\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10858",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) are free online courses available to anyone who can sign up. MOOCs provide an affordable and flexible way to learn new skills, advance in careers, and provide quality educational experiences to a certain extent. Millions of people around the world use MOOCs for learning and their reasons are various, including career development, career change, college preparation, supplementary learning, lifelong learning, corporate e-Learning and training, and so on.",isbn:"978-1-83969-738-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-737-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-739-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95166",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",numberOfPages:198,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1871,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 21st 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 8th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 7th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101330/images/system/101330.jpg",biography:"Dragan Cvetković obtained a Ph.D. in Aeronautics from the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Belgrade, in 1997. To date, he has published sixty-five books, scripts, and practicums about computers and computer programs, aviation weapons, and flight mechanics. He has published many scientific papers as well. Dr. Cvetković became a full professor of Informatics and Computing at Singidunum University, Belgrade, in 2014. Since 2019, he has been the vice-rector for teaching at the same university.",institutionString:"Singidunum University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"10",institution:{name:"Singidunum University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1318",title:"Virtual Learning",slug:"virtual-learning"}],chapters:[{id:"77719",title:"What Brings about the Success of MOOCs in the Perspective of Education Service?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99053",slug:"what-brings-about-the-success-of-moocs-in-the-perspective-of-education-service-",totalDownloads:148,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"MOOCs passed through ‘inflated expectation stage of Garner’s hype cycle in 2012 and has gone ‘through of disillusionment’ stage. For jumping to the slope of enlightenment, MOOCs should be considered as education service focusing on service dominant logic and co-creation of value. This chapter aims to suggest a new perspective, education service science, to cope with the crisis of MOOCs. It focuses mainly on this suggestion: the principles of education service science could be applied in order for learners with MOOCs to take optimal learning experience. Themes of this paper are service science in education and MOOCs, education service innovation in MOOCs, education service system design for educational innovation in MOOCs, and quality management of MOOCs in the perspective of education service.",signatures:"Sung-Wan Kim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77719",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77719",authors:[{id:"187838",title:"Prof.",name:"Sung-Wan",surname:"Kim",slug:"sung-wan-kim",fullName:"Sung-Wan Kim"}],corrections:null},{id:"77815",title:"A Typology of Peer Support Behaviours in a MOOC",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99039",slug:"a-typology-of-peer-support-behaviours-in-a-mooc",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter builds upon a body of previous research that has used content analysis to assess the messages exchanged between participants enrolled on a Massive Open Online Course (MOOC). In particular, it focuses on uncovering the nature of the peer support that the participants provide for each other, and the social environment that they establish through their interactions. The findings of this research have led to the construction of a Typology of Peer Support Behaviours which is presented here. It is proposed that this typology can be applied across a range of contexts to assess the nature of peer support behaviours enacted by participants in those MOOCs. It is proposed that the typology could help identify any unique differences in expression of behaviours among groups of students and it could be used to assess if there is a preference towards a particular approach to, or type of, peer support.",signatures:"Kwamena Appiah-Kubi and David Cobham",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77815",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77815",authors:[{id:"356652",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Cobham",slug:"david-cobham",fullName:"David Cobham"},{id:"421378",title:"Dr.",name:"Kwamena",surname:"Appiah-Kubi",slug:"kwamena-appiah-kubi",fullName:"Kwamena Appiah-Kubi"}],corrections:null},{id:"78938",title:"Contextualized English Reading Proficiency Toolkit (CERPT): Enhance Learners’ English Reading Proficiency",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100041",slug:"contextualized-english-reading-proficiency-toolkit-cerpt-enhance-learners-english-reading-proficienc",totalDownloads:212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The Department of Education has introduced numerous intervention and remediation programs to address the reading needs of learners. Despite these, data showed that majority of the learners still have reading problems when they reach higher grade levels. Henceforth, the study experimented on the innovation – Contextualized English Reading Proficiency Toolkit (CERPT) to help the learners of Kibacania Elementary School improved their reading ability level. All the pupils were exposed to CERPT. A pre-experimental research design was employed in this study. Findings revealed that the learners’ reading ability level enhanced from frustration to instructional. There was a significant difference in the learners’ reading ability levels before and after exposure to CERPT. Thus, the study commends the use of CERPT to help in the improvement of the learners’ reading ability level.",signatures:"Dr. Irene C. Culaste-Quimbo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78938",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78938",authors:[{id:"414245",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",surname:"C. Culaste-Quimbo",slug:"irene-c.-culaste-quimbo",fullName:"Irene C. Culaste-Quimbo"}],corrections:null},{id:"78210",title:"The Acceptance of MOOC in Teaching and Learning Process: A Case Study at Malaysian Public University",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99764",slug:"the-acceptance-of-mooc-in-teaching-and-learning-process-a-case-study-at-malaysian-public-university",totalDownloads:128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of these studies is to investigate the acceptance of MOOC and factors that might influence the use of MOOC at Public Universities. A quantitative technique which is a survey method was conducted at the selected public university where data were collected from 400 respondents. The analysis was then conducted by using Smart PLS software. Meanwhile, the Technology Acceptance Model was implemented as to obtain the findings of this study. The results showed that performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating condition are factors influencing MOOC usage among students at the particular university. The findings also show that the acceptance level of MOOC learning at this particular university was substantial due to some factors might influence the usage and encouragement of these technologies. The result also shows that there is an area of improvement in term of MOOC learning at these universities in order to make the technologies useful and can be beneficial for long term sight and lifelong learning especially in the context of distance education.",signatures:"Nor Hafiza Haron and Yusof Hafidzan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78210",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78210",authors:[{id:"415049",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nor Hafiza",surname:"Haron",slug:"nor-hafiza-haron",fullName:"Nor Hafiza Haron"},{id:"423583",title:"Mr.",name:"Yusof",surname:"Hafidzan",slug:"yusof-hafidzan",fullName:"Yusof Hafidzan"}],corrections:null},{id:"77728",title:"Innovative Tools to Assess a Large Number of Students in the Open Distance and e-Learning MOOCs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99040",slug:"innovative-tools-to-assess-a-large-number-of-students-in-the-open-distance-and-e-learning-moocs",totalDownloads:204,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The literature on students registered in the Open Distance and e-Learning (ODeL) institutions suggests many obstacles related to their summative-driven assessments, which give insufficient time for study, difficulties in access and use of innovative assessment tools, ineffective feedback, and lack of feedback of study materials. These challenges lead students to learn just enough to get grades without understanding the topics or acquiring knowledge and skills. On the other hand, massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) give students, who have to fulfil multiple roles and are affected by the barriers of distance, cost and time, an opportunity to pursue their studies online. This chapter employed humanistic learning theory (HLT) to present a variety of digital teaching and learning tools that enable assessment suitable for a large number of students in the ODeL MOOCs. Humanistic learning theory emphasises a shift towards considering students, their characteristics, and their influence on learning. In addressing the gap created by assessments that were not focused on the specific human capabilities, including creativity, personal growth, and choice, this chapter first presents principles of HLT linking them with the form of assessments in MOOCs. Secondly, the ways to assess a large number of students in ODeL MOOCs are outlined. Lastly, various digital tools that can assess a large number of students are discussed, considering students as sources of authority.",signatures:"Ramashego Shila Mphahlele",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77728",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77728",authors:[{id:"414063",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramashego",surname:"Shila Mphahlele",slug:"ramashego-shila-mphahlele",fullName:"Ramashego Shila Mphahlele"}],corrections:null},{id:"79401",title:"A Conceptual Model for Conformance with Accessible Gamification",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98195",slug:"a-conceptual-model-for-conformance-with-accessible-gamification",totalDownloads:29,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There currently remains limited Gamification awareness and training for developers on WCAG conformance. Studies indicate an increased interest from developers to raise their acceptance, awareness, and technical abilities for designing accessible digital products. This article explores and presents a conceptual module to improve web developers’ capabilities and knowledge of accessible digital design. By leveraging the standards put forth by WCAG 2.0, developers can create accessible content for users who identify with various forms of abilities. Four primary principles comprise WCAG 2.0 and 12 standards, and 12 standards deliver fundamental objectives as best practices for developers. These guidelines were employed for gaming content design and development, permitting users to regulate reality and Gamification associations whereas immersing in the game. The goal is to apply diverse processes for each stage of the game to allow challenges and motivation for users to determine novel processes while understanding the guidelines. Assistive Technology was used to navigate each stage. To suit independence or self-reliance, the conceptual model supports players’ personalization while completing the game activities. Likewise, employing complex, advanced, and reward dashboards satisfies the proficiency component, and social network communications to other players provide the opportunity for interconnectedness. The conceptual model presented in this paper underpins Gamification and the potential to incorporate evidence-based accessibility principles developed by W3C. The previous examinations focused on instruments (e.g., software, feature, components) to achieve WCAG conformance. This examination presents a distinction from prior studies as this conceptual model recognizes consciousness and self-determination as the initial starting point.",signatures:"Keyonda Smith",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79401",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79401",authors:[{id:"325308",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Keyonda",surname:"Smith",slug:"keyonda-smith",fullName:"Keyonda