Typical thermophysical properties of soft biological tissues [13].
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\r\n\tPeacebuilding entails rebuilding people's social, economic, political, and cultural lives during or after a violent conflict. To achieve these objectives, states and local communities must build infrastructures that contribute to the creation of an enabling environment for peace and security activities to thrive. Peace infrastructures can be both formal and informal. To ensure peace and security, both national and local governments must mobilize their resources to mitigate the effects of conflict-related factors such as climate change, social crime, poverty, unemployment, and hunger. The role of political leadership in promoting peace initiatives is examined through case studies from around the world. It also investigates the critical role of traditional leadership in maintaining community peace. These initiatives and actors are examined within the broader framework of global peace and security. Micro-macro peace infrastructures for peace are explored.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-251-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-250-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-252-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"131303f07b492463a5c4a7607fe46ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Norman Chivasa",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11775.jpg",keywords:"Conflict, Peace, Security, Violence, Disputes, Election, Peace Agreements, Globalisation, Community, Peace Committees, Intra/Interstate Disputes, Indigenous Knowledge",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 31st 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 14th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Norman Chivasa is a post-doctoral fellow in the Peacebuilding program, at Durban University Technology, South Africa. His research interests involve urban peacebuilding, social crime prevention & community development initiatives.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"331566",title:"Dr.",name:"Norman",middleName:null,surname:"Chivasa",slug:"norman-chivasa",fullName:"Norman Chivasa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/331566/images/system/331566.jpg",biography:"Norman Chivasa holds a Ph.D. and Masters's in Conflict Resolution and Peace Studies from the University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa. He is a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow at the Durban University of Technology in the Faculty of Public Management, Peacebuilding program, International Centre of Nonviolence, Durban, South Africa. He is a senior lecturer at the University of Zimbabwe, Department of History, War & Strategic Studies Unit, Harare, Zimbabwe. Dr.Chivasa is interested in community-based peacebuilding initiatives, and informal infrastructures for peace and development. He has facilitated the creation of a ward-level peace committee and village peace committees in ward 8 of Seke district, Mashonaland East province, Zimbabwe.",institutionString:"University of KwaZulu-Natal",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Durban University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"184402",firstName:"Romina",lastName:"Rovan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/184402/images/4747_n.jpg",email:"romina.r@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40358",title:"Analytical Solutions to 3-D Bioheat Transfer Problems with or without Phase Change",doi:"10.5772/52963",slug:"analytical-solutions-to-3-d-bioheat-transfer-problems-with-or-without-phase-change",body:'Theoretical analysis on the bioheat transfer process has been an extremely important issue in a wide variety of bioengineering situations such as cancer hyperthermia, burn injury evaluation, brain hypothermia, disease diagnostics, thermal comfort analysis, cryosurgery and cryopreservation etc. In this chapter, the theoretical strategies towards exactly solving the three-dimensional (3-D) bioheat transfer problems for both cases with and without phase change were systematically illustrated based on the authors’ previous works. Typical closed form analytical solutions to the hyperthermia bioheat transfer problems with space or transient heating on skin surface or inside biological bodies were summarized. In addition, exact solutions to the 3-D temperature transients of tissues under various phase change processes such as cryopreservation of biomaterials or cryosurgery of living tissues subject to freezing by a single or multiple cryoprobes were also outlined. Such solution is comprehensive enough by taking full account of many different factors such as generalized initial and boundary conditions, blood perfusion heat transfer, volumetric heating of hyperthermia apparatus or heat sink of cryoprobes etc. For illustrating the applications of the present methods, part of the solutions were adopted to analyze the selected bioheat transfer problems. The versatility of these theoretical approaches to tackle more complex issues was also discussed. The obtained solutions are expected to serve as the basic foundation for theoretically analyzing bioheat transfer problems.
Analytical solutions to bioheat transfer problems are very important in a wide variety of biomedical applications [1]. Especially, understanding the heat transfer in biological tissues involving either raising or lowering of temperature is a necessity for many clinical practices such as tumor hyperthermia [2], burn injury evaluation [3, 4], brain hypothermia resuscitation [5], disease thermal diagnostics [6], thermal comfort analysis [7], cryosurgery planning [8, 9], and cryopreservation programming [10]. The bioheat transfer problems involved in the above applications can generally be divided into two categories: with and without phase change. In this chapter, the phase change especially denotes the solid-liquid phase transition of biological hydrated tissues. The cases without phase change usually include tumor hyperthermia, burn injury evaluation, brain hypothermia resuscitation, disease diagnostics, and thermal comfort analysis, while the cases with phase change include cryosurgery and cryopreservation.
To guarantee optimal clinical outputs for such applications, it is essential to predict in advance the transient temperature distribution of the target tissues. For example, in a tumor hyperthermia process, the primary objective is to raise the temperature of the diseased tissue to a therapeutic value, typically above 43ºC, and then thermally destroy it [11]. Temperature prediction would be used to find an optimum way either to induce or prevent such thermal damage to the target tissues. In contrast to the principle of hyperthermia, cryosurgery realizes its clinical purpose of controlled tissue destruction through deep freezing and thawing [12]. Applications of this treatment are quite wide in clinics owning to its outstanding virtues such as quick, clean, relatively painless, good homeostasis, and minimal scaring. An accurate understanding of the extent of the irregular shape of the frozen region, the direction of ice growth, and the temperature distribution within the ice balls during the freezing process is a basic requirement for the successful operation of a cryosurgery. Therefore, solving the bioheat transfer problems involved is very important for both hyperthermia and cryosurgery. Moreover, in thermal diagnostics, thermal comfort analysis, brain hypothermia resuscitation, and burn injury evaluation, similar bioheat transfer problems are also often encountered [13].
It is commonly accepted that mathematical model is the basis for solving many practical problems. Because modeling bioheat transfer is of the utmost importance in many biomedical applications such as proper device or heating/cooling protocol design, a number of bioheat transfer equations for living tissue have been proposed since the landmark work by Pennes published in 1948 [14], in which the perfusion heat source/sink was introduced. Until now, the classical Pennes equation is also commonly accepted as the best practical approach for modeling bioheat transfer in view of its simplicity and excellent validity [15]. This is because most of the other models either still lack sound experimental grounding or just appear too complex for mathematical solution. Although the real anatomical geometry of a biological body can be incorporated, the Pennes equation remains the most useful model for characterizing the heat transport process in most biomedical applications. For brevity, here only cases for space-dependent thermal properties will be mainly discussed. Then a generalized form of the Pennes equation for this purpose can be written as:
where,
From the historical viewpoint, we can find that the development of the bioheat transfer’s art and science can be termed as one to modify and improve the Pennes model [15]. Among the many efforts, the blood perfusion term in the Pennes equation has been substantially studied which led to several conceptually innovative bioheat transfer models such as Wulff’s continuum model [16], Chen-Holmes model addressing both the flow and perfusion properties of blood [17], and the Weinbaum-Jiji three-layer model to characterize the heat transfer in the peripheral tissues [18]. The bioheat transfer equation and its extended forms can be directly used to characterize the thermal process of the biological bodies subject to various external or interior factors such as convective interaction with a heated or cooled fluid, radiation by fire or laser, contact with a heating or freezing apparatus, electromagnetic effect, or a combination among them. Such issues can be treated using different boundary conditions as well as spatial heating or freezing patterns. Generally, the geometric shape, dimensions, thermal properties and physiological characteristics for tissues, as well as the arterial blood temperature, can be used as the input to the Pennes equation for a parametric study. According to a specific need in clinics, the bioheat transfer model can even be modified by taking more factors into concern [19]. Traditionally, for solving bioheat transfer problems, people relied too heavy on numerical approaches such as finite difference method, finite element method, and boundary element method etc. Numerical simulation is necessary when the analytical solutions are not available. But if both analytical and numerical solutions can be obtained for the same issue, the analytical one is often preferred. Except for its simplicity being used to compile computer codes, the analytical solution is very attractive since its efficiency depends weakly on the dimensions of the problem, in contrast to the numerical methods. For analytical method, solution at a desired point can be performed independently from that of the other points within the domain, which can be an asset when temperatures are needed at only some isolated sites or times. But for most of the conventional numerical methods (except Monte Carlo simulation), the temperatures at all mesh points must be simultaneously computed even when only the temperatures at a single point are needed [20]. In this sense, the analytical solution will save computational time greatly, which is valuable in clinical practices.
