Parameters of compliance of the development strategy of transport organizations of the Russian Federation with the goals of sustainable growth. Compiled by: [37, 38].
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
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\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Now, he is working as the Leading Researcher of PIAPMM of NAS of Ukraine. In 2014, he held an academic degree of Senior Research Fellow (Algebra and the Theory of Numbers) from Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine that is equivalent to Associate Professor. He obtained the award for significant achievements in the field of science from the Lviv Regional State Administration and Regional Council (2019, 2021). His research interests are mostly in Algebra, Linear Algebra and their Applications. He has more than 80 scientific publications, from them more than 60 are papers with the high science citation index that have been published in well-known professional scientific journals and editor\'s books. 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Unfortunately, estimates suggest that students become increasingly disengaged as they progress through secondary school, with some studies estimating that 40–60% of youth show signs of disengagement [3], which often tend to be associated with other school maladjustment. Given that school adjustment problems foreshadow many types of dysfunction over the life cycle [4, 5], it is important to understand the process through which students adapt to schools and identify different ways to support them.
Schools are challenging contexts for students, especially for youth, by nature and design. These challenges include the instructional features of classrooms and schools, such as didactic small- and large-group instruction, teacher-initiated/monitored learning activities, and programmatic curriculum sequences. At present, much is known about how students’ cognitive and linguistic skills and their socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds function as precursors of their achievement and adjustment. Less well recognized are the many types of interpersonal challenges that youth confront in school. Beyond basic tasks such as relating with classmates and schoolmates and forming ties with teachers, youth find that they are under increasing pressure to compare and evaluate themselves, their abilities, and their achievements to those of peers. Many of these challenges are repeated as students progress through grades. In each new classroom, they must negotiate their needs in dyadic and group settings and reestablish relationships with classmates and teachers. Moreover, it is likely that these challenges are intensified when students change schools or cope with school transitions [6, 7].
In light of the above, an important task facing educational and developmental researchers is to investigate the roles of students’ classroom/school interpersonal skills and relationships as precursors of school adaption and adjustment. Indeed, diverging from the traditional focus on the three Rs, including
The recognition of SEL has been gradually spread around the world in recent years [10]. SEL refers to the process through which children and adults develop a set of skills and competencies to recognize and manage emotions, develop care and concern for others, make responsible decisions, establish positive relationships, and handle challenging situations effectively; these skills are promoted through both direct instructions and the establishment of a safe, caring, and supportive learning environment in which all students feel valued, respected, and connected [11]. Its importance is evidenced through its relationships with various positive student outcomes [12].
To illustrate the importance to consider which aspects of students’ school adjustment are affected by interpersonal factors, this chapter will first address how interpersonal relationships, including relationships with peers, teachers, and family, contribute to school success and mental health among youth. We will end the chapter with a discussion about how we can better support these relationships.
During early adolescence, peer groups become increasingly important as young people start to seek autonomy from their parents [13, 14]. In this section, we particularly address school bullying as a critical peer-group phenomenon that often threatens academic and psychological well-being.
Bullying is typically defined as an aggressive peer-to-peer behavior involving a power differentiation between the perpetrator and the victim; this behavior is also enacted repeatedly over time with the intention to do harm [15]. Researchers and educators have increasingly acknowledged that bullying continues to be a serious problem in schools around the world, with evidence that involvement in bullying (as a victim or a bully) affects children and adolescents’ health. For example, more than 40% Canadian students in grades 6–10 reported being both bullied and bullying others and this high prevalence remains [16].
Bullying takes several forms, including physical assault, ethnic discrimination, rumor victimization, sexual harassment, and verbal assault. Being a victim is not without consequence - indeed, victimization by peers is associated with a broad range of difficulties, both immediate and long term, in the areas of mental health, academic performance, and overall well-being [17]. The detrimental effects of bullying do not end with the victims, however. A recent study of students in grades 8 to 10 has reported that nearly 90% of the students had witnessed either their friends or other students being bullied at least a few times during the school year and that witnessing bullying was associated with higher levels of depression [18].
Academic achievements among youth are of great importance for prospective school and career choices. A growing body of research has demonstrated significant links between school bullying and academic achievement (e.g., see [19, 20]). Students who are bullied by peers are likely to demonstrate poor academic performance (e.g., see [19, 20]), as are children who bully others [21]. Together, this line of research is consistent with the arguments that children’s social experiences at school affect their academic performance [11, 12]. A recent meta-analysis with 29,552 school students revealed significant negative correlation between peer victimization and academic achievement [22].
Few studies [20, 23] on bullying have investigated the influence of school-level factors on individual academic performance. Konishi et al. [20] conducted one of the few multilevel studies in this area and found that school-level bullying was associated with lower grades among 15-year-olds. This study has addressed the need to simultaneously investigate individual and contextual influences on students’ academic achievement. There is also a link between bullying and high school dropout rates. Cornell and colleagues [24] have found that the prevalence of bullying as perceived by both ninth grade students and teachers was predictive of dropout rates for this cohort 4 years later.
Researchers have long demonstrated that being involved as both a victim and bully seems to compound the impact of bullying, with bully-victims experiencing worse outcomes than either bullies or victims and being at greater risk for various types of mental health problems. These include anxiety, low self-esteem, depression, self-harm, suicidality, physical injury, substance abuse, and delinquency [25, 26, 27]. A recent trajectory study [28] has further demonstrated that, as compared to low-involvement students and after controlling for initial psychopathology, stable victims showed greater levels of anxiety, depression, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder; similarly, stable bullies reported higher levels of anxiety, and those who shifted from victimization to bullying reported more anxiety, depression, and somatization. These findings underscore the importance of considering a child’s history of involvement in bullying over time and view bullying as a dynamic experience, influenced by the social ecology.
Given the growing efforts to reduce bullying, we would speculate that the prevalence of school bullying might be declining. However, this may not be the case, particularly for sexual minority students. Students who are stigmatized or marginalized due to ethnicity, sexual orientation, and mental and physical illness are often victims of bullying, and much of this harassment takes place in schools. A recent trend study on harassment among adolescents has shown that sexual minority students continued to report higher rates of victimization than exclusively heterosexual peers over time [29]. Victimized sexual minority youth were at greatest risk not only for mental health concerns [30, 31, 32].
Educators and researchers have increasingly acknowledged the imperative for creating a positive school climate, both to promote social and emotional competencies and optimize students’ learning; teachers hold the key to such a learning environment [12, 33, 34]. Strong and supportive relationships provided by teachers are fundamental to the healthy development of all students in schools [35, 36]. Positive student-teacher relationships serve as a resource for students at risk of school failure, whereas conflict or disconnection between students and adults may compound that risk [37]. Although the nature of these relationships changes as students mature, the need for connection between students and adults in the school setting remains strong from preschool to high school [38]. Even as schools place increasing attention on standardized testing and accountability, the social and emotional quality of student-teacher relationships contributes to both academic and social-emotional development [39]. As such, student-teacher relationships provide a unique entry point for educators and others working toward improving the SEL environments of schools and classrooms.
Although students have less time with teachers during high school, there is strong evidence that relationships with adults in these settings are among the most important predictors of school success [36]. The quality of relationships that students form with their teachers has been repeatedly associated with students’ academic and social-emotional outcomes [40]. High-quality student-teacher relationships are most often characterized by high levels of warmth, sensitivity, and emotional connection, and low levels of dependency, negativity, and conflict, which are highlighted in both attachment and self-determination theories [41, 42, 43]. Although the need for emotional support is perhaps more self-evidently important in the lower grades, adolescents are highly sensitive to the emotional rapport they establish with adults in school settings, and experience of strong connections to adults has been consistently linked to long-term academic success [44]. By conducting a meta-analysis, Roorda and colleagues [45] found significant associations between student-teacher relationships and students’ academic engagement and achievement spanning from preschool through high school. Longitudinal research [40, 46] has also shown the positive associations between high-quality student-teacher relationships and academic adjustment. Although both family and teacher support are important in predicting students’ achievement, research has indicated that student-teacher connection was the factor most closely associated with growth in academic achievement from eighth to twelfth grade [39].