Smith"}],corrections:null},{id:"80093",title:"Teachers’ Readiness for e-Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101242",slug:"teachers-readiness-for-e-learning-during-the-covid-19-pandemic-south-africa",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The event of the COVID-19 pandemic and the respective implementation of social distancing protocols resulted in a rapid transition to online teaching and learning for most education institutions around the world, independent of whether teachers were prepared. The Corona Virus Disease −19 (COVID-19) has interrupted educational processes worldwide. The impact of COVID-19 on the educational system has gained crucial relevance in research, with the intention of identifying a scientifically based solution to this problem. This study is based on the notion that, while the pandemic’s effect is broad, a unit-level analysis can provide some insight. As a result, this study thus investigated the teachers’ readiness for e-learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. A qualitative approach, in particular a case study research design was employed, with sampling consisting of six teachers being purposively and conveniently selected. The findings revealed that teachers do not understand what e-learning is all about and how it can be implemented within the classroom. Another finding was that classrooms do not promote e-learning. The researchers recommend that; education officials need to organize continuous e-learning workshops for teachers. Classrooms need to be redesigned in order to promote e-learning.",signatures:"Melikhaya Skhephe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80093",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80093",authors:[{id:"357220",title:"Dr.",name:"Melikhaya",surname:"Skhephe",slug:"melikhaya-skhephe",fullName:"Melikhaya Skhephe"}],corrections:null},{id:"78156",title:"MOOCS for Lifelong Learning, Equity, and Liberation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99659",slug:"moocs-for-lifelong-learning-equity-and-liberation",totalDownloads:269,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Quality education for all is both a human right based on social justice and liberation and a force for sustainable development and peace. The goal of education for all is stated in United Nations UNESCO Sustainability Goal 4, 2030 Agenda, which aims to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. This chapter is based on a systematic literature review. In this chapter, the focus is on global initiatives in education as a global common. The findings support that knowledge is a universal entity constructed by individuals, and it belongs to anyone anywhere and at any time. The year 2012 was dubbed the Year of the MOOC, but because of the COVID-19 pandemic, 2020 marked another milestone. MOOCs have dramatically changed the way people learn, and how to access knowledge. MOOCs offer an affordable, flexible way to learn new skills, advance a career, and deliver quality educational experiences. MOOCs have the potential to help individuals enjoy learning and acquire knowledge in a variety of ways. In the changing learning landscapes and the futures of learning, MOOCs can play a variety of roles, such as stand-alone courses in informal and non-formal learning and modules integrated into formal education. It is time to develop and offer more agile, seamless, rhizomatic learning opportunities that promote human rights equity and liberation.",signatures:"Ebba Ossiannilsson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78156",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78156",authors:[{id:"210060",title:"Prof. Dr.",name:"Ebba",surname:"Ossiannilsson",slug:"ebba-ossiannilsson",fullName:"Ebba Ossiannilsson"}],corrections:null},{id:"79078",title:"Equality, Diversity and Inclusion – A MOOC for Academic Purposes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100314",slug:"equality-diversity-and-inclusion-a-mooc-for-academic-purposes",totalDownloads:169,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since its fifth framework programme (1998–2002), the European Union has promoted gender equality and equal opportunities in the higher education sector and science and technological development. In its current framework programme for research and innovation, Horizon Europe (2021–2027), the EU requires scientists to systematically integrate the concepts of sex, gender and intersectionality into their research paths and to promote equality, diversity and inclusion (EDI) in their working environments. However, for historical reasons, following the EU requirements is challenging, particularly for scientists in STEM disciplines. The University of Genoa is planning a MOOC suited to a large research institution audience to address this problem. The MOOC’s targets are researchers, scholars, administrative personnel and students interested in advancing EDI practices in the scientific fields. It enables them to understand the basic principles underlying the gender mainstreaming adopted by the EU and integrate methods and strategies related to sex, gender and intersectionality to progress towards an EDI-sensitive institution. Supported by a learner-centred instructional strategy, this chapter explores the choices related to EDI-sensitive methods and strategies adopted to develop and implement an online education path. Theoretical and practical implications are also discussed.",signatures:"Rita Bencivenga, Cinzia Leone and Anna Siri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79078",authors:[{id:"334840",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Siri",slug:"anna-siri",fullName:"Anna Siri"},{id:"414321",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",surname:"Bencivenga",slug:"rita-bencivenga",fullName:"Rita Bencivenga"},{id:"414323",title:"Dr.",name:"Cinzia",surname:"Leone",slug:"cinzia-leone",fullName:"Cinzia Leone"}],corrections:null},{id:"78755",title:"Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) in Sub-Saharan African Higher Education Landscape: A Bibliometric Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99041",slug:"massive-open-online-courses-moocs-in-sub-saharan-african-higher-education-landscape-a-bibliometric-r",totalDownloads:199,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this study, we examined articles focused on Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) implemented in the sub-Saharan African (SSA) Higher Education context that describes the different models of MOOCs enacted as an initiative to provide access and opportunity to acquire quality higher education across different disciplines within the sub-region. In addition, the review aims to identify those factors that facilitate or inhibit the success and growth of MOOCs in the SSA context to understand how MOOCs has fared between the time 2012 to 2021. Based on this premise, 30 articles were included in the review in accordance with the authors’ set criteria. Results revealed that there are very few collaborations, linkages, and relations between MOOCs researchers in SSA, similarly there is a slow growth of MOOCs production, Narrative, Conceptual and Discourse analysis are the dominant analytical methods, while the perennial challenges of poor internet connectivity, lack of policy framework, poor bandwidth and electricity and lack of personnel with the requisite competences were the major hinderances to MOOCs growth in SSA. The inferences, implications and future directions were discussed.",signatures:"Abdullahi Abubakar Yunusa, Irfan Naufal Umar and Brandford Bervell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78755",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78755",authors:[{id:"299095",title:"Dr.",name:"Brandford",surname:"Bervell",slug:"brandford-bervell",fullName:"Brandford Bervell"},{id:"417066",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Abdullahi Abubakar",surname:"Yunusa",slug:"abdullahi-abubakar-yunusa",fullName:"Abdullahi Abubakar Yunusa"},{id:"423699",title:"Prof.",name:"Irfan Naufal",surname:"Umar",slug:"irfan-naufal-umar",fullName:"Irfan Naufal Umar"}],corrections:null},{id:"77991",title:"The Adoption of Massive Open Online Courses in Selected Sub-Saharan African Countries: The Experiences of Urban Learners",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99321",slug:"the-adoption-of-massive-open-online-courses-in-selected-sub-saharan-african-countries-the-experience",totalDownloads:141,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"MOOCs is slowly gaining traction in the education provisioning in SSA. Much of this is attributed to governmental and institutional aim of providing quality and affordable universal education to all learners. This chapter explores how MOOCs is affecting access to learning in SSA, with particular bias to urban education context. Evidence adduced in this chapter was adduced from secondary sources, involving review of relevant literature available from internet sources. In the internet sources visited, key search terms that were used in obtaining the relevant resources included but not limited to: ‘MOOCs and education’, ‘MOOCs in Africa’, ‘Education technologies AND MOOCs in Africa’, ‘MOOCs, OERs adoption and adaptability in Africa’, and ‘MOOCs’ challenges in Africa’ among others. It emerged that while MOOCs is gaining the needed traction in the SSA education space, the pace of its development is slow and calls for a more concerted effort from concerned education stakeholders.",signatures:"Vollan Ochieng’, Maurice Mutisya and Caroline Thiong’o",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77991",authors:[{id:"415565",title:"Dr.",name:"Vollan",surname:"Ochieng",slug:"vollan-ochieng",fullName:"Vollan Ochieng"},{id:"425875",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurice",surname:"Mutisya",slug:"maurice-mutisya",fullName:"Maurice Mutisya"},{id:"425876",title:"Ms.",name:"Caroline",surname:"Thiong'O",slug:"caroline-thiong'o",fullName:"Caroline Thiong'O"}],corrections:null},{id:"78635",title:"Metacognitive Assessment Model for Student Project-Based Learning through the Blended Learning Practice MOOCs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98996",slug:"metacognitive-assessment-model-for-student-project-based-learning-through-the-blended-learning-pract",totalDownloads:200,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Online or blended learning assessments through LMS-MOOCs carried out in the world of education today tend to be multiple-choice assessments that are only based on low-level cognitive. In fact, to measure the metacognitive of students is quite difficult, if only using the form of multiple choice questions. Therefore, it takes the form of questions and assessments that allow students to explore their reflective and metacognitive thinking according to the characteristics of the education they are attending. Vocational education tends to apply a project-based learning (PjBL) model that requires authentic and performance-based learning assessment methods. Therefore, it is necessary to develop an appropriate blended metacognitive skill assessment rubric instrument for vocational education. Metacognitive assessment was developed using research and development procedures, with students as subjects in vocational education in Makassar, Indonesia. The integration between elements of metacognitive skills: planning, monitoring, and evaluation with self-peer-teacher assessment can be an assessment method to measure students’ metacognitive thinking skills in PjBL. 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Plasmonics is the emerging research field, indicating the ability of materials to control light at nanoscale range to examine them for various properties and functions. The plasmonic materials exploit the surface plasmon resonance effects to achieve astonishing optical properties that originate with light-matter interaction and leads to remarkable results. Surface plasmon can confine electromagnetic fields at very small scales whereas various structures can be employed to control surface plasmons. Previously, Ag, Au, and Al metals were used as plasmonic materials but they did not perform well because of radiative losses, high amount of energy dissipation, and their poor tuneability. To overcome these problems for efficient plasmonic applications, a class of two-dimensional (2D) materials is proposed which presents a significant light-matter interaction phenomenon resulting in efficient quantum confinement effects. A variety of materials including semiconductors, conductive oxides, and dielectric materials have been investigated as plasmonic materials owing to their extra-ordinary plasmonic properties. Considering the advanced properties along with bandgap manipulation and electron transfer, 2D materials got higher attention for plasmonic applications [1, 2].