Based on the above considerations, we aimed in this chapter to present several typical closed form analytical solutions to bioheat transfer problems with or without phase change, in which relatively complex boundary or heating/cooling conditions, and existence of discrete large blood vessel were included. Derivation of the solutions was mainly based on the Green’s function method, which is beneficial for dealing with the non-homogeneous problems with spatial or transient heating source and initial temperature distribution, as well as complex cooling or boundary conditions. For generalized and practical purpose, complex bioheat transfer problems encountered in several typical clinical applications as well as basic studies such as tumor hyperthermia, cryosurgery, cryopreservation, and interpretation of physiological phenomena etc. will be especially addressed.
Derivation of the solutions was based on the Green’s function method, since the Green’s function obtained for the differential equation is independent of the source term. Therefore it can be flexibly used to calculate the temperature distribution for various spatial or temporal source profiles. Furthermore, the Green’s function method is capable of dealing with the transient or space-dependent boundary conditions. Up to now, quite a few studies have applied the Green’s function method to solve the bioheat transfer problems [21-25]. However, in most of the existing analytical studies, the available solutions to the bioheat transfer problem are for the cases with one dimensional geometry, steady state, infinite domain, constant heating, or heat conduction equations not considering blood perfusion, which may not be practical for some real bio-thermal situations. In this section, the generalized analytical solutions, which have incorporated relatively complex situations such as the 3-D tissue domain, the transient or space-dependent boundary conditions, and volumetric heating, were especially addressed. Such solutions are expected to be very useful in a variety of bio-thermal practices. The 3-D computational domain with widths
Calculation geometry for 3-D case [
For brief, only 3-D case with constant thermal parameters will be particularly studied, which is a good approximation when no phase change occurred in tissue. The corresponding 3-D Pennes equation can be derived from Equation (1) as:
The generalized boundary conditions (BCs) often encountered in a practical clinical situation can be written as:
or
where,
The body core temperature was regarded as a constant (
The BCs at
The reason for adopting the adiabatic conditions in the two ends of the
The initial temperature is
where,
where,
The solution to Equation (11) is:
where,
Equation (2) was transformed to the following form:
where,
where,
Using Green function method,
where,
The Eigen-values
Then, the solution of Equation (14) can be easily obtained. For the second BC at the skin surface, one has
For the third BC, the solution is
Then the tissue temperature field can be constructed as:
Clearly, the above method can also be extended to solve some other three-dimensional problems such as in spherical and cylindrical coordinates. But they will not be listed here for brevity. To illustrate the application of the above analytical solutions, a selective 3-D hyperthermia problem with point heating sources was particularly studied as an example. Accordingly, the temperature distribution of tissue subject to the point heating in volume was analytically solved. Practical examples for the point heating can be found in clinics where heat was deposited though inserting a conducting heating probe in the deep tumor site. Previously, such problems received relatively few attentions in compared with other heating patterns. Here, the point-heating source to be studied can be expressed as:
where,
The results were given in Fig. 2, which represent the temperature distribution in biological bodies heated by one and two-point sources, respectively. In calculations, the typical tissue properties were applied as given in Table 1. In Fig. 2(a), the single heating source was fixed at position (0.021m, 0.04m, 0.04m); in Fig. 2(b), the two point-heating sources were at (0.021m, 0.032m, 0.04m) and (0.021m, 0.048m, 0.04m), respectively. It makes clear that the maximum temperatures of the tissues occur at the positions of the point-heating sources. Further, one can still observe that the temperature for the tissues surrounding the point-heating sources can fairly be kept at a lower temperature on the whole. This is very beneficial for the hyperthermia operation since one can then selectively control the temperature level at the diseased tissue sites while the healthy tissues at the surrounding area will just stay below the safe threshold. This may be one of the most attractive features why the invasive heating probes are frequently used to thermally kill the tumor in the deep tissue, although they may cause mechanical injury. The above solutions are expected to be valuable for such hyperthermia treatment planning.
Temperature distribution at cross-section
Unit | Value | |
Air temperature ( | °C | 25 |
Artery blood temperature ( | °C | 37 |
Blood perfusion of tissue ( | ml/s/ml | 0.0005 |
Body core temperature ( | °C | 37 |
Density of tissue ( | Kg/m3 | 1000 |
Density of blood ( | Kg/m3 | 1000 |
Heat convection coefficient ( | W/m2· °C | 10 |
Heat convection coefficient ( | W/m2· °C | 100 |
Metabolic heat generation of tissue ( | W/m3 | 33800 |
Specific heat of tissue ( | J/Kg· °C | 4200 |
Specific heat of blood ( | J/Kg· °C | 4200 |
Temperature of cooling medium ( | °C | 15 |
Thermal conductivity of tissue ( | W/m· °C | 0.5 |
Typical thermophysical properties of soft biological tissues [13].
Localized transurethral thermal therapy has been widely used as a non-surgical modality for treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia [26]. One of the critical issues in clinical application is to effectively heat and cause coagulation necrosis in target tissue while simultaneously preserving the surrounding healthy tissue, especially the prostatic urethra and rectum. This requires administration of an optimal thermal dose which can induce the desired three dimensional tissue temperature distributions in the prostate during the therapy. In this section, the analytical approach to solving the transient 3-D temperature field was illustrated, which can be used to predict point-by-point tissue temperature mapping during the heating.
The transurethral microwave catheter (T3 catheter) was used as the heating apparatus in this section. Geometric presentation of the prostate with the inserted T3 catheter was shown in Fig. 3. It was modeled as a cylinder of 3.4cm in diameter and 3cm in length with constant temperature
where Q is the applied microwave power,
Practically, the microwave antenna is located with an offsets from the geometrical center to produce an asymmetric microwave field, which can prevent overheating the rectum. The chilled water at a given temperature flows between the antenna and the inner catheter wall.
The Pennes equation for the 3-D temperature field in the prostate can then be applied as:
D configuration of the prostate under microwave heating [
To obtain an analytical solution, all these parameters were assumed to be uniform throughout the prostate and remained constant except for
where,
The initial temperature is
Using transformation:
One can rewrite the above equations (Equations (39-44) as:
where,
The Green’s function for the above equation sets can be obtained as:
where
Here
Finally, the temperature field was constructed as:
where,
This analytical solution has been applied to perform parametric studies on the bioheat transfer problems involved in prostate hyperthermia [26].
Contributed from microcirculation including the capillary network plus small arterioles and venules of less than 100
Considering that small perturbations of arterial blood temperature, blood perfusion, and metabolic heat generation will result in tissue temperature fluctuation, each of these parameters can be expressed as the sum of a mean and a fluctuation value, i.e.
where, symbol “ — ” represents the mean value, and “
where,
Compared with the mean value, the fluctuation value is generally a small quantity. Then one has the following statistical relation:
Substituting Equations (65-68) into Equation (64) leads to:
Further,
Using Equation (70), Equation (72) was simplified as:
Subtracting Equation (73) from Equation (71) leads to:
Equations (73) and (74) consist of the theoretical models for characterizing the temperature fluctuation in living tissues. Derivation of the perturbation Equation (74) is similar to that of the well known Reynolds equation in fluid mechanics. Compared with the Pennes equation, there are two additional terms appearing in Equation (73) both of which have explicit physical meaning:
where
Omitting those terms less than
For the interpretation of temperature fluctuation in living tissues, it is reasonable to apply the 1-D degenerated forms of Equations (76) and (77). The boundary condition at the skin surface can be chosen as convective case which is often encountered in reality, i.e.