Connectedness to school during adolescence has emerged as a key area for building protective factors for positive educational outcomes and lower rates of health-risk behaviors [47, 48]. Students who are not engaged with learning or who have poor relationships with teachers are more likely to use drugs and engage in socially disruptive and sexual risk behaviors, report anxiety/depressive symptoms, have poorer adult relationships, and fail to complete secondary school (e.g., see [49, 50]). Therefore, the potential consequences for the students to become disconnected from school are far reaching. Longitudinal research from the U. S. reveals that high school students reporting greater connectedness to teachers display lower rates of emotional distress, suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior, violence, substance abuse, and early sexual activity [51].
Teachers can also serve as a protective factor against negative developmental outcomes, especially for marginalized and minority youth (e.g., see [31, 52]). Indeed, since Werner and Smith’s [53, 54] longitudinal study of over 30 years, the importance of having at least one significant adult as a means for fostering resiliency among children and youth identified as ‘at risk’ has become a well-documented phenomenon [55, 56, 57]. Previous research findings are in accordance with suggesting that this ‘significant adult’ needs not be a parent or relative. This may be especially true during adolescence when youth often seek nonparental mentors and role models. Many sexual minority youth fear or face rejection by their parents because of their sexual identity [58]. In support of this argument, a Canadian study, with population-based data from high schools, has shown that supportive relationships with teachers significantly contributed to reducing greater risk for social-emotional problems not only for sexual minority youth experiencing peer victimization, but also for heterosexual youth who had been victimized by peers [31]. The results support the resilience perspective that a significant adult is not necessarily a parent or relative but can be an outside adult, including a teacher.
Beyond peer and teacher relationships, the fourth R can also be manifested when the family proactively engages in practices and activities that serve to promote learning and development [59]. Given that these practices and activities can take place within the home, and in partnerships with the school and the community [60, 61], such involvement is in line with the ecological framework [62] that highlights the interplay between two important systems (i.e., the family and the school).
Family involvement is essential to academic and mental health outcomes for children [63] and youth alike [64, 65, 66]. Several frameworks are available in the conceptualization of family involvement. For instance, based on a sample of 24,599 eighth graders, Ho and Willms [67] established a four-factor model that includes home discussion (e.g., discussing school programs with the child), school communication (e.g., contacting school personnel), home supervision (e.g., limiting TV time), and school participation (e.g., attending parent-teacher meetings). More recently, Epstein and her colleagues [68] proposed a framework that details six common types of involvement in efforts to organize the disparate literature: (1) parenting: when schools and/or community provide help to the family in establishing a positive home environment that supports learning and development; (2) communicating: when the family and schools and/or community establish an effective channel to communicate about the child’s progress; (3) volunteering: when the family supports school operations and functions in collaboration with the school itself and/or community; (4) learning at home: when the family supports the child’s learning at home, such as by monitoring his/her homework or providing intellectual stimulations; (5) decision-making: when schools and/or community assist family members (e.g., parents) to become leaders and representatives in decision-making pertinent to school operations; and (6) collaborating with the community: when the family leverages school and community services and resources to better support the child’s learning and development.
In light of these frameworks, family involvement encompasses not only home-based involvement but also a reciprocal relationship between the family and the school where they share responsibilities and goals to support learning and development [69].
There is little doubt that family involvement assumes a critical role in academic outcomes. Indeed, research has consistently indicated a significant association between family involvement, specifically that of parents, and academic achievement across students of different ages, cultural groups, and socioeconomic statuses [70, 71]. For example, a meta-analysis (50 studies) found that school-based involvement and academic socialization were positively and significantly associated with academic achievement among middle-school students [72]. Of note is that academic socialization, such as when parents communicate their expectations for education or discuss learning strategies with the adolescent, yielded the strongest effect size [72]. In corroboration, another meta-analysis (52 studies) involving a group of culturally diverse secondary school students revealed that parental academic expectations had the strongest significant relationship with overall academic achievement, followed by parenting style, homework assistance, and home-school communication [65]. Moreover, parental attendance and participation in school activities were strongly associated with specific grades [65]. In addition to achievement, youth of academically involved parents tend to use more self-regulated learning strategies, spend more time on schoolwork outside of class time, and show higher levels of academic engagement [73]. At the same time, they tend to exhibit stronger feelings of enjoyment, value, and interest toward learning [66, 74] and are more likely to pursue graduate studies [64].
In light of the multidimensional framework of family involvement, it is important to recognize that while certain aspects of family involvement may be positively associated with academic outcomes, other aspects may demonstrate a negative correlation. For example, in their meta-analysis, Hill and Tyson [72] found a negative correlation between homework assistance and academic achievement among middle school students. At first glance, these findings seem to be somewhat counter-intuitive because they imply that more parental involvement is linked with poorer academic achievement. Further considerations, however, suggest that these negative associations may reflect the tendency for parents to communicate more with schools or become more engaged with their child’s homework when they realize the poor performance [63, 67, 72]. These associations may also illustrate age differences in terms of what constitute as effective forms of family involvement. For example, a reason why homework assistance is associated with poorer achievement among youth is that such aid may be viewed as threats to their sense of efficacy and autonomy [66, 75]. To elucidate these speculations, longitudinal studies are warranted.
To the extent that family involvement operates holistically as opposed to being geared toward academic achievement specifically, recent studies have associated such involvement with outcomes that extend beyond the academic domain. When families are involved in education, youth tend to have better relationships with their teachers [76], own a clearer sense of identity and future directions [77], and hold more positive perceptions of self-competence [73] and global self-worth [78]. In corroboration, a longitudinal study that followed a culturally diverse sample of students from grades 7 to 11 indicated that family-teacher communication and home-based involvement (e.g., scaffolding youth to take responsibility of learning) were associated with decreases in problematic behaviors and depressive symptoms over time [79]. Interestingly, the developmental benefits associated with home-based involvement were stronger for those experiencing more parental warmth. Of note is that although it remains unclear why family involvement promotes better mental health functioning, it is speculative that it does so by conveying a sense of caring and support that acts as a buffer toward maladaptive outcomes [66]. Another potential mechanism is that by engaging in frequent school-based involvement, families will have more opportunities to form positive relationships with teachers, which, as we will see below, also play an instrumental role in academic and mental health outcomes.
Thus far, we have considered family involvement in board terms that capture not only home-based but also the structural part of school-based involvement (e.g., parent-teacher discussions or meetings). We will now extend our focus to a more relational aspect of school-based involvement. Specifically, we will explore the parent-teacher relationship, which is perhaps the most salient fourth R within the dimension of home-school partnership. A positive parent-teacher relationship is one that is characterized by factors such as interpersonal trust, mutual respect and support, two-way communication, cooperation, coordination, and collaboration [80, 81]. At the same time, it is related to teachers’ and parents’ perceptions of one another’s beliefs, attitudes, and values toward education and involvement [82, 83, 84]. To the extent that the parent-teacher relationship quality serves as a stronger predictor for achievement and social adjustment than the frequency of home-school contacts [80, 84], an emerging line of research is emphasizing the need to examine the quality of the parent-teacher or parent-school relationship in relation to developmental outcomes [83, 85, 86].
When the quality of the parent-teacher relationship is favorable, student outcomes tend to be more positive. In the academic domain, the high-quality parent-teacher relationship is associated with better test scores and competence in language and math [82, 84], as well as overall school performance [80, 87] among kindergartners and primary and secondary school students. Further, although research regarding the role of the parent-teacher relationship on youth’s mental health functioning is limited as compared to those on children (e.g., [88, 89]), available evidence underscores its importance. Among a group of secondary school students in the U.S., Froiland and Davison [87] found a negative association between a satisfying and trusting parent-teacher relationship and problematic behaviors. Similarly, a study conducted across 10 provinces in China found that the parent-teacher relationship was linked with better social (e.g., relationships) and career (e.g., goal-settings) outcomes among high school students [90]. Therefore, there is a need for schools to devote efforts to increasing the number of family-school contacts
As illustrated in previous sections, the fourth R is related to students’ academic and mental health functioning in meaningful ways. Accordingly, we will now consider potential ways to support healthy peer and teacher relationships, and family involvement.