Graphene was the first 2D material investigated with zero bandgap having exceptional conductivity because of its high electron mobility. Considering graphene’s achievements and enormous applications at the laboratory and industry level, researchers have started investigating further 2D materials to explore their potential for plasmonic applications. Currently, almost 150 members of the 2D materials family are serving in elementary and advanced technologies such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), Field-effect transistors (FETs), environmental applications, sensing applications, and physical catalysis [3, 4, 5]. Some important under discussion members of 2D materials, analogous to graphene are; hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), black phosphorene, metal oxides, metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes), metal halides, pnictogens, and non-metals which are being considered as potential plasmonic materials [6, 7, 8]. This 2D materials family exhibits a broad electronic and plasmonic characteristic spectrum covering a wide range of properties such as; high surface area, surface state nature, minimum dangling bonds, spin-orbit coupling, and quantum spin Hall effects [9, 10].
On the other hand, stacking of different 2D materials is also the emerging part of the material industry which yields novel heterostructure materials capable of introducing some building blocks in a materials family with enhanced physical and chemical properties. The novel 2D materials such as metal carbides and nitrides, metal oxides and graphene-based materials have mixed properties and can be further tuned by adjusting bandgap that would result in increased light-harvesting efficiency which is the basis to achieve desired optical, electronic, and optoelectronic properties, making them promising materials for plasmonic applications [11, 12]. In addition, the plasmonic efficiency of 2D materials can also be enhanced by injecting plasmonic hot electrons to alter carrier intensity in 2D materials for higher photocatalysis output [13]. The recent extension of plasmonic materials from traditional metals to semiconductors to semi-metal graphene are identified as an ideal materials for surface plasmon resonance in plasmonic structures and their subsequent applications needed to be addressed accordingly. Moreover, the coupling effects between excitons and plasmons for 2D materials are the growing research interests that profound further studies for light-matter interactions to discover novel materials for innovative device applications.
The radiation-matter interaction is more prominent in 2D materials because of their thin sheet structures and significant quantum confinement effects that lead to enhanced electronic and optical properties. Owing to their advanced nature, 2D materials are advantageously evaluated for plasmonic characteristics, and multiple studies have been conducted for hBN to investigate plasmon molecular vibration coupling, plasmon substrate phonon coupling, and graphene plasmon-phonon polaritons coupling [14, 15, 16]. The 2D graphene structure exhibits exciting results due to its single-atom thickness and their environmental sensitivity. Other than environmental sensitivity, graphene plasmons can also be tuned with external magnetic and electric fields [17]. The effectiveness of graphene-based plasmonics can be determined by charge carrier density, and heavily doped graphene exhibits high efficiency which is required for plasmonic applications [18]. As a result, graphene is an excellent plasmonic material, and combining graphene with other 2D materials is favorable to obtain optimum efficiency [19].
Hexagonal Boron Nitride (hBN) is one of the most intriguing findings in 2D materials for plasmonics, having the unique ability to be fabricated within the host material, and can be used as a promising substrate for graphene-based plasmonic applications because of its graphene-matched crystal structure [18, 20]. The hBN-graphene mixture is helpful to enhance grapheme-plasmon lifetime when compared with other 2D materials and can maintain its bandgap even in varied thicknesses depicting a wide range of plasmonic properties including electro-optic and quantum-optics [21, 22]. Moreover, the point defects in hBN at room temperature demonstrate single-photon emission properties that can be used to integrate plasmonic nanostructures. Despite its wide bandgap, hBN offers high quantum efficiency, optical nonlinearity, and novel plasmonic properties to make it the best choice as 2D plasmonic material [23]. Its structure is shown in Figure 1 [24].
Schematics of hBN structure [
The MXenes are a new class of 2D materials that contain carbides and nitrides, and they are the biggest family currently available, as seen in Figure 2 [25]. This family of materials is substantially more stable than graphene with high metallic conductivity, folding and molding properties, and good electromagnetic properties, possessing the unique property of being combined with other materials to tune their properties for desired applications. They can be employed in a variety of applications including energy storage devices, photonic-plasmonic structures as well as photocatalytic devices [26], and because of their metallic character along with high conductive nature, they may be used as plasmonic materials equivalent to graphene.
MXene sheets with multiple layers where larger spheres represent transient metal, while smaller spheres are C, N, or CN [
Researchers anticipated the group VA elements such as nitrogen, arsenic, antimony as well as bismuth as single-layer 2D structures with the introduction of 2D materials synthesis, and these elements are referred to as pnictogens and are shown in Figure 3 [27]. These materials feature a honeycomb, washboard, and square-octagon structure, and they offer outstanding electrical, optical, electro-optical, and plasmonic properties having strong spin-orbit coupling, a narrow bandgap, and band inversion properties, making them ideal for plasmonic device applications [27].
Pnictogens and their schematic 2D structures [
Photonics deals with the light-matter interaction which usually results in the formation of a single electron–hole pair by interacting light photons with free charge carriers in a metal, whereas in plasmonics, there is a large number of charge Carriers present that leads to collective oscillations which is the fundamental problem in plasmonics because all charge carriers are not part of the solid and can be influenced by structural defects as well as other materials defects such as dislocations. As a result, multi-scale modeling at various structural complexity levels is required for theoretical exploration of these complex models and plasmonic excitations in bulk materials and localized plasmons in metallic structures. To analyze this complicated issue, several theoretical and numerical models have been presented, although only a few of them are described here.
The Drude-Lorentz model which gives a theoretical insight into a material and can be employed in plasmonic applications is an intuitive way to study the underlying dielectric characteristics of solids [28, 29]. The Drude-Lorentz model, also known as the oscillator model, entails representing an electron as a driven damped harmonic oscillator in which the electron is connected to the nucleus by a hypothetical spring with an oscillating electric field acting as a driving force. It also describes the behavior of electrons in terms of their electro-optical characteristics when light interacts with them [30]. The Drude-Lorentz model’s predictions are completely supported by the classical oscillator model as well as quantum mechanical features like electronic dipole moments of materials. To justify the microscopic qualities exhibited by classical and quantum techniques using this model, it is necessary to understand the Ehrenfest theorem which shows that quantum mechanical predicted values fundamentally follow classical mechanical conditions [31]. The Kohn-Sham approach is praised for its ease of use in relating a many-body system to a non-interacting system and thereby solving it using Kohn-Sham density functional theory [32]. Figure 4 illustrates such a model [32].
Kohn-sham mapping of the interacting and non-interacting systems [
With the developments in computing, new algorithms are being devised to accomplish difficult jobs rapidly and accurately. Different approaches and models for electrical and photonic systems are being explored to accurately anticipate their characteristics, which were previously explored using differential equations. This section discusses the frequency domain approach and the time domain method to have a better knowledge of computational model advancements [33].
The decomposition of periodic systems into harmonic time-dependent eigenmodes is a basic approach for understanding the optoelectronic and plasmonic characteristics of materials. The frequency-domain approach is a subset of these decompositions that enlarges electromagnetic fields into Fourier eigenmodes which may be used to comprehend optical material properties in the absence of nonlinear effects [34]. This approach is usually started from fundamental photonic systems with translational symmetry which produces electromagnetic states and photonic band structures using Maxwell equations and wave Equations [35]. Although the frequency-domain technique is effective for defining material characteristics, but it is an expensive method that restricts its application in numerical models and as a result, the finite-difference time-domain method was presented as an alternative. The time-domain technique is a grid-based method that is linked to several other finite methods. This approach models electromagnetic wave propagation in dielectric media without needing derivation methods, making it easier to be utilized in complicated geometrical simulations, such as non-linear systems, which were previously difficult to manage using the frequency-domain method. Furthermore, in this approach, Maxwell equations are discretized by differences arising from spatial and time derivatives, and the obtained results are solved in a leapfrog fashion on a staggered grid which is a good method being utilized in fluid dynamics [36]. Using the Phyton modules, these simulations can also be used to determine the plasmonic characteristics of materials [37].
The plasmonic material’s behavior can be determined by studying the frequency-dependent dielectric factor linked with the excited state of the material. It is essential to analyze both the ground and excited states of material while calculating optical transitions based on material states. For the analysis of material characteristics based on these facts,
Band structure of graphene and hBN computed within DFT (PBE) [
The material characteristics such as its dimension, morphology, physical as well as chemical properties, orientation, and crystallinity mainly depend on the material’s electronic properties which are impacted by the synthesis technique and experimental conditions. Mechanical exfoliation techniques have been tried in the past, but they have failed due to insufficient van-der-wall forces between 2D material layers, which limit uniformity and quality control, as well as their inability to scale-up [42]. Physical and chemical synthesis methods with controlled structural fabrication can be used with the top-down approach having the disadvantage of poor product yield and sheet restacking, limiting its application, and the bottom-up approach yielding promising results by assembling materials in a substrate using vapor deposition techniques such as physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and atomic layer deposition. These are the most often utilized promising ways for fabricating 2D materials with customized thickness, dimensional control, high conductivity, and flexibility for electron transport; all of which are highly sought quantities for plasmonic applications [43].
CVD allows for the controlled synthesis of large areas of 2D materials with the added benefit of step-by-step film synthesis on various substrates and adjustable growth parameters to get the desired output. Metal–organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) is a modified version of CVD that is used to synthesize high-quality, large-area 2D materials for a variety of applications [44]. New research shows that a metal gas-phase precursor might be employed for regulated and uniform thickness instead of a powder precursor, which results in inhomogeneous nucleation and hence uncontrolled synthesis. Furthermore, temperature and pressure have an important impact on deposition uniformity, for example, high temperature and moderate pressure would result in excellent precursor coverage with regulated dimensions while excessively high temperatures might have negative consequences [45]. A comparison of various synthesis techniques is shown in Figure 6 [46].