At the body core, a symmetrical or adiabatic condition can be used, namely
Then using the relations in Equations (65-68), the boundary and initial conditions of Equations (76) and (77) can be respectively obtained as:
where,
Then Equations (76) and (80-82) were respectively rewritten as:
where,
If the Green’s function for the above equation system is obtained, its transient solution can thus be constructed [13]. Through introducing an auxiliary problem corresponding to Equations (87-90), the Green’s function
where, the Eigen-values
Then, the solution to Equation (87) can be obtained as
Substituting Equation (93) into Equation (86) leads to the mean temperature
Equations (77) and (83-85) can be respectively converted to
Following the same procedure described above, the Green’s function of this equation set is:
where,
Consequently, the fluctuation variable
where, the mean temperature
Temperature fluctuation due to pulsative blood perfusion (
Fig. 4 depicted both the skin surface temperature fluctuation (the mean perfusion
In this section, the perturbation model for characterizing the temperature fluctuation in living tissues was illustrated and its exact analytical solution was obtained which has wide applicability. One of the most important results in this section is perhaps that small perturbation in blood perfusion result in evidently observable temperature fluctuation in the living tissues. And the larger blood perfusion, the more liable for the living tissues to keep its temperature stable. This model provides a new theoretical foundation for better understanding the thermal fluctuation behavior in living tissues.
Derivation such solutions was based on the moving heat source method, in which all the thermal properties were considered as constants, and phase transition was assumed to occur in a single temperature [28]. The density, specific heat and heat conductivity of solid phase were considered to be the same as those of the liquid phase, respectively. To simplify the problem, only computation in a regular geometry characterized by Cartesian coordinates was considered, as shown in Fig. 5. According to the geometrical symmetry, only 1/8 of the whole cubic tissue was chosen as the study object, whose center is set as the origin point, and
Schematic of 1/8 cuboidal tissue subject to cryopreservation [
The energy equations for different phase regions were then written. For the liquid phase:
For the solid phase:
where
It should be pointed out that the physical properties for the biological tissues would change during the phase change process. Therefore it may cause certain errors when assuming both the frozen and unfreezing regions take the same physical parameters. According to existing measurements, the density changes little and thus can be used as a constant. However, the other parameters, especially the thermal conductivity and the specific heat, would change significantly. For such case, one can choose to adopt an equivalent physical property to represent the original parameter, i.e. the parameters could take into concern contributions from both frozen and unfreezing phase, such that
where,
In the solid-liquid interface, conservation of energy and continuum of temperature read as
where
where,
where, a generalized volumetric heat source has been expressed as
The typical cooling situations most encountered in a cryopreservation [8, 10] include the following cases: (a) convective cooling at all boundaries by liquid nitrogen; (b) fixed temperature cooling at all boundaries through contacting to copper plate with very low temperature; (c) fixed temperature cooling at upside and underside surface of tissues and convective cooling at side faces; (d) convective cooling at upside and underside surface of tissues and fixed temperature cooling at side faces. Usually, the boundary types as (c) and (d) were adopted to increase the cooling rate. In this section, the analytical solutions will be presented according to the above four cooling cases, respectively.
Clinically, one of the most commonly used cooling approaches is to immerse the processed tissue into liquid nitrogen and frequently shift it up and down so as to enhance the heat exchange between the tissue and the liquid. Such boundary conditions can be defined as
where,
Using transformation
To solve for the Green’s function of the above equations, the following auxiliary problem needs to be considered for the same region:
The final expression for the Green’s function of Equations (111) and (112) can be obtained as:
where,
Finally, according to the above results and expression for the heat source term in Equation (108), the analytical solution to the temperature field under totally convective cooling conditions can then be obtained as:
From the first term containing time in the above analytical solution, it can be seen that the thermal diffusivity
Clinically, direct cooling the tissues through contacting it to copper plate pre-cooled by liquid nitrogen has been proved to be more effective than cooling by convection [28]. Therefore, it is very essential to get the temperature field of the tissue under totally fixed temperature cooling boundary conditions. For this problem, the form of the control equations still remain the same, so did the solution procedures of the Green’s function method, since only the boundary conditions were slightly changed. Assuming that
Then the transient temperature field can be constructed as:
where,
In practice, demanded by certain specific cooling rate and mechanical factors, sometimes one has to apply different cooling strategies on each side of the tissue surfaces. Thus, it is essential to take into account the complex hybrid boundary conditions. For brief, we assume that the temperature of the cooling plate
Considering that expressions for the transient temperature field for the above two cases still remain similar to that of Equation (118), they have not been rewritten here for brief.
It should be pointed that there still exist many difficulties to calculate the exact temperature field from the above analytical solutions. However, the solution forms can still be flexibly applied to analyze certain special problems. As indicated in [28], in the freezing or warming process there must exist a maximum cooling or warming rate at some places of the tissue, which is varying with the time. Theoretically, this transient position can be predicted by using Equations (118) and (120) or other equations for corresponding processes. For example, one can obtain
Cryosurgery is very different from cryopreservation, since living tissue has to be considered. Consequently, it must take into account the effects of blood perfusion and metabolic heat generation into bioheat equation. Here, the Pennes equation is applied to characterize the heat transfer process in the living tissue. To avoid the complex boundary conditions, the calculation tissue domain is chosen as a whole cuboid as shown in Fig. 6, where a cryoprobe with length
Schematic of the living tissue domain subject to cryosurgery
The energy equations for the tissue before and after it was frozen are respectively as:
For the liquid phase
For the solid phase
where,
The control equations in the solid-liquid interface are the same as before. The above phase change problem can then be equivalently transformed to a heat conduction problem, i.e.
where,
where,
To simplify the problem, the cryoprobe inserted into the deep tissue is treated as a linear heat sink [29] and assumed to supply a constant cold amount
Equation (125) can be rewritten as:
where,
As shown in Fig. 6, the origin (
Substituting it into Equation (127), one obtains
where,
The boundary conditions are rewritten as:
where,
where,
The above procedures illustrate the basic strategy to exactly solve the three dimensional phase change problem of biological tissues in vivo, which involves the blood perfusion and metabolic heat etc. However, the integral equation is so complex due to moving phase change front inherited in the integral term, that calculating the equation based on the above analytical expressions is still a challenge. This requests certain development of the applied mathematics. However, a simplified form for the present solution can be utilized to analyze some specific one dimensional heat transfer problems.
From the viewpoint of heat transfer, a large blood vessel (also termed a thermally significant vessel) denotes a vessel larger than 0.5 mm in diameter [30]. Anatomically, tumors are often situated close to or embedded with large blood vessels, since a tumor’s quick growth ultimately depends on nutrients supplied by its blood vessel network. During cryosurgery, the blood flow inside a large vessel represents a source which heats the nearby frozen tissues and, thereby, limits freezing lesions during cryosurgery. Under this condition, a part of the vital tumor cells may remain in the cryolesion and lead to recurrence of tumors after cryosurgical treatment. More specifically, tumor cell survival in the vicinity of large blood vessels is often correlated with tumor recurrence after treatment [30]. Consequently, it is difficult to implement an effective cryosurgery when a tumor is contiguous to a large blood vessel. To better understand the effect of blood flow to the temperature distribution of living tissues subject to freezing, a conceptual model for characterizing the heat transfer in 3-D cylindrical tissues embedded with a single blood vessel was illustrated in this section. And a closed form analytical solution to this model was provided to explore different factors’ thermal influences to the freezing mechanism of living tissues.
