasade-akinyemi",fullName:"Adeola Folasade Akinyemi"},{id:"338081",title:"Dr.",name:"Vuyisile",surname:"Nkonki",slug:"vuyisile-nkonki",fullName:"Vuyisile Nkonki"},{id:"338082",title:"Dr.",name:"Lulekwa Sweet-Lily",surname:"Baleni",slug:"lulekwa-sweet-lily-baleni",fullName:"Lulekwa Sweet-Lily Baleni"},{id:"338083",title:"Dr.",name:"Florence Rutendo",surname:"Mudehwe-Gonhovi",slug:"florence-rutendo-mudehwe-gonhovi",fullName:"Florence Rutendo Mudehwe-Gonhovi"}],corrections:null},{id:"74566",title:"Challenges of Inter-Professional Teamwork in Nigerian Healthcare",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95414",slug:"challenges-of-inter-professional-teamwork-in-nigerian-healthcare",totalDownloads:405,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Inter-professional teamwork in government owned hospitals and various healthcare institutions involving various Professionals such as Doctors, Pharmacists, Medical Laboratory Scientists, Medical Laboratory Technicians, Medical Laboratory Assistants, Nurses, Physiotherapists, Radiographers, Health Information Officers, Human Resources Managers, etc. is becoming a challenge leading to various strikes and labour protests in Nigeria. The patients and family relatives and host communities of such health institutions are becoming uncomfortable with quality of care due to inter-professional discord. This needs a critical discussion towards solving/looking into the challenges such as Personality differences, Health Leadership and Hierarchy, Disruptive behaviors, Culture and ethnicity, Generational differences, Gender, Historical inter-professional and intra-professional education, Fears of diluted professional identification, Differences in accountability, payment and rewards, Concerns regarding clinical roles and responsibilities, Complexity of care, Emphasis of rapid decision making, Service timing, with Associations and Unions. The exploration would provide solutions for better teamwork practice and improved patients care.",signatures:"Obeta M. Uchejeso, Nkereuwem S. Etukudoh, Mantu E. Chongs and Dan M. Ime",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74566",authors:[{id:"329113",title:"Dr.",name:"Obeta",surname:"M. Uchejeso",slug:"obeta-m.-uchejeso",fullName:"Obeta M. Uchejeso"},{id:"333605",title:"Dr.",name:"Nkereuwem S.",surname:"Etukudoh",slug:"nkereuwem-s.-etukudoh",fullName:"Nkereuwem S. Etukudoh"},{id:"333607",title:"MSc.",name:"Mantu",surname:"E. Chongs",slug:"mantu-e.-chongs",fullName:"Mantu E. Chongs"},{id:"333610",title:"MSc.",name:"Dan M.",surname:"Ime",slug:"dan-m.-ime",fullName:"Dan M. Ime"}],corrections:null},{id:"82162",title:"Perceptive Chapter: “Are We Listening?” - Improving Communication Strategies and Relationships between Physicians and Their Patients",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105151",slug:"perceptive-chapter-are-we-listening-improving-communication-strategies-and-relationships-between-phy",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"We talk about the “art” of medicine because medicine is more than science. The science portion drives diagnosis and treatment. However as more tests become available, the art of the relationship and communication with patients is being steadily lost. Physicians often interrupt their patients only seconds into the interview. If we stop their story that quickly, we are not listening to what they have to say. If we do not listen to their story, how can we understand their illnesses and the effects on their lives? This chapter will examine physician-patient relationships by looking at ways to help foster these relationships and what can hinder them. We need to actively listen to our patients, listening for clues about their illness and/or suffering. We need to use observation and our emotions to understand the context of their illness. Examples will be included to help elucidate some of the challenges. Models that can provide a framework for communication will be discussed. Suggestions for ways to help improve communication and interpersonal relationships between physicians and their patients will be offered. This chapter will provide a chance to think about improving communication with our patients to help strengthen our interpersonal relationships.",signatures:"Martha Peaslee Levine",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82162",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82162",authors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],corrections:null},{id:"74548",title:"The Significance of Family-of-Origin Dynamics for Adults’ Health and Psychological Wellbeing: The Perspective of Bowen Family System Theory",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95354",slug:"the-significance-of-family-of-origin-dynamics-for-adults-health-and-psychological-wellbeing-the-pers",totalDownloads:425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bowen family system theory describes family interactional processes that are carried across the generations and determine an individual’s level of autonomy and emotional reactivity as well as the global functioning of the family. According to the theory, any personal, health-related, or relational issues can be explained as a result of diffused anxiety produced by destructive interactional patterns among family members. Although many studies are revealing the relationship between early family life experiences and functioning in adulthood, there is still a lack of studies exploring the complex mediational models based on Bowen theory that would reveal associations between different family-of-origin variables and adults’ health as well as psychological well-being. The chapter defines the main assumptions of Bowen theory as well as summarizes the main results of three studies demonstrating how family and personal factors defined by Bowen theory, such as family emotional system, triangulation, differentiation of self, relate to adults’ health and psychological well-being.",signatures:"Viktorija Cepukiene",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74548",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74548",authors:[{id:"324386",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Viktorija",surname:"Cepukiene",slug:"viktorija-cepukiene",fullName:"Viktorija Cepukiene"}],corrections:null},{id:"73815",title:"The Influence of Self- and Partner-Enhancement, Perceptual Congruence and Personal Identity on Relational Satisfaction among Married Couples, Dating Couples and Same-Sex Roommate Dyads",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93913",slug:"the-influence-of-self-and-partner-enhancement-perceptual-congruence-and-personal-identity-on-relatio",totalDownloads:449,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study builds on the Taylor and Brown theory of positive illusions to attain a more in-depth understanding of the relative influence of perceptual congruence and enhanced perception (positive illusions) on relational satisfaction. A sample of 812, organized into 406 subject-partner pairs of 203 married couples, 100 dating couples, and 103 same-sex roommate dyads completed questionnaires. Each subject rated him- or her-self on six personal qualities (social skills, emotional stability, agreeableness, hostility, depression, and spirituality) and four temperaments (Dominance, Influence, Supportiveness, Conscientiousness). Then they took tests that measured the same qualities to compare with the self-ratings. On another questionnaire, each partner rated the subject on the same 10 qualities. Both subjects and partners completed the Dyadic Adjustment Scale as the measure of relational satisfaction. Primary findings discovered that in most cases, positive illusions diminish relational satisfaction. The only setting in which benefit occurs is when partners rate subjects higher than subjects rate themselves. Congruence between ratings (whether subject-test, partner-test or subject-partner) is strongly associated with relational success. Findings contrast with the Taylor and Brown theory and provide a more nuanced look at the influence of enhancement or congruence.",signatures:"Darren Michael George, Andrel Wisdom, Annelise Linrud, Stephanie Hall, Miriam Ballais and Karina Bermudez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73815",authors:[{id:"327836",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Darren Michael",surname:"George",slug:"darren-michael-george",fullName:"Darren Michael George"},{id:"327838",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrel",surname:"Wisdom",slug:"andrel-wisdom",fullName:"Andrel Wisdom"},{id:"327839",title:"Ms.",name:"Annelise",surname:"Linrud",slug:"annelise-linrud",fullName:"Annelise Linrud"},{id:"327840",title:"Ms.",name:"Miriam",surname:"Ballais",slug:"miriam-ballais",fullName:"Miriam Ballais"},{id:"327841",title:"Ms.",name:"Karina",surname:"Bermudez",slug:"karina-bermudez",fullName:"Karina Bermudez"},{id:"327842",title:"Ms.",name:"Stephanie",surname:"Hall",slug:"stephanie-hall",fullName:"Stephanie Hall"}],corrections:null},{id:"74488",title:"The Changing Concept of Self and Identity in Aging Working Women from Shelter Homes: Case Studies on Rebuilding of Interpersonal Relationships",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95317",slug:"the-changing-concept-of-self-and-identity-in-aging-working-women-from-shelter-homes-case-studies-on-",totalDownloads:213,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Violence against women has been the subject of study in many countries and in different cultures. The fact that women enjoy a secondary position in many societies is proved through different studies, in spite of the changes in the laws of the countries. How differently a woman is treated at home and work front too is a known subject of research. There are numerous women out there who have been forced into the work force without any option left for them to decide otherwise. May be they don’t enjoy the recognition they deserve and the only motivating force for them is the preservation of their individual dignity. There is no certainty about their future yet they are successful in many ways. Here are three women who have dared to raise a voice against the injustice done to them and have ended up in shelter homes for having a mind which thinks differently than the imposed social norms and customs set by the society and have used their voice to get help to preserve their dignity. From uncertainty about life and hopelessness to gaining confidence, having a strong resiliency to hoping for a better future for the future generation, they have seen it all and have extraordinary inspiring life stories to share with the ordinary women.",signatures:"Nivedita Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74488",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74488",authors:[{id:"324383",title:"Dr.",name:"Nivedita",surname:"Das",slug:"nivedita-das",fullName:"Nivedita Das"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5925",title:"Perception of Beauty",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11f483d631557ad26d48b577e23a724f",slug:"perception-of-beauty",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5925.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",surname:"Peaslee 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\r\n\tManifolds, a subject of interest for researchers in their own right, have many applications and interactions with many areas of mathematics and physics. These areas include partial differential equations, elliptic problems, boundary value problems, Schrodinger, and heat operators. Fundamentally, with Descartes and the introduction of coordinates, a line or a plane becomes via coordinates an algebraic object, more precisely an equation.