Comparison of various 2D materials synthesis techniques [
Many techniques are available for producing uniform 2D materials and heterostructures with atomic layer deposition (ALD) being a refinement of the vapor-based deposition method in which the self-limiting reaction of the precursor is an essential aspect of ALD and the fact that a self-saturating surface monolayer is created after each precursor exposure distinguishes it from other deposition processes. In addition, ALD allows for the creation of 2D materials with fewer flaws and the synthesis of 2D material heterostructures with a small atom size thickness [47]. As a result of the advancements, ALD has opened up new means of synthesis with decreased interfacial impurities and large area deposition conformity with improved structural properties [48].
Apart from vapor-based synthesis approaches, liquid-phase exfoliation is another good way to get 2D materials in which the surface oxide of liquid metals produces unexpected results from a combination of physical and chemical features of liquid alloys [49]. While interacting with their ambient conditions, liquid metals with electron-rich metallic cores form a natural 2D film; the self-limiting surface oxide film with a thickness of a few atoms [50]. These liquid ingredients serve as host materials for the production of high-quality, one-kind films for innovative applications. The origin to define its development characteristics is the host materials fluidity, chemical composition, and thermodynamic properties that are the building block for examining the resultant 2D materials [51].
Graphene, graphene oxides (GO), MXenes, pnictogens, and hBN are just a few of the commonly utilized plasmonic materials described in this section.
Graphene is proving itself a revolutionary material for a wide range of applications since 2004 because of its electronic behavior which is responsible for exceptional features including, high mobility charge carriers, optical transmission, and tunable carrier densities [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. The ability of graphene’s structure to strongly confine excited surface plasmons in comparison to other materials as well as its ability to tune surface plasmons by manipulating charge densities is remarkable for prospective applications primarily in optoelectronics and plasmonics [61]. Experimental studies [62] show that graphene surface plasmons may be coupled with electrons and photons, allowing them to be used in more promising applications. This graphene coupling is in the form of quasi-particles that hold an intense interest in optoelectronics and condensed matter physics [63]. Surface plasmons in graphene offer a variety of significant advantages over other plasmonic materials, including high confinement, high tuneability, reduced frequency loss, improved electron relaxation time, and high many-body interactions. Figure 7 shows the structure and band description of graphene [64].
(a) Graphene lattice structure, (b) BZ of graphene, (c) lattice electronic dispersion, (d) graphene electronic structure Bloch band description, (e) Low EBS approximation [
Graphene oxide (GO) is an amorphous insulator with carbon network bases on the hexagonal rings with both sp2 and sp3 hybridization as well as hydroxyl and epoxide groups on sheet sides and carboxyl and carbonyl groups on sheet edges. This kind of morphological structure is responsible for its wide range of technological applications mainly in nano-electronics, nano-photonics, and nano-composites. Because of the oxygen functionalities present, GO has a significant benefit when mixed with other polymeric or ceramic materials, resulting in improved electrical and mechanical properties [65]. The GO is in high demand in both industry and academics because of its zero-bandgap feature and excellent flexibility with superior thermal and electrical conductivity. In addition, one of GO’s unique properties is the coexistence of its size, shape, and hybridization domains via a reduction mechanism that may eventually control the bandgap and convert GO to a semi-metal form. The main distinction between GO and reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) is that GO has oxygen-containing functional groups, whereas reduced graphene oxide does not [66]. Owing to heterogeneous electrical structure, GO is fluorescent throughout a wide wavelength range, while reduced GO allows quick response in GO-based electronics [67]. The GO is a promising choice for novel photonic materials, solar cells, optical devices, and a range of other applications due to its unique features. Figure 8 depicts the difference between GO and r-GO [66].
Schematic flow from graphene-to-graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) [
The hBN is a traditional 2D heterostructure material that was previously used as a substrate for thin-layered materials but now has the potential to be employed as an active plasmonic material. It is an excellent encapsulant for graphene because it protects it from the environment and increases its electrical mobility, extending the life of surface plasmon polaritons in plasmonic applications [18, 68]. It has a crystal nature and polar bonding, allowing it to perform a wide range of optical, electrical, optoelectronic, and quantum optic functions for device applications. Also, it has a wide bandgap, high internal quantum efficiency, and significant optical nonlinearities that depend on material thickness and is specified by the rotation angle between heterostructure material layers [23, 69]. Its structure and band properties are displayed in Figure 9 [70].
hBN and its band structure properties [
MXenes are new types of 2D plasmonic materials made up of nitrides and carbides that were discovered in 2011. They are more stable than graphene, can be readily shaped and folded, have superior electromagnetic properties, and can be coupled with other materials to exhibit a wide range of applications in energy storage, supercapacitors, photonics, and plasmonics. The properties of MXenes can be determined by exploring surface termination, composition, doping, or mixing with other materials, resulting in adjustable conductivity that can change the material’s properties as a metal or semiconductor [71]. The relative dielectric permittivity of MXenes for plasmonic applications can be studied by inter- and intra-band transitions that define optical parameters such as, absorption coefficient, refractive index, transmittance, and reflectance, and are linked to the material’s electrical conductivity, which has already been demonstrated computationally and experimentally to find a place in electronic and optoelectronic applications [72, 73].
Pnictogens are monolayer stable structures found from elements of group VA (nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth) after the discovery of black phosphorene. These materials are named as nitrogen in hexagonal buckled structure, arsenic in hexagonal buckled as well as symmetric washboard structure, antimony, and bismuth in either hexagonal buckled or asymmetric washboard structure, but later on, these elements occurred to have other exotic structures [74]. The pnictogens stability can be depicted using molecular dynamic simulations performed at high temperatures and materials phonon frequencies [75]. Pnictogens, as contrasted with group IV elements, are significantly more stable semiconductor materials with an appropriate bandgap for numerous device applications. Also, in contrast to black phosphorus (BP), they are thermodynamically stable monolayer structures with rhombohedral structural characteristics and interlayer covalent connections which decrease as anisotropy decreases and metallic character increases from arsenic to antimony to bismuth [76]. The 2D monolayer structures of pnictogens exhibit strong directionality in various physical properties that can be implied on plane lateral heterostructures to produce parallel strips of 2D pnictogens with advanced technological applications while the same effect can be observed by a monoatomic chain of group VA elements attached to their monolayers. Figure 10 represents structures as well as binding energies of pnictogens [77].
(a) Honeycomb structures, (b) average binding energies of 2D pnictogens [
Metal oxides show strong metallic behavior owing to stable charge carrier concentration when doped with various significant dopants such as aliovalent, oxygen vacancies, or interstitial dopants that result in localized surface plasmon resonance and by carefully choosing the host material as well as doped material, these surface plasmonic resonances can be tuned in the range of near- and mid-infrared (IR) region spectrum. The optical modeling of metal oxides illustrates the importance of defects and their impact on charge carrier mobility and the electronic structure of the material which reveals the choice of dopant as an important factor for metal oxides as plasmonic materials. Metal oxides are different from ordinary metals in the sense that they may change their localized surface plasmon resonance by changing their elemental composition, regardless of material size or shape, and these plasmon resonances can also be adjusted by altering external stimuli, resulting in the unique features of plasmonic materials as a result of crystal and morphological configurations that are useful for a variety of device applications [78].
The 2D materials can generally be categorized on the basis of electrical and optoelectronic properties in device applications such as flash memories, sensors, tunnel junctions, photodetectors, photonic crystals, optical metamaterials, nanophotonics, and quantum optics. The 2D graphene-based photonic and optoelectronic devices dragged much attention because of their versatile applications in broad fields such as sensing, communication, and imaging technologies [79]. In terms of density of state and band structure, graphene has an adjustable light absorption spectrum and carrier density which may be used in waveguide-integrated graphene photonic devices and molecular sensor detection. Graphene with optical adjustments has also been used for light modulation and detection, and its derivatives are proving to be a feasible alternative for a variety of applications. The GO can be utilized in the manufacture of electrical devices such as FETs and GFETs, LEDs, and solar cells, while r-GO dispersed in solvents may be utilized to replace FTO and ITO electrodes in transparent electrode manufacture; moreover, their large surface area and conductivity allow them to function as energy storage devices for longer periods with a greater capacity [80]. Recent investigations have shown that near-field IR optical microscopy and IR microscopy of graphene are responsible for surface plasmon modeling in plasmonic applications [81]. An overview of 2D plasmonic materials-based devices is shown in Figure 11 [82].
2D plasmonic material-based devices for optoelectronic applications [
The hBN has exciting technological applications including, photonics, and its nanostructures feature weak polaritons that interact poorly with light and might be utilized to control the optical angular momentum of hyperbolic phonon polaritons, implying maximum optical density of state and/or improving molecular IR vibrational absorption through surface enhancement [83]. Hybridization of hBN phonon-polariton with graphene surface plasmon-polaritons resulted in the active tuning of the polaritons which is a potential characteristic for chip-based nano-photonics [84], photonic devices, modulators, and hyper-lensing [85]. The hBN defects that reduce phonon lifespan have uses in single-photon emitters (SPEs), which have certain appealing properties such as high quantum efficiency, optical stability, linear polarization, and high brightness. In addition, owing to its high efficiency and extended life in device applications, hBN has been utilized to replace AlGaN in deep-UV applications. Another method for incorporation of hBN is to link emission with plasmonic resonator-based structures in which localized surface plasmons cause broad field confinements throughout a wide range of emission, resulting in substantial Purcell amplification for dipole emission coupled to these resonators. When compared to uncoupled devices, the hBN quantum emitter coupling with plasmonic arrays has previously been demonstrated, with studies revealing PL enhancement and lifespan reduction with a quantum efficiency of around 40% and enhanced saturation count rates [86].
