Effect of crop rotation on average annualized crop biomass (stems and leaves) and grain yields of durum, canola, flax, and pea from 2006 to 2011 in eastern Montana, USA (Sainju et al., 2017d).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6899",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Chronobiology - The Science of Biological Time Structure",title:"Chronobiology",subtitle:"The Science of Biological Time Structure",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The regular alternation of light and dark affects not only human biological systems, but also the social organization of behavior. The effect of such light modes is manifested in periodic changes in physiological functions and biological rhythms exhibited at every level of life. The book discusses some of the specificities of the circadian rhythms in living organisms and mentions aspects of the control of circadian rhythms as well as experimental and clinical cases that are closely related to circadian disruption. This book can evoke interest in many researchers who want to use this information for the advancement of their research towards a better understanding of the biological time structure.",isbn:"978-1-78984-901-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-900-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-277-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73428",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"chronobiology-the-science-of-biological-time-structure",numberOfPages:108,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"521dfb38a216470da6f8f7d02469832c",bookSignature:"Pavol Svorc",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6899.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5694,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:27,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 29th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 31st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 19th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 18th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"169212",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavol",middleName:null,surname:"Svorc",slug:"pavol-svorc",fullName:"Pavol Svorc",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169212/images/system/169212.jpg",biography:"Dr. Pavol Švorc is an Associate Professor, Doctor of the Natural Sciences, Philosophe Doctor. In 1982 he became a Doctor of the Natural Sciences from General Biology, Natural Faculty, Šafarik’s University in Košice. In 1995 he received a PhD. – Physiology and Patophysiology, Natural Faculty Šafarik’s University in Košice. In 2005 he became an Associate Professor from Normal and Patological Physiology, Medical Faculty, Šafarik’s University in Košice. From 1982 to 1983 Dr.Švorc worked as an independent specialist in the local museum in Poprad, Slovakia. In 1983 he started working as a lecturer at the Department of Physiology, Šafarik’s University in Kosice, Slovakia. From\r\n2011 until 2014 he was a Head of the Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Medical Faculty, University of Ostrava, Czech Republic. His research interest includes:\r\nChronobiology of cardiovascular system, respiratory system and autonomic nervous system.",institutionString:"Pavol Josef Safarik University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Pavol Jozef Šafárik",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovakia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"213",title:"Neurobiology",slug:"life-sciences-neuroscience-neurobiology"}],chapters:[{id:"68556",title:"Introductory Chapter: Chronobiology - The Science of Biological Time Structure",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88583",slug:"introductory-chapter-chronobiology-the-science-of-biological-time-structure",totalDownloads:1174,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Pavol Švorc",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68556",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68556",authors:[{id:"169212",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavol",surname:"Svorc",slug:"pavol-svorc",fullName:"Pavol Svorc"}],corrections:null},{id:"68182",title:"Chronobiology and Its General Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86629",slug:"chronobiology-and-its-general-perspectives",totalDownloads:836,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As a significance of the earth’s rotation about its axis approximately every 24 hours, most organisms on this planet are subjected to probable variations of light and temperature. A diverse range of species, from cyanobacteria to humans, evolved internal biological clocks that allow for the anticipation of these daily variations. The field of chronobiology, the study of the rhythms in plants and animals, was limited to botanists for centuries. Only recently during the last decades, the research was expanded to include animals and later even human beings. Rhythms have been recognized and associated to the fluctuation of day and night and to the succession of the seasons. Nowadays, chronobiology has developed into a multidisciplinary field in which scientists are involved in basic research as well as in applied topics.",signatures:"Mohammad Rayees Dar and Abdul Roof Rather",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68182",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68182",authors:[{id:"299126",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Rayees",surname:"Dar",slug:"mohammad-rayees-dar",fullName:"Mohammad Rayees Dar"},{id:"301429",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",surname:"Rather",slug:"abdul-rather",fullName:"Abdul Rather"}],corrections:null},{id:"67196",title:"Light-Dependent Regulation of Circadian Clocks in Vertebrates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86524",slug:"light-dependent-regulation-of-circadian-clocks-in-vertebrates",totalDownloads:980,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Circadian clocks are intrinsic time-tracking systems that endow organisms with a survival advantage. The core of the circadian clock mechanism is a cell-autonomous and self-sustained oscillator called a cellular clock, which operates via a transcription-/translation-based negative feedback loop. Under natural conditions, circadian clocks are entrained to a 24-hour day by environmental time cues, most commonly light. In mammals, circadian clocks are regulated by cellular clocks located in the central nervous system, such as the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), and in other peripheral tissues. Importantly, mammals have no photoreceptors in the peripheral tissues; therefore the effect of light on peripheral clocks is indirect. By striking contrast, zebrafish peripheral cellular clocks are directly light responsive. This characteristic of the zebrafish cellular clock has contributed to the identification of molecules and signaling pathways that are involved in the light-dependent regulation of the cellular clock. Here, selected light-dependent regulatory mechanisms of circadian clocks in mammals and zebrafish are described.",signatures:"Izawa Junko, Yoshimi Okamoto-Uchida, Akari Nishimura and Jun Hirayama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67196",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67196",authors:[{id:"246364",title:"Prof.",name:"Jun",surname:"Hirayama",slug:"jun-hirayama",fullName:"Jun Hirayama"},{id:"293783",title:"Dr.",name:"Junko",surname:"Izawa",slug:"junko-izawa",fullName:"Junko Izawa"},{id:"293784",title:"Dr.",name:"Okamoto-Uchida",surname:"Yoshimi",slug:"okamoto-uchida-yoshimi",fullName:"Okamoto-Uchida Yoshimi"},{id:"302429",title:"Dr.",name:"Akari",surname:"Nishimura",slug:"akari-nishimura",fullName:"Akari Nishimura"}],corrections:null},{id:"68518",title:"Circadian Rhythm of Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87112",slug:"circadian-rhythm-of-blood-pressure-in-children-and-adolescents",totalDownloads:720,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Everything in our body is under control of central and peripheral pacemakers that regulate all the processes and functions according to the day-night and sleep-wake cycles. Cardiovascular system is not an exception. Blood pressure, heart rate, and even vascular resistance have circadian patterns. Nowadays new diagnostic devices provide all necessary data on 24-h variation of the hemodynamic parameters in patients of all ages. Due to the complex regulation mechanisms which underline this variation, circadian patterns are not the same in different people. Why do we need to assess these rhythms? First of all, it is a key to the early diagnosis of different cardiovascular diseases and their complications. When the circadian rhythm is impaired, for example, the level of blood pressure is within the normal ranges, but it does not decline at night or even is higher than at daytime, there is an increased risk of the development of arterial hypertension and target organ damage. There is a large amount of studies on 24-h rhythm of blood pressure in adults. On the contrary, in children there is still a lack of data on this topic.",signatures:"Anastasiia Ledyaeva, Sergey Klauchek and Mikhail Ledyaev",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68518",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68518",authors:[{id:"295560",title:null,name:"Anastasiia",surname:"Ledyaeva",slug:"anastasiia-ledyaeva",fullName:"Anastasiia Ledyaeva"},{id:"295563",title:"Prof.",name:"Mikhail",surname:"Ledyaev",slug:"mikhail-ledyaev",fullName:"Mikhail Ledyaev"},{id:"295564",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Klauchek",slug:"sergey-klauchek",fullName:"Sergey Klauchek"}],corrections:null},{id:"67730",title:"Circadian Rhythms of the Autonomic Nervous System: Scientific Implication and Practical Implementation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86822",slug:"circadian-rhythms-of-the-autonomic-nervous-system-scientific-implication-and-practical-implementatio",totalDownloads:1105,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Circadian rhythms are omnipresent in almost any biosignal. In this chapter, we join them with the need for practical tools for screening in preventive settings and point out heart rate variability (HRV), a measure of autonomic nervous system activity, as a chronobiologic, unspecific index of mental and physical health. We discuss methods to calculate the circadian variation of HRV measures, particularly the cosinor procedure. We present reference values for circadian variation parameters of HRV and data concerning reproducibility. Furthermore, we show data giving first evidence of HRV as a comprehensive health index by showing altered circadian variation patterns of HRV depending on mental (trait dysthymia) as well as physical (inflammatory markers) health. Finally, we present examples of disturbed chronobiology of HRV in clinical and preventive settings and its practical application in medical consultation.",signatures:"Marc N. Jarczok, Harald Guendel, Jennifer J. McGrath and Elisabeth M. Balint",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67730",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67730",authors:[{id:"289160",title:"Dr.",name:"Marc",surname:"Jarczok",slug:"marc-jarczok",fullName:"Marc Jarczok"},{id:"289379",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisabeth",surname:"Balint",slug:"elisabeth-balint",fullName:"Elisabeth Balint"},{id:"299975",title:"Prof.",name:"Jennifer J",surname:"McGrath",slug:"jennifer-j-mcgrath",fullName:"Jennifer J McGrath"},{id:"304667",title:"Prof.",name:"Harald",surname:"Gündel",slug:"harald-gundel",fullName:"Harald Gündel"}],corrections:null},{id:"66730",title:"Integration of Chronobiological Concepts for NSCLC Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85710",slug:"integration-of-chronobiological-concepts-for-nsclc-management",totalDownloads:879,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The authors reviewed pertinent experimental and clinical data allowing to consider the interest of taking into account the temporal dimension (‘circadian’) for prevention and management of the majority of cancers, i.e., non-small cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC). The universal importance of circadian rhythms has been acknowledged in animal or human situations regarding carcinogenesis and cancer promotion; cell kinetics, apoptosis, molecular genetics, as well as DNA repair mechanisms, platinum resistance…; molecular targets (i.e., epidermal growth factor reception-EGFR); and all lymphoid and immunology machinery components. Also chronotolerance to all chemotherapeutic agents useful for treating human lung cancer has also been evidenced. A few randomized clinical chronotherapy trials were performed in human NSCLC. One limited trial has shown apparent chronoefficiency, while in another one, chronotolerance to 5-fluorouracil and a platinum derivative were confirmed. The limited improvement of outcome in human NSCLC, even through the use of targeted and biological therapies (such as tyrosine-kinase (TKI) or vascular-endothelial-growth-factor (VEGFR) inhibitors; immunotherapy), allows to consider launching specific trials in human NSCLC aiming at either restoring a normal circadian structure of the host or taking into account circadian variations of specific targets. By now unfortunately, no targeted or immunotherapy trials have been launched considering temporal dimension.",signatures:"Christian Focan, Anne-Catherine Davin, Maryam Bourhaba and Marie-Pascale Graas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66730",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66730",authors:[{id:"239672",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",surname:"Focan",slug:"christian-focan",fullName:"Christian Focan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6808",title:"Autonomic Nervous System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d95e7c43f124d1a6e39b88862a917fc1",slug:"autonomic-nervous-system",bookSignature:"Pavol Svorc",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6808.