SEL is an approach that aims to protect children and youth from maladaptive outcomes by supporting their mastery of a range of affective, behavioral, and cognitive competencies [12, 91]. Broadly speaking, these competencies fall under the groups of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, relationship skills, and responsible decision-making [92]. Within the school context, SEL programs are designed to complement the school curricula to foster the core competencies in two steps. The first step involves informing and modeling SEL skills to students, followed by opportunities for them to practice and apply these skills in developmentally, contextually, and culturally appropriate ways [12]. The second step involves creating a safe and caring environment through peer and family initiatives, improved classroom management, effective teaching approaches, and whole-school community building activities [12, 91].
School-based SEL interventions serve as a potential avenue to support peer-, teacher-, and school-family relationships for a variety of reasons. First, the core competency of relationship skills focuses on promoting students’ efficacy in establishing and maintaining healthy relationships through effective communication, social engagement, relationship-building, and teamwork [92]. Accordingly, students will be more adept at creating trusting relationships with their peers and teachers. Second, by emphasizing teaching approaches that support the clear communication of expectations, cooperative learning, and classroom order [92], teachers can create a safe environment for students to become academically engaged. Third, interventions that invite the collaboration of family may also indirectly encourage more frequent home-school partnerships and better relationships.
A number of programs have been developed in line with the SEL approach. An exemplar is RULER [93], which equips primary and secondary school students with the competence to recognize and label emotions in oneself and others, understand potential causes and consequences of emotions, as well as express and regulate emotions in socially adaptive ways. By becoming emotionally literate, students will be able to interact with others more effectively; moreover, they will be able to problem-solve difficult emotional situations and have better mental health functioning [93]. Further, because RULER is incorporated into the English Language Arts (ELA) curriculum, in which books are often used to exemplify emotions and relationships, RULER also predicts improved ELA achievement [93]. Other effective programs are KiVa [94] and Roots of Empathy [95]. For example, KiVa is an antibullying program that has been found to reduce negative perceptions of peers (e.g., peers are seen as reliable and supportive), anxiety, and depression among children and youth [94].
Similar to SEL interventions, research also suggests that service-learning programs can enhance a range of competencies pertinent to academic and mental health functioning. By providing meaningful services to the community in ways that connect with the school curriculum, students are empowered with social (e.g., cultural competence and empathy), personal (e.g., self-esteem), civic (e.g., community behaviors), and academic (e.g., learning engagement) competencies [96]. With its emphasis on contributing to the community, service-learning programs are particularly suitable for older adolescents. As an example, college students who participated in a 12-week service learning program (Campus Corps) in which they mentored at-risk adolescents demonstrated improved interpersonal and problem-solving skills, community service self-efficacy, self-esteem, civic action, and political awareness [97]. These mentors were also adept at sustaining positive relationships with their mentees and families [97]. In view of this line of evidence, service-learning programs may also be a promising approach to equipping students with social competence that can benefit their peer and teacher relationships.
To encourage family involvement, it is important to first consider the underlying factors that may motivate or hinder such involvement. At the family level, three major factors have been identified to drive involvement, including parents’ motivational beliefs, perception of invitations, and perceived life contexts [85]. Specifically, family involvement is more likely to occur when parents hold a belief that they should be involved in education, feel efficacious that their involvement would promote better outcomes, perceive that they are welcomed by the school, teachers, and the child, as well as have the necessary skills, knowledge, time, and energy to become involved [85]. In support of this, children whose parents endorse the belief that it is their role to be involved in education and feel efficacious in doing so have more adaptive functioning [86]. When families feel that they are welcomed and respected, they are able to form more trusting relationships with schools; this is also especially true in inclusive [98] and culturally diverse schools [99].
At the school level, teachers and school personnel may face multiple barriers in their efforts to secure a family-school partnership. One of these salient barriers is the cultural differences that exist between families and schools. For example, African American parents often feel less welcomed in schools and experience barriers in securing resources for their child, possibly due to past and current discrimination [79]. Due to cultural differences in the conceptualization of parental roles or frustration that resulted from previous collaborative attempts, Latino families in the U.S., context may feel uncomfortable to participate in school events [100]. When schools and teachers do not share a common culture with the students and their families, it is also more difficult to establish a collaborative relationship that aims to support learning [101, 102]. In some cases, this collaboration is hindered by language barriers.
In light of the above, it would be important for school practitioners to offer training programs to families so as to heighten their confidence in their abilities to support learning. Moreover, given that some families may be more resistant to forming a coalition with schools, it is imperative that school psychologists provide teachers with assistance and guidance to develop individualized approaches [100]. Furthermore, training workshops that are tailored toward instilling teachers with a comprehensive understanding on different cultures and traditions are needed. Schools should also be prepared to include bilingual school personnel into the picture, who can help as an interpreter, or in preparing for bilingual signage and materials [100].
A plausible way to enhance more positive peer relationships, student-teacher relationships, and home-school partnerships is to provide relevant training opportunities to teachers and school personnel. First, given that some teachers may hold unfavorable views toward families who rarely participate in school events or whose child demonstrates academic and behavioral problems, intervention efforts are needed to challenge these beliefs [89]. Second, professional training workshops should aim to enhance teachers’ efficacy in facilitating positive peer relationships, student-teacher relationships, and home-school partnerships in a welcoming manner. Third, educators, researchers, or other relevant providers should consider implementing intervention programs that target teachers’ own social-emotional competence. Indeed, when teachers are socially and emotionally competent themselves, they are more effective in fostering and maintaining healthy teacher-student relationship, managing a safe classroom, and implementing quality SEL interventions [103]. Moreover, when teachers are comfortable with implementing SEL programs (i.e., an implicit indicator of their own social-emotional competence), they experience greater sense of teaching efficacy and job satisfaction, both of which are functional to more positive teacher-student relationships [104].
In this chapter, we have discussed the fourth R as it pertains to youth’s academic and mental health functioning. The first relationship that is tapped by this “R” is among those with peers. Indeed, given that peers take a particularly strong presence during adolescence, it is perhaps not surprising that peer relationships have implications on both academic and mental health outcomes. On the one hand, peer relationships that take the forms of bullying and victimization are associated with lower achievement and dysfunctional well-being [17], potentially because poor relationships interfere with youth’s ability to focus on their academic endeavors by placing an emotional burden on them. On the other hand, healthier peer relationships may promote adaptive outcomes by providing youth with academic (e.g., homework assistance) and social-emotional resources (e.g., emotional support) [105]. Thus, efforts are needed to equip youth with the skills and competence to establish and sustain healthy peer relationships. The second relationship that pertains to the fourth R is manifested between students and teachers. In view of the established literature highlighting a link between different pedagogical approaches and academic achievement (e.g., [106]), the significance of the student-teacher relationship on academic achievement is particularly telling. This significance illustrates that it is not only important for teachers to adopt appropriate instructional approaches, but it is also critical to maintain a supportive relationship with their students. To the extent that teachers and school personnel often receive very little or no training in building successful alliances with families and supportive and warm relationships with students [102], these efforts are necessary. Accordingly, there is an urgent need for preservice teacher training programs to revamp their curriculum so as to better prepare teachers. Finally, the fourth R is reflected through family involvement, and in particular, home-school partnership and parent-teacher relationship quality. Of note is that although the benefits associated with positive parent-teacher relationships are unlikely to differ as a function of age, the significance of specific types of family involvement may change over time [88]. For example, parents may provide less homework assistance as the adolescent grows older. Nonetheless, the positive association between family involvement and achievement may become stronger over time because older students become more adept at communicating to their parents regarding their learning needs, which can then facilitate more appropriate forms of involvement [63]. Moreover, recent studies have illustrated mental health benefits that accompany family involvement among youth. Given that adolescence is often marked by academic, social, and psychological challenges [107], it is of importance that efforts are dedicated to supporting policies that mandate family involvement in secondary schools, and perhaps even college. Similarly, it is critical to raise family’s awareness regarding their significance in youth’s learning and well-being. Ultimately, the concerted efforts of students, families, and school practitioners are needed to create a school climate where each member feels respected and supported.