MXenes plasmonics is a relatively new field with a wide range of possible applications, including surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, conductive substrates, and plasmonic sensing [72]. Nonlinear optical applications based on the nonlinear absorption process by plasmonic illumination near plasma frequency have been suggested for MXenes, and these nonlinear applications include ultrafast lasers, optical switching, and optical rectification devices like optical diodes. At near-infrared frequencies, arrays of two-dimensional titanium carbide (Ti3C2Tx) MXene nanodisks exhibit strongly localized surface plasmon resonances, which have been exploited to produce broadband plasmonic metamaterial absorber [87]. MXenes are also used as super-absorbers in broadband plasmonic metamaterials, and these super-absorbers may be used for photodetection and energy harvesting. Figure 12 shows an MXenes super-absorber [88] with configurable nano-aperture width for broadband applications.
MXene broadband super-absorber [
Pnictogens with a 2D structure are in great demand for high-performance device applications, since they have a midrange tunable bandgap and unparalleled mobility, allowing them to be employed in FETs for more efficient response than other materials. Because 2D materials lack a suitable bandgap, photodetectors are a major challenge, but pnictogens direct and tunable bandgap has solved this problem acting as a bridge between narrow and wider bandgap materials, attracting a lot of interest in photodetectors with improved photo-responsivity for telecommunication applications. The BP has an intriguing direct bandgap from visible to IR, making it a potential material for optoelectronic applications [89], while ultra-thin BP FETs have been described as effective NO2 gas sensors with remarkable stability of pnictogens-based FETs during sensing [90, 91]. The 2D metals and metal oxide semiconductors, whether conducting or insulating, are useful for thin-film transistors and numerous device applications, where they can be employed in any component such as the source, drain, gate, electrodes, or gate dielectrics. Metal oxides are also useful in p-n junction device fabrications for diode rectifiers, solar cells, and organic photovoltaic applications, where they operate as a charge extracting interfacial layer to improve power conversion efficiency.
Plasmonics has advanced to the forefront of science due to technical advances in the experimental and computational fields as well as contributions to scientific applications. These contributions also confront some challenges that must be addressed in the future for effective plasmonic applications. To begin with, plasmonic nanostructures of controlled size and features cannot simply embed in their surroundings because they change the dielectric function of the surrounding medium, affecting plasmonic switching and hence plasmonic applications. Another problem is optical pumping, which has the potential to deliver ultrafast plasmonic switching but has the drawbacks of destructive heat accumulation and high-power consumption. A major shortcoming of plasmonic materials is that self-tuned plasmonic structures lack effective plasmon coupling control abilities. Also, it is difficult to fabricate colloidal metal nano-crystals in controlled symmetry for plasmonic device applications on a large scale, even though lithography techniques performed well but had some drawbacks such as high cost, long-time consumption, and difficulty with damped plasmonic properties on a large scale [92].
Plasmonics must control light at the nanoscale with minimal losses, and to do so, light localization must be pushed to new heights without jeopardizing its propagation nature. Similarly, advances in topological plasmons must be incorporated in nanophotonic circuits by maintaining plasmon propagation stability and improving manufacturing techniques. For the experimental process to be effective, theoretical models must be improved to acquire the nonlinear and nonlocal physics of plasmonic devices. In short, both light and matter quantization are required to make a fine path toward a better understanding of light-matter interactions for advanced large-scale applications. The numerical approaches outlined are strong tools in terms of computing but they have conceptual limitations and their validity range becomes inefficient when a heterogeneous system is studied. To tackle plasmonic multi-scale challenges, the validity of numerical models must be improved by combining them with other numerical tools which is not well understood at this time and requires future considerations.
We have briefly addressed 2D plasmonic materials and their active properties in this chapter that are responsible for their wide range of applications in the electrical, photonic, and optoelectronic fields such as, FETs and GFETs, LEDs, and solar cells, modulators, hyper lensing, metamaterial absorbers, super-absorbers as well as nonlinear applications including ultrafast lasers, optical switching, and optical rectification devices like optical diodes. The synthesis techniques employed for 2D plasmonic materials have also been reviewed, with pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and CVD being the most extensively used and promising approaches for more controlled and conformational film growth. Also, these techniques have the advantage to provide desirable results by tuning their functional parameters such as temperature, pressure, substrate angles, and deposition time. Computational models have to be examined to carry out a successful experiment, and there is a need to update simulation approaches to address problems in achieving desired plasmonic device features. Finally, we have outlined new prospective applications of 2D plasmonic materials and their significance in the industry as well as the drawbacks of materials that prohibit them from performing properly while providing the possible directions for future research.
There are no conflicts of interest to declare.
US spelling with serial comma.
Plasmonics is the emerging research field, indicating the ability of materials to control light at nanoscale range to examine them for various properties and functions. The plasmonic materials exploit the surface plasmon resonance effects to achieve astonishing optical properties that originate with light-matter interaction and leads to remarkable results. Surface plasmon can confine electromagnetic fields at very small scales whereas various structures can be employed to control surface plasmons. Previously, Ag, Au, and Al metals were used as plasmonic materials but they did not perform well because of radiative losses, high amount of energy dissipation, and their poor tuneability. To overcome these problems for efficient plasmonic applications, a class of two-dimensional (2D) materials is proposed which presents a significant light-matter interaction phenomenon resulting in efficient quantum confinement effects. A variety of materials including semiconductors, conductive oxides, and dielectric materials have been investigated as plasmonic materials owing to their extra-ordinary plasmonic properties. Considering the advanced properties along with bandgap manipulation and electron transfer, 2D materials got higher attention for plasmonic applications [1, 2].
Graphene was the first 2D material investigated with zero bandgap having exceptional conductivity because of its high electron mobility. Considering graphene’s achievements and enormous applications at the laboratory and industry level, researchers have started investigating further 2D materials to explore their potential for plasmonic applications. Currently, almost 150 members of the 2D materials family are serving in elementary and advanced technologies such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), Field-effect transistors (FETs), environmental applications, sensing applications, and physical catalysis [3, 4, 5]. Some important under discussion members of 2D materials, analogous to graphene are; hexagonal boron nitride (hBN), black phosphorene, metal oxides, metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes), metal halides, pnictogens, and non-metals which are being considered as potential plasmonic materials [6, 7, 8]. This 2D materials family exhibits a broad electronic and plasmonic characteristic spectrum covering a wide range of properties such as; high surface area, surface state nature, minimum dangling bonds, spin-orbit coupling, and quantum spin Hall effects [9, 10].
On the other hand, stacking of different 2D materials is also the emerging part of the material industry which yields novel heterostructure materials capable of introducing some building blocks in a materials family with enhanced physical and chemical properties. The novel 2D materials such as metal carbides and nitrides, metal oxides and graphene-based materials have mixed properties and can be further tuned by adjusting bandgap that would result in increased light-harvesting efficiency which is the basis to achieve desired optical, electronic, and optoelectronic properties, making them promising materials for plasmonic applications [11, 12]. In addition, the plasmonic efficiency of 2D materials can also be enhanced by injecting plasmonic hot electrons to alter carrier intensity in 2D materials for higher photocatalysis output [13]. The recent extension of plasmonic materials from traditional metals to semiconductors to semi-metal graphene are identified as an ideal materials for surface plasmon resonance in plasmonic structures and their subsequent applications needed to be addressed accordingly. Moreover, the coupling effects between excitons and plasmons for 2D materials are the growing research interests that profound further studies for light-matter interactions to discover novel materials for innovative device applications.
The radiation-matter interaction is more prominent in 2D materials because of their thin sheet structures and significant quantum confinement effects that lead to enhanced electronic and optical properties. Owing to their advanced nature, 2D materials are advantageously evaluated for plasmonic characteristics, and multiple studies have been conducted for hBN to investigate plasmon molecular vibration coupling, plasmon substrate phonon coupling, and graphene plasmon-phonon polaritons coupling [14, 15, 16]. The 2D graphene structure exhibits exciting results due to its single-atom thickness and their environmental sensitivity. Other than environmental sensitivity, graphene plasmons can also be tuned with external magnetic and electric fields [17]. The effectiveness of graphene-based plasmonics can be determined by charge carrier density, and heavily doped graphene exhibits high efficiency which is required for plasmonic applications [18]. As a result, graphene is an excellent plasmonic material, and combining graphene with other 2D materials is favorable to obtain optimum efficiency [19].
Hexagonal Boron Nitride (hBN) is one of the most intriguing findings in 2D materials for plasmonics, having the unique ability to be fabricated within the host material, and can be used as a promising substrate for graphene-based plasmonic applications because of its graphene-matched crystal structure [18, 20]. The hBN-graphene mixture is helpful to enhance grapheme-plasmon lifetime when compared with other 2D materials and can maintain its bandgap even in varied thicknesses depicting a wide range of plasmonic properties including electro-optic and quantum-optics [21, 22]. Moreover, the point defects in hBN at room temperature demonstrate single-photon emission properties that can be used to integrate plasmonic nanostructures. Despite its wide bandgap, hBN offers high quantum efficiency, optical nonlinearity, and novel plasmonic properties to make it the best choice as 2D plasmonic material [23]. Its structure is shown in Figure 1 [24].