The geometry used for the analysis is depicted as Fig. 7, which is consisted of three distinct concentric cylinders: the most interior region representing a large blood vessel, the intermediate for unfrozen liquid-phase tissue and the outer the frozen tissue. In Fig. 7, symmetrical condition in
Schematic of cylindrical tissues embedded with a single blood vessel [
To carry out the theoretical analysis, additional assumptions for tissues were made as follows: there is no heat flow across the boundaries at
where,
Blood flow velocity profile in the vessel can be obtained as
where,
In the above equations, subscript
and
The solution to Equation (138) is thus obtained as
Therefore
with normal as
The solution to Equation (139) can be obtained as
Then the solution to Equation (135) can be expressed as
where,
where,
Substituting Equations (146-147) into Equation (144) leads to
As to the exact temperature profile within blood vessel, if defining
Applying Equation (136) to this equation,
Further, it can be derived as
where,
Substituting Equation (152) into Equation (151) leads to
At
Using the continuity condition for heat flux on the blood vessel wall, one approximately has
The two terms in this equation can further be obtained from Equation (148) and Equation (153), respectively, which are
and
Exact calculation on
This constant
When analyzing the thermal effect of large blood vessel in cryosurgery, an important issue is when the blood vessel begins to freeze and how to control cryoprobe’s temperature to completely freeze the target tumor. Substituting Equation (158) into Equation (153), one can set up the relation for the blood vessel temperature
Up to now, the above analysis was based on a steady state assumption. And only a single blood vessel was considered for the sake of analytical solution, although it does provide certain important information for understanding the phase change heat transfer in living tissues with blood vessel. Clinically, knowledge on the transient temperature response is still very necessary for the successful operation of a cryosurgery. However, such non-steady state problem cannot be dealt with by the present method. This needs further efforts in the near future using numerical approach.
This chapter has presented an overview on several typical closed form analytical solutions to 3-D bioheat transfer problems with or without phase change as developed before in the authors’ laboratory. In these solutions, relatively complex boundary conditions and heating/cooling on skin surface or inside biological bodies were addressed. In addition, the theoretical strategies towards analytically solving the complex 3-D bioheat transfer problems were outlined by the mathematical transformation, the Green’s function method, and the moving heat source model etc.
The analytical solutions introduced in this chapter can be used to predicate the evolution of temperature distribution inside the target tissues during tumor hyperthermia, cryosurgery, cryopreservation, thermal diagnostics, thermal comfort analysis, brain hypothermia resuscitation, and burn injury evaluation. Through fitting the predicted with the experimentally measured temperatures at the skin surface, some thermal parameters of biological tissues such as blood perfusion, thermal conductivity, and heat capacity, can be estimated non-invasively. Moreover, based on the requirements for freezing/heating necrosis temperature of tissue, an approach to optimize the parameters of cryosurgical/hyperthermic treatment can be obtained using the presented analytical solutions. Therefore, the presented analytical solutions are very useful for a variety of thermal-oriented biomedical studies. However, it should be pointed out that although such analytical solutions have some versatility in dealing many bioheat transfer problems, numerical approaches are still needed for more complex situations. In fact, the relation between analytical and numerical solutions should be complementary. On one hand, numerical approach can deal with more complex problem than analytical way. On the other hand, the analytical results can serve as benchmark solutions for numerical analyses on complex situations. In summary, it is believed that even the applications with some simplified conditions do not affect the applicability of the present analytical solutions.
Part of the researches as presented in this chapter has been supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China under grants Grant Nos. 51076161 and 81071255, the Specialized Research Fund for the Doctoral Program of Higher Education, and Research Fund from Tsinghua University under Grant No. 523003001.
The booming global businesses have largely facilitated the cross-border flow of goods, but meanwhile are threatened by the dramatically increased intellectual property (IP) crimes nowadays. According to the study by Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the value of counterfeit and pirated products is amounted to USD 464 billion in 2019, equal to 2.5% of world trade and more than half of the total value is carried by containerships between countries [1, 2]. The illicit trade hits company profits and nation tax revenue and endangers public health when pharmaceuticals and medical equipment are involved. For these reasons, advanced technologies that combat fake products demand prompt development to ensure reliable flow of goods while maintain its convenience.
Anti-counterfeiting idea was early raised by Philadelphia printer Benjamin Franklin in the 1700s [3], at that time colonies in North America were troubled by the circulation of counterfeit bills. Franklin deliberately misspelled Pennsylvania in the printed bills to baffle less-literate criminals. Meanwhile, he engraved the fine detail of copper on the leaf vein at the back of each bill, making these bills hard to be reproduced by counterfeiters. The unique copper engraving created by blocky lead printer has been regarded as a prototype for contemporary anti-counterfeiting patterning technologies. Since the 1950s, the development of holograms [4, 5, 6, 7], ink printing [8, 9, 10, 11], and exquisite laser engraving [12, 13, 14] have offered practical solutions to protect the market from malicious third parties.
Halide perovskites as an emerging family of semiconductor materials have achieved notable success in photovoltaics and other optoelectronics over the past decade [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. The intriguing photophysical property of perovskites, such as widely tunable bandgaps [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26], high photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) [27, 28, 29], and narrow emission width [30, 31, 32], are making them promising candidates for fabricating luminescent security tags. Meanwhile, the solution/ink processability of perovskites imparts them feasibility with a variety of printing technologies, enabling high-throughput generation of customized labels with enhanced encoding capacity and lowered processing cost [33, 34, 35].
Here, we give a retrospect to the recent advances of halide perovskite-based materials for anti-counterfeiting applications. Low-dimensional perovskites and double perovskites that are structural analogs to three-dimensional (3D) ones as well as other perovskite-like materials are included in the discussion. We summarize the patterning techniques that can lead to precise control of tag fabrication at high dim either flat surface or closed space. The luminescent security tags of perovskites are categorized by different encryption principles, with detailed phase transformation or compositional variation of materials being provided for each chromic case. Integration of luminescent properties that gives rise to multimodal anti-counterfeiting is discussed in respect of goods being strictly confidential. We then survey the special optical readout of security tags that is enabled by the exciton relaxation behavior and carrier dynamic of perovskites.
Taking advantage of the high PLQY of halide perovskites, security information in a luminescent tag can be easily and rapidly identified by the human eye or spectrum. The excitation-dependent emission of perovskites can also be tuned from the monochromatic to broadband white light [36, 37, 38], giving an added complexity to the optical readout of tags. Combined with versatile encryption and decryption strategies, the security level of an individual tag can be enhanced multidimensionally and output in a simplified digital form [39]. The anti-counterfeiting mechanism of security tags during the flow of goods is illustrated in Figure 1, where the authentication is implemented by the communication between preloaded database and third parties.
Anti-counterfeiting mechanism of security tags during the flow of goods.
Perovskite mineral (calcium titanium oxide, CaTiO3) was discovered in the Ural Mountains by German mineralogist Gustav Rose in 1839 [40]. The crystal structure of perovskite oxide was not determined by X-ray diffraction until nearly a century later [41] and was proved to comprise three fundamental phases, i.e. cubic, tetragonal, and orthorhombic based on the rigid 3D lattice. Halide perovskites share the similar crystal structure to perovskite oxide, of which the compounds were first synthesized in the late nineteenth century by H. L. Wells [42]. Typically, 3D perovskites (defined by a chemical formula of ABX3, where A is a monovalent cation, B is a divalent cation, and X is a halide anion) have direct bandgaps that can be widely tuned by altering the composition of A- and B-site cations and halide anions [21, 24, 43, 44]. Besides, 3D perovskites normally feature low exciton binding energy (
Two-dimensional (2D) perovskites feature corner-sharing metal-halide octahedra intercalated by the bulky cations. Emission spectra of 2D perovskites can be structurally correlated with the interlayer spacing, quantum well (QW) thickness, and its distribution [45, 46]. Strong electron-photon coupling that originated from the deformable lattice was previously demonstrated for some 2D perovskite single crystals, which introduces permanent trap states [47]. The self-trapped excitons (STEs) were later revealed to be a type of transient defect driven by the electron-photon coupling and will contribute to the broadband emission of 2D perovskites [48, 49]. Further lowering the dimensionality of 2D perovskites leads to one-dimensional (1D) and zero-dimensional (0D) perovskites whose octahedra are shared by edge or face. STEs can also be responsible for the broadband emission of these materials with large Stokes shift [50, 51, 52, 53]. The white light or dual−/multiband emissions under different excitations are favorable for those luminescent tags that demand a high security level.