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169212",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavol",surname:"Svorc",slug:"pavol-svorc",fullName:"Pavol Svorc"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6907",title:"Feed Your Mind",subtitle:"How Does Nutrition Modulate Brain Function throughout Life?",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91a663d09b6d6e80db3a69fca11e5b68",slug:"feed-your-mind-how-does-nutrition-modulate-brain-function-throughout-life-",bookSignature:"Clémentine Bosch-Bouju, Sophie Layé and Véronique Pallet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6907.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"265901",title:"Dr.",name:"Clémentine",surname:"Bosch-Bouju",slug:"clementine-bosch-bouju",fullName:"Clémentine Bosch-Bouju"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6991",title:"Neurons",subtitle:"Dendrites and Axons",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"696489f55e1077935f47087fa3829b5f",slug:"neurons-dendrites-and-axons",bookSignature:"Gonzalo Emiliano Aranda Abreu and María Elena Hernández Aguilar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72314",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonzalo Emiliano",surname:"Aranda Abreu",slug:"gonzalo-emiliano-aranda-abreu",fullName:"Gonzalo Emiliano Aranda Abreu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6786",title:"Optic Nerve",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b21864e6a0b3b316480d18efda1e18ee",slug:"optic-nerve",bookSignature:"Felicia M. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"71744",slug:"corrigendum-to-technical-advances-in-chloroplast-biotechnology",title:"Corrigendum to: Technical Advances in Chloroplast Biotechnology",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71744.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71744",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71744",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71744",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71744",chapter:{id:"65358",slug:"technical-advances-in-chloroplast-biotechnology",signatures:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan, Ghulam Mustafa and Faiz Ahmad Joyia",dateSubmitted:"June 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"January 25th 2019",datePublished:"October 23rd 2019",book:{id:"6976",title:"Transgenic Crops",subtitle:"Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",fullTitle:"Transgenic Crops - Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",slug:"transgenic-crops-emerging-trends-and-future-perspectives",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan and Kauser Abdulla Malik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6976.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"211046",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",fullName:"Ghulam Mustafa",slug:"ghulam-mustafa",email:"drmustafa8@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"212508",title:"Dr.",name:"Faiz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Faiz Ahmad",slug:"faiz-ahmad",email:"faizahmad1980@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",email:"sarwarkhan_40@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"65358",slug:"technical-advances-in-chloroplast-biotechnology",signatures:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan, Ghulam Mustafa and Faiz Ahmad Joyia",dateSubmitted:"June 12th 2018",dateReviewed:"August 31st 2018",datePrePublished:"January 25th 2019",datePublished:"October 23rd 2019",book:{id:"6976",title:"Transgenic Crops",subtitle:"Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",fullTitle:"Transgenic Crops - Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",slug:"transgenic-crops-emerging-trends-and-future-perspectives",publishedDate:"October 23rd 2019",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan and Kauser Abdulla Malik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6976.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"211046",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghulam",middleName:null,surname:"Mustafa",fullName:"Ghulam Mustafa",slug:"ghulam-mustafa",email:"drmustafa8@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"212508",title:"Dr.",name:"Faiz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",fullName:"Faiz Ahmad",slug:"faiz-ahmad",email:"faizahmad1980@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"212511",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Sarwar",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Muhammad Sarwar Khan",slug:"muhammad-sarwar-khan",email:"sarwarkhan_40@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]},book:{id:"6976",title:"Transgenic Crops",subtitle:"Emerging Trends and Future Perspectives",fullTitle:"Transgenic Crops - 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The effect of such light modes is manifested in periodic changes in physiological functions and biological rhythms exhibited at every level of life. The book discusses some of the specificities of the circadian rhythms in living organisms and mentions aspects of the control of circadian rhythms as well as experimental and clinical cases that are closely related to circadian disruption. This book can evoke interest in many researchers who want to use this information for the advancement of their research towards a better understanding of the biological time structure.",isbn:"978-1-78984-901-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-900-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-277-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73428",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"chronobiology-the-science-of-biological-time-structure",numberOfPages:108,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"521dfb38a216470da6f8f7d02469832c",bookSignature:"Pavol Svorc",publishedDate:"December 18th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6899.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:5694,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfTotalCitations:27,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 29th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 31st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 19th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 18th 2019",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"169212",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavol",middleName:null,surname:"Svorc",slug:"pavol-svorc",fullName:"Pavol Svorc",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169212/images/system/169212.jpg",biography:"Dr. Pavol Švorc is an Associate Professor, Doctor of the Natural Sciences, Philosophe Doctor. In 1982 he became a Doctor of the Natural Sciences from General Biology, Natural Faculty, Šafarik’s University in Košice. In 1995 he received a PhD. – Physiology and Patophysiology, Natural Faculty Šafarik’s University in Košice. In 2005 he became an Associate Professor from Normal and Patological Physiology, Medical Faculty, Šafarik’s University in Košice. From 1982 to 1983 Dr.Švorc worked as an independent specialist in the local museum in Poprad, Slovakia. In 1983 he started working as a lecturer at the Department of Physiology, Šafarik’s University in Kosice, Slovakia. From\r\n2011 until 2014 he was a Head of the Institute of Physiology and Pathophysiology, Medical Faculty, University of Ostrava, Czech Republic. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"67458",title:"Nitrogen Fertilization II: Management Practices to Sustain Crop Production and Soil and Environmental Quality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86646",slug:"nitrogen-fertilization-ii-management-practices-to-sustain-crop-production-and-soil-and-environmental",body:'Legume-integrated crop rotations provide opportunity to reduce N fertilizer rates due to increased N supply by legume residues to succeeding crops compared with nonlegume monocropping [1, 2]. As little or no N fertilizer is applied to legumes during their growth, inclusion of legumes in rotation with nonlegumes helps to reduce the overall N rate for a crop rotation, which increase farm income by reducing C footprints and lowering the cost of N fertilization [1, 3]. Legumes also fix atmospheric N and release it for as long as 3 years, increasing yields of succeeding crops compared with nonlegume crops in crop rotations [4]. Crop rotations also reduce disease, pest, and weed infestations [5], improve soil structure and organic matter storage [6], increase water-use efficiency [7], and enhance soil health through microbial proliferation [8]. Crop rotation can also increase N uptake efficiency of diverse crops and reduce soil residual N compared with monocropping [2].
Cover cropping has many beneficial effects on sustaining crop yields and improving soil and environmental quality. Cover crops planted after the harvest of cash crops use soil residual N, reducing N leaching. The additional residues supplied by cover crops increase soil organic matter and fertility [9, 10]. Legume cover crops reduce N fertilization rates and enhance crop yields, but nonlegume cover crops are more effective on enhancing C sequestration [11, 12]. Similarly, integrate crop-livestock system, while reducing feed cost and supplying meat, milk, and wood, enhances N cycling and soil fertility, and control weeds [13, 14].
Continuous application of NH4-based N fertilizers to nonlegume crops can reduce soil pH compared with legume-nonlegume crop rotations where N fertilizer is not applied to legumes [15]. After 16–28 years of management implications, soil pH was reduced by 0.22–0.42 from the original level in continuous nonlegumes compared with crop rotations containing legumes and nonlegumes [15]. Soil acidification from N fertilization to crops primarily results from (1) increased removal of basic cations, such as calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), potassium (K), and sodium (Na) in crop grains and stover due to increased yield; (2) leaching of soil residual NO3-N, Ca, and Mg; and (3) microbial oxidation (or nitrification) of NH4-based N fertilizers that release H+ ions [16]. Alkalinity produced during plant uptake of N or conversion of inorganic N to organic form, however, can partly or wholly counter the acidity from nitrification [17]. Increased toxicity of aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) and reduced availability of most nutrients, such as P, Ca, Mg, K, and Na, during acidification can reduce crop growth and yield [18].
Here we discuss various management strategies to reduce N fertilization rates, increase N-use efficiency, and decrease N leaching and N2O emissions due to N fertilization. These practices will reduce the cost of N fertilization while sustaining crop production and reducing soil and environmental degradation.
Management practices that reduce N fertilization rates without affecting crop yields and quality are needed to reduce soil and environmental degradation, as soil degradation is directly related to increased N rates. Some of these practices include crop rotation, cover cropping, application of manure and compost, and integrated crop-livestock system. These practices can increase N inputs, reduce N fertilization rates, conserve soil organic matter, and enhance soil health and environmental quality without affecting crop yields compared with traditional management practices. We discuss these practices as follows.
Crop rotations that include legumes and nonlegumes in the rotation can substantially reduce N fertilization rates compared with nonlegume monocropping because legumes supply N to the soil due to their greater N concentration from atmospheric N fixation than nonlegumes. As no N fertilizer is applied to legumes, overall N fertilization rate is lower for the legume-nonlegume rotation than continuous nonlegumes while still maintaining crop yields. Sainju et al. [19] observed that annualized crop biomass and grain yields under rainfed condition were similar or greater with legume-based rotations that included pea, durum (
Crop rotation† | Annualized biomass yield (Mg ha−1) | Annualized grain yield (Mg ha−1) |
---|---|---|
CD | 3.32b‡ | 1.77a |
D-C-D-P | 4.02a | 1.76a |
D-D-C-P | 3.90a | 1.70a |
D-F-D-P | 3.39b | 1.63ab |
D-D-F-P | 3.56b | 1.54b |
Effect of crop rotation on average annualized crop biomass (stems and leaves) and grain yields of durum, canola, flax, and pea from 2006 to 2011 in eastern Montana, USA (Sainju et al., 2017d).
Crop rotations are CD, continuous durum; D-C-D-P, durum-canola-durum-pea; D-D-C-P, durum-durum-canola-pea; D-F-D-P, durum-flax-durum-pea; and D-D-F-P, durum-durum-flax-pea.
Numbers followed by different letters within a column are significantly different at P
Crop rotation can enhance or maintain soil organic C and N levels compared to monocropping. Both soil C and N stocks can be influenced by the quality and quantity of residue returned to the soil from crops involved in the rotation [12, 22]. Crop rotation can sequester C at 200 ± 120 kg C ha−1 year−1, reaching equilibrium in 40–60 years compared with monocropping [23]. Sainju [24] found that soil organic C at 0–5 and 5–10 cm was similar in no-till malt barley-pea rotation (NTB-P) and no-till continuous malt barley (NTCB), both of which had greater soil organic C than no-till malt barley-fallow (NTB-F) and conventional till malt barley-fallow (CTB-F) due to greater amount of crop residue returned to the soil and reduced mineralization of soil organic matter (Figure 1). Similarly, Sainju et al. (2017d) found that soil total C at 0–125 cm was similar to continuous durum and rotations that included durum, canola, pea, and flax, except D-D-F-P (Table 2). Soil total N at 0–120 cm was greater with spring wheat-pea rotation than continuous spring wheat (Table 3) [25].
Soil organic C at the 0–120 cm depth as affected by 6 years of N fertilization rates to malt barley in various cropping systems in eastern Montana, USA. CTB-F denotes conventional till malt barley-fallow; NTB-F, no-till malt barley-fallow; NTB-P, no-till malt barley-pea; and NTCB, no-till continuous malt barley. Vertical bars denote least significant difference between tillage and cropping sequence treatments within a N rate at P = 0.05 [
Crop rotation† | STC at 0–125 cm (Mg C ha−1) |
---|---|
CD | 394.6a‡ |
D-C-D-P | 395.4a |
D-D-C-P | 387.1a |
D-F-D-P | 395.4a |
D-D-F-P | 370.2b |
Soil total C (STC) at the 0–125 cm depth after 6 years as affected by crop rotation in eastern Montana, USA [19].