\r\n\r\n\tIn general, any coordinates replace geometry by algebra and we get a two-dimensional correspondence between the study of space and the study of equations. This process is a shift from geometry to numbers at a basic level. The coordinatization process has been used well before mathematicians accepted it as a method.
\r\n\r\n\tThe manifolds are precisely those spaces that can be piecewise provided with coordinates by means of a smooth correspondence on overlaps, and the book will intend to study these structures in mathematics, as well as the impact and applications to a variety of other areas of mathematics. Recently, there have been very deep insights into the subject, and it is intended this the book will provide readers with an interest in the subject a clear review of advances and consequences in this area of investigation.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-231-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-230-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-232-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"eca1aa784f719310820d6bb2cf5a7b20",bookSignature:"Prof. Paul Bracken",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11502.jpg",keywords:"Covariant Derivative, Connection, Elliptic, Boundary Value Problem, Hodge Decomposition, Differential Form, Curvature, Metric, Spin Structure, Bundle, Local Index Theorem, Clifford Algebra",numberOfDownloads:24,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 12th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 29th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Paul Bracken obtained his BSc degree from the University of Toronto and holds a Ph.D. from the University of Waterloo in Canada. His research interests include mathematical problems from the area of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory, differential geometry, a study of partial differential equations as well as their overlap with other problems in physics. He has published more than 180 papers in journals and books and has given many talks at different levels over the years.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92883/images/system/92883.jpg",biography:"Professor Paul Bracken is currently a Professor in the Department of Mathematics, at the University of Texas RGV in Edinburg, TX. He obtained his BSc degree from the University of Toronto and holds a Ph.D. from the University of Waterloo in Canada. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55112",title:"Modified Electrodes for Determining Trace Metal Ions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68193",slug:"modified-electrodes-for-determining-trace-metal-ions",body:'\nA number of techniques have been employed for the determination of trace metal ions including atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS), inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES), and electrochemical techniques. Spectroscopic techniques are very expensive and need preconcentration as well as extraction that are time-consuming with danger of losses and contamination [1]. Electroanalytical techniques, particularly anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV), can be considered as the most powerful techniques due to their excellent detection limits, high sensitivity, capacity for multielement determination, high speed, simplicity, and relatively low cost [2] not to mention their innovative opportunities. It is important to be noted right at the very first here that voltammetry is not the only technique to be used for modified electrodes but other electrochemical techniques can be applied as well, especially potentiometry.
\nThe selection of a proper electrode material is crucial in voltammetry. For the past six decades, mercury has been the most commonly used electrode material in various configurations for electrochemical determination of trace metal ions. Despite advantages of formation of amalgam and high overvoltage for gases among others, there have been numerous attempts to replace well-known toxic mercury with some other nontoxic or less-toxic electrode material [3]. Nowadays, numerous new electrode materials and methods have been developed, especially those concerning electrode modifications in particular with nanomaterials.
\nIn general especially in the past, an electrode can be any electroconducting materials that were started by metals such as platinum or gold. Later, glassy carbon has been used with a number of advantages in particular ease to use and wide potential range. After that, carbon paste has been applied due to the fact that it is easy to prepare. Various substances have been mixed to attract the analytes especially metal ions to be collected at electrode surface and increase the sensitivity. With an introduction of nanomaterials and conducting polymers, for example, the surface areas for preconcentrating metal ions have been dramatically increased, making the method perfect for trace metal analysis in accordance with simplicity and low cost of electrochemical methods. Consequently, at present, there are a great number of research articles involving the development of new methods using a variety of modified electrodes to be applied with various areas as well as samples. To make this chapter simple but specific, the use of enzymes in the form of biosensors is not mentioned here. Those who are interested can obtain those specific stories in detail in a large number of available references [4]. We also have to say that modified electrodes can be used with a great variety of analytes, but metal ions are under the focus here. However, for the sake of abundant available applications and promising characteristics in adapting to metal ion analysis, the determinations of other analytes will be concisely included.
\nDue to the fact that there are vast types of available and investigated substrates, the most recent and the most popular are discussed here. Other less frequently used electrodes such as carbon fiber or carbon cloth are not included. The readers are recommended to further study corresponding articles for more details.
\nGlassy carbon electrodes (GCEs) are prepared by means of a carefully controlled heating program of premodeled polymeric resin body in an inert atmosphere [5]. Unlike many nongraphitizing carbons, it is impermeable to gases and also resistant to acid attack. The structure of glassy carbon consists of graphite planes randomly organized in a complex topology. Glassy carbon possesses isotropic properties and does not require a particular orientation in the electrode device. The properties of carbonaceous materials significantly depend on the manufacturing processes involved. Surface treatment is usually employed to create its active and reproducible surface to enhance analytical performances. Another way is to include certain additional activation steps such as electrochemical, chemical, vacuum heat, or laser treatment.
\nCarbon electrodes offer a useful and environmentally friendly alternative to substitute mercury electrodes with a narrow cathodic range or noble metal surfaces with limitations in terms of reproducibility, formation of oxide layers during voltammetric procedures and relatively low cost [6]. It becomes one of the most commonly used substrates due to its wide potential window with low background and its chemical stability. Electrode modification can then be applied to improve its performance in terms of sensitivity, selectivity, and reproducibility.
\nBoron-doped diamond (BDD) electrodes have also currently attracted much interest to be applied in a variety of areas due to their superior properties, including extreme robustness with a low level of background interference, less adsorption of polar molecules, and attractively wider potential window in aqueous media [7, 8]. It has been used to quantify manganese in tea [9] as well as lead in tap water [10] and river sediment. Anodic stripping voltammetry BDD has been proved to possess outstanding features [11] to determine silver [12] and simultaneous detection of lead and copper [13].
\nFluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) has been applied continuously as a substrate with outstanding features of simplicity in layer-by-layer (LbL) fabrication and its compatibility with extensive building blocks including dyes, biomolecules, nanomaterials, and polymers [14]. In spite of the fact that it has been reported to be successfully applied in the analysis of biosubstances particularly DNA, it is also mentioned here in light of making its promising way to metal ion analysis.
\nThere are numerous possibilities to choose from for screen-printed electrode (SPE). The most popular material is still carbon. SPE has advantages of small size, low cost, simplicity as well as smaller amount of sample and waste. The problem of lower sensitivity can be solved by electrode modification, which also highlights its applications in a larger number of areas [15].
\nCarbon paste is still widely used throughout the development of modified electrodes with certain reasons including superb quality of carbon as an electrode, low cost, and its simplicity [16]. With clever design, additional benefits can be reached including stability, reproducibility, and fast response time. This material has been found to be useful for the determination of both compounds and metal ions.
\nSilica, in particular mesoporous silica, has been increasingly used in modified electrode with features of inertness, high surface area, moderate cost, availability, and compatibility of being anchored by various materials. It has been reported to be useful in the analysis of both biomolecules and metal ions [17].
\nA number of materials have been investigated to be used in preconcentrating metal ions as well as other substances and make electrochemistry unique and highlighted in the worlds of analytical chemistry and beyond. Thanks to the developments and arrivals of nanomaterials, the most widely used especially at the very beginning is metal nanoparticles such as silver or gold to increase the surface areas and in turn the sites for metal ions to deposit. Both conducting and nonconducting polymers have been used for a long time in modifying electrode surface to have more capabilities in supporting metal ions. Mesoporous silica with the advantage of surface areas as well has been used in the determinations of a number of metal ions. Another example of a neutral substance with greater surface areas in collecting metal ions is chitosan, a substance from shrimp. Currently, it is certain that the opportunity is there that a large number of substances are under investigations or even await the discovery. Finally, the combinations of a variety of materials have also been proved to be useful in further receiving the metals ions to a greater extent. The electrodes modified by aforementioned materials are then applied in stripping voltammetry, parameters are optimized, and then the methods are used with real samples. Normally, the results are compared with standard methods or the standard materials are used for verification. A number of spectroscopic and electrochemical methods can also be used to provide additional details of the analysis. At present, a very large number of research articles focus on the applications of modified electrodes in many areas especially in the analysis of a great variety of substances, in particular, metal ions. Also, a number of materials have been investigated in the form of layers and sublayers as well as specific pores as a specific substrate for particular analytes, hence, the new term of “molecular imprinted,” which makes the method extremely specific.