We have no conflict of interest to declare.
The global financial crisis has vividly demonstrated the instability of the modern financial and economic system and made it particularly urgent for the world community to find an alternative model for achieving economic growth based on digital technologies, taking into account the factors of social and environmental security.
The current stage of development of economic science requires a rethinking of the basic concepts of all transformations taking place in the world through the prism of scientific and technical changes, both general and specific, associated with changes in human behavior, competition, data, innovations, and values.
Before the theory of transformational leadership appeared in the literature [1, 2, 3], most researchers relied on transactional factors of effective leadership behavior. Rewards and recognition were explained as the most important factors in achieving goals in organizations [4]. The evolution of further research has shown significant changes in the understanding of leadership [5].
Nevertheless, the structure of modern commodity markets, the gravity of intersectoral balances of countries and territories are changing significantly. Most of the technologies and management decisions that were in demand until recently are of no interest to anyone today. The areas of knowledge and competencies of personnel are changing. Transformational leadership is emerging as a response to the rapid changes in society, economics, and politics. It offers a toolkit for promoting changes leading to a socially oriented, equitable green society, thereby contributing to the creation of new technologies, innovations, and some kind of a social progress. That is why every industry in our time requires, first of all, competent leadership and only then management.
The emergence of transformational leadership, used as a tool for the development of business and society, has spread to many areas of the world’s leading countries, including nongovernmental organizations. Transformational leadership in the modern business world is positioning itself as a new type of management activity that has shifted the management paradigm from excellent task performance to leadership or the right choice of what to do.
The results of numerous studies have shown that green transformational leadership has a significant impact on the internal motivation and creativity that employees need to produce ecologically pure products and services [6, 7]. At the same time, research on the interaction of the areas of leadership and economics is not enough to present the completeness and diversity of the influence of leadership on business efficiency and the development of society. The study [8] that demonstrates the potential benefits of leadership research in achieving economic goals should be noted. In particular, the authors link the evolution of the concept of leadership with the corresponding tasks of economic development. The research [9] analyzing studies that combine economics and leadership argues that the behavior of a leader, his choices and actions determine the results of the organization and indicate new strategic objectives.
Special attention of researchers is focused on understanding the actions of corporate leaders. Predicting the behavior of a future leader emphasizes the importance of understanding the context (conditions, economic situation) in which a leader acts, how valuable capital is created, capital markets’ conditions, as well as the general trend of society development [10].
We are careful in our research, because we take into account the reasoned opinion of [11] about the demystification of the impact of transformational leadership on the performance of an organization under conditions of environmental uncertainty.
These studies allowed us to support our statement about the impact of transformational leadership on the sustainable development of society and green growth. At the same time, we see a significant number of unexplored areas, in particular, (1) for many corporations, including with state participation, transactional leadership instruments being still dominant, while it is obvious that they are economically losing their meaning; (2) the effectiveness of green infrastructure development projects and “green financing” has not been proven; (3) the influence of transformational leadership on the sustainable environmental development of industries is practically absent. It was the latter circumstance that determined the choice of the transport industry, as the most significant in the context of the green growth of Russia, as an object of scientific research.
Under the influence of all the above circumstances, significant changes are taking place in the world transport systems. First, the intensification of the construction and launch of high-speed roads is based on fundamentally new green technologies, materials, and energy. Secondly, the inclusion of transport systems in sustainable development projects as an essential part of ensuring the development of new product markets and the growth of social mobility. Thirdly, the designed transport systems in the world strive to conform to the new consumption model.
The transport system is moving into the format of an environmentally friendly (safe), social (highly mobile), and economical ESG system. At the same time, the E-factor takes into account the reduction of CO2 emissions by the company, the volume of consumption of water resources and land, as well as the introduction of waste processing. The factor of social criteria (S-factor) reflects the level of observance of human rights, ensuring safety in the workplace and protection of customer information, the availability of training programs. The corporate governance paradigm (G-factor) is based on independence and efficiency of management, transparency and quality of financial reporting, as well as disclosure of nonfinancial information of the company.
The purpose of this study is to develop and test a scientific hypothesis that determines the role of transformational leadership in enhancing sustainable development processes, first of all, green growth. The scientific hypothesis is subject to quantitative assessment of this impact on the efficiency of the operating and business models of Russian transport organizations.
The object of the research is the largest transport companies in four transportation segments: rail, urban rail passenger transportation, road, and sea.
The subject of the research is the methodology for the development of transformational leadership in the new economic order, methods and models for assessing its impact on the effectiveness of green projects of transport organizations.
The research is based on the hypothesis of the positive impact of transformational leadership on the sustainable development of the transport and logistics business, first of all, its “green” growth. Two main results of the study that are directly related to the backbone organizations of the Russian transport system are highlighted: (1) the current metrics of transactional growth do not meet the requirements of sustainable development and “green” growth and do not stimulate the personnel of companies to work effectively; (2) the positive impact of transformational leadership on the transformation of transport companies in the direction of green growth has been quantitatively confirmed.
There is some (but limited) support for the impact of transformational leadership on green growth. So, many modern management theories, in terms of style and management methods, are based on the understanding of “leadership” [12]. The most commonly considered types of leaders are authoritarian, democratic, laissez-faire, transactional, and transformational. The systems theory of leadership, exploring many options for the behavior of leaders, is basic in understanding the evolution of this concept [13]. In our study, we rely on the concept of transformational leadership as the most appropriate to the new economic order [14, 15]. At the same time, we understand that the previous model of transactional leadership, when the goals and objectives of the business are predetermined, and the leader uses reward and punishment to motivate the entire staff of the company, becomes ineffective in some cases. We studied the impact of Key Performance Indicator (KPI) on the efficiency of business models of the largest Russian transport and logistics companies and came to the conclusion that there should be other metrics for team and personal efficiency.
In this regard, on the basis of the provisions of the situational leadership theory, namely the study of the dependence of the leadership style on the situation in the team and the leader’s clear orientation toward solving the problem, we have established the positive influence of situational leadership (from the development of monofunctional products or services that satisfy a certain need) for the growth of the value of the product or service itself [16, 17, 18].
The third step of our research was based on the modern interpretation of the systems theory of leadership [13]. Within the framework of this theory, leadership and the leader are considered from the point of view of group dynamics. The group is viewed as a system, leadership is the organization of relations in the group, the leader is the subject of managing this process. We applied these provisions to the concept of the evolution of digital platforms and ecosystems, which today maximally reflects the level of development of the object of our research—transport and logistics systems [19]. The introduction of digital technologies in the supply chain of goods and services satisfies the demand of society and the economy in the growth of mobility, speed, flexibility, and the ability to compress space. At the same time, the threshold between reality and virtuality loses its clear outline. Today, most services can exist in the format of digital products, and their set forms an entire ecosystem.
Digitization embodies the model of the development of consciousness. Its processes reflect our thinking and the way we interact with the world. Developers of digital systems are repeating the path of development of the human mind—from adaptability to creativity. This, in its essence, is transformational leadership—it is a type of leadership that causes transformation (change) in subordinates, which leads to an understanding of changes in business [20]. Our conclusions are confirmed by the following logic of the development of the theory of transformational leadership.
It is a known fact that the term “transformational leadership” was first introduced by James V. Downton (1973). However, this concept was developed by James MacGregor Burns in his book “Leadership” published in 1978 [1, 21]. He expanded this concept, moving away from a simple interpretation of transformational leadership as a set of certain personal qualities to a process in which a leader and a follower, interacting in a certain way, raise each other to a higher level of motivation and personal, moral development. In our study, this is an important understanding of how leadership can contribute to the implementation of the goals of sustainable development, green growth. It substantiates the position that the activities of transport and logistics organizations within the framework of the ESG (Environmental, Social, Governance) concept and compliance with the principles of responsible investment (PRI—Principles for Responsible Investment) contribute to the growth of transport infrastructure development projects and the improvement of business models of transport organizations [22].