Crop rotations are CD, continuous durum; D-C-D-P, durum-canola-durum-pea; D-D-C-P, durum-durum-canola-pea; D-F-D-P, durum-flax-durum-pea; and D-D-F-P, durum-durum-flax-pea.
Numbers followed by different letters within a column are significantly different at
Crop rotationa | STN (Mg N ha−1) | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–5 cm | 5–10 cm | 10–20 cm | 20–40 cm | 40–60 cm | 60–90 cm | 90–120 cm | 0–120 cm | |
CW | 0.82 | 0.91 | 1.46 | 2.34bb | 2.11 | 2.29b | 2.11 | 12.03b |
W-P | 0.85 | 0.90 | 1.53 | 2.66a | 2.24 | 2.55a | 2.23 | 12.96a |
W-B-P | 0.79 | 0.86 | 1.44 | 2.43ab | 2.17 | 2..35b | 2.22 | 12.17b |
W-B-C-P | 0.81 | 0.88 | 1.47 | 2.54a | 2.26 | 2.51a | 2.10 | 12.62ab |
Soil total N (STN) at the 0–120 cm depth after 6 years as affected by crop rotation in eastern Montana, USA [25].
Crop rotations are CW, continuous spring wheat; W-P, spring wheat-pea; W-B-P, spring wheat-barley hay-pea; and W-B-C-P, spring wheat-barley hay-corn-pea.
Numbers followed by different letters within a column are significantly different at
In an experiment evaluating the effects of crop rotation and cultural practice (traditional and ecological) on N balance in dryland agroecosystems, Sainju et al. [26, 27] observed that N fertilization rates were lower with legume-based crop rotations (D-C-D-P, D-D-C-P, D-F-D-P, and D-D-F-P) than nonlegume monocropping (CD) (Table 4). Traditional cultural practices included conventional till, recommended seed rate, broadcast N fertilization, and reduced stubble height and ecological practices inlcuded no-till, increased seed rate, banded N fertilization, and increased stubble height. They found that both total N input and output were greater with legume-based rotations than nonlegume monocropping due to pea N fixation and increased grain N removal. As a result, N balance was positive, indicating N surplus in legume-based rotations, and negative, indicating N deficit in nonlegume monocropping. This suggests that external N input is lower to sustain crop yields in legume-based crop rotations than nonlegume monocropping.
Parameter | Traditional (kg N ha−1 year−1) | Ecological (kg N ha−1 year−1) | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CDa | D-C-D-Pa | D-D-C-Pa | D-F-D-Pa | D-D-F-Pa | CD | D-C-D-P | D-D-C-P | D-F-D-P | D-D-F-P | |
N fertilization rate | 83Ab | 62B | 59B | 52B | 54B | 87A | 60B | 63B | 55B | 56B |
Pea N fixation | 0C | 84AB | 76B | 80AB | 75B | 0C | 84AB | 78B | 87A | 82AB |
Atmospheric N deposition | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 |
N added by crop seed | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
Nonsymbiotic N fixation | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 | 5 |
Total N input | 105B | 167A | 156A | 154A | 150A | 109B | 166A | 162A | 164A | 159A |
Grain N removal | 49B | 62A | 57AB | 54AB | 55AB | 52AB | 65A | 64A | 63A | 54AB |
Denitrification | 12 | 10 | 9 | 8 | 9 | 13 | 9 | 10 | 9 | 9 |
Ammonia volatilization | 12 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 | 13 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 8 |
Plant senescence | 5 | 7 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 7 | 6 |
N leaching | 9 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 9 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 12 |
Gaseous N (NOx) emissions | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 |
Surface runoff | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
Total N output | 91B | 105A | 98AB | 92B | 94AB | 96AB | 107A | 107A | 103A | 94AB |
Changes in N levelc | 14B | 62A | 58A | 62A | 56A | 13B | 59A | 55A | 61A | 65A |
N sequestration rate (0–125 cm)d | 50 | 45 | 42 | 46 | 43 | 52 | 48 | 46 | 44 | 40 |
N balancee | −36 (±11)B | 17 (±5)A | 16 (±4)A | 16 (±4)A | 13 (±3)A | −39 (±12)B | 11 (±3)A | 9 (±2)A | 17 (±4)A | 25 (±5)A |
Annual N balance due to the difference between total N inputs and outputs and N sequestration rate under dryland agroecosystems from 2005 to 2011 in eastern Montana, USA [26, 27].
Crop rotation are CD, continuous durum; D-C-D-P, durum-canola-durum-pea; D-D-C-P, durum-durum-canola-pea; D-F-D-P, durum-flax-durum-pea; and D-D-F-P, durum-durum-flax-pea.
Numbers followed by the same letter within a row are not significantly different at
Changes in N level = total N input − total N output.
Determined from the linear regression analysis of soil total N (STN) at 0–125 cm from the year 2005 to 2011.
N balance = changes in N levels − N sequestration rate (0–125 cm).
Legume-nonlegume rotation can also resist soil acidification compared with continuous nonlegumes. Sainju et al. [18] reported that soil pH at 0–7.5 cm after 30 years of experiment initiation was 0.13–0.44 greater and at 7.5–15.0 cm was 0.11–0.29 greater with spring wheat-barley/pea rotation (FSTW-B/P) than continuous spring wheat (NTCW, STCW, and FSTCW) (Table 5). They explained this as a result of lack of N fertilization to pea and reduced N fertilization rate to spring wheat following pea whose residue supplied N to spring wheat because of higher M concentration than spring wheat and barley residues. Soil residual NO3-N, which can pollute groundwater through leaching, was lower with legume-based crop rotations containing durum, canola, pea, and flax than continuous durum (Table 6), suggesting that legume-based crop rotations can reduce N fertilization rate and the potential for N leaching compared with nonlegume monocropping.
Tillage and cropping sequencea | Soil depth | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–7.5 cm | 7.5–15 cm | 15–30 cm | 30–60 cm | 60–90 cm | 90–120 cm | |
NTCW | 5.33abbEc | 6.50abD | 7.60C | 8.35B | 8.58A | 8.75A |
STCW | 5.05bE | 6.15bD | 7.58C | 8.25B | 8.63A | 8.70A |
FSTCW | 5.02bE | 6.33bD | 7.80C | 8.30B | 8.68AB | 8.73A |
FSTW-B/P | 5.46aE | 6.44bD | 7.60C | 8.15B | 8.51A | 8.59A |
STW-F | 5.73aE | 7.03aD | 7.65C | 8.25B | 8.50AB | 8.66A |
NT vs. T | 0.29 | 0.26 | −0.09 | 0.08 | −0.08 | 0.04 |
CW vs. W-F | −0.68*** | −0.88** | −0.08 | 0.01 | 0.13 | 0.04 |
CW vs. W-B/P | −0.43* | −0.11 | 0.20 | 0.15 | 0.16 | 0.14 |
NTCW | 6.45bE | 7.10abD | 7.43C | 7.60B | 7.70AB | 7.73A |
STCW | 6.38bE | 7.00bD | 7.43C | 7.58B | 7.68A | 7.70A |
FSTCW | 6.43bE | 7.05bD | 7.45C | 7.60B | 7.70AB | 7.73A |
FSTW-B/P | 6.66aD | 7.13abC | 7.44B | 7.58B | 7.69AB | 7.70A |
STW-F | 6.80aE | 7.24aD | 7.44C | 7.59B | 7.66AB | 7.72A |
NT vs. T | 0.05 | 0.08 | −0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
CW vs. W-F | −0.43*** | −0.24** | −0.01 | −0.01 | 0.01 | −0.01 |
CW vs. W-B/P | −0.24* | −0.08 | −0.01 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.03 |
Effect of tillage and crop rotation combination on soil pH and buffer pH at the 0–120 cm depth after 30 years of experiment initiation in eastern Montana, USA [18].
Significant at P = 0.05.
Significant at P = 0.01.
Significant at P = 0.001.
FSTCW, fall and spring till continuous spring wheat; FSTW-B/P, fall and spring till spring wheat-barley (1994–1999) followed by spring wheat-pea (2000–2013); NTCW, no-till continuous spring wheat; STCW, spring till continuous spring wheat; and STW-F, spring till spring wheat-fallow. CW represents continuous wheat; NT, no-till; T, till; W-B/P, spring wheat-barley/pea; and W-F, spring wheat-fallow.
Numbers followed by the same lowercase letter within a column among treatments in a set are not significantly different at P
Numbers followed by the same uppercase letter within a row among soil depths in a set are no significantly different at P
Crop rotationa | NO3-N content at various depths (kg N ha−1) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–5 cm | 5–10 cm | 10–20 cm | 20–50 cm | 50–88 cm | 88–125 cm | 0–125 cm | |
CD | 2.47ab | 1.81a | 2.43a | 8.49a | 9.37a | 9.17a | 33.87a |
DCDP | 1.82a | 1.22b | 1.94b | 6.47a | 7.77a | 6.71b | 26.32b |
DDCP | 1.86a | 1.19b | 1.93b | 5.97a | 8.07a | 6.38b | 25.59b |
DFDP | 1.90a | 1.37b | 2.20a | 6.59a | 9.62a | 8.64ab | 30.60a |
DDFP | 1.74a | 1.28b | 2.29a | 6.27a | 8.63a | 6.65b | 27.02b |
Soil NO3-N content at the 0–125 cm depth as affected by crop rotation and cultural practice averaged across years from 2006 to 2011 in eastern Montana, USA [28].
Crop rotations are CD, continuous durum; DCDP, durum-canola-durum-pea; DDCP, durum-durum-canola-pea; DDFP, durum-durum-flax-pea; and DFDP, durum-flax-durum-pea.
Numbers followed by different letters within a column are significantly different at P
Cover crops have been grown successfully in regions with mild winter to provide vegetative cover for reducing soil erosion. Cover crops are usually grown in the fall after the harvest of summer cash crops and have many benefits for sustaining crop yields and improving soil and water quality. Winter cover crops use soil residual N that may otherwise leach into groundwater after crop harvest in the fall, thereby reducing soil profile NO3-N content and N leaching [29, 30]. Summer cover crops are grown in the summer to replace fallow when no other crops are grown. Depending on the species, cover crops can maintain or increase soil organic C and N by providing additional crop residue which increases biomass C and N inputs to the soil [9, 10, 12] and sequester atmospheric C and/or N, thereby reducing the rate of N fertilization to summer crops [9, 10]. Other benefits of cover crops include increased soil aggregation and water infiltration capacity [31], improved water holding capacity [32], and reduced soil erosion [33] compared with no cover crop.
Integrating legumes in crop rotations can supply N to succeeding crops and increase crop yields compared to nonlegumes or no cover crop rotations [10]. In contrast, nonlegume cover crops are effective in increasing soil organic C through increased biomass production compared with legumes or no cover crop [9, 10, 12]. Nonlegumes also reduce NO3-N leaching from the soil profile better than legumes, or no cover crop do [29]. As none of the cover crops are effective enough to provide most of these benefits, i.e., to supply N, sustain crop yields, increase soil organic matter, and reduce N leaching, a mixture of legume and nonlegume cover crops is ideal to supply both C and N inputs in adequate amounts that help to improve soil and water quality by increasing organic matter content and the potential for reducing N leaching compared with legumes and increase crop yields compared with nonlegumes [12, 34, 35].