Schematics of hBN structure [
The MXenes are a new class of 2D materials that contain carbides and nitrides, and they are the biggest family currently available, as seen in Figure 2 [25]. This family of materials is substantially more stable than graphene with high metallic conductivity, folding and molding properties, and good electromagnetic properties, possessing the unique property of being combined with other materials to tune their properties for desired applications. They can be employed in a variety of applications including energy storage devices, photonic-plasmonic structures as well as photocatalytic devices [26], and because of their metallic character along with high conductive nature, they may be used as plasmonic materials equivalent to graphene.
MXene sheets with multiple layers where larger spheres represent transient metal, while smaller spheres are C, N, or CN [
Researchers anticipated the group VA elements such as nitrogen, arsenic, antimony as well as bismuth as single-layer 2D structures with the introduction of 2D materials synthesis, and these elements are referred to as pnictogens and are shown in Figure 3 [27]. These materials feature a honeycomb, washboard, and square-octagon structure, and they offer outstanding electrical, optical, electro-optical, and plasmonic properties having strong spin-orbit coupling, a narrow bandgap, and band inversion properties, making them ideal for plasmonic device applications [27].
Pnictogens and their schematic 2D structures [
Photonics deals with the light-matter interaction which usually results in the formation of a single electron–hole pair by interacting light photons with free charge carriers in a metal, whereas in plasmonics, there is a large number of charge Carriers present that leads to collective oscillations which is the fundamental problem in plasmonics because all charge carriers are not part of the solid and can be influenced by structural defects as well as other materials defects such as dislocations. As a result, multi-scale modeling at various structural complexity levels is required for theoretical exploration of these complex models and plasmonic excitations in bulk materials and localized plasmons in metallic structures. To analyze this complicated issue, several theoretical and numerical models have been presented, although only a few of them are described here.
The Drude-Lorentz model which gives a theoretical insight into a material and can be employed in plasmonic applications is an intuitive way to study the underlying dielectric characteristics of solids [28, 29]. The Drude-Lorentz model, also known as the oscillator model, entails representing an electron as a driven damped harmonic oscillator in which the electron is connected to the nucleus by a hypothetical spring with an oscillating electric field acting as a driving force. It also describes the behavior of electrons in terms of their electro-optical characteristics when light interacts with them [30]. The Drude-Lorentz model’s predictions are completely supported by the classical oscillator model as well as quantum mechanical features like electronic dipole moments of materials. To justify the microscopic qualities exhibited by classical and quantum techniques using this model, it is necessary to understand the Ehrenfest theorem which shows that quantum mechanical predicted values fundamentally follow classical mechanical conditions [31]. The Kohn-Sham approach is praised for its ease of use in relating a many-body system to a non-interacting system and thereby solving it using Kohn-Sham density functional theory [32]. Figure 4 illustrates such a model [32].
Kohn-sham mapping of the interacting and non-interacting systems [
With the developments in computing, new algorithms are being devised to accomplish difficult jobs rapidly and accurately. Different approaches and models for electrical and photonic systems are being explored to accurately anticipate their characteristics, which were previously explored using differential equations. This section discusses the frequency domain approach and the time domain method to have a better knowledge of computational model advancements [33].
The decomposition of periodic systems into harmonic time-dependent eigenmodes is a basic approach for understanding the optoelectronic and plasmonic characteristics of materials. The frequency-domain approach is a subset of these decompositions that enlarges electromagnetic fields into Fourier eigenmodes which may be used to comprehend optical material properties in the absence of nonlinear effects [34]. This approach is usually started from fundamental photonic systems with translational symmetry which produces electromagnetic states and photonic band structures using Maxwell equations and wave Equations [35]. Although the frequency-domain technique is effective for defining material characteristics, but it is an expensive method that restricts its application in numerical models and as a result, the finite-difference time-domain method was presented as an alternative. The time-domain technique is a grid-based method that is linked to several other finite methods. This approach models electromagnetic wave propagation in dielectric media without needing derivation methods, making it easier to be utilized in complicated geometrical simulations, such as non-linear systems, which were previously difficult to manage using the frequency-domain method. Furthermore, in this approach, Maxwell equations are discretized by differences arising from spatial and time derivatives, and the obtained results are solved in a leapfrog fashion on a staggered grid which is a good method being utilized in fluid dynamics [36]. Using the Phyton modules, these simulations can also be used to determine the plasmonic characteristics of materials [37].
The plasmonic material’s behavior can be determined by studying the frequency-dependent dielectric factor linked with the excited state of the material. It is essential to analyze both the ground and excited states of material while calculating optical transitions based on material states. For the analysis of material characteristics based on these facts,
Band structure of graphene and hBN computed within DFT (PBE) [
The material characteristics such as its dimension, morphology, physical as well as chemical properties, orientation, and crystallinity mainly depend on the material’s electronic properties which are impacted by the synthesis technique and experimental conditions. Mechanical exfoliation techniques have been tried in the past, but they have failed due to insufficient van-der-wall forces between 2D material layers, which limit uniformity and quality control, as well as their inability to scale-up [42]. Physical and chemical synthesis methods with controlled structural fabrication can be used with the top-down approach having the disadvantage of poor product yield and sheet restacking, limiting its application, and the bottom-up approach yielding promising results by assembling materials in a substrate using vapor deposition techniques such as physical vapor deposition (PVD), chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and atomic layer deposition. These are the most often utilized promising ways for fabricating 2D materials with customized thickness, dimensional control, high conductivity, and flexibility for electron transport; all of which are highly sought quantities for plasmonic applications [43].
CVD allows for the controlled synthesis of large areas of 2D materials with the added benefit of step-by-step film synthesis on various substrates and adjustable growth parameters to get the desired output. Metal–organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) is a modified version of CVD that is used to synthesize high-quality, large-area 2D materials for a variety of applications [44]. New research shows that a metal gas-phase precursor might be employed for regulated and uniform thickness instead of a powder precursor, which results in inhomogeneous nucleation and hence uncontrolled synthesis. Furthermore, temperature and pressure have an important impact on deposition uniformity, for example, high temperature and moderate pressure would result in excellent precursor coverage with regulated dimensions while excessively high temperatures might have negative consequences [45]. A comparison of various synthesis techniques is shown in Figure 6 [46].
Comparison of various 2D materials synthesis techniques [
Many techniques are available for producing uniform 2D materials and heterostructures with atomic layer deposition (ALD) being a refinement of the vapor-based deposition method in which the self-limiting reaction of the precursor is an essential aspect of ALD and the fact that a self-saturating surface monolayer is created after each precursor exposure distinguishes it from other deposition processes. In addition, ALD allows for the creation of 2D materials with fewer flaws and the synthesis of 2D material heterostructures with a small atom size thickness [47]. As a result of the advancements, ALD has opened up new means of synthesis with decreased interfacial impurities and large area deposition conformity with improved structural properties [48].
Apart from vapor-based synthesis approaches, liquid-phase exfoliation is another good way to get 2D materials in which the surface oxide of liquid metals produces unexpected results from a combination of physical and chemical features of liquid alloys [49]. While interacting with their ambient conditions, liquid metals with electron-rich metallic cores form a natural 2D film; the self-limiting surface oxide film with a thickness of a few atoms [50]. These liquid ingredients serve as host materials for the production of high-quality, one-kind films for innovative applications. The origin to define its development characteristics is the host materials fluidity, chemical composition, and thermodynamic properties that are the building block for examining the resultant 2D materials [51].
Graphene, graphene oxides (GO), MXenes, pnictogens, and hBN are just a few of the commonly utilized plasmonic materials described in this section.
Graphene is proving itself a revolutionary material for a wide range of applications since 2004 because of its electronic behavior which is responsible for exceptional features including, high mobility charge carriers, optical transmission, and tunable carrier densities [52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. The ability of graphene’s structure to strongly confine excited surface plasmons in comparison to other materials as well as its ability to tune surface plasmons by manipulating charge densities is remarkable for prospective applications primarily in optoelectronics and plasmonics [61]. Experimental studies [62] show that graphene surface plasmons may be coupled with electrons and photons, allowing them to be used in more promising applications. This graphene coupling is in the form of quasi-particles that hold an intense interest in optoelectronics and condensed matter physics [63]. Surface plasmons in graphene offer a variety of significant advantages over other plasmonic materials, including high confinement, high tuneability, reduced frequency loss, improved electron relaxation time, and high many-body interactions. Figure 7 shows the structure and band description of graphene [64].
(a) Graphene lattice structure, (b) BZ of graphene, (c) lattice electronic dispersion, (d) graphene electronic structure Bloch band description, (e) Low EBS approximation [
Graphene oxide (GO) is an amorphous insulator with carbon network bases on the hexagonal rings with both sp2 and sp3 hybridization as well as hydroxyl and epoxide groups on sheet sides and carboxyl and carbonyl groups on sheet edges. This kind of morphological structure is responsible for its wide range of technological applications mainly in nano-electronics, nano-photonics, and nano-composites. Because of the oxygen functionalities present, GO has a significant benefit when mixed with other polymeric or ceramic materials, resulting in improved electrical and mechanical properties [65]. The GO is in high demand in both industry and academics because of its zero-bandgap feature and excellent flexibility with superior thermal and electrical conductivity. In addition, one of GO’s unique properties is the coexistence of its size, shape, and hybridization domains via a reduction mechanism that may eventually control the bandgap and convert GO to a semi-metal form. The main distinction between GO and reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) is that GO has oxygen-containing functional groups, whereas reduced graphene oxide does not [66]. Owing to heterogeneous electrical structure, GO is fluorescent throughout a wide wavelength range, while reduced GO allows quick response in GO-based electronics [67]. The GO is a promising choice for novel photonic materials, solar cells, optical devices, and a range of other applications due to its unique features. Figure 8 depicts the difference between GO and r-GO [66].