\nThe following materials that have been used in electrode modifications are not arranged with the criteria of the time of development. Rather, it is presented in the order of simplicity.
\nWith a superb characteristic of specific electrode such as screen-printed carbon electrode, metal ion can still be determined at trace level by in a very normal way [18].
\nGraphene is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a two-dimensional, atomic-scale and hexagonal lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. It is composed of a single layer of sp2 carbon in two dimensions. It is the basic structural element of other allotropes, including graphite, charcoal, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and fullerenes. Graphene has a great variety of unusual beneficial properties including strength, heat and electricity conductivity, transparency, magnetic properties, and low cost [19].
\nGraphene can be prepared in a modified way to obtain different and beneficial properties in new forms including thermally reduced graphene, partially reduced graphene, or even electrochemically reduced graphene (ErGO). Normally, this is the arrangement of oxygen in the structure, hence the name graphene oxide that is really helpful in collecting metal ions and providing better selectivity, resolution, as well as precision. With the addition of other substance that can form the bond via conjugation with graphene, electrocatalization as well as electroluminescence (ECL) can be facilitated. This modified graphene derivatives can be use satisfactorily in both waste water treatment via adsorption [20] as well as analysis in only one step [21] in addition to the development of new batteries [21, 22] and improvement of antibacterial properties [23].
\nMetal and metal alloys can also be used in the analysis of different species such as nitrite but the applications for metal ions are focused here. Moreover, as a typical case,only metal that can satisfactorily substitute mercury namely bismuth is emphasized.
\nIn 2000, a new type of electrode called bismuth film electrode (BiFE) consisting of a thin film of bismuth deposited on a carbon substrate has been proposed as an alternative to mercury electrodes in ASV [24]. The main advantage of electrochemical properties of bismuth film electrodes in comparison with mercury film electrodes (MFEs) is that Bi is more environmentally friendly with less toxicity in addition to simple preparation, high sensitivity, well-defined and separated stripping signals, and insensitivity to dissolved oxygen (which is an essential property for on-site monitoring). The superior stripping performances of bismuth-based electrodes derive from their ability to form “fused” alloys with other metals similar to mercury [24].
\nThere are three common ways to generate a bismuth film including (i) by preplating it from an acidic solution which is called an ex situ preparation, (ii) by codeposition with the analyte which is commonly known as an in situ setup and (iii) by electrode modification of a film, such as Bi2O3(s) or BiF3, to generate the Bi(s) coating [25]. Ex situ plating was found to be easier to manage because the conditions can be different from analytical or stripping conditions, and there are no interferents in depositing; however, it is more susceptible to the change of electrode surface during electrode transfer and more steps make the method take longer time. Another advantage of ex situ methods is that the electrode can be regenerated at any time. Also, the potential can be better controlled due to the fact that, for in situ preparation, the stripping of bismuth needs to be performed at the potential more positive than bismuth oxidation and after that bismuth is replated [26].
\nA number of metal complexes have been immobilized on the substrate to attract or react with other substances. Due to the fact that it already contains metals, this type of modification substance is normally used for the determination of organic and inorganic compounds especially via electrocatalysis [27]. Cobalt phthalocyanin has been widely and continuously investigated and applied for the analysis of ascorbic, diethyl stilbestol, and acetaminophen [28]. Manganese porphyrins have been extensively investigated [29]. As a matter of fact, porphyrins themselves can accommodate metal ions really well and, with the increase of surface areas, should be able to be used in the analysis of metal ions [30].
\nThere was a wonderful review for metal nanoparticles for the determination of arsenic, chromium, lead, cadmium, and antimony [31]. Mixing metal nanoparticles with a wide range of compounds can allow the analytical performances of the methodology to be greatly improved in various aspects especially sensitivity due to larger amount of analytes collected.
\nDue to the fact that there are a great variety of metal compound nanoparticles that have been used in metal ion analysis especially recently [32], only modified magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (M-MIONPs) for mercury determination are mentioned here as an example.
\nIt is well known that mercury in the lowest levels of concentrations is dangerous for human health due to its bioaccumulation in body and toxicity. Modified magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (M-MIONPs) with 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) was found to be able to absorb mercury (II) ion satisfactorily from polluted surface water with advantages of speed, cost-effectiveness, simplicity, capability, ease of preparation, and safety [33]. Modification by 2-mercaptobanzothiazole could increase absorption percentage up to 98.6% compared with 43.47% for magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONPs) alone. Salt concentrations and pH were found to have no profound effect on mercury ion accumulation with high loading capacity of 590 μg/g. This proves that the capability of metal compound nanoparticles in attracting analytes can be greatly improved by combining them with additional compounds.
\nOrganic compounds that can be used normally or after polymerization are provided in the topic of polymers. All kinds of organic compounds that can attract metal ions can be used well in metal ion determination. The stronger bond obtained from the compounds, the better they can be applied in accumulating metal ions. Ketones and quinones form another group of interest with specific interaction with certain metal ions [34]. Additionally, all organic compounds can be made nanostructured by mounting in a multilayer form on substrate electrode. A few popular compounds are exemplified as follows.
\nCrown ether is a macrocyclic compound with a pore of specific size to accommodate metal ions. With derivation, its selectivity can be greatly increased. This characteristic combined with different potential of stripping makes the methodology suitable for simultaneous determination of metal ions which can face or cause interferences in other techniques [35].
\nStrategies can also be designed to let the compounds to form self-assembled monolayers (SAM) on metal electrodes or to be immobilized on other monolayers [36, 37].
\nSchiff bases are defined as the substances that contain the C═N moiety. With their specific capability in forming complexes with metal ions, Schiff bases can help increase the quantity of analytes on the electrode surface. Typical examples are potentiometric determination of Co(II) [38] and cyclic voltammetric analysis of Al(III) [39].
\nTwo cases of 2-mercaptobenzothiazole and diazonium are stated here for the vision about the applications with the use of materials in this group that can be in both monomeric and polymeric forms. Moreover, certain polymers can also be used for the purpose of molecular imprint [40].
\n2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) has been found in both monomer and polymer forms with the capabilities of collecting metal ions. Modification of nano-TiO2 modified with 2-mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) was found to be capable of collecting metal ions including Cd(II), Cu(II), and Pb(II) followed by elution with nitric acid and analysis by flame AAS [41]. Adsorption process as well as analytical conditions was optimized to obtain the dynamic range in ng/ml of 0–25.0 for Cd, 0.2–20.0 for Cu and 3.0–70.0 for Pb. The method was applied to the determination of Cd(II), Cu(II), and Pb(II) in water and ore samples. Obviously, this can also be applied to the analysis by electrochemistry without any need for elution. As a matter of fact, this is the topic under investigations of our group at present.
\nPoly(2-mercaptobenzothiazole) (PMBT) modified glassy carbon electrode has been fabricated and employed for the determination of specific organic compounds namely dopamine (DA), uric acid (UA), and nitrite (NO2−) in pH 6 phosphate buffer [42]. PMBT was found to catalyze oxidation of the compounds and shift the potentials to more negative which in turn resulted in well-defined and well-separated differential pulse (DP) peaks and made them possible to be simultaneously analyzed. SEM also revealed that continuous PMBT was formed with nano-scaled particles of 15–25 nm diameters. With optimized conditions, dynamic linear range in μmol/l was found to be 0.8–45 for DA, 0–165 for UA, and 60–1000 for NO2− with excellent linearity and submicromolar detection limits. Moreover, using standard addition, the methodology could be applied well with the real samples of urine and serum. Once again, due to the fact that the compound can react with metal ions well, this could shed some lights on simultaneous analysis of metal ions as well.
\nThe modification through the electrochemical or chemical reduction of aromatic diazonium derivatives has been extensively investigated on a variety of carbon substrate including glassy carbon [43, 44], graphite [45], graphene [46], and carbon nanotube [47]. It has been proved to immobilize a great variety of functional groups onto carbon materials with simplicity and versatility to be used in metal analysis in a number of areas. Another advantage is long-term stability both in air and organic solvents. The high stability of the diazonium-modified electrodes and the versatility of the diazonium modification method are particularly attractive for stripping analysis. Carbon modified by the reduction of aromatic diazonium derivatives was first used as an electrode for electrochemical stripping analysis of heavy metals [44]. Diazobenzoic acid was reduced on GCE to obtain benzoic acid modified GCE to simultaneously analyze Cd2+ and Pb2+. The sensitivity of stripping peaks for both metals was increased up to six times with satisfactory analytical performances including 0.5–50 μg/l linear range, submicrogram per liter detection limits, and superbly low relative standard deviation especially for Cd2+. The method was successfully used in determining the metals in sewage samples. The detection of Cd2+ by ASV on BDD electrode based on simple and selective electrochemical reduction of Cd2+ on diazonium-modified BDD electrode has been developed with analytical performance interference study as well as verification by analyzing standard material. The method was then applied to the analysis of Cd in tap water [43].