The tasks of transformational leadership in ensuring green growth are extremely important, since they raise awareness of the company’s personnel about the importance and value of the intended results and how to achieve them and, in turn, motivate them to go beyond their immediate selfish interests for the sake of the mission and vision of the organization, its involvement in sustainable development of society. Charismatic and inspiring qualities are observed at all levels of organization management [23].
Transformational leadership implements an individual approach to building teamwork, which is extremely important in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, when business has switched to the work of “hybrid teams”, i.e., partly on-line, partly off-line [24, 25]. We consider individualization of work with personnel as a method of timely transfer of information to subordinates. It provides ongoing observation and feedback and, more importantly, links the individual’s current needs with the organization’s mission and enhances those needs when appropriate.
The most important component of transformational leadership is intellectual stimulation [26, 27]. An intellectually stimulating leader awakens in subordinates an awareness of problems, awareness of their own thoughts, as well as recognition of their beliefs and values. It is through the intellectual stimulation of subordinates that new methods of fulfilling the organization’s mission are explored. Following this statement, we have developed a methodology for assessing the impact of transformational leadership on the transformation of transport and logistics systems in a green growth economy in the context of global economic destabilization.
Each particular question of business and society how to survive and sustainably realize itself in an unstable world has a generalized abstract or demarcation answer. This answer requires an assessment of the processes of destabilization in the context of asymmetric competition in the business models of organizations that follow the trend of sustainable development [28, 29]. For the reliability of the study, we rely on the provisions of the theory of destabilization, which distinguishes ordinary competition from destabilization, the process of assessing potentially destabilizing threats, as well as the methodology that allows forming methods of countering destabilization, taking into account the sustainable development of organizations based on green technologies.
We relied on two approaches to methodological research: specific scientific and technological. It is these two levels of our research methodology that are of particular interest for describing the impact of transformational leadership on digital technological change, which is essentially a set of theoretical and experimental studies conducted in order to obtain substantiated baseline data for the successful implementation of green business models of transport organizations.
The concept of sustainable development, influencing the consciousness of the manufacturer and the consumer, first of all, significantly changes the views on value for the consumer (Environmental, Social, Governance), offers new methods of creating added value. Moreover, in order to methodologically reliably describe the impact of transformational leadership on the sustainable development of business models of organizations, it is necessary to assess the business through the prism of a new quality of value of a service or product and also why digital technologies, intangible assets (data), and customer networks are so important in this context.
Specific scientific methodology made it possible to generalize the signs of the influence of transformational leadership on the behavior of economic agents, which is used in the development of social, economic, and environmental policies [30]. In fact, the “demand economy” and “supply economy” are being transformed into a new digital entity that changes both the behavior of the consumer and producer and the scientific apparatus that describes these processes. Above all, digital transformation addresses fundamental constraints in each of the areas in which business strategy operates, proposing new methods of connecting with consumers and new methods of creating added value and competition, where the role of a transformational leader is growing.
Analyzing information on the adherence of transport and logistics systems to the requirements of sustainable development, we applied a logical-conceptual approach to identifying the relationship between transformational leadership and sustainable growth of organizations [31].
Mathematical calculations made it possible to assess the fundamental changes in the supply chains of goods and services associated with the growing importance of the category of time or the emergence of the concept of “mobility of supply chains” [32].
The resources-processes-values (RPV) theory explains why established transport companies have such a hard time adopting disruptive green technologies [33, 34].
It is the resources (what is at the disposal of transport companies today, primarily the energy that provides traffic), processes (the existing patterns of the company’s work), and values (what the company strives for) in general determine the advantages, disadvantages, as well as “blind zones” of its strategic development. A company can successfully take advantage of disruptive green technologies only when it has the necessary resources (for example, sources and generation of maglev energy), when processes facilitate, rather than impede, the necessary actions, and when corporate values allow making a promising project a priority.
Using the theory of rational behavior, it can be stated that in the current situation, the model of human behavior is shifting toward maximizing utility (including previously unknown values) under conditions of limited resources. This means that the choice of a product or service is solely caused by its value (utility) and becomes a purely “economic choice.” Thus, passengers strive to ensure the monetization of their mobility, transport companies—to optimize costs and stay in their market segment, the state pursues various, often contradictory, goals related to ensuring stability, economic efficiency, socioeconomic equality of society members, etc. Obviously, the rationality of behavior will lead to a change in the value of transport services: there are obvious examples of violation of the rationality of behavior during the period of isolation and the uncertainty of getting out of it, which directed attention to the search for an assessment of new psychological factors that change the behavior of consumers of transport services and transport organizations [35, 36].
First of all, we examined the basic documents that define the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular, the concept of sustainable development adopted by the United Nations (UN) in 2015, the UN Resolution, data from the International Energy Agency. The documents confirming the national adaptation of the SDGs in Russia have been analyzed, on the basis of which a table has been formed showing the relationship between the SDGs and national goals, projects, and state programs for the green development of the transport industry. The data are grouped in Table 1 [39, 40, 41].
Sustainable development goals | National goals | Nationa projects | State programs |
---|---|---|---|
Resilient infrastructure, inclusive and sustainable industrialization and innovation |
|
|
|
Transition to sustainable consumption and production patterns |
|
|
|
Strengthening the means to achieve sustainable development and revitalizing global partnership mechanisms | Ensuring accelerated digital adoption |
|
|
The data in Table 1 show that green infrastructure (transport) projects are being launched in response to numerous environmental challenges. At the same time, they can solve other—social and economic problems.
We analyzed the current and planned expenditures of Russia on the ecology in the context of the state program “Environmental Protection” for 2015–2024, the indicators of national projects: “Comprehensive plan for the modernization and expansion of the main infrastructure,” “Safe and high-quality highways,” and “Digital economy of the Russian Federation” [42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. We confirm the trend of significant growth in the volume of budgetary funds under these programs.
We used data on the global green finance market and found that green bonds account for the largest share in its structure. In substantiating our hypothesis, we relied on data from the World Bank Group on green bonds, since Russian transport companies (in particular, Russian Railways) use this very tool in the development of railway infrastructure projects. Green bonds are issued for new and existing transport projects that comply with the International Capital Market Association (ICMA) Green Bond Principles (GBP).
By examining the forecast data of the Global Infrastructure Hub [47] for the next decade, we have estimated the growth of the world needs for financing infrastructure to support sustainable development by 2030 at about 0.3% of world GDP. PwC data indicate that the amount of capital for responsible investment has grown by one-third every 2 years from 2014 to 2018, and at the beginning of 2021, about half of all managed assets in Europe are attributed to responsible investment assets [48].
According to a 2018 World Bank Group study, Russia’s transition to the best available technologies as part of the “greening” and “decarbonization” of the economy will require financing in the amount of about 4–8 trillion rubles, of which 13% for urban and mainline transport.
Important for our study is the conclusion of the World Bank analysts that the transition to a green economy in Russia is possible through the development of green public procurement, especially taking into account that the state as a customer is a significant segment of consumption in a country with a market accounting for about a third of GDP. This confirms our hypothesis that in Russia, the transformational leadership of public authorities will be critical to green growth.
For an empirical assessment of the obtained scientific results, we conducted a survey of four Russian transport companies in relation to the detection of signs of transformational leadership and the determination of their weight value in making sustainable development decisions. The sample is determined by the importance of these organizations in the transport services market. The survey involved managers and specialists of the following companies:
JSC Russian Railways (JSC RZD) —a company that owns the entire public railway infrastructure, railway rolling stock and is the largest operator of passenger and freight traffic.
Transport concession company—the leader of green projects in the segment of urban rail passenger transportation, corresponding to ICMA;
State company “Russian Highways” (Avtodor), which has 3771 km of road length in trust;
Ust-Luga seaport, the largest universal port in the Baltic, the second largest in Russia, and the fifth in Europe.
The analysis lacks data for air transport companies.