Sainju et al. [36] found higher biomass yield with hairy vetch/rye (
Cover crop† | Biomass yield (Mg ha−1) | Concentration | Content | C/N ratio | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C (g kg−1) | N (g kg−1) | C (kg ha−1) | N (kg ha−1) | |||
Weeds | 1.65d‡ | 370b | 15b | 587d | 25d | 24b |
Rye | 6.07b | 430a | 15b | 2670b | 68c | 29a |
Vetch | 5.10c | 394ab | 33a | 2006c | 135b | 12c |
Vetch/rye | 8.18a | 366b | 38a | 3512a | 310a | 10c |
Weeds | 0.75d | 391b | 20b | 277d | 15b | 20c |
Rye | 3.81b | 448a | 8d | 1729b | 32b | 57a |
Vetch | 2.44c | 398b | 32a | 964c | 76a | 12c |
Vetch/rye | 5.98a | 434a | 14c | 2693a | 84a | 32b |
Weeds | 1.25c | 375b | 18b | 476c | 23b | 21b |
Rye | 2.28b | 434a | 11b | 986b | 25b | 40a |
Vetch | 5.16a | 361b | 36a | 2094a | 167a | 10c |
Vetch/rye | 5.72a | 381b | 33a | 2260a | 186a | 11c |
Effect of cover crop species on aboveground biomass yield and C and N contents in cover crops from 2000 to 2002 in central Georgia, USA [36].
Cover crops are rye, cereal rye; vetch, hairy vetch; vetch/rye, hairy vetch and rye biculture; and weeds, winter weeds.
Numbers followed by the same letter within a column of a year are not significantly different at P
Because of increased C supply, soil organic C at 0–10 and 10–30 cm was also greater with hairy vetch/rye than other cover crops (Figure 2). At 30–60 cm, soil organic C was greater with hairy vetch/rye than other cover crops, except hairy vetch. Soil total N at 0–15, 15–30, and 0–120 cm was also greater with hairy vetch and hairy vetch/rye mixture than other cover crops (Figure 3). Similarly, soil residual NO3-N content at 0–120 cm was greater with hairy vetch than other cover crops and is slightly greater than that with 120–130 kg N ha−1 (Figure 4). Nitrogen loss at 0–120 cm during the winter fallow period from November to April was lower with hairy vetch/rye than other cover crops (Table 8). Nitrogen fertilizer equivalence of rye and winter weeds for cotton and sorghum ranged from −129 to 69 kg N ha−1, but those of hairy vetch and hairy vetch/rye ranged from 92 to 220 kg N ha−1 (Table 9), suggesting that hairy vetch and hairy vetch/rye can increase cotton and sorghum yields similar to those by 92–220 kg N ha−1 [11]. These results suggest that hairy vetch/rye mixture can produce crop yields similar to hairy vetch. The mixture can also increase soil organic matter and reduce N fertilization rate and the potential for N leaching compared with rye and winter weeds. Therefore, legume-nonlegume cover crop mixture can provide several benefits, such as reducing the cost of N fertilization, maintaining crop yields, enhancing soil organic matter, and reducing N leaching compared with either cover crop alone or no cover crop.
Effect of cover crop on soil organic C at the (A) 0-10 cm, (B) 10-30 cm, and (C) 30-50 cm depths in a chisel-tilled system (October 1999–November 2002, central Gerogia, USA). R denotes cereal rye; V, hairy vetch; VR, hairy vetch and rye biculture; and WW, winter weeds. Vertical line with LSD (0.05) is the least significant difference between cover crops within a sampling date at P = 0.05 [
Effect of cover crop on soil total N at the 0–120 cm depth in (A) no-tilled, (B) strip-tilled, and (C) chisel-tilled soils after 3 years in Central Georgia, USA. R denotes cereal rye; V, hairy vetch; V + R, hairy vetch and rye biculture; and WW, winter weeds. Bars followed by the same lowercase letter within a soil depth are not significantly different between cover crops at P = 0.05. Bars followed by the same uppercase letter at the top are not significantly different between cover crops at the 0–120 cm depth at P
Effect of (A) cover crop and (B) N fertilization rate on soil NO3-N content at the 0–120 cm depth in Central Georgia, USA. R, denotes cereal rye; V, hairy vetch; V + R, hairy vetch and rye biculture; and W, winter weeds. Bars followed by the same lowercase letter within a soil depth are not significantly different between cover crops at P = 0.05. Bars followed by the same uppercase letter at the top are not significantly different between cover crops at the 0–120 cm depth at P
Cover crop† | Total crop residue and soil N‡ (kg N ha−1) | Total crop residue and soil N§ (kg N ha−1) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
November 2000 | April 2001 | Loss | November 2001 | April 2002 | Loss | |
Rye | 5057bc¶ | 4888b | 169b | 4820b | 4764b | 56a |
Vetch | 5455a | 5235a | 220a | 5323a | 5244a | 79a |
Vetch/rye | 5249ab | 5141a | 108c | 5222a | 5182a | 40a |
Weeds | 4869c | 4709b | 160b | 4725b | 4649b | 76a |
Effect of cover crop on N loss from crop residue and soil N (NH4-N + NO3-N + organic N contents) at the 0–120 cm depth during the two winter seasons (from November 2000 to April 2001 and from November 2001 to April 2002) in central Georgia, USA [35].
Cover crops are rye, cereal rye; vetch, hairy vetch; vetch/rye, hairy vetch and rye biculture; and weeds, winter weeds or no cover crop.
Include soil NH4-N + NO3-N + organic N contents at 0–120 cm, and N returned to the soil from cotton biomass (stems + leaves) in November 2000 and cover crop biomass in April 2001.
Include soil NH4-N + NO3-N + organic N contents at 0–120 cm, and N returned to the soil from sorghum biomass (stems + leaves) in November 2001 and cover crop biomass in April 2002.
Numbers followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly different at P
Parameter | Cover crop | Regression analysisa | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Winter weeds | Rye | Hairy vetch | Hairy vetch/rye | R2 | ||
Lint yield | — | — | — | — | 0.25 | 0.67 |
Lint N uptake | — | — | — | — | 0.25 | 0.67 |
Biomass yield | −13 | 30 | 149 | 93 | 0.96 | 0.13 |
Biomass N uptake | −21 | 2 | 165 | 92 | 0.99 | 0.06 |
Soil inorganic N | −60 | −190 | 220 | 140 | 0.64 | 0.40 |
Lint yield | 7 | −64 | 107 | 179 | 0.96 | 0.12 |
Lint N uptake | 25 | −67 | 167 | 150 | 0.96 | 0.14 |
Biomass yield | 32 | −168 | 194 | 194 | 0.99 | 0.02 |
Biomass N uptake | 69 | −84 | 192 | 83 | 0.98 | 0.08 |
Soil inorganic N | 59 | 12 | 116 | 71 | 0.86 | 0.25 |
Lint yield | — | — | — | — | 0.28 | 0.82 |
Lint N uptake | — | — | — | — | 0.24 | 0.87 |
Biomass yield | −21 | −61 | 139 | 205 | 0.96 | 0.12 |
Biomass N uptake | −35 | −13 | 134 | 160 | 0.97 | 0.11 |
Soil inorganic N | −74 | 5 | 176 | 160 | 0.70 | 0.37 |
Nitrogen fertilizer equivalence (kg N ha−1) of cover crops and soil inorganic N (NH4-N + NO3-N) content at the 0–30 cm depth for cotton and sorghum yields and N uptake from 2000 to 2002 in central Georgia, USA [11].
Regression analysis of N fertilization rates versus cotton and sorghum yields and N uptake and soil inorganic N.
Manure and compost are rich sources of nutrients, and their application can increase soil organic C and total N, improving soil quality and crop production compared to no fertilizer application [37, 38]. Sainju et al. [39, 40] compared soil organic C and total N after 10 years of poultry litter with inorganic N fertilizer applications, both applied at 100 kg N ha−1 to corn and cotton (Tables 10 and 11). They found that soil organic C and total N at 0–20 cm were greater with poultry litter application than inorganic N fertilization, regardless of tillage practices. As a result, poultry litter application sequestered C at 461 kg C ha−1 year−1 and N at 38 kg N ha−1 year−1 compared to 38 kg C ha−1 year−1 and 4 kg N ha−1 year−1, respectively, with N fertilization. As poultry litter also supplied C at 1.7 Mg C ha−1 year−1 [40] and only 60% of N from poultry litter was available to crops in the first year [37], Sainju et al. [39, 40] reported that part of non-mineralized C and N from the litter converted to soil organic C and N, thereby increasing their levels with poultry litter application. In contrast, little or no C was supplied by inorganic N fertilizer, and most of N supplied by the fertilizer can either be taken up by the crop or lost to the environment through leaching, denitrification, and volatilization.
Tillage† | N source‡ | SOC concentration (g C kg−1) | SOC content (Mg C ha−1) | Changes in SOC from 1996 to 2006 (Mg C ha−1) | C sequestration rate (kg C ha−1 year.−1) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
100 kg N ha−1 | 0–10 cm | 10–20 cm | 0–20 cm | 0–20 cm | 0–20 cm | |
NT | AN | 13.5 | 11.0 | 40.1 | 1.47 | 147 |
PL | 15.9 | 10.5 | 43.7 | 5.10 | 510 | |
MT | AN | 15.9 | 11.0 | 42.6 | 3.97 | 397 |
PL | 15.4 | 10.6 | 42.2 | 3.63 | 363 | |
CT | AN | 14.3 | 10.7 | 37.4 | −1.20 | −120 |
PL | 15.3 | 11.8 | 43.7 | 5.10 | 510 | |
LSD (0.05) | — | — | 3.1 | 3.1 | 310 | |
Means | AN | 14.6a§ | 10.9a | 40.0b | 1.41b | 141b |
PL | 15.6a | 11.0a | 43.2a | 4.61a | 461a |
Effect of tillage and N source on soil organic C (SOC) at the 0–20 cm depth after 10 years in Alabama, USA [40].
Tillage is CT, conventional till; MT, mulch till; and NT, no-till.
N source is AN, NH4NO3; and PL, poultry litter.
Numbers followed by different letters within a column in a set are significantly different at P
Tillagea | N sourceb | STN concentration (g N kg−1) | STN content (Mg N ha−1) | Change in STN from 1996 to 2006 (Mg N ha−1) | N sequestration rate (kg N ha−1 year−1) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(100 kg N ha−1) | 0–10 cm | 10–20 cm | 0–20 cm | 0–20 cm | 0–20 cm | |
NT | AN | 1.23 | 1.03 | 3.44 | −0.23 | −23 |
PL | 1.52 | 1.02 | 4.19 | 0.49 | 49 | |
MT | AN | 1.42 | 1.01 | 3.84 | 0.15 | 15 |
PL | 1.49 | 0.92 | 3.91 | 0.21 | 21 | |
CT | AN | 1.31 | 0.98 | 3.67 | −0.03 | −3 |
PL | 1.51 | 1.04 | 4.11 | 0.41 | 41 | |
LSD (0.05)c | — | — | 0.24 | 0.24 | 24 | |
Means | AN | 1.55bd | 1.59a | 3.65b | −0.04b | −4b |
PL | 1.65a | 1.59a | 4.07a | 0.38a | 38a |
Effects of tillage and N source on soil total N and N sequestration rate at the 0–20 cm depth after 10 years in Alabama, USA [39].