\nChitosan (CTS), poly-[1,4]-N-D-glucosamine, is one of the most abundant natural polymers. Its pKa is about 6.5; therefore, at lower pH solutions (>pKa), its primary amines are protonated, making it a cationic polyelectrolyte that is soluble in aqueous solution. At higher pH (>pKa), these amines are deprotonated which, in turn, makes chitosan neutral and insoluble [48]. The reasons that chitosan can be applied well in the analysis of drug substances, environment pollutants, industrial materials, and food compounds are that they can form the film well and attach strongly to the surfaces. They are also hydrophilic, compatible with biological substances, mechanical resistant, and capable to be further modified [49].
\nIt has long been known that cationic metals can be strongly absorbed on clay materials with negative charge. A large number of scientists especially in the areas of environments have extensively studied the adsorption of metal ions on the clay particles. This characteristic also benefits the determination as well as elimination of metal ions [50, 51].
\nMesoporous materials are described as materials whose pore diameters lie in the range between 2 and 50 nm [52]. These materials are in focus due to the fact that they have abundant surface areas, they can absorb metal ion very fast, and their pore size as well as pore arrangement can be well-controlled. Moreover, they can be chemically modified with other functional groups to be able to better attract large variety of metal ions for the purpose of simultaneous analysis and removal for various samples [53].
\nDue to the fact that different kinds of charcoal can specifically adsorb metal ions on their surface [54, 55], they should work well in collecting metal ions. The increase of both surface areas and specificity from modifications can facilitate better analytical performances. Even though there have not yet been recent reports about their applications in metal ion analysis, the opportunity is there to apply charcoals onto substrates as a new methodology to reach the objective of using readily obtained and low-cost materials in both analysis and removal of metal ions.
\nCarbon nanotubes are tube-form materials with the diameter at nanometer level discovered by a Japanese scientist, Sumio Iijima, in 1991. They can be classified into single-walled (SWCNT) and multiwalled (MWCNT) with different properties especially in terms of metallic and magnetic behavior. They can be prepared by chemical vapor deposition (CVD), arc discharge, or laser vaporization. They can be applied in a large number of areas especially modified electrodes. Carbon nanotubes can be mounted either alone or mixed with other materials on any substrate electrode but preferably GCE. MWCNT is normally more satisfactory due to its advantages of highly ordered structure, light weight strength as well as thermal and electrical conductivity. In particular, the multi-walled have been extensively used in the determination of organic compounds [56] or metal ions either by electrochemistry [57] or spectroscopy [58, 59]. Their advantages in analysis mainly derive from the capabilities to adsorb metal ions [60]. This property makes it suitable to be applied in the areas of energy [61]. Furthermore, with large surface areas of carbon nanotubes, a number of substances can be mounted on them either single layer or multilayer to increase the capability to preconcentrate metal ions before their determinations [62].
\nMixed materials can be used to determine both organic and inorganic substances including metal ions with the only reason of selectivity improvement. Despite of the fact that there are increasing methods to determine compounds such as H2O2 or glycerol, the combination of modified materials has been proved to facilitate the determination of trace metals. The good example is the use of bismuth, polystyrene sulfonate (PSS), and carbon nanopowder (CnP) in the determination of cadmium and lead [63]. This group can be further researched with the keyword “nanocomposites” [23, 64].
\nCertain biomolecules including DNA, peptides, algae, and cell among numerous others can be used to determine specific metal ions. However, the experimental procedures can be much more complicated and difficult. The readers are recommended to obtain more information from an available review [65].
\nHeavy metal contaminations have become one of the environmental issues of global concern due to the serious harm to human health. They have been main contribution for environmental problems caused by their ecological toxicity in a number of areas worldwide. Heavy metals and their products have been extensively distributed in natural surroundings, and they continued their cycles in accumulating in living organisms before passing on to human. Among those not easily removed from the environment are cadmium, mercury, copper, lead, silver, zinc, and arsenic [41]. Lead and cadmium are responsible for the damage of kidney and nervous as well as circulation systems [66]. Lead particularly has the greatest effects on children due to the fact that it causes irreversible neurological disorders. The limits of lead and cadmium in drinking water set in the USA are 0.015 and 0.005 mg/l respectively [67]. Therefore, control and accurate determination of trace metals in environment is of paramount importance.
\nFor voltammetry, stripping techniques are the most widely used in metal ion analysis [2, 3] and normally the main objective of developing new ASV methodology for is to improve the analytical performances in determining trace metal ions including higher reproducibility, higher sensitivity, more convenience, better speed, lower cost, and environmentally friendlier conditions. The methods are optimized as well as standardized and then applied to the analysis of a great variety of real samples. Their brief practical aspects are presented as follows.
\nAfter the modified electrode of interest is fabricated and its characteristics such as wettability are clearly defined, involving parameters are optimized such as electrolyte and electrolyte concentrations, pH and buffer to use, concentration of modifying agent and involving materials, deposition potential, deposition time, scan rate, and interferences. The optimized method is then applied with standards to obtain analytical performances followed by methods validations. Finally, real samples can be analyzed in comparison with other standard methods.
\nThe comparison of voltammetry with normal electrode has been comprehensively discussed, especially for the speciation of arsenic [68]. Spectroscopic methods can provide the best limit of detection (LOD) but with high cost. With higher LOD, voltammetry is a better choice. Due to much greater sensitivity achieved by using modified electrodes, previous obstacles can be overcome and makes a large number of methods in the past applicable to real sample analysis by electrochemistry.
\nOnce practical approaches have been clearly proved to be applicable, the next important step is delving into involving interactions in order to lay the brick for future development of modifying materials as well as metal species to be determined. Methods such as X-ray crystallography, cyclic voltammetry (CV), Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS), and quantum calculations can be helpful in understanding collecting interaction and bond formation between metal ions and coordinating atoms [69, 70].
\nIn addition, normally surface method such as Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) as well as Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) can be employed to follow the change of the surface during modifications and EIS has also proved to be helpful in checking the conductivity of electrode materials [71].
\nTo picture the figures of merit and analytical performances and to compare a wide range of modified electrodes, a number of investigations have been summarized in Tables 1–5). The decision has been made to arrange the research items with the criteria of individual analyte with a wide range of publication periods to suit specific areas of researchers and to shed light on their upcoming research. Even though the focus is on metal ions, bisphenol A and hydrogen peroxide have been used as a model for the applications of modified electrodes in analyzing other compounds. Despite of the fact that two units of concentration are expressed, the advantage of modified electrodes in moving up to better sensitivity and specificity as well as their more useful and more innovative applications in the near future can be clearly seen.
\nEntry | \nModified electrode | \nMethods | \nIon/compound | \nLinear range (mol/l) | \nLD (nmol/l) | \nRef |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nFe3O4 NPs-CSa/GCE | \nDPVj | \nBisphenol A (BPA) | \n0.05–30.0 | \n8.0 | \n[72] |
2 | \nCMK-3/nano-CILPEb | \nLSVk | \nBisphenol A (BPA) | \n0.2–150 | \n50.0 | \n[73] |
3 | \nFe3O4 NPs-CBc/GCE | \nDPV | \nBisphenol A (BPA) | \n0.0001–50.0 | \n0.031 | \n[74] |
4 | \nAu NPs/SGNFd/GCE | \nLSV | \nBisphenol A (BPA) | \n0.08–250.0 | \n35.0 | \n[75] |
5 | \nAu NPs-GRe/GCE | \nDPV | \nBisphenol A (BPA) | \n0.0001–100 | \n50.0 | \n[76] |
6 | \nFe3O4 NPs-PANAMf /GCE | \nAMPl | \nBisphenol A (BPA) | \n0.01–3.07 | \n5.0 | \n[77] |
7 | \nRGOg/CNTh/Au NPs/SPEi | \nDPV | \nBisphenol A (BPA) | \n0.00145–1.49 | \n0.8 | \n[78] |
Analytical performances of various modified electrodes for BPA determination.
CS: chitosan.
CMK-3/nano-CILPE: ordered mesoporous carbon modified nano-carbon ionic liquid paste electrode.
CB: carbon black.
SGNF: stacked graphene nanofibers.
Au NPs-GR: gold nanoparticles dotted graphene.
PANAM: poly(amidoamine).
RGO: reduced graphene oxide.