Double perovskites are defined by a chemical formula of A2BB’X6, where B is a monovalent cation and B′ is a trivalent cation and feature a rock salt arrangement of BX6 and B’X6 octahedra. In addition, A2B(IV)X6 compounds are also grouped as double perovskites because of their vacancy-ordered structure [54, 55]. The phase-pure double perovskites usually have room-temperature (RT) indirect bandgaps and exhibit band-to-band or downshifting emissions that can be strongly influenced by the specific metal dopants [55, 56, 57, 58, 59]. The in-depth reason was ascribed to lattice distortion since metal dopants will basically affect the length and angle of B − X − B′ bonds and hence change the electronic wave function coupling of metal cations [60].
Halide perovskites possess a high compatibility with printing techniques, since both the precursor solution and synthesized colloidal nanocrystals (NCs) can serve as inks. Using CsPbX3:Mn2+ (X = Cl, Br, I) NCs inks, Wang et al. [34] previously reported the fabrication of various patterns by screen, inkjet, and roll-to-roll printing techniques on flexible substrate (e.g. paper, polyethylene terephthalate, and banknotes). The patterns showed fluorescence as response to 254-nm and 365-nm ultraviolet (UV) light, and the CsPbBr3:Mn2+-based on maintained bright fluorescence after continuous UV irradiation for 60 days. Shi et al. [61] demonstrated an
Nanoscale 3D printing technique was recently reported to fabricate perovskite nanopixels with programmed vertical height, location, and emission characteristics [35], which overcomes the low-resolution problem of conventional printing techniques. The authors of this study used femtoliter meniscus to guide the out-of-plane growth of MAPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) crystals from precursor solution, enabling ultrahigh integration density of red, green, and blue (RGB) nanopixel arrays with spacing of ~5 μm while maintaining its lateral resolution (Figure 2a). Numbers can be encoded for each discrete height of nanopixels and thus adds an additional level for encryption. Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) printing as another advanced printing technique was also reported to fabricate high-resolution CsPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) dot arrays with full-color display (Figure 2b) [62]. The size of a single dot was precisely controlled by the frequency and peak values of pulse voltage for precursor solution, and a minimum size of 5 μm can be achieved.
(a) Schematic illustration of 3D printing of perovskite nanopixels. (b) Schematic illustration of EHD printing technique for perovskite patterning. (c) Representative laser processing system for perovskite patterning. Reprinted with permission from ref. [
Laser beam was previously used to trigger the ultrafast crystallization of perovskite for both patterning and photovoltaic applications [64]. Figure 2c shows a typical laser processing system for perovskite patterning. Without any heat treatment, Zhang et al. [63] demonstrated the fabrication of CsPbBr3/CsPb2Br5-polymer nanocomposites fluorescent pattern by 532-nm femtosecond laser irradiation. Localized crystallization of perovskite was observed in the irradiated pathway, which was accompanied by the laser-induced polymerization of γ-butyrolactone solvent. The width of perovskite line was lowered down to 1.2 μm, and both the crystal quality and luminescent intensity can be fine-tuned by the power and moving speed of laser beam. In addition, laser engraving was introduced to directly create patterns on CsPbBr3 microplates [65]. The hidden security information provides a guidance for encryption on a miniaturized pattern.
Most recently, Sun et al. [66] reported the use of 3D lithography technique to fabricated separated CsPbX3 (X = Cl, Br, I) NCs in glass matrix. The strong thermal accumulation at the laser-irradiated region of borophosphate glass leads to local pressure and temperature above the liquidus of materials, which induces liquid nanophase separation of glass and perovskite. By tailoring the parameters of pulse duration, repetition rate, pulse energy, and irradiation time, the emission color of pattern was tuned from blue to red under 405-nm excitation. Perovskite NCs in glass matrix exhibited notable phase stability against long-term UV irradiation, organic solution, and high temperature. The patterns were used for both 3D multicolor and dynamic holographic displays, showing huge potential for stereoscopic optical storage and authentication. Accordingly, we provide an overall assessment of existing printing and laser processing techniques for perovskite security tags in Table 1.
Approach | Technique | Dimensionality | Advantage | Disadvantage |
---|---|---|---|---|
Printing | Handwriting [67] | 2D | Easy fabrication, low processing cost | Low-resolution display |
Screen, inkjet, and roll-to-roll printing [34, 61] | 2D | High-throughput fabrication, large-area display | Only available for liquid precursors | |
Electrohydrodynamic printing [62] | 2D | High-resolution display | Conductive substrate required | |
Meniscus-guided printing [35] | 3D | Multidimensional display | Delicate mechanical control of pipet | |
Laser processing | Laser annealing [63, 64] | 2D | Ultrafast fabrication, high-resolution display | Heavy crystallization impact from laser beam |
Laser engraving [33, 65] | 2D | High-resolution display | Flat pattern required | |
Lithography [66] | 3D | Holographic display, high encoding capacity | High-energy laser source required, sophisticated optical paths and machines |
Technical assessment of patterning methods.
With the assistance of advanced patterning techniques, the intriguing luminescent properties found on perovskites can be transformed into security information for encryption and decryption of tags. Normally, these tags are invisible under visible light but can emit light under UV, visible, or near-infrared (NIR) excitations. In this section, we provide an overview of encryption principle of perovskite security tags, including pattern, thermochromism, solvatochromism, photochromism, and multimodal luminescence. Other optical readout, such as long-lived emission (afterglow) phenomenon and carrier lifetime gating, are discussed as special encryption methods for delicate authentication of goods. Figure 3 shows the representative cases of encryption principles being reported over the past few years.
Timeline of pioneering works with new encryption principles being reported for perovskite security tags.
Shape design of a pattern is a fundamental approach to encode the security data relative to the complexity of contours. Printing or laser processing techniques have been developed to create customized pattern shapes whose resolution now reach a few micropixels or below. Lin et al. [33] raised the concept of clonable shape, while unclonable texture for anti-counterfeiting tags is based on CsPbBr3 patterns. A large amount of patterns that grown on laser-engraved lyophilic 1
The vertical height of a single perovskite pixel can be also encoded as specific numbers [35], which is regarded as a complementary encryption strategy to lateral shape design of a pattern (Figure 4a and b). 3D confocal PL imaging was applied to recognize the height variation of perovskite pixels with the height interval of 5 μm. The height values were further converted into binary information matrix for digitalized decryption. As we have mentioned in Section 2.2, the pattern design at three dimensionalities enabled by 3D lithography technique allows more complex encryption on a security tag (Figure 4c–e) [66]. Random 3D luminescent patterns can therefore be spatially and temporally identified, offering an innovative platform for smart authentication of goods.
(a) Tilt-view SEM image of as-printed perovskite nanopixel arrays. (b) Multicolor display of perovskite nanopixel arrays with different halide components under UV light. (c) Multicolor pattern with CsPbClxBr3 − x nanophases in glass under UV light. (d) 3D microhelix arrays of CsPbClxBr3 − x under UV light. (e) Dynamic holographic display of as-patterned “ZJUUSST” characters under 532-nm light. Reprinted with permission from ref. [
Halide perovskites, especially organic–inorganic hybrid ones, feature considerably large thermal expansion coefficients [68, 69]. The thermochromic property of perovskites was first observed in thin film due to the phase transition between transparent hydrated phase (MA4PbI6·2H2O) and dark perovskite phase (MAPbI3) [70]. This phenomenon can be reversible by exposing perovskite film to ambient moisture at RT or heating condition at 60°C repeatably and was explored as the switchable photovoltaic performance for perovskite solar cells. The discoloration mechanism was recently developed for smart window applications based on hydrated MAPbClxI3 − x [71]. Similarly, Lin et al. [72] demonstrated the reversible thermochromic property of CsPbBrxI3 − x film coupled with dynamic transition of RT non-perovskite phase and high-temperature perovskite phase, which is also switched by the moisture and thermal annealing.
Above cases show the thermochromic phenomena of perovskites in the presence of moisture but may not be applicable to anti-counterfeiting tags that are fully encapsulated. Taking advantage of the inverse temperature crystallization (ITC) of hybrid perovskites, Bastiani et al. [73] reported the chromatic inks with wide color variation that depend on the halide constituent of perovskite precipitate. The RT yellow inks turned to orange, red, and black when temperature reached 60°C, 90°C, and 120°C, corresponding to the extrapolated absorption edges of MAPbBr2.7I0.3 at 597 nm, MAPbBr2.4I0.6 at 615 nm, and MAPbBr1.8I1.2 at 651 nm, respectively. The thermochromic behavior of perovskite inks showed consecutive cycling between RT and 60°C for several times.