Tillage is CT, conventional till; MT, mulch till; and NT, no-till.
N source is AN, ammonium nitrate; and PL, poultry litter.
Least significant differences between treatments at P = 0.05.
Numbers followed by the same letter within a column in a set are not significantly different at P
Because of lower N availability from poultry litter as a result of reduced N mineralization, total aboveground biomass and N uptake of corn, cotton, and rye cover crop were lower with poultry litter application than inorganic N fertilization (Table 12). Although soil health and quality can be improved with poultry litter application through organic matter enrichment, crop yields can be lower compared with N fertilization. For enhancing soil and environmental quality and sustaining crop yields, both inorganic N fertilizer and manure/compost should be applied as a mixture in balanced proportion as per crop demand after analyzing soil NO3-N test to a depth of 60 cm. This could reduce N fertilization rate and undesirable consequences of N fertilization on soil and environmental quality.
Integrated crop-livestock systems were commonly used to sustain crop and livestock products throughout the world before commercial fertilizers were introduced in 1950 [41]. The system is still common among producers in developing countries, especially in Africa and Asia where fertilizers are scarce and expensive [42, 43]. The integrated crop-livestock system has the potential to improve soil quality and sustain crop yields [41, 44]. The major benefits of the system are (1) production of crops, meat, and milk, (2) production of crop residue for animal feed, (3) production of manure to apply as fertilizer, (4) use of animals as draft power for tillage, and (5) control of weeds and pests [41, 42].
Animal grazing during fallow periods in wheat-fallow systems can be used to effectively control weeds [14] and insects, such as wheat stem saw fly [
Hatfield et al. [14] reported that sheep grazing during fallow did not affect soil organic matter and nutrient levels compared to the non-grazed treatment in the North Central Montana. Sheep grazing can increase soil bulk density and extractable P and grass yields compared to cattle grazing [45]. Snyder et al. [46] found similar or greater wheat grain yields with and without animal grazing. Similarly, Quiroga et al. [47] observed that 10 years of cattle grazing did not alter soil P concentration in Argentina. In contrast, Niu et al. [48] in Australia observed greater soil P and K concentrations in sheep camping than in non-camping sites due to increased animal excreta. Cattle and sheep grazing in the pasture can increase soil P and K concentrations compared to non-grazing [45].
Sainju et al. [49] reported that annualized wheat grain and biomass yields were lower with spring wheat-fallow and winter wheat-fallow rotations than continuous spring wheat due to the absence of crops during the fallow period (Table 13). In contrast, wheat grain yield was not different among weed management practices where sheep grazing was used among one of the treatments to control weeds along with herbicide application and tillage, although wheat biomass yield was lower with sheep grazing and herbicide application than tillage. Soil organic C, total N, and NO3-N contents varied among weed management practices and soil depths, but the contents at 0–120 cm were not affected by weed management practices (Table 14). Soil P, K, and SO4-S contents at 0–30 cm were lower with sheep grazing than other weed management practices, but pH, electrical conductivity, and Ca, Mg, and Na contents were similar or greater with sheep grazing (Table 15). Consumption of crop residue by sheep during grazing, but little P and K inputs to the soil through urine and feces, reduced soil P and K concentrations with sheep grazing compared with other weed management practices [49]. These results suggest that sheep grazing can reduce the cost of animal feed without seriously affecting crop yields and sustain soil organic matter and nutrients compared with other weed management practices, except P and K which need to be added with inorganic fertilizers to eliminate their deficiency. As soil residual NO3-N content was not different among weed management practices, long-term study may be needed to evaluate if animal grazing can reduce N fertilization rate for crop production. However, animal grazing can recycle nutrients and control weeds effectively compared with herbicide application and tillage, thereby saving the cost of fertilization and weed control.
Year | Cropping sequence† (Mg ha−1) | Weed management‡ (Mg ha−1) | Mean | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CSW | SW-F | WW-F | Chem. | Mech. | Graz. | ||
2004 | 5.55a§A¶ | 2.90aC | 3.53aB | 3.92aA | 4.01aA | 4.05aA | 3.99a |
2005 | 2.68bA | 1.83bB | 1.15eC | 1.84cA | 1.92bA | 1.90bA | 1.89b |
2006 | 2.57bA | 1.45cB | 1.70 dB | 1.89cA | 1.90bA | 1.92bA | 1.90b |
2007 | 1.86cB | 1.18cC | 2.95bA | 1.89cA | 2.03bA | 2.00bA | 2.00b |
2008 | 2.61bA | 1.56bcC | 2.22cB | 2.09bA | 2.17bA | 2.14bA | 2.13b |
Mean | 3.05A | 1.78C | 2.31B | 2.32A | 2.42A | 2.40A | |
2004 | 6.60aA | 3.10aC | 3.57aB | 3.61aAB | 3.41aB | 3.89aA | 4.42a |
2005 | 3.28bA | 1.65bB | 1.94bcB | 2.52bA | 2.17bcA | 2.19bA | 2.29b |
2006 | 2.96cA | 1.57bcB | 1.64cB | 1.79bB | 2.51bA | 1.87bcB | 2.06bc |
2007 | 2.18dA | 1.55bcB | 2.25bA | 1.78bA | 2.21bcA | 2.00bA | 2.00c |
2008 | 1.92dA | 1.17cB | 1.49cAB | 1.08cB | 1.91cA | 1.58cA | 1.53d |
Mean | 2.58A | 1.49C | 1.83B | 1.79B | 2.20A | 1.91B |
Effects of cropping sequence and weed management practice on annualized wheat grain and biomass (stems + leaves) yield from 2004 to 2008 in western Montana, USA [49].
Cropping sequences are CSW, continuous spring wheat; SW-F, spring wheat-fallow; and WW-F, winter wheat-fallow.
Weed management practices are Chem., chemical where weeds were controlled with herbicide applications; Graz., grazing where weeds were controlled with sheep grazing; and Mech., mechanical where weeds were controlled with tillage.
Numbers followed by the same lowercase letters within a column in a set are not significantly different at P
Numbers followed by the same uppercase letters within a row in a set are not significantly different at P
Weed management† | SOC content (Mg C ha−1) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–5 cm | 5–10 cm | 10–30 cm | 30–60 cm | 60–90 cm | 90–120 cm | 0–120 cm | |
Chem. | 18.3a‡ | 19.2a | 61.7a | 38.0a | 32.2a | 29.1b | 198.4a |
Mech. | 17.3a | 17.4a | 58.2ab | 38.0a | 35.8a | 37.0a | 203.5a |
Graz. | 16.9a | 17.7a | 54.2b | 36.1a | 31.2a | 31.4ab | 187.5a |
Chem. | 1.69a | 1.89a | 6.48a | 4.96a | 3.58a | 2.79a | 21.40a |
Mech. | 1.61a | 1.74b | 5.91a | 5.00a | 3.43a | 2.99a | 20.55a |
Graz. | 1.53a | 1.79ab | 6.33a | 5.60a | 3.86a | 2.87a | 22.09a |
Chem. | 12.6a | 12.4a | 20.6a | 16.0a | 18.9b | 38.0a | 118.6a |
Mech. | 10.3a | 12.0a | 21.1a | 14.5a | 28.8a | 37.6a | 124.4a |
Graz. | 9.9a | 10.9a | 18.7a | 17.5a | 23.2ab | 35.0a | 115.2a |
Soil organic C (SOC), total N (STN), and NO3-N contents at the 0–120 cm depth after 5 years of weed management experiment initiation in western Montana, USA [50].
Weed management practices are Chem., chemical where weeds were controlled with herbicide applications; Graz., grazing where weeds were controlled with sheep grazing; and Mech., mechanical where weeds were controlled with tillage.
Numbers followed by different letters within a column are significantly different at P
Chemical properties | Soil depth | Weed management (WM)† | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Chem. | Mech. | Graz. | ||
P content (kg ha−1) | 0–5 cm | 34.5a‡ | 35.7a | 30.8a |
5–10 cm | 30.4a | 29.3a | 17.8b | |
10–30 cm | 81.2a | 80.7a | 40.1b | |
K content (kg ha−1) | 0–5 cm | 263a | 271a | 222b |
5–10 cm | 176a | 191a | 139b | |
10–30 cm | 792a | 859a | 577b | |
pH | 0–5 cm | 6.45a | 6.94a | 6.72a |
5–10 cm | 6.31a | 6.64a | 6.51a | |
10–30 cm | 7.06a | 7.34a | 7.31a | |
EC (S m−1) | 0–5 cm | 0.035a | 0.037a | 0.035a |
5–10 cm | 0.024a | 0.024a | 0.024a | |
10–30 cm | 0.025a | 0.026a | 0.27a | |
Ca content (Mg ha−1) | 0–5 cm | 2.05a | 2.06a | 2.08a |
5–10 cm | 2.14b | 2.31a | 2.25ab | |
10–30 cm | 10.70b | 11.70ab | 12.90a | |
Mg content (kg ha−1) | 0–5 cm | 278a | 288a | 304a |
5–10 cm | 362b | 382ab | 417a | |
10–30 cm | 2619a | 2593a | 2640a | |
Na content (kg ha−1) | 0–5 cm | 11.7a | 12.5a | 12.8a |
5–10 cm | 15.2b | 15.2b | 18.4a | |
10–30 cm | 84.8ab | 76.6b | 95.0a | |
SO4-S content (kg ha−1) | 0–5 cm | 8.5ab | 10.0a | 7.4b |
5–10 cm | 9.0ab | 10.6a | 7.1b | |
10–30 cm | 34.0ab | 40.8a | 28.8b |
Effect of weed management practice on soil nutrients, pH, and electrical conductivity (EC) at the 0–30 cm depth after 5 years of experiment initiation in western Montana, USA [49].
Weed management practices are Chem., chemical where weeds were controlled with herbicide applications; Graz., grazing where weeds were controlled with sheep grazing; and Mech., mechanical where weeds were controlled with tillage.
Numbers followed by the same letter within a row in a set are not significantly different at P
Legumes in the crop rotation can supply N from its residue to succeeding crops, thereby reducing N fertilization rates to succeeding nonlegumes. Also diversified crop rotations can use N and water more efficiently and reduce weed, pest, and disease infestations, thereby enhancing crop yields compared with continuous nonlegume monocropping. Cover crops grown to replace the fallow period can reduce soil erosion, enhance soil organic matter, and help to enrich soil health and fertility. Legume covers crop supply N and reduce N fertilization rate. Application of manure and compost can also enhance soil health and quality; however, additional inorganic N fertilization at lower rate is required to sustain crop yield and quality. Similarly, integrated crop-livestock system can help to reduce N fertilization rate by returning N and other nutrients through urine and feces to the soil during animal grazing without affecting crop yields. Some additional N fertilizer, however, may be required for sustainable crop production, because animals return only a part of nutrients through urine and feces to the soil, while most of the crop residue grazed is used to increase the live weight of the animal. The choice of the management practice to reduce N fertilization rate to crops depends on soil and climatic conditions and social, cultural, and economic perspectives of the producers.