CNT: carbon nanotubes.
SPE: screen-printed electrode.
DPV: Differential Pulse Voltammetry
LSV: Linear Scan Voltammetry
AMP: Amperometry
Entry | \nModified electrode | \nMethods | \nIon/compound | \nLinear range (μg/l) | \nLD (μg/l) | \nRef |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nCB-15-crown-5a/GCE | \nDPASVj | \nPb/Cd | \n10.9–186.5/15.7–191.1 | \n3.3/4.7 | \n[35] |
2 | \nBiOClb/MWCNTc/GCE | \nSWASVk | \nPb/Cd | \n5–50/5–50 | \n0.57/1.2 | \n[79] |
3 | \nL-cysd/GRe-CS/GCE | \nDPASV | \nPb/Cd | \n1.04–62.1/0.56–67.2 | \n0.12/0.45 | \n[80] |
4 | \nMWCNT/poly(PCV)f/GCE | \nDPASV | \nPb/Cd | \n1.0–200.0/1.0–300.0 | \n0.4/0.2 | \n[81] |
5 | \nBi-D24C8g/Nafion SPCE | \nSWASV | \nPb/Cd | \n0.5–60/0.5–60 | \n0.11/0.27 | \n[2] |
6 | \nBi/poly(p-ABSA)/GCE | \nDPASV | \nPb/Cd | \n1.0–130/1.0–110.0 | \n0.8/0.63 | \n[82] |
7 | \nBi-xerogel/Nafion/GCE | \nSWASV | \nPb/Cd | \n1.04–20.72/0.56–11.24 | \n1.3/0.37 | \n[83] |
8 | \nBi/CNT/SPE | \nSWASV | \nPb/Cd | \n2–100/2–100 | \n0.2/0.8 | \n[84] |
9 | \nBi2O3/GCEh | \nSWASV | \nPb/Cd | \n2–250/1–150 | \n0.26/0.52 | \n[85] |
10 | \nBiF4/CPEi | \nSWASV | \nPb/Cd | \n20–100/20–100 | \n9.8/1.2 | \n[86] |
Analytical performances of various modified electrodes for Pd and Cd simultaneous determination.
CB-15-crown-5, 4-carbox-ybenzo-15-crown-5.
BioCl, bismuth-oxychloride.
MWCNT, multi-walled carbon nanotube.
L-cys, L-cysteine.
GR, graphene.
poly(PCV), poly(pyrocatecholviolet).
D24C8, dibenzo-24-crown-8.
Bi2O3/GCE, graphite-composite electrodes bulk-modified with Bi2O3.
BiF4/CPE, ammonium tetrafluorobismuthate bulk-modified carbon paste electrode.
DPASV: Differential Pulse Anodic Stripping Voltammetry.
SWASV: Square Wave Anodic Stripping Voltammetry.
Entry | \nModified electrode | \nMethods | \nIon/compound | \nLinear range (μM) | \nLD (μM) | \nReferences |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nHba microbelt/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n10–230 | \n0.61 | \n[87] |
2 | \nHRPb/DNAc-Ag/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n7.0–7.8 | \n2 | \n[88] |
3 | \nCobalt oxide NPs/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n1–1000 | \n0.6 | \n[89] |
4 | \nCyt cd/Ag NPs/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n8.5–130 | \n9.8 | \n[90] |
5 | \nMbe(Hb, HRP)/SWCNT-CTABf/GCE | \nCVi | \nH2O2 | \n24.2–1670 | \n8.07 | \n[91] |
6 | \nHb/undoped nanocrystalline diamond/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n2–25 | \n0.4 | \n[92] |
7 | \nHb/PAN-co-PAAg/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n– | \n4.5 | \n[93] |
8 | \nHb/chitosan and nanoCaCO3/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n– | \n8.3 | \n[94] |
9 | \nHb/nano-gold/ITOh | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n10–700 | \n4.5 | \n[95] |
10 | \nHb/nano-Ag sol-gel/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n1–250 | \n0.1 | \n[96] |
11 | \nHb/nano-Ag-chitosan/GCE | \nCV | \nH2O2 | \n0.75–216 | \n0.2 | \n[97] |
Analytical performances of various modified electrodes for H22 determination.
Hb: Hemoglobin.
HRP: Horseradish peroxidase.
DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid.
Cyt c: Cytochrome c.
Mb: Myoglobin.
SWCNT-CTAB: Single walled carbon nanotubes-cetylramethylammonium bromide.
PAN-co-PAA: poly(acrylonitrile-co-acrylic acid).
ITO: Indium tin oxide.
CV: Cyclic voltammetry.
Entry | \nModified electrode | \nMethods | \nIon/compound | \nLinear range (nM) | \nLD (nM) | \nReferences |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nNNaHMDEb | \nCSVf | \nIron | \n– | \n0.08 | \n[98] |
2 | \nDHNc/HMDE | \nCSV | \nIron | \n– | \n0.005 | \n[99] |
3 | \nDHNd(mercury coated, gold, micro-wire electrode) | \nCSV | \nIron | \n– | \n0.1 | \n[100] |
4 | \n5-Br-PADAPdHDME | \nDLSAVg | \nIron | \n0.25–100 | \n– | \n[101] |
5 | \n-(IL-rGO/AuNDse/Nafion/GCE) | \nSWVh | \nIron | \n300–100,000 | \n35 | \n[102] |
Analytical performances of various modified electrodes for iron determination.
NN: 1-nitroso-2-naphthol.
DHN: 2,3-dihydroxynaphthalene.
HDME: Hanging mercury drop electrode.
5-Br-PADAP: 2-(5′-bromo-2′-pyridylazo)-5-diethylaminophenol
IL-rGO/Au NDs: ionic liquid-reduced graphene oxide supported gold nanodendrites.
CSV: Cathodic stripping voltammetry.
DLSAV: derivative linear sweep adsorption voltammetry
SWV: Square wave voltammetry.
Entry | \nModified electrode | \nMethods | \nIon/compound | \nLinear range (μg/l) | \nLD (μg/l) | \nReferences |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nHMDEa | \nDPASV | \nSe (IV) | \n1.2–75 | \n– | \n[103] |
2 | \nBiFEb | \nDPASV | \nSe (IV) | \n2.0–30 | \n0.1 | \n[104] |
3 | \nAuEc modified with poly 3,3′-diaminobenzidine 4HCl-Nafion | \nDPASV | \nSe (IV) | \n0.4–158 | \n0.06 | \n[105] |
4 | \nScreen printed graphite electrode | \nDPASV | \nSe (IV) | \n10–1000 | \n4.9 | \n[106] |
5 | \nAu NPs/BDD | \nDPASV | \nSe (IV) | \n10–100 | \n– | \n[107] |
6 | \nPoly(3,3′- diaminobenzidine) film/AuE | \nDPASV | \nSe (IV) | \n7.9–79 | \n0.78 | \n[108] |
7 | \nRenewable silver annular band working electrode | \nDPASV | \nSe (IV) | \n1.0–10 | \n0.15 | \n[109] |
8 | \nAuNPs/Ed(GCE) | \nSWASV | \nSe (IV) | \n15–55 | \n0.12 | \n[110] |
Analytical performances of various modified electrodes for Se determination.
HDME: Hanging Mercury Drop Electrode.
BiFE: Bismuth film electrode.
AuE: Gold electrode.
E: Electrochemically prepared.
Electrochemistry has been used and studied for a long time, which lays great fundamentals for the development of newer electrochemical techniques. Valuable previous discoveries await their improvements by using modified electrodes. Innovations are underway to analyze metal ions with greater analytical performances as well as to suit simultaneous determinations. New compounds can be investigated and mixed or immobilized to increase the surface areas and serve species imprints which in turn require deeper investigations for the attractions and interactions between modified substrate and analytes. Modified electrodes should also work well with spectroscopic, separation, and other methods in a variety of ways. They have already been proved to facilitate reactions for energy research [111]. The new thing that has not been considered is the use of modified electrodes in organic synthesis to make it more specific [112]. Moreover, modified electrode has already found its ways in spectroelectrochemical investigation [113]. Finally, new theoretical explanations can be adapted for better understanding and applications, which would be the stepping stones for more and greater inventions in the future.
\nModified electrodes have been proved to be effective in the determination of a number of metals ions. With the speed, simplicity, and sensitivity of stripping voltammetry, the methods can be successfully applied to their analysis at trace level. Mixtures of various compounds await the art to manifest them in increasing the sensitivity for monitoring the concentrations of important metal ions. Additionally, the discovery of new nanomaterials would give stripping voltammetry a bright future. Furthermore, new electrochemical techniques such as EIS would assist the applications of modern modified electrodes in a great variety of areas. It is hoped that this article fires up researchers as well as opens up new opportunities in initiating and conducting new electrochemical research to be universally applicable in vast areas.