The reversible thermochromic phenomena was also observed in diphasic perovskite material (CsPbBr3/Cs4PbBr6) wrapped by silica nanosphere [74]. The strong RT PL emission (at 525 nm) of composited patterns gradually decreased when temperature was elevated and almost disappeared at 150°C. Temperature-dependent PL spectra revealed the relatively low activation energy (
Solvatochromism refers to chromic behavior of materials as response to water or other organic solvents. As we mentioned in Section 2.3.2, hybrid perovskites feature hydrochromism due to the formation of hydrated or non-perovskite phases in moisture atmosphere [70, 72]. Reversibly decomposition-induced hydrochromism was recently reported for CsPbBr3 NCs confined in mesoporous silica nanospheres (MSNs) [78]. Orthorhombic CsPbBr3 will decompose into nonluminescent tetragonal CsPb2Br5 and CsBr in the presence of water, and the dissolved CsBr component can be confined in MSNs. As a result, the green emission pattern turned to dark in moisture condition and recovered when water was removed (Figure 5a). Similar hydrochromic mechanism was also reported for CsPbBr3/Cs4PbBr6 nanocomposites, which maintained about half of its initial PL intensity after 10 wetting-drying cycles [80]. Cs3Cu2I5 as lead-free perovskite-like material was recently exploited for hydrochromism-based encryption and decryption of security tags [81, 82, 83]. Water functions as a switch of phase transition between blue emission Cs3Cu2I5 and yellow emission CsCu2I3 under UV excitation. Combined with water-resistant polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) coating layer, moreover, the microarray patterns can be tailored for dual-color emission toward various shapes and characters in moisture atmosphere [82].
(a) Reversible hydrochromism of CsPbBr3 pattern under 365-nm UV light and the corresponding phase transformation. (b) Reversible DMF-induced solvatochromism of InCl6(C4H10SN)4·Cl:Sb3+ pattern under 365-nm UV light and the corresponding phase transformation. Reprinted with permission from refs. [
Besides water, methanol (MeOH) was previously demonstrated capable to trigger the solvatochromism of MAPbBr3 NCs that are converted from lead-based metal–organic framework (MOF) [84]. The authors of this study found that MeOH impregnation can remove the organic perovskite species while leave lead ions in MOF matrix. The green emission of pattern under UV excitation therefore quickly quenched after impregnation but can be recovered by loading MABr solution (10 mg mL−1 in
Solvatochromism can also be induced by new phase formation where solvent molecules are incorporated into perovskite lattice [79]. The 0D InCl6(C4H10SN)4·Cl:Sb3+ showed red-shifted emission peak from 550 nm to 580 nm and 600 nm when being exposed to ethanol (EtOH) and
Photochromic property has been found in a variety of organics and organic–metal complexes in the case of light-mediated configuration change of molecules [87]. By anchoring the diarylethene (DAE) derivative onto CsPbBr3 QDs surface, Mokhtar et al. [88] observed the reversible photoswitchable luminescence of QDs-DAE hybrids. The open-ring isomer of DAE underwent cyclization under UV light and quickly turned off the green emission of printed pattern, while the green emission can be switched on again by exposing the pattern to visible light for DAE cycloreversion (Figure 6a). Similar photochromic behavior was reported for DAE derivative whose triethoxysilane (TEOS) moiety is altered by alkyl amine [90]. Following this strategy, a majority of photochromic molecules may be introduced as the surfactant to achieve the photochromism of perovskite QDs/NCs.
(a) Photoswitchable cyclization and cycloreversion of DAE surfactant and the resultant photochromism of pattern based on CsPbBr3-DAE hybrids. (b) UV irradiation-induced reversible halide exchange at CsPbCl1.5Br1.5/MYE interface and the photochromism of QR code patterned by CsPbCl1.5Br1.5/MYE composites. Reprinted with permission from refs. [
Photochromism also occurs under the circumstance of photoinduced compositional variation of perovskites. The emission color of CsPbCl1.5Br1.5 NCs that confined in macroporous Y2O3:Eu3+ (MYE) changed from red to green under continuous UV irradiation, which was explained by the halide migration between perovskite NCs and MYE matrix [89]. The small
The bandgap of perovskites is structurally dependent on the QW thickness; in this view, photochromism can be achieved in dimensionality-mixed perovskites whose QW thickness and distribution are self-adapted to light stimulus. The emission behavior of layered FAn + 2PbnBr3n + 2 (FA = formamidinium) was recently studied with respect to its structural transformation under light irradiation [92]. The authors of this study demonstrated the UV damage to perovskite that can convert wide-bandgap 2D phase to narrow-bandgap 3D phase. Accordingly, perovskite film showed emission color changed from blue to green as response to the elongated irradiation time. The metastable 2D phase can meanwhile be transformed back by dark storage, showing reversible photochromism that is applicable for anti-counterfeiting patterns.
Unlike unidirectional authentication methods, multimodal luminescence of perovskites allows the encryption and decryption to be conducted through multiple excited sources. Xu et al. [74] first demonstrated the triple-modal anti-counterfeiting of CsPbBr3@Cs4PbBr6/SiO2 composites in 2017, since the as-patterned codes showed reversible and switchable luminescence to heating, UV, and NIR irradiation. In addition, the dual-color emission of green and red of MAPbBr3@Eu-MOF composites was reported under 365-nm and 254-nm UV lamp [93], respectively, where the red emission under 254-nm excitation primarily comes from the photon upconversion (UC) of Eu-MOF species (Figure 7a and b). Solvatochromism was also observed for the composites, and the written pattern on paper showed reversible green emission via water and MABr treatment. Notably, the UC luminescent component of perovskites can be further tuned by rational doping of lanthanides [94].
(a) The dependence of PL spectra of MAPbBr3@Eu-MOF composites on the UV excitation wavelength. (b) Hydrochromism of “USTB” characters based on MAPbBr3@Eu-MOF composites and the MABr-induced recovery under 254-nm and 365-nm UV light. (c) Photographs of Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4InCl6:Yb3+/Er3+/Bi3+ (RE-1) under different excitations. (d) XEL, DS-PL, and UC-PL spectra of RE-1. (e) Photographs of RE-1 pattern under visible and 365 nm UV light. Reprinted with permission from refs. [
Overcoming the limited response range of conventional perovskite materials, the excitation source of Yb3+/Er3+/Bi3+ co-doped Cs2Ag0.6Na0.4InCl6 double perovskite was reported to be extended to X-ray, as a complementary to UV and NIR [58]. Bi3+ ions were demonstrated to reduce the structural disorder, promote the exciton localization, and lead to strong Jahn-Teller effect that would benefit both UC and X-ray excited luminescence (XEL) (Figure 7c and d). The as-synthesized double-perovskite single crystals were ground and dispersed in organic solvent for ink printing, and the patterns showed exceptional luminescent stability in thermal heating (up to 400°C), moisture, and high-dosage radiation conditions (Figure 7e). The combination of X-ray excited luminescence (XEL), downshifting (DS), UC luminescence, and other routine encryption methods enhance the confidential level of tags considerably, which offers a reliable solution for customized authentication of high-value products.
Some special optical readout of perovskites can be transformed into security information for anti-counterfeiting applications. Here, we exemplify the encryption principles of patterns based on afterglow phenomenon and carrier lifetime gating. The RT afterglow of perovskites was first reported for 2D PEA2PbCl4 (PEA = phenylethylammonium) perovskite doped with 1,8-naphthalimide (NI) spacers [95]. The as-printed pattern on paper showed UV-excited white emission in nitrogen atmosphere that comprises blue fluorescence from perovskite and yellow phosphorescence from NI organic cations. After UV light off, however, the blue fluorescence (PLQY: 25.6%) quenched quickly, while the yellow phosphorescence (PLQY: 56.1%) can maintain for a few seconds. This property caused the yellow afterglow of pattern that can be identified by both spectrum and human eye. Wei et al. [96] recently found the RT greenish afterglow of 0D BAPPIn1.996Sb0.004Cl10 (BAPP = C10H28N4) perovskite-like material after UV light off, where the relaxation of excitons from BAPP organic cations were demonstrated to be responsible for the afterglow (Figure 8a–d). For CsPbBr3 NCs doped by lanthanide ions (Ln3+), the persistent time of afterglow is even up to 1800 s [98]. In addition, X-ray-induced afterglow was also reported for 0D Cs4EuX6 (X = Br, I) perovskite single crystals, despite the case did not involve anti-counterfeiting applications [99].