Using the method of grouping data obtained as a result of questioning top-level managers (self-assessment and assessment by colleagues, management, subordinates) of four transport companies in the field of rail freight transport, road transport, land rail transport, and sea transport, we have formed a scale of the main features of transactional and transformational leadership. We used the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ) [49, 50]. At the same time, we have updated the questions, in particular:
Does the management of the company use an individual approach or leadership by developing people toward the concept of sustainable growth? (To turn followers into leaders of transformations. Generation of fundamentally new ideas and solutions);
Is the company’s policy on intellectual stimulation evident or leadership by stimulating people’s thinking: ecology, social responsibility, responsible management? (Reaching a consensus with employees on the values of the organization);
Is there real motivation or leadership by inspiring people to design and implement green growth projects? (An appeal to such values as freedom, environmental safety, and responsibility);
How charismatic is the leader (top management) of the company? The leader tries to be a role model, sacrifices his own selfish interests: social responsibility, environmental behavior.
Each answer was assigned a value for the weight of the indicator corresponding to the rating scale. The final assessment was used in the correlation analysis of the hypothesis substantiation: a) the dependence of the presence and increase of green growth projects on the obvious signs of transformational leadership in the company; b) dependence of the growth of efficiency of business models of organizations on green transport projects.
We applied the methods of mathematical description of the value of transport services (speed of transportation, development of transport networks, and availability of a set of necessary digital services), formed under the influence of intellectual stimulation of transformational leadership, which made it possible to form a set of indicators of sustainable development and green growth, applicable to all types of transport: the effect of growth in the profitability of green projects (E-factor), caused by green investments, an increase in network density (S-factor), and the speed of movement or compression of space (G-factor).
On their basis, it is possible to generate a complex indicator—
The research results presented below confirm the main provisions of our scientific hypothesis:
The effectiveness of the use of transactional leadership tools, primarily based on KPI indicators and variance management, has reached its limit. The current metrics do not meet the requirements of sustainable development and green growth.
Transformational leadership tools influence the efficiency of the operating and business models of transport organizations implementing green growth projects.
Below is a sequence of evidentiary actions in confirming these provisions of the scientific hypothesis.
Based on the survey, an analytical scale was developed for the correspondence of indicators of transformational leadership of the leading companies in the main sectors of the Russian transport market (Table 2).
Company | Assessment of transactional leadership metrics KPI / deviation management | Assessment of transactional leadership indicators | Aggregate weights of the assessment IS+IC + IM + II | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
IS | IC | IM | II | |||
JSC Russian Railways | 5 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 14 |
Transport Concession Company | 4 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 19 |
“Russian highways” (Avtodor) | 5 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 9 |
Ust-Luga seaport | 5 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 10 |
Indicators of transformational leadership of the leading Russian transport companies. Note: 1. Calculated taking into account the weights of the scale of compliance of indicators of transformational leadership in the company, the presence of active green projects (funded by Green Bond), compliance of green bonds with ICMA standards. 2. Calculated according to information on the Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and the value of the Green Bond coupon.
Legend: IS – Intellectual Stimulation; IC – Individualized Consideration; IM - Inspirational Motivation; II – Idealized Influence.
Weighted assessments: 2 – Not at all; 3 – Sometimes; 4 – Often; 5 - Almost always.
As follows from the survey, organizations make the most of transactional leadership indicators (KPIs and deviation management), while everyone notes the low utility of these indicators. Moreover, in the largest transport companies, the costs of periodic calculations and the formation of these indicators in complex hierarchical structures with overlapping business processes exceed the effect of their application.
Analysis of the aggregate weights of the assessment of indicators of transformational leadership in Russian transport companies allows us to conclude about the presence and development of its processes in the following sequence:
First step (from 0 to 10): realizing the organization’s need for changes associated with increased competition in the transportation markets, the decrease in the effectiveness of existing business models, and the achievement of the maximum level of labor productivity while maintaining existing technologies in the supply chains.
Second step (from 10 to 15): creating a new vision of sustainable development and, above all, green growth. The vision is not the product of a single leader, but is formed as a result of team discussion and decision-making during the development and implementation of the project.
Third step (over 15): institutionalization of changes. It involves changes in the organization of business processes, project teams, operational and financial business models of the organization.
As can be seen from the table, transformational leadership focused on green growth is just beginning to develop in Russian transport organizations. Therefore, it is extremely important to show the dependence of the effectiveness of sustainable development and green growth projects on the understanding and formation of transformational leadership.
Based on the representations of [51], we examined how eco-friendly human resource management interacts with the interrelationships between green transformational leadership, green innovation, and environmental indicators.
2. The assessment of the conformity of the influence of transformational leadership on the transformation of transport companies in the area of green growth and the goals of sustainable development is made (Table 3).
The following designations are used in the table:
the projects of the company (Transport Concession Company) are aimed at the availability of public transport for the population of the agglomeration, increase the convenience of urban transport users, and contribute to the reduction of CO2 emissions when using personal transport.
projects of the Russian Railways involve the construction of new railway lines, implement programs to reduce the impact on the environment; electrification of track sections to reduce greenhouse gas emissions; construction of treatment facilities to reduce emissions of pollutants.
Avtodor plans to use alternative low-carbon modes of transport; how environmentally friendly the road infrastructure under construction is.
projects for the implementation of certain digital mobility technologies that increase passenger traffic and supply chains in order to reduce the longest and most air-pollution-related travel.
the planned investments in the development of the Ust-Luga seaport are shifting from infrastructure consolidation to a renewable infrastructure, and successful port terminals will be recognized primarily by the high degree of use of green technologies (connected devices, route optimization, energy efficiency, problem detection and troubleshooting).
projects that increase the spatial and technical possibilities of creating remote workplaces to accommodate more “hybrid” teams working online to reduce the need for commuting.
Company | Ongoing green growth projects | Planned projects (investments) of sustainable development | Impact of transformational leadership green growth projects (average correlation r) | Impact of green transport projects on the efficiency of business models (IRR of the project) |
---|---|---|---|---|
JSC Russian Railways | (b) (d) (f) | =.77 | 2.2–7.25%% | |
Transport Concession Company | (a) (d) (f) | =.83 | 10–12%% | |
“Russian highways” (Avtodor) | (c) (d) (f) | =.24 | No completed projects | |
Ust-Luga seaport | (e) (f) | =.15 | No completed projects |
The results show that indicators of transformational leadership are highly correlated between green growth projects and the growth of project performance in companies that are strategically targeting and implementing environmental development programs for their businesses. These strategies provide companies that are realigning their business models for sustainable development, the growth of competitiveness, and efficiency [54, 55].
With regard to seaports, it is extremely difficult to assess the economic effect of investments in green technologies in specific numbers, and most often only indirect results can be seen. For example, the Solvo.TOS automated management system for ports and terminals can reduce the operating costs of a cargo terminal by 5–35%. The spread is large enough to predict a return on investment. However, at the same time, the system at least allows increasing the level of service provided to the terminal’s clients, which is one of the indicators of its sustainable development. Likewise, it is difficult to assess fragments of Avtodor’s projects.
3. Transformational leadership, open to the publicity and social responsibility of business, helps to attract cheaper investments than the financial market offers. The market evolution of finance has formed a set of green finance: bonds, loans, stock investments, and green insurance [56]. The use of these tools involves the implementation of projects with clear environmental benefits that are assessed, including quantitatively, by issuers, investors, credit institutions, and insurance companies. In other words, they require disclosure of information and absolute openness of the company’s management in confirming the necessity for assessing the impact of investments on the environment.
For Russian transport companies, more than ever, there is a problem of attracting investment in projects for the development of urban and mainline transport infrastructure. Moreover, these projects have special features: long payback periods and a low rate of return, generate efficiency mainly with a high density of passenger traffic, and active supply chains. The COVID-19 pandemic has reduced global passenger traffic by 50–60% for various types of transportation, changed the gravity of supply chains and the structure of goods, which led to a decrease in the profits of transport companies. At the same time, the deficit of investments in financial markets has increased with a simultaneous increase in their value. Thus, the estimated supply potential in the investment market of infrastructure projects in the world is $10.2 trillion, while the required investments are estimated at $11.3 trillion—an investment gap of $1.1 trillion.