\nCopper and copper alloys are one of the major groups of commercial metals. Pure copper is defined as having a minimum copper content of 99.3% [1].
While pure copper is used extensively for electrical components, such as cables and contacts, alloys like brass or bronze are used for thermal energy transfer applications, such as radiators and heat exchangers [2].
While the laser-based additive manufacturing of alloyed coppers, such as brass or bronze, was successfully done, approaches in processing pure copper with, at the time, available infrared laser sources were not satisfying in terms of electrical conductivity, density, and process stability. Electron beam-based AM technologies overcame this and reached densities close to 99.8% [3], however, the coarse powders combined with the high-thermal conductivity resulted in higher surface roughness and hindered de-powdering of fine channels. Sintered-based AM technologies recently reached densities above 95%, but as in metal injection molding (MIM), their mechanical properties are behind their laser or electron beam-melted counterparts.
With the availability of a powerful green laser source, some of the drawbacks in terms of the processing could be overcome resulting in highly dense and conductive parts. However technological aspects, such as a bigger laser spot diameter reduces the ability to produce for instance thin-walled or other intricate features.
Copper has unique properties that make it an outstanding engineering material, however, those properties can make the processing a particular challenge in the context of additive manufacturing and demands specific approaches.
Copper possesses the second highest electrical and thermal conductivity of all metals. The high-thermal conductivity of copper is a particular challenge during welding processes whether it is during the direct laser metal deposition or powder bed laser processing. For powder bed, this results in higher surface roughness, because the heat zone (due to the heat spreading into the powder bed) is wider causing particles to partially sinter to the consolidated body.
Due to its crystalline structure (fcc), pure copper also has high ductility. This also remains after the processing of pure copper parts from powders. Internal stresses, typically a problem for additively manufactured materials, are very low. This is beneficial since process and geometry-induced distortions are usually not a big problem. Further, an stress-relief annealing, is in most cases, not necessary but may be useful for the homogenization of the microstructure. Table 1 gives a brief overview of some physical properties of pure copper. While, based on the definition of pure copper, the absolute values often show deviations, however, the table should give an orientation.
Melting point | 1083°C | [4] |
Density | 8.94 g/cm3 @ 20°C | [4] |
Coef. thermal expansion | 17.0 x 106 /C (20–100°C) | [4] |
Thermal conductivity | 401 W/mK @ 20°C | [4] |
Electrical conductivity | 59.6 MS/m @ 20°C | [5] |
Ultimate tensile strength | 210–390 MPa | [6] |
Young’s modulus | 120 GPa | [6] |
Physical properties of pure bulk copper.
The electrical conductivity of copper and its alloys is often given relative to a copper wire test sample (international annealed copper standard, IACS) which was established in 1914. For comparison, 100% IACS is defined as 58×106 S/m at 20 °C, while the absolute maximum electrical conductivity measured for pure copper (Cu-ETP-1 or Cu-OF-1) is 58.58×106 S/m at 20°C (referring to 101% IACS). Thus, some electrical conductivity values may also exceed 100% IACS [7]. For pure copper (99.999%) value is 103.06% IACS and for pure silver it is 106% IACS [2].
The absorptivity of electromagnetic radiation into the material is wavelength-dependent. For all materials, the absorptivity generally increases with smaller wavelengths (Figure 1). For copper as a reflective material, there is a huge increase in absorptivity at 515 nm (green wavelength) compared to 1064 nm (infrared wavelength). This can be used for laser-based AM processes to change the laser source to smaller wavelengths to increase the absorptivity, thus energy can be transferred more effectively resulting in higher efficiency.
Absorption of different solid metals. Data extracted from Spisz et al. [
To mitigate the low absorptivity in the infrared region, higher laser power can be used. Recently this approach become more attention due to the well-developed system technology, especially for big build sizes. However, the higher energy input into the powder bed can lead to smaller processing windows.
While the absorptivity of copper does not affect the sintering capabilities of the copper powder, binder jetting and metal fused filament fabrication can be well compared to other powder metallurgical processes since a sintering step is clearly necessary to obtain functional metallic parts. For powder metallurgy of pure copper, the Copper Development Association Inc., an industrial board for copper, copper alloys, and their applications, mentions that “it is impractical to achieve a density of 8.94 g/cm3 by pressing and sintering alone” [9]. To achieve high density, in classical powder metallurgy, non-spherical powders are used and pressure for compaction of 207–248 MPa is recommended. Pre-compaction at higher pressures of up to 730 MPa can further increase the sintered density of simple geometries up to 97.6% [10] but might be impractical for parts that are more complex. The sintering density of the parts is then a function of sintering time and temperature, as shown in Figure 2. To show a more recent example, hot pressing of copper for 4 minutes at 600, 700, and 800°C at 50 MPa resulted in density values between 97.9 and 99.1% [11]. Interestingly, also at the highest measured density, electrical conductivity was corresponding to 90.2% IACS. This example may illustrate, that even achieving high physical density is still no guarantee to achieve high electrical conductivity, too. Besides pressurized sintering, also sintering atmosphere or other modifications are mentioned to influence the sintering activity positively, as the use of reactive gases ore use of powders having a thin oxide layer.
Dependency of physical density from sintering temperature and time for copper powder compacts [
Ott et al. investigated the heat conductivity of pressureless sintered Cu-powders and analyzed the influence of residual porosity, but also elemental impurities on that physical parameter and backed their analysis with simulated data. The conclusion of that study was, that impurities, especially Fe, cause a stronger depression of thermal conductivity than pores. According to that group, porosity of 2–5% causes loss of 10 W/mK, while 200 mg/kg Fe cause ~40 W/mK [12]. Due to the connection between thermal and electrical transport, known as Wiedemann–Franz law, also the electrical conductivity is strongly affected by impurities (Figure 3).
Relation between electrical conductivity and concentration of impurities [
During processing, oxygen from the ambient atmosphere or processing gas is the main contaminant. Fortunately, its effect on the conductivity is relatively small compared to other elements. However, using high-quality process gas (e.g. Argon with 99.999% purity) is highly recommended. Electrolytic-tough Pitch copper is allowed to have max. 400 ppm of oxygen. During LPBF processing we did not observe an additional rise in oxygen content for oxygen levels of 100 ppm in the processing gas during printing.
Ambient control with LMD is more challenging since normal shielding gas is often not enough to protect the part from oxidizing. Especially hot sections outside the working zone. Reasons are turbulences in the shielding gas stream down to the part. Technical solutions, such as a dedicated modular gas-shielding unit (e.g. COAXshield), showed good efficiency for Ti4Al4V but have to be verified for copper.
During the sintering of BJ and M-FFF parts, one can utilize hydrogen gas for the reduction of oxides and binder residue. However, during debinding carbon can potentially dissolve in copper causing a decrease in electrical conductivity.
Jadhav et al. showed (here in the case of nanoparticle addition for LPBF) that small impurities of 0.055 wt.-% carbon in the printed part can also reduce the electrical conductivity to 22.7 ×106 S/m (or 39.2% IACS) [14]. This explains the relatively lower electrical conductivity of binder-based sinter processes where complete binder burnout is often difficult to achieve.
Laser powder bed fusion is an AM process with the following repeating process steps—metal powder particles are spread evenly onto a substrate with a recoating system, then a laser source selectively melts the metal powder with specified parameters according to a previously prepared computer file with scanning strategy and laser parameters, such as laser powder, scanning velocity, and distance of single scanning tracks. Then the substrate plate is lowered by a specific layer thickness, a new powder layer is spread, and the process is repeated until the part is finished. Commercially available systems range in build volume, maximum laser power, amount of used laser sources, and laser type. Since the absorption of pure copper is poor in the infrared wavelength and commonly, LPBF machines were equipped with infrared fiber lasers, the processing of pure copper with LPBF was challenging in the past [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25]. The energy input into the material was insufficient for complete melting leaving a lack of fusion defects. The highest achievable density for pure copper parts when using a common 200 W infrared laser source was 83–88% [23, 24]. There have been two approaches in LPBF of pure copper to increase the density and subsequently the electrical conductivity—increase the infrared laser power to above 1 kW or switch to a green laser source. Colopi et al. and Ikeshoji et al. [19, 25] have used infrared laser powers of 1 kW and were able to increase the relative densities to 99.1 and 99.6%. However, melt-pool instabilities were observed due to the high difference in absorptivity in the solid and molten state of the pure copper which led to parts with low surface quality. Also, the high reflectivity can harm the optic system of the machine. TRUMPF has released an LPBF machine with an integrated green laser and could prove that high electrical conductivity can be achieved with such a system around 100% IACS [26]. With this machine, complex-shaped pure copper parts can be manufactured with high quality regarding density and electrical conductivity, and therefore, the technology is now ready to produce parts for various applications.