(a) Molecular configuration of BAPP4+ cation and crystal structure of BAPPIn2Cl10. (b–d) Photographs of BAPPIn1.996Sb0.004Cl10 pattern under visible light, 365-nm UV light, and 365-nm UV light off (afterglow), respectively. (e) FLIM image and (f) time-correlated single-photon counting fluorescence lifetime imaging (TCSPC-FLI) image of tag patterned by CsPbBr3 and {en}FAPbBr3 NCs inks. (g) Fast-lifetime histograms of as-patterned inks and (h) binarization of lifetime for QR code generation. Reprinted with permission from refs. [
The carrier lifetime of perovskites is influenced by a variety of factors, among which the composition of perovskite can be the deterministic one. The EHD-printed security tags were reported to be encrypted based on the different carrier lifetime of CsPbBr3 and hollowed {en}FAPbBr3 NCs, which can then be decrypted by either fluorescence-lifetime imaging microscopy (FLIM) or time-of-flight fluorescence-lifetime imaging (ToF-FLI) (Figure 8e–h) [97]. These two imaging techniques enabled machine-readable lifetime of QR code that cannot be readily decoded by routine methods. Moreover, the system is highly reconfigurable due to the compositional versatility of perovskite NCs. The enhancement and Purcell factors of CsPbClxBr3 − x QDs that coupled to plasmonic silver cavity were also extracted for the encryption of QR code, where the factors are defined by the relationship among excitation efficiency, light extraction efficiency, quantum efficiency, and radiative rate [100].
We hereby briefly discuss the current challenges encountered by perovskite fluorescent tags prior to their real-world applications, including the potential overuse of toxic lead, the poor durability, and many clonable functions that can be easily reproduced by counterfeiters. Possible solutions are also provided with respect to each challenging case.
Lead’s toxicity has been widely recognized due to its damage to the nervous system of biological individuals. Therefore, lead-based wastes are now under strict control in many developed countries. Despite perovskite security tags made by lead compounds feature many intriguing fluorescent properties, they can be highly risky when adhere to daily goods and cause potential lead leakage. Alternatively, more environmental-friendly perovskites (e.g. tin-, antimony-, bismuth-, and copper-based) can be developed to replace lead-based ones while maintaining the bright luminescence and high processability of tags [55, 57, 58, 79, 82, 83, 96].
The phase stability of halide perovskites, especially 3D ones, can be susceptible to environmental perturbations and hence fail to work during long term or repeated authentication. Lowering down the dimensionality of perovskites as well as composite strategies enable more robust perovskite phase, yet the stability of fluorescent tags can hardly rival the simple-patterned tags (e.g. QR code). Advanced sealing techniques alleviate this problem by isolating perovskites from environment; however, they are limit for those tags that need direct exposure to atmosphere, chemicals, or solvents. Inert matrix has been demonstrated to enhance the durability of both common and special perovskite fluorescent tags. Beside glass, silica, and polymers [66, 82, 101], other durable matrix materials remain to be exploited.
Single-mode perovskite fluorescent tags work as response to certain stimulus, making their functions clonable by commercial phosphors or other functionalized luminescent materials. A safer communication between users and server database requires physically unclonable functions (PUFs) that generated by irregular encryption and decryption methods. In this view, multimodal anti-counterfeiting that combines two or more encoding and decoding pathways (see Section 2.3) is prompt to be developed for highly confidential security tags. In addition, authentication based on the digital readout of sophisticated machines can also fulfill the demands of PUFs [97, 100].
Increasingly rich encryption principles have been exploited for halide perovskite-based security tags owning to their intriguing luminescent properties as response to a wide range of stimuli. Apart from the existing cases, the mechanochromism upon mechanical stress as well as the magnetochromism under altered magnetic field can be studied for perovskites with the aim of further enriching the diversity of authentication methods [102, 103]. Perovskite memristors as a new rising technology was also demonstrated to deliver switching electronic signals relative to the charged defects and halide motions inside the materials, providing an additional solution toward the design of PUF system [104]. All these unique optical and digital readout may overcome the limit of conventional clonable tags such as QR codes, watermarks, and raised print.
Future development of perovskite security tags is supposed to follow the taxonomy of predominant PUFs, including high encoding capacity, tunable security level, logically/physically reconfigurable functions, and switchable access between private and public. Based on the rational screening strategy of perovskite materials, micro- and nanoscale patterning techniques allow these functions to be multidimensionally integrated in a minimized tag, making security information more robust against third parties. Halide perovskites are bound to play a more important role in anti-counterfeiting arena and contribute to future smart flow of goods in a more fair and orderly global market.
YH thanks the support by National Ten Thousand Talent Program for Young Topnotch Talent.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"56460",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69501",title:"Application of Taguchi-Based Design of Experiments for Industrial Chemical Processes",slug:"application-of-taguchi-based-design-of-experiments-for-industrial-chemical-processes",totalDownloads:3223,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:54,abstract:"Design of experiment is the method, which is used at a very large scale to study the experimentations of industrial processes. It is a statically approach where we develop the mathematical models through experimental trial runs to predict the possible output on the basis of the given input data or parameters. The aim of this chapter is to stimulate the engineering community to apply Taguchi technique to experimentation, the design of experiments, and to tackle quality problems in industrial chemical processes that they deal with. Based on years of research and applications, Dr. G. Taguchi has standardized the methods for each of these DOE application steps. Thus, DOE using Taguchi approach has become a much more attractive tool to practicing engineers and scientists. And since the last four decades, there were limitations when conventional experimental design techniques were applied to industrial experimentation. And Taguchi, also known as orthogonal array design, adds a new dimension to conventional experimental design. Taguchi method is a broadly accepted method of DOE, which has proven in producing high-quality products at subsequently low cost.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Rahul Davis and Pretesh John",authors:[{id:"199438",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",middleName:null,surname:"Davis",slug:"rahul-davis",fullName:"Rahul Davis"}]},{id:"14634",doi:"10.5772/15998",title:"The Application of FT-IR Spectroscopy in Waste Management",slug:"the-application-of-ft-ir-spectroscopy-in-waste-management",totalDownloads:6651,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"1574",slug:"fourier-transforms-new-analytical-approaches-and-ftir-strategies",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - New Analytical Approaches and FTIR Strategies"},signatures:"Ena Smidt, Katharina Böhm and Manfred Schwanninger",authors:[{id:"20376",title:"Dr.",name:"Katharina",middleName:null,surname:"Böhm",slug:"katharina-bohm",fullName:"Katharina Böhm"},{id:"22840",title:"Dr.",name:"Ena",middleName:null,surname:"Smidt",slug:"ena-smidt",fullName:"Ena Smidt"},{id:"22915",title:"Dr.",name:"Manfred",middleName:null,surname:"Schwanninger",slug:"manfred-schwanninger",fullName:"Manfred Schwanninger"}]},{id:"15157",doi:"10.5772/15959",title:"Fourier Transform Mass Spectrometry for the Molecular Level Characterization of Natural Organic Matter: Instrument Capabilities, Applications, and Limitations",slug:"fourier-transform-mass-spectrometry-for-the-molecular-level-characterization-of-natural-organic-matt",totalDownloads:4347,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:34,abstract:null,book:{id:"122",slug:"fourier-transforms-approach-to-scientific-principles",title:"Fourier Transforms",fullTitle:"Fourier Transforms - Approach to Scientific Principles"},signatures:"Rachel L. 