Soil acidification can be reduced by applying lime. However, lime is bulky and requires in large amount to neutralize soil acidity. The transportation cost to carry lime from manufactures to farms is also high and especially so in hilly regions where roads are few or lacking. As a result, it is expensive to apply lime and most producers in developing countries cannot afford to apply it. Furthermore, neutralization of soil acidity with lime application is only temporary in nature. This suggests that lime should be applied frequently to neutralize acidity, which increases the cost of production. The best practice to reduce soil acidity is to reduce the rate of N fertilization. Several management practices, such as legume-nonlegume crop rotation, cover cropping, application of manures and compost, and integrated crop-livestock system, can reduce N fertilization rate without affecting crop yields.
Degradation in soil and environmental quality can be mitigated, and crop yields can be sustained by reducing N fertilization rates and using novel management techniques that increase N cycling and N-use efficiency. These techniques include legume-nonlegume crop rotation, cover cropping, application of manures and compost, and integrated crop-livestock system. Soil acidity can be neutralized by lime application, but the effect is temporary. It is expensive to apply lime, and many producers in developing countries cannot afford to do so. Adaptation of these techniques to specific places depends on soil and climatic conditions and social, cultural, and economic perspectives of the producers.
Spintronics, also known as spin electronics, is a newly emerging field of research that focuses on the spin degree of freedom of electrons rather than their charge. Charge current is a flow of electrons from one point to another under the influence of an electric field. In spintronics, spin current can propagate within the material. A pure spin current can be generated through effects such as the spin Hall effect (SHE), spin pumping, spin-wave propagation, etc. The pure spin currents consume much less energy than charge currents. This is because of the absence of charge flow that eliminates the power consumption needed for the electric field required to drive charge flow [1, 2, 3].
In spintronics, magnetization switching is of both fundamental interest and technological significance. One way to switch the magnetization of a ferromagnetic film is through the spin filtering effect. In this case, a spin-polarized electrical current will be generated. As the polarized electrons flow through the ferromagnetic film, they transfer angular momentum to the film and produce a spin-transfer torque to switch the film. This torque is called spin-transfer torque (STT). Magnetic random-access memory based on STT has already been commercialized in recent years.
The above-mentioned spin-torque switching, however, has a limit. The angular momentum transferred per unit charge in the applied current usually cannot exceed a quantum of spin (
The ferromagnetic films used in most of the SOT studies were all conductive. A direct consequence is the severe shunting current in the ferromagnet layer, which not only limits the switching efficiency but also causes parasitic effects. For example, previous works have shown that interfacing a TI with a conductive FM film can result in a significant modification or even complete suppression of the topological surface states (TSSs) in the TI layer. In a TI/FM heterostructure, the TSSs may have been largely spoiled by the FM electrons. This means that many large spin-orbit torques observed in TI/FM structures may not be due to TSS. In this context, the use of MIs in an HM/MI heterostructure can effectively avoid the shunting current. Moreover, the TSSs in a TI/MI structure can be preserved except for the opening of a small gap at the Dirac point when strong coupling exists at the interface. This will enable the magnetization switching due to
Magnetic insulators include a large class of materials, including spinels, garnets, and ferrites. They have a general chemical formula of M(Fe
In the ferrite family, hexagonal ferrites have strong magnetocrystalline anisotropy. For example, M-type barium ferrite (BaFe12O19, noted as BaM) has an anisotropy field of 17 kOe. The perpendicular anisotropy in MI films originates from bulk intrinsic anisotropy rather than interfacial anisotropy [4]. This means that, when being used for actual devices, the BaM film has no constrains on the thickness. This is in strong contrast with the ferromagnetic metal counterpart (e.g., CoFeB/MgO) that often has to be very thin to realize interfacial perpendicular anisotropy. In addition, the magnetic damping is usually significantly lower in MIs than in FMs. For example, the intrinsic Gilbert damping constant in BaM materials is 7 × 10−4, which is at least 10 times smaller than the value in permalloy [5]. This advantage is significant for spin-torque oscillator applications, where the current threshold for self-oscillations decreases with the damping, as well as for logic device applications that require low-damping, insulating spin channels.
This chapter reviews the main advances made in spintronic experiments with BaM over the past several years. Section 2 gives a brief introduction to BaM and discusses its crystalline structure, magnetic properties, and thin film growth techniques. This section serves to provide a background for the discussions in the following sections. Section 3 reviews the advances of spintronic experiments with BaM. Section 3.1 provides an overview of the related spintronic experiments. Section 3.2 discusses the generation of pure spin currents through the spin Seebeck effect and photo-spin-voltaic effect in the Pt/BaM structure. Section 3.3 discusses the spin-orbit torque-assisted switching in BaM. Section 3.4 discusses the use of topological insulator/BaM heterostructure for magnetization switching. Finally, Section 3.5 provides an outlook in the field of BaM materials and devices.
BaM is a hexagonal ferrite, which consists of close-packed layers of oxygen ions. Figure 1 shows a unit cell of BaM. The Ba2+ ion is large, as is the O2− ion, and the barium always replaces oxygen somewhere in the oxygen lattice. The close-packed layers form six fundamental blocks, namely, S, S*, R, R*, T, and T* [5, 6, 7]. The S block consists of close-packed oxygen layers stacking in an ABCABC… sequence. It has a cubic spinel arrangement with the <1 1 1 > axis along the vertical direction. There are two units of Fe3O4 without any barium ions in each S block. The R block comprises close-packed oxygen layers stacking in an ABAB… sequence. It has a hexagonal closest packed structure along the vertical axis. Each R block has a unit formula of BaFe6O11. The T block is made of four oxygen layers, with a barium ion replacing an oxygen ion in the middle two layers, which gives a unit formula of Ba2Fe8O14. The S*, R*, and T* blocks are 180° rotations around the c-axis from the S, R, and T blocks. BaM is built from the stacking of S, R, S*, and R* blocks.
Crystalline structure of M-type barium ferrite. Blue ball, Ba2+. Yellow ball, Fe3+. Red ball, O2−.
Trivalent Fe3+ ions occupy tetrahedral and octahedral sites as well as one trigonal bipyramidal site. Different sites account for different spin orientations and Bohr magnetons (
A variety of techniques are used to grow BaM thin films, including pulsed laser deposition (PLD) [8, 9, 10], alternating target laser ablation deposition (ARLAD) [11, 12], molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) [13], liquid phase epitaxy (LPE) [14, 15], magnetron sputtering [16, 17], and so on. Guo et al. at Boston Applied Technologies proposed a chemical solution deposition process to deposit BaM. Song and his colleagues succeeded in the PLD growth of BaM thin films that showed an FMR linewidth as narrow as single-crystal BaM bulks. However, these films showed a remanent magnetization much smaller than the saturation magnetization [9]. This problem was improved in the later experiments when tuning the deposition conditions [18]. Figure 2 shows the PLD parameters which decide the thin film quality. Figure 2b shows that
Growth condition in pulsed laser deposition of BaM thin films. (a) Parameters controlling the BaM thin film quality. (b) Different Al2O3 substrate types for growing BaM with different
In microwave device applications, BaM films usually have a thickness of several microns. For spintronic devices, the thickness is reduced to tens of nanometers. Figure 3 shows the structure and magnetic properties of nanometer-thick BaM thin films grown on a
Structure and magnetic properties of BaM thin films. (a) Atomic force microscope of 5 nm BaM thin film. (b)
Figure 3b shows a 2
Such fitting yielded a gyromagnetic ratio
where
Figure 4 shows the structural and magnetic properties of a representative BaM film that is grown on an (1 1 −2 0)
Structure and magnetic properties of 1.2 μm BaM thin films with c-axis in plane. (a) AFM image. (b) XRD spectrum. (c) Hysteresis loops of the BaM thin film. Blue circles, H along the in-plane easy axis direction. Red circles, H along in-plane hard axis direction. (d) Ferromagnetic resonance spectrum with Gaussian and Lorentzian fittings. a, b, and c are adapted from [
In the following sections, we introduce recent spintronic experiments using MIs with strong anisotropy fields. Devices that incorporate the unique properties of MIs are an excellent potential solution for the power consumption and heat dissipation problems of conventional electronics, as they would consume much less energy and generate significantly less heat. We introduce the use of different techniques in generating pure spin currents, using bilayer heterostructures of a normal metal (NM)/ferromagnetic material. There are a variety of normal metal choices such as platinum (Pt) and Gold (Au). Both have been explored and tested in spintronics related studies and experiments [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
In the first two sections, we will explore the generation of pure spin currents using the spin Seebeck effect (SSE) and the photo-spin-voltaic effect (PSVE). Both techniques take advantage of a NM coupled with a MI. In SSE, a temperature gradient in the MI is the main factor that induces the MI to inject pure spin currents into the NM layer. In PSVE however, the light of certain wavelengths reaching the atomic layers of the NM, exciting the NM electrons near the NM/MI interface, is what generates the pure spin currents. SSE and PSVE Experimentation results will also be explored and discussed. Then, in the last two sections, we will demonstrate how pure spin currents can be used practically to enhance magnetic switching in MIs in a significant and meaningful way. NM/MI bilayers will not be the only type of heterostructure discussed here, we will also explore topological insulator/MI structures and demonstrate the significance of topological insulators in spintronics.
The traditional Seebeck effect, first discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1821 [34], refers to the generation of electric potential in a conductor when a temperature gradient is applied to it. The electric potential is caused by charge carriers within the conductor moving from the hot region to the cold region. A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar conductors that are joined to form a junction; when a heat gradient is applied across the thermocouple (see Figure 5a), a voltage difference can be observed across them. The sign of the voltage flips when the direction of the temperature gradient is flipped. The traditional Seebeck effect is the basic principle behind most thermoelectric generators.
Schematic illustrations of (a) the conventional Seebeck effect and (b) longitudinal spin Seebeck effect.
The spintronic equivalent of the traditional Seebeck effect, called the spin Seebeck effect, was first discovered in 2008 [19, 28]. SSE is a phenomenon that can be observed in ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials when a heat gradient is applied to them [19, 28, 35]. The heat gradient induces a spin voltage in the ferromagnet that can be used to inject pure spin currents into a conductor attached to the ferromagnet. Here, spin voltage is a potential for the spin of electrons, rather than their charge, to drive spin current [19, 36, 37, 38]. Previously mentioned bilayer heterostructures of normal metal/magnetic material have been used to study the SSE in two different configurations: transverse and longitudinal [19, 39]. In the transverse configuration, the generated spin current is perpendicular to the temperature gradient [28]. The generated spin current in the longitudinal configuration is parallel to the temperature gradient [19] (see Figure 5b). The longitudinal configuration has been the dominant choice for SSE research, owing to its simplicity [19]. Magnetic insulators (such as YIG, BaM, etc.) offer an ideal platform for observing the longitudinal spin Seebeck effect (LSSE) [19, 40]. In a conductive ferromagnet, the longitudinal configuration can give rise to a large anomalous Nernst effect (ANE)-induced voltage, which makes it difficult to distinguish between ANE and SSE [19, 33, 41, 42].