Schematic flow from graphene-to-graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (r-GO) [
The hBN is a traditional 2D heterostructure material that was previously used as a substrate for thin-layered materials but now has the potential to be employed as an active plasmonic material. It is an excellent encapsulant for graphene because it protects it from the environment and increases its electrical mobility, extending the life of surface plasmon polaritons in plasmonic applications [18, 68]. It has a crystal nature and polar bonding, allowing it to perform a wide range of optical, electrical, optoelectronic, and quantum optic functions for device applications. Also, it has a wide bandgap, high internal quantum efficiency, and significant optical nonlinearities that depend on material thickness and is specified by the rotation angle between heterostructure material layers [23, 69]. Its structure and band properties are displayed in Figure 9 [70].
hBN and its band structure properties [
MXenes are new types of 2D plasmonic materials made up of nitrides and carbides that were discovered in 2011. They are more stable than graphene, can be readily shaped and folded, have superior electromagnetic properties, and can be coupled with other materials to exhibit a wide range of applications in energy storage, supercapacitors, photonics, and plasmonics. The properties of MXenes can be determined by exploring surface termination, composition, doping, or mixing with other materials, resulting in adjustable conductivity that can change the material’s properties as a metal or semiconductor [71]. The relative dielectric permittivity of MXenes for plasmonic applications can be studied by inter- and intra-band transitions that define optical parameters such as, absorption coefficient, refractive index, transmittance, and reflectance, and are linked to the material’s electrical conductivity, which has already been demonstrated computationally and experimentally to find a place in electronic and optoelectronic applications [72, 73].
Pnictogens are monolayer stable structures found from elements of group VA (nitrogen, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth) after the discovery of black phosphorene. These materials are named as nitrogen in hexagonal buckled structure, arsenic in hexagonal buckled as well as symmetric washboard structure, antimony, and bismuth in either hexagonal buckled or asymmetric washboard structure, but later on, these elements occurred to have other exotic structures [74]. The pnictogens stability can be depicted using molecular dynamic simulations performed at high temperatures and materials phonon frequencies [75]. Pnictogens, as contrasted with group IV elements, are significantly more stable semiconductor materials with an appropriate bandgap for numerous device applications. Also, in contrast to black phosphorus (BP), they are thermodynamically stable monolayer structures with rhombohedral structural characteristics and interlayer covalent connections which decrease as anisotropy decreases and metallic character increases from arsenic to antimony to bismuth [76]. The 2D monolayer structures of pnictogens exhibit strong directionality in various physical properties that can be implied on plane lateral heterostructures to produce parallel strips of 2D pnictogens with advanced technological applications while the same effect can be observed by a monoatomic chain of group VA elements attached to their monolayers. Figure 10 represents structures as well as binding energies of pnictogens [77].
(a) Honeycomb structures, (b) average binding energies of 2D pnictogens [
Metal oxides show strong metallic behavior owing to stable charge carrier concentration when doped with various significant dopants such as aliovalent, oxygen vacancies, or interstitial dopants that result in localized surface plasmon resonance and by carefully choosing the host material as well as doped material, these surface plasmonic resonances can be tuned in the range of near- and mid-infrared (IR) region spectrum. The optical modeling of metal oxides illustrates the importance of defects and their impact on charge carrier mobility and the electronic structure of the material which reveals the choice of dopant as an important factor for metal oxides as plasmonic materials. Metal oxides are different from ordinary metals in the sense that they may change their localized surface plasmon resonance by changing their elemental composition, regardless of material size or shape, and these plasmon resonances can also be adjusted by altering external stimuli, resulting in the unique features of plasmonic materials as a result of crystal and morphological configurations that are useful for a variety of device applications [78].
The 2D materials can generally be categorized on the basis of electrical and optoelectronic properties in device applications such as flash memories, sensors, tunnel junctions, photodetectors, photonic crystals, optical metamaterials, nanophotonics, and quantum optics. The 2D graphene-based photonic and optoelectronic devices dragged much attention because of their versatile applications in broad fields such as sensing, communication, and imaging technologies [79]. In terms of density of state and band structure, graphene has an adjustable light absorption spectrum and carrier density which may be used in waveguide-integrated graphene photonic devices and molecular sensor detection. Graphene with optical adjustments has also been used for light modulation and detection, and its derivatives are proving to be a feasible alternative for a variety of applications. The GO can be utilized in the manufacture of electrical devices such as FETs and GFETs, LEDs, and solar cells, while r-GO dispersed in solvents may be utilized to replace FTO and ITO electrodes in transparent electrode manufacture; moreover, their large surface area and conductivity allow them to function as energy storage devices for longer periods with a greater capacity [80]. Recent investigations have shown that near-field IR optical microscopy and IR microscopy of graphene are responsible for surface plasmon modeling in plasmonic applications [81]. An overview of 2D plasmonic materials-based devices is shown in Figure 11 [82].
2D plasmonic material-based devices for optoelectronic applications [
The hBN has exciting technological applications including, photonics, and its nanostructures feature weak polaritons that interact poorly with light and might be utilized to control the optical angular momentum of hyperbolic phonon polaritons, implying maximum optical density of state and/or improving molecular IR vibrational absorption through surface enhancement [83]. Hybridization of hBN phonon-polariton with graphene surface plasmon-polaritons resulted in the active tuning of the polaritons which is a potential characteristic for chip-based nano-photonics [84], photonic devices, modulators, and hyper-lensing [85]. The hBN defects that reduce phonon lifespan have uses in single-photon emitters (SPEs), which have certain appealing properties such as high quantum efficiency, optical stability, linear polarization, and high brightness. In addition, owing to its high efficiency and extended life in device applications, hBN has been utilized to replace AlGaN in deep-UV applications. Another method for incorporation of hBN is to link emission with plasmonic resonator-based structures in which localized surface plasmons cause broad field confinements throughout a wide range of emission, resulting in substantial Purcell amplification for dipole emission coupled to these resonators. When compared to uncoupled devices, the hBN quantum emitter coupling with plasmonic arrays has previously been demonstrated, with studies revealing PL enhancement and lifespan reduction with a quantum efficiency of around 40% and enhanced saturation count rates [86].
MXenes plasmonics is a relatively new field with a wide range of possible applications, including surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy, conductive substrates, and plasmonic sensing [72]. Nonlinear optical applications based on the nonlinear absorption process by plasmonic illumination near plasma frequency have been suggested for MXenes, and these nonlinear applications include ultrafast lasers, optical switching, and optical rectification devices like optical diodes. At near-infrared frequencies, arrays of two-dimensional titanium carbide (Ti3C2Tx) MXene nanodisks exhibit strongly localized surface plasmon resonances, which have been exploited to produce broadband plasmonic metamaterial absorber [87]. MXenes are also used as super-absorbers in broadband plasmonic metamaterials, and these super-absorbers may be used for photodetection and energy harvesting. Figure 12 shows an MXenes super-absorber [88] with configurable nano-aperture width for broadband applications.
MXene broadband super-absorber [
Pnictogens with a 2D structure are in great demand for high-performance device applications, since they have a midrange tunable bandgap and unparalleled mobility, allowing them to be employed in FETs for more efficient response than other materials. Because 2D materials lack a suitable bandgap, photodetectors are a major challenge, but pnictogens direct and tunable bandgap has solved this problem acting as a bridge between narrow and wider bandgap materials, attracting a lot of interest in photodetectors with improved photo-responsivity for telecommunication applications. The BP has an intriguing direct bandgap from visible to IR, making it a potential material for optoelectronic applications [89], while ultra-thin BP FETs have been described as effective NO2 gas sensors with remarkable stability of pnictogens-based FETs during sensing [90, 91]. The 2D metals and metal oxide semiconductors, whether conducting or insulating, are useful for thin-film transistors and numerous device applications, where they can be employed in any component such as the source, drain, gate, electrodes, or gate dielectrics. Metal oxides are also useful in p-n junction device fabrications for diode rectifiers, solar cells, and organic photovoltaic applications, where they operate as a charge extracting interfacial layer to improve power conversion efficiency.
Plasmonics has advanced to the forefront of science due to technical advances in the experimental and computational fields as well as contributions to scientific applications. These contributions also confront some challenges that must be addressed in the future for effective plasmonic applications. To begin with, plasmonic nanostructures of controlled size and features cannot simply embed in their surroundings because they change the dielectric function of the surrounding medium, affecting plasmonic switching and hence plasmonic applications. Another problem is optical pumping, which has the potential to deliver ultrafast plasmonic switching but has the drawbacks of destructive heat accumulation and high-power consumption. A major shortcoming of plasmonic materials is that self-tuned plasmonic structures lack effective plasmon coupling control abilities. Also, it is difficult to fabricate colloidal metal nano-crystals in controlled symmetry for plasmonic device applications on a large scale, even though lithography techniques performed well but had some drawbacks such as high cost, long-time consumption, and difficulty with damped plasmonic properties on a large scale [92].
Plasmonics must control light at the nanoscale with minimal losses, and to do so, light localization must be pushed to new heights without jeopardizing its propagation nature. Similarly, advances in topological plasmons must be incorporated in nanophotonic circuits by maintaining plasmon propagation stability and improving manufacturing techniques. For the experimental process to be effective, theoretical models must be improved to acquire the nonlinear and nonlocal physics of plasmonic devices. In short, both light and matter quantization are required to make a fine path toward a better understanding of light-matter interactions for advanced large-scale applications. The numerical approaches outlined are strong tools in terms of computing but they have conceptual limitations and their validity range becomes inefficient when a heterogeneous system is studied. To tackle plasmonic multi-scale challenges, the validity of numerical models must be improved by combining them with other numerical tools which is not well understood at this time and requires future considerations.