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In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59209",title:"Utilization of Response Surface Methodology in Optimization of Extraction of Plant Materials",slug:"utilization-of-response-surface-methodology-in-optimization-of-extraction-of-plant-materials",totalDownloads:5477,totalCrossrefCites:66,totalDimensionsCites:100,abstract:"Experimental design plays an important role in several areas of science and industry. Experimentation is an application of treatments applied to experimental units and is then part of a scientific method based on the measurement of one or more responses. It is necessary to observe the process and the operation of the system well. For this reason, in order to obtain a final result, an experimenter must plan and design experiments and analyzes the results. One of the most commonly used experimental designs for optimization is the response surface methodology (RSM). Because it allows evaluating the effects of multiple factors and their interactions on one or more response variables it is a useful method. In this section, recent studies have been compiled which aim to extraction of plant material in high yield and quality and determine optimum conditions for this extraction process.",book:{id:"5856",slug:"statistical-approaches-with-emphasis-on-design-of-experiments-applied-to-chemical-processes",title:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes",fullTitle:"Statistical Approaches With Emphasis on Design of Experiments Applied to Chemical Processes"},signatures:"Alev Yüksel Aydar",authors:[{id:"218870",title:"Dr.",name:"Alev Yüksel",middleName:null,surname:"Aydar",slug:"alev-yuksel-aydar",fullName:"Alev Yüksel Aydar"}]},{id:"74096",title:"Time Frequency Analysis of Wavelet and Fourier Transform",slug:"time-frequency-analysis-of-wavelet-and-fourier-transform",totalDownloads:1291,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Signal processing has long been dominated by the Fourier transform. However, there is an alternate transform that has gained popularity recently and that is the wavelet transform. The wavelet transform has a long history starting in 1910 when Alfred Haar created it as an alternative to the Fourier transform. In 1940 Norman Ricker created the first continuous wavelet and proposed the term wavelet. Work in the field has proceeded in fits and starts across many different disciplines, until the 1990’s when the discrete wavelet transform was developed by Ingrid Daubechies. 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In all cases, cyclical ups and downs depend not only on internal system cyclical processes and their factors in countries but also on the consequences of intercountry interaction. The ability to measure and predict business cycles, taking into account their mutual influence, is a prerequisite for the development of an adequate business policy of countries and their associations.",book:{id:"6703",slug:"statistics-growing-data-sets-and-growing-demand-for-statistics",title:"Statistics",fullTitle:"Statistics - Growing Data Sets and Growing Demand for Statistics"},signatures:"Elena Zarova",authors:null},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6882,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1719,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. This strategy enables to formulate new ideas for both development of nonconventional measures for vibration damping and employment of SR in branches, where it represents an operating mode of the system itself. Weaknesses and empty areas where the research effort of SR should be oriented are indicated.",book:{id:"6128",slug:"resonance",title:"Resonance",fullTitle:"Resonance"},signatures:"Jiří Náprstek and Cyril Fischer",authors:[{id:"207472",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiri",middleName:null,surname:"Naprstek",slug:"jiri-naprstek",fullName:"Jiri Naprstek"},{id:"213311",title:"Dr.",name:"Cyril",middleName:null,surname:"Fischer",slug:"cyril-fischer",fullName:"Cyril Fischer"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"15",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83034",title:"Optimal N-of-1 Clinical Trials for Individualized Patient Care and Aggregated N-of-1 Designs",slug:"optimal-n-of-1-clinical-trials-for-individualized-patient-care-and-aggregated-n-of-1-designs",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106352",abstract:"Precision medicine typically refers to the use of genomic signatures of patients to assign more effective therapies to treat patients, or, for improved diagnosis of the early onset of a disease so that interventions can be delivered to prevent or delay the disease progression. Because the aim is to provide individualized patient treatment, such single-person trials are called N-of-1 trials. This chapter reviews fundamental ideas, models, and construction of optimal designs for N-of-1 trials, which are invariably constructed from crossover trials, where each patient receives a random sequence of trial treatments over time. We construct examples of universally optimal N-of-1 designs for comparing two treatments under various correlation structure assumptions and discuss how N-of-1 trials may be combined to form optimal aggregated N-of-1 trials for assessing average treatment effects for two or more treatments.",book:{id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg"},signatures:"Yin Li, Weng Kee Wong and Keumhee Chough Carriere"},{id:"83029",title:"Quasi Conformally Flat Quasi Einstein-Weyl Manifolds",slug:"quasi-conformally-flat-quasi-einstein-weyl-manifolds",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105683",abstract:"The aim of this work is to study on quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifolds. In this book chapter, firstly, an interesting relationship between complementary vector field and generator of the quasi Einstein-Weyl manifold is obtained and supported by an example. Then, it is investigated that quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifolds are of quasi constant curvature, recurrent and semi-symmetric under which conditions after obtaining the expression of the curvature tensor of the quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifold. Furthermore, some equivalences are obtained between to be of quasi constant curvature and to be semi-symmetric in quasi conformally flat quasi Einstein-Weyl manifolds.",book:{id:"11502",title:"Manifolds - Recent Developments and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11502.jpg"},signatures:"Fusun Nurcan"},{id:"82970",title:"Probability to be Involved in a Road Accident: Transport User Socioeconomic Approach",slug:"probability-to-be-involved-in-a-road-accident-transport-user-socioeconomic-approach",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106325",abstract:"Road education is one of the most relevant issues focused to reduce traffic accidents, so it is important to analyze the driver’s behavior on the roads. International research has found evidence for a relationship between socioeconomic characteristics and traffic accidents. In this sense, the chapter shows a methodology to estimate the probability to be involved in a road accident, considering the road education and the socioeconomic characteristics of the population of a specific region, taking the Santiago de Querétaro city (in México) as a study case. Through a logit model estimation and a survey applied to pedestrian, cyclist, motorcyclist, car driver, and freight driver allow us to determine which socioeconomic variables and road education are significant to determine the probability of being involved in a road accident.",book:{id:"12021",title:"Applied Probability Theory - New Perspectives, Recent Advances and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12021.jpg"},signatures:"Saúl Antonio, Obregón Biosca, José Luis Reyes Araiza and Miguel Angel Pérez Lara y Hernández"},{id:"82947",title:"Some Tauberian Theorems under Triple Statistically Nörlund-Cesáro Summability Method",slug:"some-tauberian-theorems-under-triple-statistically-n-rlund-ces-ro-summability-method",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106141",abstract:"In this paper, we extend the notion presented by Braha (2020) in a higher dimension, we introduce the notion of Np,qn,m,gCn,m,g1,1,1-statistically convergence and show necessity and sufficiency conditions under which the existence of the limit st-limn,m,g→∞xn,m,g=L follows from that st-limn,m,g→∞Np,qn,m,gCn,m,g1,1,1=L. These conditions are one-sided or two-sided if xn,m,g is a sequence of real or complex numbers, respectively.",book:{id:"11503",title:"Functional Calculus - Recent Advances and Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11503.jpg"},signatures:"Carlos Granados"},{id:"82847",title:"A Chaos Auto-Associative Model with Chebyshev Activation Function",slug:"a-chaos-auto-associative-model-with-chebyshev-activation-function",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106147",abstract:"In this work, we shall put forward a novel chaos memory retrieval model with a Chebyshev-type activation function as an artificial chaos neuron. According to certain numerical analyses of the present association model with autocorrelation connection matrix between neurons, the dependence of memory retrieval properties on the initial Hamming distance between the input pattern and a target pattern to be retrieved among the embedded patterns will be presented to examine the retrieval abilities, i.e. the memory capacity of the associative memory.",book:{id:"12019",title:"Chaos Theory - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12019.jpg"},signatures:"Masahiro Nakagawa"},{id:"82826",title:"A Brief Look at the Calderón and Hilbert Operators",slug:"a-brief-look-at-the-calder-n-and-hilbert-operators",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106027",abstract:"The Calderón operator is the sum of the Hardy averaging operator and its adjoint, and plays an important role in the theory of real interpolation. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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