If SSE generates pure spin currents, then an important question would be how do we measure them? The absence of charge flow makes it impossible to use conventional methods to measure the spin currents. One way to measure LSSE-generated spin current is to first convert it into a charge current that can then be measured by conventional means. In this context, the choice of the normal metal in the bilayer heterostructure becomes very important. Heavy metals, such as Pt and Au, have strong spin-orbit coupling [43, 44], offering an effective mechanism to convert a transverse spin current into a longitudinal charge current through inverse spin Hall effect (ISHE) [43, 45, 46, 47]. The ISHE charge current across the heavy metal surface creates an electric field
In summary, the voltage measured across the normal metal surface is strongest when
This discussion sheds light on the importance of the existence of an external magnetic field
An exception to the external magnetic field requirement is made when using BaM thin films due to their strong uniaxial anisotropy [18]. In the absence of an external magnetic field, the magnetization of BaM films, caused by the spins of unpaired electrons, tend to favor one axis, called the easy axis, over any other axis. Thus, most electron spins within the BaM film tend to align themselves with the easy axis, randomly up or down, in the absence of an external magnetic field. Therefore, BaM films have uniaxial anisotropy. The uniaxial field of BaM was found to be around 16.5 kOe [9, 18]. Applying a magnetic field of this value or higher along the easy axis of the film causes all the electron spins to align themselves in the direction of the magnetic field, removing the magnetic field then will leave a large remnant magnetization within the BaM film owing to its uniaxial anisotropy. Namely, the film becomes self-biased and does not require an external field to magnetize it.
An LSSE experiment and its results using a Pt/BaM heterostructure [18] will be discussed next. In this experiment the sample consisted of a micron-thick BaM layer, topped with a 2.5-nm-thick Pt layer. The BaM layer was grown on a 0.5 mm sapphire substrate. The easy axis of the BaM film was in the plane of the film.
Figure 6 shows the experiment setup and results. Figure 6a shows a schematic diagram of the experimental setup that was used to test LSSE within the sample. The sample was put on an aluminum plate to act as a heat sink. An incandescent light bulb was placed directly on top of the sample, acting as the heat source. The easy axis of the BaM layer was along the
Light-induced generation of spin currents. (a) The experimental setup. (b) and (c) Respective voltage signals measured for M
The heat from the light bulb, along with the aluminum plate acting as a heat sink, created the temperature gradient across the BaM film thickness; the difference in temperature between the bottom surface and top surface of BaM,
Figures 6b and c demonstrate the relationship between the difference in temperatures
Figure 6d shows an important property of SSE, namely, the sign of the generated voltage flips when the direction of the BaM magnetization is flipped. The graph shows the relationship between
Control measurements were performed and are shown in Figure 7. Changing the lateral position of the light bulb did not have any noticeable effect on the measured voltage. This is to be expected, as the temperature gradient depends on the height of the light bulb, rather than its lateral position. This is demonstrated in Figure 7a, where the light position was changed to six different lateral positions. The figure shows that, other than jumps from electrical disturbance caused by the position change, the measured voltage remained largely unchanged.
Control measurements. (a) Voltage changes caused by moving the bulb along the x-axis. (b) Voltage and
Using a Peltier cooler as an added source for the temperature gradient in addition to the light bulb also did not have a noticeable change in the relationship between the measured voltage and
The importance of using a metal with strong spin-orbit coupling is demonstrated through Figure 7d, where Cu, which has very weak spin-orbit coupling, and therefore very weak ISHE, was used in a Cu (9 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm)/sapphire (0.5 mm) sample. The figure shows a behavior that is different from the Pt/BaM samples, indicating the absence of SSE in this sample. A likely source for the signal shown in Figure 7d is the conventional Seebeck effect, caused by a temperature gradient across the sample’s length. (All figures, experimentation setup and results were taken from [18] with appropriate permissions).
A closely related but fundamentally different effect to SSE is the photo-spin-voltaic effect (PSVE). PSVE happens in NM/MI heterostructures; it generates pure spin currents across the NM thickness that can be measured through ISHE. Light can generate spin voltage and drive spin currents through PSVE. While the spin voltage is generated in the MI layer in the SSE case, the spin voltage in PSVE is generated in the atomic layers of the NM that are close to the interface due to magnetic proximity effect [48]. When light of a certain wavelength hits the sample, photons excite electrons in the Pt layer, causing them to move to higher energy bands. The efficiency of this photon-driven excitation varies because of the spin orientation. The difference in efficiency, along with different diffusion rates of excited electrons and holes, generates the spin voltage through PSVE [48].
Figure 8 shows PSVE in a Pt/MI structure. An important question arises due to the extremely similar setup of both LSSE and PSVE: how can we determine the source of the ISHE generated voltage? It could be due to LSSE, or PSVE, or both. Fortunately, research in this area determined several distinguishable factors that make it possible to disentangle LSSE from PSVE. The most important factor is the wavelength of the light used to excite the sample. Experimental results determined that PSVE can only be observed when the wavelength of the light used falls in the range 1600–2000 nm [48]. Using a light source with a wavelength outside that range or a heat source other than light, such as a Peltier cooler, will only give us LSSE in our sample and no PSVE [49]. Other factors include the type of materials and device geometries used in the studies. For example, different MI types and thicknesses give widely different signals in LSSE. A recent work showed that the main contribution in the voltage comes from LSSE rather than PSVE [50]. However, experiments have shown that using a light source with the appropriate wavelength gives extremely similar results in Pt that is coupled with MI of varying types and thicknesses [48].
(a) Photo-spin-voltaic effect in Pt/MI bilayer heterostructure. (b) Sketch of the physical mechanism underlying PSVE. When light illuminates the sample, photons excite electrons and generate nonequilibrium hot electrons and holes in the Pt atomic layers that are in proximity to the MI (the gridded region). The excited electrons and holes diffuse from Pt/MI interface to the Pt interface (along the +z direction), giving rise to spin currents (
Figure 9 shows the results of PSVE in three different samples: Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (78 μm), Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (21 nm), and Pt (2.5 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm). For each sample, three different experimental setup configurations were tested: illuminating from the sample’s top, illuminating from the sample’s bottom, and illuminating from both the top and bottom of the sample. The phenomena of PSVE in all cases were similar, with a difference that is no bigger than an order of magnitude. This confirms that the voltage is induced by PSVE instead of SEE. Only the sign of the voltage, but not its magnitude, flipped with the flipping of the magnetization of the MI film; this confirms the spin origin of the measured voltage. (All the PSVE information and experimental setup and discussion were taken from [48] with appropriate permissions).
Measurements for different illumination/magnetization configurations for three different samples Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (78 μm), Pt (2.5 nm)/YIG (21 nm), and Pt (2.5 nm)/BaM (1.2 μm). Source: [
The uniaxial anisotropy and the nonvolatile nature of easy axis-aligned magnetization within the BaM film can be used to design memory and logic-based systems. If the magnetization is up, it will keep its direction until a magnetic field flips it toward the opposite direction. If an efficient way can be found to switch the magnetization states of the magnetic insulator thin films, then they can be used in magnetic memory systems commercially [51].
In a NM/MI structure, such as Pt/BaM, SHE can be used to convert a charge current across the Pt surface into a spin current that flows across the thickness of Pt through spin-orbit coupling; this process will accumulate spins at the Pt/BaM interface. The spin accumulation generates spin-orbit torques (SOTs) that can be used to switch the BaM magnetization. Each electron provided by the charge current can undergo several spin-flip scatterings at the interface, breaking the conventional spin-torque switching limit and increasing the switching efficiency considerably [51].
We discuss the SOT experimental details of a Pt(5 nm)/BaM(3 nm) sample. The easy axis of the BaM film was perpendicular to the surface of the film. Figure 10b shows the hysteresis loop of the film, measured by a vibrating sample magnetometer, when an out-of-plane external magnetic field was applied (red curve). The olive curve shows the hysteresis loop along the hard axis when the external magnetic field is applied in the plane of the film. This figure confirms the perpendicular uniaxial anisotropy of the film, with a perpendicular anisotropy field of 17.6 kOe. A Hall bar structure was fabricated out of the Pt/BaM bilayer and is shown in Figure 10a. Figure 10c shows a hysteresis loop on the Hall resistance, revealing an anomalous Hall effect (AHE)-like behavior. It is unclear whether the AHE-like behavior is from magnetic proximity effect or spin Hall magnetoresistance. However,
(a) Optical image of the Pt (5 nm)/BaM (3 nm) Hall bar structure. (b) Magnetic hysteresis loops of the BaM film. (c) Anomalous Hall resistance R
The first experiment demonstrated was the out-of-plane switching; the external magnetic field is fixed out of the film’s plane and 20° off the easy axis. The purpose of this tilt was to break the magnetization symmetry due to the external field, allowing for the observation of the SOT effect. One would expect that if the SOT field is along the -
Indeed, experimental results, shown in Figure 11, confirm exactly that. Namely, when charge currents of varying intensities are applied to the Pt film along the −
Switching responses in Pt/BaM for out-of-plane magnetic fields. (a) and (b) Effects of charge currents
Further experiments were performed to confirm the existence of spin current-generated SOT near the Pt/BaM interface. This time, the external field
Anomalous Hall resistance R
These results confirm that SOT due to pure spin currents, generated by SHE in Pt/BaM structures, can be used to assist the magnetization switching in BaM films. It should be noted however, that SHE generates two different torques: a damping-like torque (DLT) and a field-like torque (FLT). The effective fields for DLT and FLT are
where
Carrying out both simulations involved three main steps: first,
The results from running the two different models of simulations were very close and are shown in Figure 13. The blue dots show the linear nature of the relationship between
(a) and (b) Coercivity vs. DLT field (H
Further improvements and enhancements in the switching efficiency can be achieved by using materials with higher spin-orbit coupling, resulting in stronger SOT. Topological insulators exhibit such requirements and will be the topic of the next section. (All figures, experimentation setup, and results were taken from [51] with appropriate permissions).
Topological insulators (TI) are of great interest in spintronic-related studies. A TI is a material with nontrivial symmetry-protected topological order that behaves as an insulator in its interior but whose surface contains conducting states. What differentiates a TI from other materials with conducting surfaces is that its surface states are time-reversal symmetry-protected. Due to the very strong spin-orbit coupling of TIs [10, 52], if a charge current is supplied to their surface, the surface states induce spin polarity and therefore generate a spin current, owing to the SHE. The SHE in TIs is several times stronger than in heavy metals such as Pt, and it can become hundreds of times stronger at very lower temperatures [10].
Theoretically, the very strong SHE in a TI can generate SOT that is much stronger than its counterpart in heavy metals. This strong SOT can then be exploited for magnetization switching by pairing it with a ferromagnet, similar to what was discussed in the previous section. Using a conductive ferromagnet, however, can completely suppress the surface states of a TI [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56], preventing the generation of spin currents, therefore making it impossible for SOT magnetization switching to happen in TI/conductive ferromagnet structures.