For Russia, attracting green, cheaper financing is the most important economic and social task of ensuring sustainable development, including transport infrastructure. The global financial market recognizes that the format of sustainable development of railway transport in Russia on the basis of green projects is not only useful in terms of protecting and restoring the environment, but also relatively profitable, since it generates the idea of environmentally friendly transport as financially attractive. It is quite obvious that transformational leadership as the ability of management to transform its worldview to solve social and environmental problems can activate Russian business, government bodies, and political forces to move to a new world of sustainable development.
This is confirmed by the experience of green growth of the Russian Railways company, which has already invested more than 4 billion rubles in green projects. The general director of the company, Oleg Belozerov, annually increases the costs of sustainable development projects, primarily green growth projects, despite the fact that the load on the environment of railway transport is the lowest of all modes of transport.
The leader of the company not only declares the importance of high environmental friendliness of transportation as the main vector of development, but also initiates projects in the field of ecology, clean transport, and social responsibility of the transport business. At the same time, the company fully complies with the principles of “green” financing, placing the third tranche of green bonds.
This study has theoretical implications for the leading infrastructure industries in Russia, the effectiveness of which is associated with sustainable development and “green” growth. It expands the possibilities of studying potential internal drivers of transport and logistics organizations and complements the growing body of knowledge in the study of environmental and digital leadership.
This study also has a number of practical implications that stem from the increased global interest in sustainable growth and ecological responsibility. It enables transport and logistics organizations to evaluate the effectiveness of their operational and business models in green growth projects.
It is important to recognize that this study, despite the results obtained, has a number of limitations. Firstly, it was limited by a relatively small sample size consisting of four basic, mainly state-owned, transport companies that occupy more than 50% of the market for the corresponding modes of transport. Undoubtedly, the work that will expand the sample taking into account the market operators of transportation will be useful. We understand that it is necessary to increase the number of variables in the factor analysis of the impact of transformational leadership indicators on the effectiveness of business models of organizations.
The scientific hypothesis presented in this study confirms the direct impact of transformational leadership on the activation of sustainable development processes, first of all, green growth. Our evidence shows the impact of these processes on the growth of the operational and business models of Russian transport companies.
We found that intellectual stimulation, as a critical sign of transformational leadership, is shaping a new digital approach to transport infrastructure development projects, supply chains, and population mobility, which is reflected in the green growth of the national economy.
Our analysis has shown that the inspiring motivation of a transformational leader can spur complex green growth processes in such complex systems as rail transport. The concept of sustainable growth and the environmental goals of Russian Railways under the Long-term Development Program until 2025 confirms this conclusion.
A survey of the management of the largest Russian transport companies showed that the idealized influence and individualization of decision-making inherent in transformational leadership are supported by the choice of people and reflect the views of a society that is willing to pay 15–30% more for products and services produced with ESG in mind, and 80% of millennials choose to work for companies with strong sustainability practices.
We can quantify another transformational leadership trend—ethical choice. More and more top managers of Russian transport companies are beginning to think about what value their company brings to the world, what problems it solves, and whom it helps. This allows them to cope with burnout and gain moral satisfaction from their work.
Expanding on this study, we will be able to calculate indices of the impact of transformational leadership on the efficiency of supply chain mobility. Mathematically, they reflect the weighted average sum of three subindices: the impact of green transport projects on society (mobility), the environment, and the ability of businesses to grow in innovation (efficiency).
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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The majority of European Member States (MS) has enforced this directive and completed fully or, in some cases, partially, with European smart cities to use and share the same criteria and methodologies and along with transport operators to communicate to the public the relevant results and respective action plans by ensuring the citizen’s awareness about the environmental noise, the quality acoustic environment, and their effect to their professional and everyday lifestyle. Today, 18 years after its first edition, the European Directive 2002/49/EC is needed to be reformulated to take into account all defects that have been identified and to adapt as well as possible to contemporary constraints. New methodology tools have been developed especially regarding soundscaping and environmental acoustic rehabilitation of urban areas, and the respective chapter will describe the progress being made on these smart developments of cities and infrastructures. This chapter will also evoke criticisms of these smart tools and will present results from several—state of the art—case studies especially regarding the practical and theoretical limits they face.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Konstantinos Vogiatzis and Nicolas Remy",authors:null},{id:"63405",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80810",title:"Restructuring Gauteng City Region in South Africa: Is a Transportation Solution the Answer?",slug:"restructuring-gauteng-city-region-in-south-africa-is-a-transportation-solution-the-answer-",totalDownloads:1850,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Gauteng city region forms the economic hub of socio-economic development and growth in South Africa. The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. Recommendations revolve around the need to implement robust and progressive rafts of projects, programmes, activities, measures and actions to reverse spatial fragmentation and spatially inefficient transport induced and perpetuated disadvantages.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"James Chakwizira, Peter Bikam and Thompson A. Adeboyejo",authors:[{id:"250792",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Chakwizira",slug:"james-chakwizira",fullName:"James Chakwizira"},{id:"265387",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Bikam",slug:"peter-bikam",fullName:"Peter Bikam"},{id:"265388",title:"Prof.",name:"Thompson A",middleName:null,surname:"Adeboyejo",slug:"thompson-a-adeboyejo",fullName:"Thompson A Adeboyejo"}]},{id:"34605",doi:"10.5772/35274",title:"Rainwater Harvesting in Large Residential Buildings in Australia",slug:"rainwater-harvesting-in-large-residential-buildings-in-australia",totalDownloads:4860,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:null,book:{id:"905",slug:"urban-development",title:"Urban Development",fullTitle:"Urban Development"},signatures:"Ataur Rahman, Joseph Dbais, Sk Mazharul Islam, Erhan Eroksuz and Khaled Haddad",authors:[{id:"89217",title:"Dr.",name:"Ataur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ataur-rahman",fullName:"Ataur Rahman"},{id:"106643",title:"Mr.",name:"Erhan",middleName:null,surname:"Eroksuz",slug:"erhan-eroksuz",fullName:"Erhan Eroksuz"},{id:"106644",title:"Mr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Dbais",slug:"joseph-dbais",fullName:"Joseph Dbais"},{id:"106646",title:"Mr.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"Haddad",slug:"khaled-haddad",fullName:"Khaled Haddad"},{id:"106647",title:"Mr.",name:"Mazharul",middleName:null,surname:"Islam",slug:"mazharul-islam",fullName:"Mazharul Islam"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69772",title:"Smart Rainwater Management: New Technologies and Innovation",slug:"smart-rainwater-management-new-technologies-and-innovation",totalDownloads:2004,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"In a smart city, the following factors are very vital such as smart grid and e-health. A smart city is one of the burning topics of research. Although there is no particular definition of a smart city, it means smart grid, e-health, e-environmental monitoring, smart home, smart water quality, smart air quality, etc. integrated into a single application. Human civilization can’t be sustained and prosper with shortage of usable water. Hence, water has a vital share in human life even for those living in smart cities. This chapter describes about the smart water quality issues in a smart city and some of the research advances in handling those issues. Among them it investigates the rainwater harvesting technologies and some of their practical applications.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Raseswari Pradhan and Jayaprakash Sahoo",authors:null},{id:"62066",title:"Urban Planning and Mega-Event Projects: Lessons from Expo 2010, Shanghai",slug:"urban-planning-and-mega-event-projects-lessons-from-expo-2010-shanghai",totalDownloads:1327,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"With the capitalist transformation from Fordist-Keynesianism to neoliberalism, mega-events such as Olympic Games and World Exposition have increasingly been incorporated into urban development plan to boost urban renewal. Seeking the role of mega-event in urban transformation and its related effects have practical significance as mega-event movements have become a worldwide phenomenon. Although the profile of world fairs is reduced and does not have the international impacts that they used to have, Shanghai Expo 2010, the first Expo ever held in a developing country is pinned hope on as the “Turn to Save the World Expo” and is unusually ambitious to bring opportunities in urban transformation. While much attention has been paid to how mega-events can be used in tourism development in previous literature, this research links mega-event to urban development. Specifically, it reviews planning history before Expo 2010, addresses how a mega-event is integrated into city’s overall transformation strategy and what possible challenges a mega-event strategy may encounter related to the ultimate goal of urban transformation. It finds that political added value of mega-events empowers Shanghai to advance its urban agenda and the role of urban planner is vital to deliver a sustainable mega-event.