At Fraunhofer IWS such a TruPrint1000 Green Edition machine, equipped with a TruDisk1020 frequency-doubled laser emitting 515 nm wavelength, is available since mid-2020. The characteristics of the laser machine include a maximum laser power of 500 W, a spot diameter of 200 μm and a build volume of 100 mm diameter with 100 mm build height. Ongoing research concentrates on the following:
process parameter development for pure copper and copper alloys to increase the build rate while maintaining the high part quality, such as density and electrical conductivity
different post-processing techniques and their effects on surface quality and geometrical accuracy
pure copper and copper alloy applications
The density of pure copper parts is above 99.5% and the electrical conductivity was proven to be above 100%IACS. The oxygen content in the final part is below 400 ppm.
As can be seen in Figure 4, the surface quality shows the high roughness of the pure copper parts. Therefore, the surface needs smoothening. With two benchmark geometries developed by Fraunhofer IWS (Figure 5) specific feature sizes and overhang angle roughness can be analyzed via 3D scan and tactile measurements. The effect of different post-processes, such as sandblasting, abrasive flow machining, or chemical processes, such as plasma or electropolishing can improve the surface quality. However, material removal can be irregular, and therefore the process itself and applied parameters must be adapted to each geometry and particular application (Figure 5).
Microsection of a density cube of pure copper (left), etched microstructure in the x-z axis (right) ©IWS.
Benchmark for resolution and different features (left), benchmark for overhang angles (right) ©IWS.
Currently, possible applications investigated are components for the nuclear accelerator community, such as radiofrequency quadrupoles or nozzle geometries for laser metal deposition. Individualized inductor coils are also a field predestined for AM (Figure 6).
Example of pure copper inductor coil geometry ©IWS.
Laser metal deposition (LMD) is an AM process that is assigned to the DED processes. Laser metal deposition is a well-established technology for coating and repair of metal components for more than a decade. Recently, it has been utilized for manufacturing metallic parts from micro to macro scale without any support structures. Compared to the well-known powder bed fusion process, LMD enhances manufacturing possibilities to overcome AM-specific challenges such as process inherent porosity, minor build rates, and limited part size. Moreover, the advantages aforementioned combined with conventional machining enable novel manufacturing approaches in various fields of applications.
For small and filigree additive manufactured components, LPBF is usually considered due to the freedom of design and short-lead times [27]. However, even this innovative technology has manufacturing constraints, such as the need for support structures or high build-up times. That affects cost efficiency and process stability. In contrast to powder bed processes or competing direct methods (e.g. WAAM and EBAM), additive manufacturing via powder LMD provides
support-less manufacturing (cf. PBF),
high productivity (cf. PBF),
high flexibility due to local shielding (cf. PBF, EBAM),
precise energy input—beneficial microstructure (cf. WAAM, EBAM),
low porosity—HIP not needed (cf. PBF) and
hybrid manufacturing in one machine (cf. PBF, EBAM)
That makes this technology suitable for the realization of high-performance component designs. Besides, a further advantage of LMD is that conventionally manufactured semi-finished parts can be used adding new features via LMD. This approach decreases manufacturing time and potentiates the advantages of hybrid AM processes. Hence, powder LMD has been established in several branches, e. g. aerospace, medical, or tooling industry for the production of components for jet engines, implants, or drilling tools [28]. To deposit material on a substrate, the powder material is blown into the process zone by a nozzle, partially preheated in the laser beam, and finally reabsorbed in the laser as illustrated in Figure 7.
Principle of laser metal deposition (LMD) using powder ©IWS.
During the manufacturing process, the bulk material is melted using a laser as a heat source and powder is transported via a carrier gas, like helium or argon [29], into the melting pool using a coaxial nozzle. The powder interacts there with the melting pool and gets absorbed to manufacture the desired part. To fully absorb the powder into the melting pool minimal energy is needed, which can be called line energy. The Marangoni effect causes a strong melt pool movement, which is driven by the surface tension of the melt and leads to a strong mixing of the filler (powder) and part of the substrate material [30]. That also results in potential pores being discharged, improved density, and increased building rates. The subsequent formation of a certain microstructure during solidification is mainly driven by the material selection and the local and temporal gradient, which is affected by process parameters, material, and boundary conditions. When the powder is deposited, heat transfer through prior layers can result in an additional modification of the microstructure.
By tailoring energy input and distribution as well as powder particle size, a wide range of materials could be applied even on various substrate materials (e.g. Stellite on Inconel 718, Brass on Steel, Al2O3 on Al-Alloy) [31, 32]. However, the processing of pure copper using established infrared laser sources has been associated with major challenges. Low absorptivity ends up in a lack of fusion and high porosity [33]. High reflection can damage the laser source or may cause overheating of applied nozzles.
The use of green (495–570 nm) and blue (~445 nm) laser sources can increase the laser absorption of pure copper by a factor of 10 [34].
Specialized processing heads enable dense cooper parts manufactured on substrates, as well as complex prototypes [28, 35, 36].
Moreover, in contrast to powder bed-based additive manufacturing, LMD enables hybrid manufacturing (additive, subtractive) approaches and multi-material processes. Various powders could be applied, exchanged, and mixed
Laser Metal Deposition with a green laser to build up multi-material mold inserts (pure Cu/steel 1.2764) ©IWS.
Binder Jetting of pure copper has been intensively studied by Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. The main question of this research was how to increase the physical density of copper parts produced by binder jetting. Different approaches to achieve high density were taken under investigation of the influence of particle size of the feedstock (D50 = 15 μm or 75 μm) [38], including bimodal powder compositions [39] where a small fraction of very fine powder should fill up the spaces between the larger particles. Different sintering atmospheres (Ar and H2) were also part of the analysis. Modified binders were investigated, comprising MOD (metal–organic decomposition) inks [40] and nanoparticle [41] enhanced binders. The expectation for the latter both approaches is that introduction of nanoparticles will decrease the temperature for the sintering process to start, but also introduce additional copper into the green body. Also, the influence of HIP post-treatment was investigated [42]. For all the previously described experiments sintering temperature was quite high 1075–1080°C compared to the theoretical melting point of copper 1084°C. Dwell time was varied between 2–10 h, most sintering regimes employed H2 as reducing atmosphere.
The following Table 2 sums up the results of that group.
Use of powder with D50 = 15 μm in comparison to D50 = 75 μm leads to 85.5 % instead of 63.2% of the theoretical density of copper, applying a 4 h @ 1080°C sintering regime | [38] |
Using bi modal powders (30 μm + 5 μm with a mixing ratio of 17% + 73% respectively) results in a density of 92.3%. All bimodal compositions show significantly less shrinkage | [39] |
By using HIP treatment of test samples from bimodal powders, the density could be further increased to 99.7%. | [42] |
Using Metal-Organic-decomposition inks, the part density of the core section could be increased. The overall density however was lower as 73.3% in comparison to non-modified binder (80.8%). | [40] |
By using nanoparticle loaded inks, the sintered part density is 86.1% compared to 80.9%, when using a neat binder, | [41] |
Use of fine copper powders (~5 μm) with new recoating equipment. | [43] |
Effect of different approaches by the Virginia polytechnic group on the relative density of BJ copper parts.
Additionally, the same group published work using a copper feedstock that incorporates a foaming agent introduced by mechanical milling for modification of the porosity of printed parts [44].
It should be also mentioned that companies, active in the development of binder jetting machines, try to qualify materials to be processed on their equipment. Currently, DigitalMetal [45] and ExOne [46] have announced qualified processes with pure copper for applications, such as antennas, heat exchangers, and windings for electric drives.
To further investigate the influence of bimodal powder compositions on the electrical properties of binder-jetted parts, two powder feedstocks were selected, printed, and compared regarding the final part electrical conductivity at IWS. The powders were a monomodal and a bimodal composition, the latter consisted of 73% coarse and 27% fine powder. The powder size distribution of the feedstock is shown in Table 3.
Powder | D10 [μm] | D50 [μm] | D90 [μm] |
---|---|---|---|
m4p PureCu.04 | 3 | 8 | 15 |
m4p PureCu1.0 | 18 | 26 | 38 |
D10, D50, and D90 of the fine (m4p PureCu.04) and coarse powder (m4p PureCu1.0).