Here, the usefulness and importance of magnetic insulators are again emphasized. Pairing a TI with MI keeps the integrity of the surface states. Various materials can be used to create a TI, such as (Bi
(a) and (b) Hall traces of TIG/(BixSb1−x)2 Te3 for
In another experiment, the authors used a Bi2Se3/BaM heterostructure to explore the effect of topological surface state in switching the magnetization of a magnetic insulator [10]. The BaM layer used had similar characteristics to the BaM layer used in the Pt/BaM experiment. The BaM film was 5-nm-thick and had a uniaxial anisotropy axis perpendicular to the surface, as shown by the two hysteresis loops in Figure 15a. The blue hysteresis loop was measured when the external field was applied perpendicular to the BaM film’s surface. The red loop was measured when an external field was applied along the BaM film plane. The two loops together confirm the perpendicular orientation of the anisotropy axis of the BaM film.
(a) Magnetization (M) vs. field (H) loops for the Bi2Se3/BaFe12O19 sample. (b) Saturation magnetization (M
A Hall bar was fabricated on the Bi2Se3/BaM bilayer film. Figure 15c shows that, similar to the Hall bar setup of the Pt/BaM experiment discussed in the previous section, the AHE contribution to the Hall bar resistance,
Figure 16a shows the SOT switching experiment configuration. An external field
SOT-induced switching in Bi2Se3/BaM. (a) Experimental configuration. (b to e) AHE resistance (R
Figure 16c,d, and e shows the results of the same experiment performed at decreasing temperatures. The figures clearly indicate that the current required for magnetization switching becomes smaller as temperature decreases. This is due to the enhancement of the topological surface states in Bi2Se3 as T decreases.
Figure 17 further demonstrates the effect of SOT on the magnetization switching of the BaM film. The experiment was performed at T = 3 K; the external field was applied at 45 degrees angle out of the plane of the film as shown in the inset of the figure. The blue hysteresis loop is the result of applying a negative charge current that generated a SOT acting against
Effects of I
The efficiency of SOT switching can be calculated using the following expression [58]:
where
SOT efficiency (
Magnetic insulators with perpendicular anisotropy have become an important class of materials in the development of spintronic devices. For magnetic domain devices, the low-damping and large anisotropy features can enable high-speed domain-wall motion with a small current threshold, fueling the development of domain-wall memory and logic devices. Moreover, low-damping is significant for SOT oscillator applications, where the current threshold for self-oscillations decreases with damping. Recent experiments show that spin waves can be used to control magnetic domains through spin-orbit torques [60, 61]; this effect can be amplified and become more efficient in magnetic insulators. The strong magnetic anisotropy also allows the engineering of spin-wave dispersion relation without the need for large bias magnetic fields [62]. This will expand the horizon for magnonic and spin-wave devices, allowing the development of new magnon-photon coupling devices for quantum transduction and microwave photonic systems [63, 64].
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\\n\\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
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\n\nThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:
\n\n“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;
\n\n“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;
\n\n“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.
\n\nAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services/products, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.
\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
\n\nIntechOpen has no formal affiliation to any external sites that link to www.intechopen.com, unless otherwise specifically stated. As such, it is not responsible for content that appears on any such sites. The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen. Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.
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\n\nWithout prior approval and express written permission, you may not create frames around our web pages or use other techniques that alter in any way the visual presentation or appearance of our website.
\n\nIntechOpen may revise its Terms of Service for its website at any time without notice. By using this website, you are agreeing to be bound by the current version of all Terms at the time of use.
\n\nThese Terms and Conditions are governed by and construed in accordance with the laws of the United Kingdom and you irrevocably submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the courts in London, United Kingdom.
\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies"},signatures:"Mahdi Banaee",authors:[{id:"83012",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahdi",middleName:null,surname:"Banaee",slug:"mahdi-banaee",fullName:"Mahdi Banaee"}]},{id:"42191",doi:"10.5772/54199",title:"Side Effects of Insecticides on Natural Enemies and Possibility of Their Integration in Plant Protection Strategies",slug:"side-effects-of-insecticides-on-natural-enemies-and-possibility-of-their-integration-in-plant-protec",totalDownloads:5751,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:50,abstract:null,book:{id:"3055",slug:"insecticides-development-of-safer-and-more-effective-technologies",title:"Insecticides",fullTitle:"Insecticides - Development of Safer and More Effective Technologies"},signatures:"Nabil El-Wakeil, Nawal Gaafar, Ahmed Sallam and Christa Volkmar",authors:[{id:"80199",title:"Prof.",name:"Christa",middleName:null,surname:"Volkmar",slug:"christa-volkmar",fullName:"Christa Volkmar"},{id:"82718",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabil",middleName:null,surname:"El-Wakeil",slug:"nabil-el-wakeil",fullName:"Nabil El-Wakeil"},{id:"83353",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Sallam",slug:"ahmed-sallam",fullName:"Ahmed Sallam"},{id:"83363",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawal",middleName:null,surname:"Gaafar",slug:"nawal-gaafar",fullName:"Nawal Gaafar"}]},{id:"25668",doi:"10.5772/27852",title:"Ecosmart Biorational Insecticides: Alternative Insect Control Strategies",slug:"ecosmart-biorational-insecticides-alternative-insect-control-strategies",totalDownloads:6713,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:44,abstract:null,book:{id:"2036",slug:"insecticides-advances-in-integrated-pest-management",title:"Insecticides",fullTitle:"Insecticides - 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Its major nutritional limitation has been the low protein content and poor protein quality, which necessitates the use of expensive high‐protein supplements or synthetic amino acids such as lysine in diets containing large proportion of maize. Therefore, extensive research has been conducted by maize breeders on the world maize germplasms collection with the aim of improving its nutritive value, particularly protein quality for monogastric animals. This chapter assesses the genetic upgrading of the nutritional quality of maize protein that culminated in the development of a new class of maize known as “Quality Protein Maize (QPM)”. Various studies on the nutritionally improved maize for poultry as well as future challenges confronting maize utilisation in poultry production are highlighted.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Herbert K. Dei",authors:[{id:"28844",title:"Prof.",name:"Herbert Kwabla",middleName:"Kwabla",surname:"Dei",slug:"herbert-kwabla-dei",fullName:"Herbert Kwabla Dei"}]},{id:"61570",title:"Adenoviruses and Their Diversity in Poultry",slug:"adenoviruses-and-their-diversity-in-poultry",totalDownloads:1772,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"An investigation into the aetiology of fowl adenovirus strains and their distribution worldwide in populations of poultry flocks industry has been conducted. Pathogenic role of the viruses is not always clear. They can cause latent infection or several diseases and are the reason of economic losses in poultry flock industry. Ubiquity of adenovirus strains was commonly described, and stand-alone pathogenicity for a long time has been disputed. A globally emerging trend of adenoviruses and adenovirus-associated diseases has been increasing from year to year in all over the world. Mainly, type FAdV-4 is responsible for hydropericardium hepatitis syndrome (HP), type FAdV-1 for gizzard erosion and ulceration (GEU), and types FAdV-2, 8a, 8b, and 11 seem to be responsible for inclusion body hepatitis (IBH). Defining the spreading of the avian adenovirus strains in different types of fowl profile production, recognising their property and determining their types and molecular characterisation are very important from the epidemiological point of view and are considered as excellent basis for vaccine development and gene therapy implementation. This chapter provides a comprehensive review of FAdVs, including their epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostic, detection, and molecular characterisation. This comprehensive review is needed to better understand the latest progress in study of the viruses and prospects regarding disease control and implementation of gene therapy.",book:{id:"6623",slug:"application-of-genetics-and-genomics-in-poultry-science",title:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Application of Genetics and Genomics in Poultry Science"},signatures:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk",authors:[{id:"212649",title:"Dr.",name:"Jowita Samanta",middleName:null,surname:"Niczyporuk",slug:"jowita-samanta-niczyporuk",fullName:"Jowita Samanta Niczyporuk"}]},{id:"65864",title:"Poultry Housing and Management",slug:"poultry-housing-and-management",totalDownloads:3177,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Majority of the people in the poorest regions of the tropics rely on poultry production as their major source of protein supply. However, poultry production is hindered by the harsh environmental conditions in this regions therefore, reducing the daily supply of protein. It is believed that understanding heat stress in birds by paying detail attention to the sources of heat generation in a poultry house can help manage the heat stress situation in this region. This text reviews the internal climatic conditions of the poultry houses, how the birds respond to them, and their implications for heat management in poultry production. Thus, it provides pertinent information for guidance on parameters for open poultry houses architectural design that ensures optimum climatic conditions that will alleviate heat stress problem in poultry production in hot and humid climate.",book:{id:"8470",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",title:"Poultry",fullTitle:"Poultry - An Advanced Learning"},signatures:"Ayodeji Oloyo and Adedamola Ojerinde",authors:[{id:"273409",title:"Mr.",name:"Ayodeji",middleName:null,surname:"Oloyo",slug:"ayodeji-oloyo",fullName:"Ayodeji Oloyo"},{id:"274920",title:"MSc.",name:"Adedamola",middleName:null,surname:"Ojerinde",slug:"adedamola-ojerinde",fullName:"Adedamola Ojerinde"}]},{id:"61583",title:"Domestication and Welfare in Farmed Fish",slug:"domestication-and-welfare-in-farmed-fish",totalDownloads:1670,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"The domestication of fish species is still in its early stages when compared to terrestrial animals. The effects of domestication on welfare of farmed fishes are complex to study because fish differ from livestock in genetics, physiology and behaviour, and experience different sensory worlds. Consequently, empathy with fish and understanding of their needs becomes more problematic than with land animals. Additionally, the acknowledgement and study of mental dimensions of fish existence is very recent. We discuss that higher levels of domestication in fish do not necessarily correspond to better welfare because (1) artificial selection by the aquaculture industry is mostly focused on production-related traits such as growth, and this selection process may have unknown negative effects on welfare-related traits; (2) the number of fish species presently farmed (circa 300) is 10-fold higher than land animals, rendering the establishment of standard welfare guidelines extremely complicated; (3) the current paradigm of the Five Freedoms guiding welfare is out-dated and was designed for livestock; and (4) there are still severe knowledge gaps in the biology of farmed fishes, especially in welfare-related traits. The implementation of humane farming systems should integrate industry, science and ethics in an open dialogue in order to produce relevant results.",book:{id:"6053",slug:"animal-domestication",title:"Animal Domestication",fullTitle:"Animal Domestication"},signatures:"João L. 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Besides their adverse health effects and the decrease in production rate, concerns over their importance in public health is still under debate. Decontamination approaches to reduce mycotoxins in feed are technologically diverse and based on chemical, biological and physical strategies. Chemical remediation strategies involve the conversion of mycotoxins via chemical reactions. Biological strategies involve various substances such as plant ingredients, enzymes and microorganisms. Physical processes include sorting, milling, dehulling, cleaning, heating, irradiation or combinational approaches. New strategies for the prevention and treatment of mycotoxicosis, including beneficial microorganisms/products, along with alternative treatments, including plant extracts/essential oils, are current hot topics in the poultry industry.",book:{id:"5315",slug:"poultry-science",title:"Poultry Science",fullTitle:"Poultry Science"},signatures:"Ayhan Filazi, Begum Yurdakok-Dikmen, Ozgur Kuzukiran and Ufuk\nTansel Sireli",authors:[{id:"152542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayhan",middleName:null,surname:"Filazi",slug:"ayhan-filazi",fullName:"Ayhan Filazi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"31",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). 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Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. 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