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Lingyue Li",authors:[{id:"247599",title:"Dr.",name:"Xx",middleName:null,surname:"Xx",slug:"xx-xx",fullName:"Xx Xx"}]},{id:"67808",title:"Understanding Urban Mobility and Pedestrian Movement",slug:"understanding-urban-mobility-and-pedestrian-movement",totalDownloads:1358,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Urban environments continue to expand and mutate, both in terms of size of urban area and number of people commuting daily as well as the number of options for personal mobility. City layouts and infrastructure also change constantly, subject to both short-term and long-term imperatives. Transportation networks have attracted particular attention in recent years, due to efforts to incorporate “green” options, enabling positive lifestyle choices such as walking or cycling commutes. In this chapter we explore the pedestrian viewpoint, aids to familiarity with and ease of navigation in the urban environment, and the impact of novel modes of individual transport (as options such as smart urban bicycles and electric scooters increasingly become the norm). We discuss principal factors influencing rapid transit to daily and leisure destinations, such as schools, offices, parks, and entertainment venues, but also those which facilitate rapid evacuation and movement of large crowds from these locations, characterized by high occupation density or throughput. The focus of the chapter is on understanding and representing pedestrian behavior through the agent-based modeling paradigm, allowing both large numbers of individual actions with active awareness of the environment to be simulated and pedestrian group movements to be modeled on real urban networks, together with congestion and evacuation pattern visualization.",book:{id:"7624",slug:"smart-urban-development",title:"Smart Urban Development",fullTitle:"Smart Urban Development"},signatures:"Marija Bezbradica and Heather J. Ruskin",authors:null},{id:"63405",title:"Restructuring Gauteng City Region in South Africa: Is a Transportation Solution the Answer?",slug:"restructuring-gauteng-city-region-in-south-africa-is-a-transportation-solution-the-answer-",totalDownloads:1855,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Gauteng city region forms the economic hub of socio-economic development and growth in South Africa. The province itself includes the Johannesburg metropolitan city, Ekurhuleni metropolitan city as well as Tshwane municipality—key urban growth regions of Gauteng province, South Africa, and by extension Southern Africa. The region exhibits the rapid urbanisation challenges typical in any developing country city. Rural–urban migration, pressure on infrastructure demand, supply and capacity constraints and mismatches in urban governance structures with respect to service delivery have remained stubborn challenges. Initiatives and strategies to resolve urban traffic congestion such as through road construction and highway expansion (physical instrument), e-tolling of roads (financial instrument), innovative housing and waste management technology deployment (technology instruments) as well as presenting advanced spatial planning and development and management systems (planning and regulatory instruments) have been employed with mixed fortunes in attempts to (re)solve the urban problems in the study area. Making use of a thematic approach and technique, the major urbanisation issues are explored and solutions proffered. Recommendations revolve around the need to implement robust and progressive rafts of projects, programmes, activities, measures and actions to reverse spatial fragmentation and spatially inefficient transport induced and perpetuated disadvantages.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"James Chakwizira, Peter Bikam and Thompson A. Adeboyejo",authors:[{id:"250792",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Chakwizira",slug:"james-chakwizira",fullName:"James Chakwizira"},{id:"265387",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Bikam",slug:"peter-bikam",fullName:"Peter Bikam"},{id:"265388",title:"Prof.",name:"Thompson A",middleName:null,surname:"Adeboyejo",slug:"thompson-a-adeboyejo",fullName:"Thompson A Adeboyejo"}]},{id:"62114",title:"Urban Noise as an Environmental Impact Factor in the Urban Planning Process",slug:"urban-noise-as-an-environmental-impact-factor-in-the-urban-planning-process",totalDownloads:1431,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This research focuses on an analysis of the perception of urban noise in the daily lives of the residents of two different areas: (1) a residential neighborhood and (2) a city center, respectively, considering (1) an acoustically ideal urban environment and (2) an acoustically polluted urban environment. To this end, a random sample of individuals from both areas was asked to fill out a questionnaire. Sound pressure levels were also measured in each of the evaluated areas. The World Health Organization (WHO) considers a quiet area as one in which the measured sound pressure level is up to 55 dB(A). The average measured sound pressure levels were 53.5 and 72.9 dB(A), respectively, in the quiet area and in the area considered acoustically polluted. Data were subjected to a multivariate factor analysis. The main complaints reported by the interviewees were as follows: headache, irritability, poor concentration and insomnia. Interviewees in the city center stated that street traffic noise was the main source of annoyance, while the residents of the residential area stated that the main source of discomfort was air traffic noise.",book:{id:"7470",slug:"an-overview-of-urban-and-regional-planning",title:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning",fullTitle:"An Overview of Urban and Regional Planning"},signatures:"Elaine Carvalho da Paz, Thomas Jeferson Vieira and Paulo Henrique Trombetta Zannin",authors:[{id:"66572",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo Henrique Trombetta",middleName:null,surname:"Zannin",slug:"paulo-henrique-trombetta-zannin",fullName:"Paulo Henrique Trombetta Zannin"},{id:"257807",title:"MSc.",name:"Elaine Carvalho",middleName:null,surname:"Da Paz",slug:"elaine-carvalho-da-paz",fullName:"Elaine Carvalho Da Paz"},{id:"257814",title:"Mrs.",name:"Thomas Jeferson",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",slug:"thomas-jeferson-vieira",fullName:"Thomas Jeferson Vieira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"477",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:286,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:101,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 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Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"81644",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ethics of Using Placebo Controlled Trials for Covid-19 Vaccine Development in Vulnerable Populations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104776",signatures:"Lesley Burgess, Jurie Jordaan and Matthew Wilson",slug:"perspective-chapter-ethics-of-using-placebo-controlled-trials-for-covid-19-vaccine-development-in-vu",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"80546",title:"Streptococcal Skin and Skin-Structure Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102894",signatures:"Alwyn Rapose",slug:"streptococcal-skin-and-skin-structure-infections",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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He obtained a Master’s degree in Public Health and PhD in Public Health and Epidemiology. He has a background in Clinical Medicine and has taken courses at higher diploma levels in public health from University of Transkei, Republic of South Africa, and African Medical and Research Foundation (AMREF) in Nairobi, Kenya. Dr. Kasenga worked in different places in and outside Malawi, and has held various positions, such as Licensed Medical Officer, HIV/AIDS Programme Officer, HIV/AIDS resource person in the International Department of Diakonhjemet College, Oslo, Norway. He also managed an Integrated HIV/AIDS Prevention programme for over 5 years. He is currently working as a Director for the Health Ministries Department of Malawi Union of the Seventh Day Adventist Church. Dr. Kasenga has published over 5 articles on HIV/AIDS issues focusing on Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT), including a book chapter on HIV testing counseling (currently in press). 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His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 255 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 2 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",institution:{name:"Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. degree in chemistry in 2000 and Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. He moved to School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia in 2009 and joined Dr. Ron Clarke as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+/K+-ATPase and dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+/K+-ATPase by ATP; then he went back to Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum as an assistant professor, and in 2014 he was promoted as an associate professor. In 2011, he joined the staff of Department of Chemistry at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently an assistant professor. His research interests include the following: P-Type ATPase enzyme kinetics and mechanisms, kinetics and mechanisms of redox reactions, autocatalytic reactions, computational enzyme kinetics, allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP, exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases, and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424836",title:"Dr.",name:"Orsolya",middleName:null,surname:"Borsai",slug:"orsolya-borsai",fullName:"Orsolya Borsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"422262",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paola Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Palmeros-Suárez",slug:"paola-andrea-palmeros-suarez",fullName:"Paola Andrea Palmeros-Suárez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Guadalajara",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. It is not limited to any particular applications, but contributions are encouraged from all disciplines.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11422,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"16614",title:"Prof.",name:"Juan Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Alonso",slug:"juan-ignacio-guerrero-alonso",fullName:"Juan Ignacio Guerrero Alonso",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6HB8QAM/Profile_Picture_1627901127555",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3095/images/1592_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Chicago",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"214067",title:"Dr.",name:"W. David",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"w.-david-pan",fullName:"W. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. 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Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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