Parts were printed on an ExOne binder jetter (model MFlex). After optimizing the parameters of roller speed, roller transverse speed, layer thickness, and binder saturation, a set of flat samples (25 × 25 × 1 mm3) and cubes (10 × 10 × 10 mm3) for measuring electrical conductivity, physical density, and dilatometry were printed. Although the focus was on the influence of the powder composition, also three different dwell times for sintering, and two different layer thicknesses during printing were compared. The density is analyzed by standard metallography, the electrical conductivity is measured by the eddy current test method (Sigmascope 350, Karl-Fischer), and the dilatometry was done with a DIL 402 Expedis Classic (Netzsch). As expected, longer dwell times lead to higher conductivity (Figure 9). The achieved maximum is found at 84.7% IACS for the bimodal powder and a layer thickness of 80 μm, while for the same configuration the monomodal sample led to 52.6%. For all sintering times, samples made of bimodal powder delivered better conductivity. The observation for the influence of layer thickness is that for monomodal powders, 50 μm leads to the same or slightly better results, while for the bimodal configuration the better values are found for 80 μm. Though, at 12 h that difference disappears.
Graph showing the relation between sintering time and electrical conductivity for mono- and bimodal feedstock and different layer thicknesses during the printing process.
The differences between the mono and bimodal powder distribution are apparent in Figure 10. The shrinkage of the mono (black) and bimodal (green) sample over the time of the applied temperature profile during sintering is shown. The plots do not contain any compensation for thermal expansion. Two main information can be extracted from the dilatometer experiment. First, the overall shrinkage for the bimodal powder is much lower (12.4%) than for the monomodal powder (17.3%). Second, the onset temperature for begin of shrinkage is ~37 K less for the bimodal powder at 987.5°C.
Dilatometer plot, comparing shrinkage of mono and bimodal samples during the debinding and sinter profile.
In Figure 11, two etched cross sections of bimodal samples, sintered for 2 h (left) and 12 h (right) are shown. After 2 h of sintering, the density is clearly still low as it seems necking is just about to begin. After 12 h instead, a quite dense microstructure can be seen, nonetheless showing a lot and partially also quite large (> 50 μm) pores at the grain boundaries.
Metallographic comparison of 2 h (left) and 12 h (right) sintering at 1080°C of bimodal samples.
One of the main challenges in binder jetting obviously remains to achieve high sintered density since compaction of parts is not possible as in classic press and sinter processes. Bimodal powder compositions enhance green part density and stability, lead to higher sintered density, earlier sintering activity, and in the case of copper better electrical conductivity.
The sinter activity of shown samples is clearly low, as for comparison from Figure 2 after 2 h about 90% relative density should be achievable in classic press and sinter. Using bimodal powder compositions seems to be one possible way to tackle that challenge even though 12 h sintering time is still very long. Possible reasons for the poor sintering activity might be insufficient powder bed compaction during the printing process, an incomplete debinding process, or sinter impeding surface oxides on the copper particles.
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) belongs to the extrusion-based AM technologies. It was usually used for printing polymers, such as Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) or Polylactide (PLA) [47], and became the most used AM technology worldwide due to its user-friendly handling [48, 49]. During the printing process, a filament is melted in a print head and extruded onto a build platform [50]. Layer after layer of molten filament is added to create a prototype or product. A sketch of the overall concept is shown in Figure 12.
Schematic representation of fused filament fabrication method [
Today, FFF is well established in many industries, such as the automotive sector [51, 52], in aviation (Airbus) [53], and the medical sector (printing biomedical implants, scaffolds, or other applications) [54]. The cost-efficiency of the FFF process suggested using FFF beyond polymers also for printing other materials.
Meanwhile, the upcoming metal FFF has demonstrated its capability in manufacturing sophisticated structures through a variety of materials [55, 56, 57, 58, 59]. Besides stainless steel (17-4PH) or titanium alloy (Ti6Al4V) [55, 60, 61, 62, 63], Fe-parts for electrical engines or glass-ceramic scaffolds for medical application were printed [64]. Recently was published a multi-material approach by printing and sintering 17-4PH and ZrO2 together [65, 66].
During the process, a filament based on a polymer-binder, containing thermoplastic polymers [55, 56], infiltrated with metal powder, is fed into a print head where the binder is melted, and the material is extruded onto a building platform (Figure 13). After having printed, a so-called green-part layer-by-layer, a catalytic debinding step or solvent debinding step is required for removing a certain fraction of the binder. The solvent debinding step creates pores in the green part. These pores allow gases to escape during the thermal debinding of the remaining binder in a furnace. The polymer that remains after solvent debinding, stabilizes the structure as backbone until sintering of the particles takes place. The thermal debinding of the backbone by pyrolysis is crucial because escaping gases can cause deformations and cracks.
FFF process, left to right: shaping the part by deposition of filament; two-step debinding process involving solvent extraction and thermal decomposition; finally sintering in a furnace, after [
The part shrinks during sintering usually around 13–20% in x-, y- and z-direction, which needs to be predicted for near net shape fabrication.
Significant advantages of FFF are as follows:
All kinds of powder materials and even nanoparticles can be utilized
Multi-material can be deposited by using different print heads
Microstructures related anisotropic mechanical behavior can be avoided due to homogeneously sintering [56]
Little investment costs and cost-efficient printing and sintering of metal and ceramic parts at atmospheric pressure
No powder particles are airborne, causing potential health problems for operators.
Additionally, high material throughput (1–10 g/min), material efficiency (no material waste), design freedom for printing even hollow structures, and the competitive material properties make FFF a highly competitive AM technology [56, 57, 65].
Nowadays companies, such as AM Extrusion GmbH [68] or BASF [69] offer an open filaments system for printing and sintering metal parts, such as copper, 316L, 17-4PH, or carbon steels, such as 440C, M2, or H13. Even filaments with unique materials can be prepared exclusively for customers.
Copper filaments by AM Extrusion GmbH (filled with 63 vol.% copper powder) can be printed with a modified BondTech extruder. Nozzle and print bed temperatures are 120 and 70°C. The recommended nozzle is a 300 μm hardened steel nozzle. The standard layer height is 80–200 μm [68]. Using a 300 μm nozzle line, the width is 360 μm and print speed 1000–3000 mm/min.
After solvent debinding in acetone at 45°C and sintering at 950°C in H2, a relative density of 96% can be obtained [68]. The shrinkage during sintering is 13% in x-, y-, z-direction. A final part accuracy of < ± 80 μm can be obtained [68]. Material properties of FFF printed Cu and printed parts are shown in Figure 14.
(left) Properties of FFF printed copper measured by accredited test laboratory, (middle) cross section of sintered copper (@950°C, 90 min, H2), (right) sintered copper robot gripper [
Compared to powder-bed technologies, FFF is safe and user-friendly. During the FFF process, no powder can be airborne, which may cause health issues for employees. In general, FFF is capable of manufacturing medium-sized complex metal and ceramic structures in small serial production.
Additive manufacturing of copper is emerging and additive fabrication methods, such as laser powder bed fusion, laser metal deposition, binder jetting, fused filament fabrication, or electron beam melting become more refined.
Recently, it is possible to fabricate complex copper parts with an electrical conductivity of 100% IACS. In addition, the fabrication of hybrid material parts, including copper, is possible. Thus, additive manufacturing of pure copper keeps up and excels conventional manufacturing methods in terms of geometrical complexity.
Due to its unique properties, copper is primarily used for electrical or thermal applications. Already realized use cases are components for electric vehicles by LPBF [70], cooling sockets for milling tools by FFF [71], or a horn waveguide antenna [72].
Also increased research interest in found in the manufacturing of complex propulsion systems, such as aerospike thrusters, made from alloyed copper [73].
Further, printed heat sinks, heat pipes, and complex coils are already demonstrated.
Further improvements, especially impeccable material properties in combination with new fabrication approaches, are pursued. For instance, the modification of the copper powder feedstock with a coating of metal oxides or metal hydroxides (approx. 5–30% coverage) increases the absorptivity, especially when using standard infrared laser sources [74].
Another approach to utilize infrared lasers for the processing of pure copper is to use high laser power of 600–1000 W. Researchers from Politecnico di Milano achieved a density of ~ 97% using a 600 W laser on pure copper [75]. Yet this approach, in contrast to using green laser sources, has the advantage of using bigger build chambers. However, this advantage will disappear, since bigger LPBF setups with green laser sources are under development.
In addition, polymeric coatings of copper powder are under development for use in selective laser sintering machines. This process is advertised as cold metal fusion (or Metal SLS). Using this approach, lower laser powers are necessary to consolidate the powder, since only the polymer coating will be molten and sintered. Further, the commonly used infrared lasers can be used effectively. The printed part, however, needs to undergo a thermal sintering step though, comparable to binder jetting or FFF, to burn out the polymer and sinter the metal powder together [76].
All Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
This research was conducted within the High-Performance Center »Smart Production and Materials« and partially funded by the Fraunhofer-Gesellschaft, the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research and the State of Saxony.
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Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. This series is intended for doctors, engineers, and scientists involved in biomedical engineering or those wanting to start working in this field.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/7.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 3rd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfPublishedBooks:12,editor:{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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