We have briefly addressed 2D plasmonic materials and their active properties in this chapter that are responsible for their wide range of applications in the electrical, photonic, and optoelectronic fields such as, FETs and GFETs, LEDs, and solar cells, modulators, hyper lensing, metamaterial absorbers, super-absorbers as well as nonlinear applications including ultrafast lasers, optical switching, and optical rectification devices like optical diodes. The synthesis techniques employed for 2D plasmonic materials have also been reviewed, with pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and CVD being the most extensively used and promising approaches for more controlled and conformational film growth. Also, these techniques have the advantage to provide desirable results by tuning their functional parameters such as temperature, pressure, substrate angles, and deposition time. Computational models have to be examined to carry out a successful experiment, and there is a need to update simulation approaches to address problems in achieving desired plasmonic device features. Finally, we have outlined new prospective applications of 2D plasmonic materials and their significance in the industry as well as the drawbacks of materials that prohibit them from performing properly while providing the possible directions for future research.
There are no conflicts of interest to declare.
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The main part of this chapter presents the classification of collaborative XR systems, the concept of the major application architectures and the consistency models of shared virtual game environments. The next subchapter briefly deals with the sharing of property ownership. The mentioned concepts and examples used in the chapter are implemented in many works and projects using a collaborative environment (also in gamified form) developed in the laboratory LIRKIS, the home laboratory of the authors. The knowledge presented in this chapter may provide tips and inspiration for some other game projects, and practical and useful notes on the advantages or disadvantages of some systems will be interesting and useful.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Branislav Sobota, Marián Hudák and Emília Pietriková"},{id:"82031",title:"Serious Games Development and Impact for Business Education",slug:"serious-games-development-and-impact-for-business-education",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103085",abstract:"Learning methodologies and experiences have changed over the recent years thanks to the incorporation of digital technology, among many of these technologies are Serious Games, that has a better opportunity to be used during recent pandemic times, the process of designing and incorporating games technologies is not easy and there are very few available development tools, this paper focus on basic guidelines and a practical experience. Review the process of developing a serious game and address some of the challenges of making a serious game from scratch. The objective is also to understand the challenges of developing and implementing gaming mechanics in Serious Games and the impact and results of the experience of using it with students’ samples from Latin America and Europe. The results of this study is that gamming has a very positive impact in the learning process of higher educations students, whom value the use of this technologies in their education, however in general these technologies are not being use in higher education, there is more simulation type implementations, especially in marketing and logistic areas. There is a need to train teachers and create pedagogical departments that will enhance and develop this experiential learning tools.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Dario Liberona, Aravind Kumaresan, Lionel Valenzuela and Giovanny Tarazona"},{id:"81629",title:"Leveraging on Data Sciences: Review of Architectural Practice and Education in Nigeria",slug:"leveraging-on-data-sciences-review-of-architectural-practice-and-education-in-nigeria",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103097",abstract:"Big data sciences demand the significant role of the architect. Particularly, facilitate the birth of an antifragile construction industry and more robust data sciences community of professionals. Skilled community necessary to build sustainable liveable cities with emerging creator’s economy. Liveability, well-being, and sense of belonging in the city are connected. Conversely, dismissive attitude by decision-makers towards architectural practice and education, even among architects, in recognizing architecture as data-driven and source of data deserve rethink. Here the chapter demonstrates architects as data scientists and the symbiotic relationship that exist between architecture and 3D computer graphics while highlighting emerging data sciences opportunities and threats. The chapter adopted principally reviews of scholarly literatures, draws from authors’ 20-years personal experiences, and industry leaders’ views. The language is accessible yet academically concise. The chapter concluded with recommendations, including highlights of big data technologies potential transformation of 3D computer graphics. The implications are policy, design, and education.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"John Allison and Anita Alaere Bala"},{id:"81217",title:"Commercial-off-the-Shelf (COTS) Games: Exploring the Applications of Games for Instruction and Assessment",slug:"commercial-off-the-shelf-cots-games-exploring-the-applications-of-games-for-instruction-and-assessme",totalDownloads:40,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103965",abstract:"Despite the growing interest in utilizing commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) games for instructional and assessment purposes there is a lack of research evidence regarding COTS games for these applications. This chapter considers the application of COTS games for instruction and assessment and provides preliminary evidence comparing COTS game scores to traditional multiple-choice assessments. In a series of four studies, we collected data and compared results from the performance in a COTS game to scores on a traditional multiple-choice assessment written for the purposes of each study. Each assessment was written to evaluate the same content presented in the game for each respective study. Three of the four studies demonstrated a significant correlation between the COTS game and the traditional multiple choice assessment scores. The non-significant value in Study 4 was likely due to a small sample size (n < 100). The results of these studies support our hypothesis and demonstrate that COTS games may be a useful educational tool for training or assessment purposes. We recommend that future research focuses on specific applications of COTS games to explore further opportunities for utilizing COTS in education and assessment.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Diana R. Sanchez, Amanda Rueda, Leila Jimeno Jimènez and Mahsa Norouzi Nargesi"},{id:"80731",title:"The Use of Serious Games for Learning Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation Procedures: A Systematic Mapping of the Literature",slug:"the-use-of-serious-games-for-learning-cardiopulmonary-resuscitation-procedures-a-systematic-mapping-",totalDownloads:70,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102399",abstract:"This article presents a systematic mapping, with an analysis of 35 selected works according to established criteria, seeking to connect the points and find relevant information for the following research areas: basic life support, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, serious games, and games for healthcare. Among the main results found, we can mention the representativeness of works by regions and their most productive years, the most common platforms, noting a focus on VR technologies, in addition to identifying the preference for the Unity 3D tool for implementations. It was also possible to show that serious games can be very effective in teaching CPR.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Ingrid Nery Mendes, Maicon de Araújo Nogueira, Filipe Valente Mendes, Otavio Noura Teixeira and Viviane Almeida dos Santos"},{id:"80515",title:"View Synthesis Tool for VR Immersive Video",slug:"view-synthesis-tool-for-vr-immersive-video",totalDownloads:142,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102382",abstract:"This chapter addresses the view synthesis of natural scenes in virtual reality (VR) using depth image-based rendering (DIBR). This method reaches photorealistic results as it directly warps photos to obtain the output, avoiding the need to photograph every possible viewpoint or to make a 3D reconstruction of a scene followed by a ray-tracing rendering. An overview of the DIBR approach and frequently encountered challenges (disocclusion and ghosting artifacts, multi-view blending, handling of non-Lambertian objects) are described. Such technology finds applications in VR immersive displays and holography. Finally, a comprehensive manual of the Reference View Synthesis software (RVS), an open-source tool tested on open datasets and recognized by the MPEG-I standardization activities (where “I” refers to “immersive”) is described for hands-on practicing.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Sarah Fachada, Daniele Bonatto, Mehrdad Teratani and Gauthier Lafruit"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. 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His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"10",title:"Animal Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. 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From\r\n1964 to 1974, he worked as Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of MedicineUniversidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. From 1974 to 1976, he was a Fellowof the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor oBiochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina. He is Member ofthe National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and Argentine Society foBiochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for manyears in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Professor Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, publishedover 100 papers in peer reviewed journals, several chapters in books andtwelve edited books. Angel Catalá received awards at the 40th InternationaConference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999: Dijon (France). W inner of the Bimbo PanAmerican Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South AmericaHuman Nutrition, Professional Category. 2006 award in pharmacology, Bernardo\r\nHoussay, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Angel Catalá belongto the Editorial Board of Journal of lipids, International Review of Biophysical ChemistryFrontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics, World Journal oExperimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International, W orld Journal oBiological Chemistry, Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity, Diabetes and thePancreas, International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, International Journal oNutrition, Co-Editor of The Open Biology Journal.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"12",title:"Human Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"13",title:"Plant Physiology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"332229",title:"Prof.",name:"Jen-Tsung",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"jen-tsung-chen",fullName:"Jen-Tsung Chen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332229/images/system/332229.png",biography:"Dr. Jen-Tsung Chen is currently a professor at the National University of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. He teaches cell biology, genomics, proteomics, medicinal plant biotechnology, and plant tissue culture. Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. He has published more than ninety scientific papers and serves as an editorial board member for Plant Methods, Biomolecules, and International Journal of Molecular Sciences.",institutionString:"National University of Kaohsiung",institution:{name:"National University of Kaohsiung",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:16,paginationItems:[{id:"82135",title:"Carotenoids in Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105210",signatures:"Lovina I. Udoh, Josephine U. Agogbua, Eberechi R. Keyagha and Itorobong I. 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Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",biography:"Full Professor and Vice Chair, Division of Pharmacology, Loma Linda University, School of Medicine. He received his B.S. Degree in Biology at La Sierra University, Riverside California (1980) and a PhD in Pharmacology from Loma Linda University School of Medicine (1988). Post-Doctoral Fellow at University of California, Irvine, College of Medicine 1989-1992 with a focus on autonomic nerve function in blood vessels and the impact of aging on the function of these nerves and overall blood vessel function. Twenty years of research funding and served on NIH R01 review panels, Editor-In-Chief of Edorium Journal of Aging Research. Serves as a peer reviewer for biomedical journals. Military Reserve Officer serving with the 100 Support Command, 100 Troop Command, 40 Infantry Division, CA National Guard.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. 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He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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