\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
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\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Generally, Japanese people prefer short and sticky rice, while Indians prefer aromatic basmati rice which elongates when cooked. Indian basmati rice and Thai jasmine rice are highly priced due to their distinctive aroma when cooked and some European countries have led consumers to prefer better quality rice. Due to consumer’s demand for better rice quality, rice breeders are striving to develop rice varieties with improved qualities that meet local demand. Basmati varieties has superior quality traits
Superfine slender grains, fine cooking quality, pleasant aroma, and lengthwise elongation during cooking and fetched with premium price in the local and global market [3]. The physicochemical and cooking characteristics are the good indicators of grain quality [4, 5]. Most of the consumers prefer rice with soft to medium gel consistency, intermediate amylose content and gelatinization temperature.
Kernel elongation after cooking is an important character of fine rice and most of the rice consumers prefer length-wise elongation. Rice kernels absorb water during cooking and increase in length through swelling of kernels. Breadth-wise increase is not desirable, whereas length-wise increase without increase in girth or a crack on the kernel is a desirable characteristic of high quality rice. In northeast India, cultivated varieties having high kernel elongation might also have originated from this region. The elongation genes might have moved towards both eastern and western parts from the periphery of the centre of origin. Some varieties showed marked elongation in eastern countries such as Burma and Thailand. However varieties in western region with Punjab showed good kernel elongation.
Cooked kernel elongation can be measured by three ways
Where, LF – kernel length after cooking, BF – kernel breadth after cooking, L0 – kernel length before cooking, BF – kernel breadth before cooking. Grain elongation ratio is a better index of cooking quality than grain elongation index (A) or proportionate change [7].
Where, L2 – cooked kernel length, W2 – cooked kernel breadth, L1 - milled rice length, W2 - milled rice breadth.
Grain elongation index is a more reliable estimate of kernel elongation during cooking [8].
Grain elongation index values were less precise and less sensitive than elongation ratio. It needs the additional measurement of grain width, use of kernel L/B ratio instead of length offered no advantage of sensitivity since, grain expanded both length and width wise during cooking [9, 10].
Ten selected grains were soaked in distilled water for 30 min which were then placed between two pieces of wet filter paper in a petri dish filled with an appropriate amount of water. The dish was then placed in a covered container and the grains were cooked by steaming over boiling water for 10 min and simmering for 10 min (with power off). The cooked rice grain was transferred onto a piece of dry filter paper at the bottom of a fresh petri dish, which was placed in a desiccator with a constant temperature (19°C). Then the CRL was measured [11].
Ten randomly chosen intact polished grains were boiled in a water bath for 7 min after soaking in 7.5 ml of distilled water for 20 min. The cooked rice grains were then placed on absorbent paper for 15 min, and the boiled grain length (BGL, mm) and width (BGW, mm) were measured using the same scanner. The treatments were repeated twice, and the average grain length and width before and after cooking were calculated for estimation of elongation index.
The length of 10 whole rice kernels after cooking was measured by using the micro-scale, and the average kernel length determined. Kernel elongation ratio was calculated by dividing the average length of cooked kernel by the average length of the raw (uncooked) rice.
An inter-laboratory collaborative test was conducted for measurement of grain elongation of milled rice during cooking in 19 laboratories in 16 countries. Details of individual laboratory methods for measurement of grain elongation given below [9].
Collaborator | Methods |
---|---|
2 | 10–20 grains soaked for 30 min in 20 ml water in 25 × 100 mm test tubes and tubes placed directly in 100°C bath for 15 min |
4 | Aggregate length and width of 20 raw and cooked grains measured in graduated grooved board. Rice (2 g) placed in boiling water bath without pre-soaking and cooled until centre becomes translucent, determined by sampling every minute from 10 min onwards |
6 | Fifty grains (not presoaked) boiled for 15 min and sampled at 2 min intervals until 90% of the grains had translucent centers, after which 10grains are measured |
7 | Rice grains (2 g) boiled for 22 min without presoaking. |
8 | Milled rice (7 g) is washed, soaked for 30 min and a duplicate 7 g sample soaked for 60 min in 12·6 g (1·8 volumes) water in aluminum pudding cup and cooked in a rice cooker with water (200 ml) for 32 min (at least 20 min at >99°C). Cooked rice is allowed to stand 15 min before measuring 10grains in the middle layer with caliper gauge |
11 | No presoaking. Grains measured directly with microscope fitted with an eyepiece graticule |
14 | 15 min cooking time in boiling water |
15 | Aggregate length and width of 10 random raw and cooked grains measured |
16 | 28 min heating of rice (10 g) in water (50 ml) in 250 ml beaker using hot plate |
Although the mechanism of kernel elongation of rice is not clear. Water uptake might be the only trait showed positive and significant influence on kernel elongation. The anatomical study of the endosperm of elongating and non elongating varieties showed variation in the shape and arrangement of cells. Elongation pattern might be influenced by either size and arrangement of cells in endosperm or structural arrangement of starch molecules within cells and in non elongating rice, long belt of radially arranged cells might restrict linear expansion of cells while cells in the intermittent region may tend to expand towards the periphery leads to breadthwise elongation [12]. Aging also influences the kernel elongation [13].
Both genetic and environment factors influence the kernel elongation. The ambient temperature of about 25°C during day time and 21°C during night at the time of ripening is a favourable condition for maximum elongation [14]. Pre-soaking before cooking also play major role in kernel elongation [15].
Grain width and length, endosperm cell size and starch granule structure and arrangement are influenced the cooked kernel elongation. No specific mechanism to determine kernel elongation, but it might be due to physical and chemical phenomenon occurred after cooking [16].
Soaking of grains upto 30 min increases kernel elongation during cooking and leads to grain cracking. Elongating and non-elongating rices showed no difference in the composition of endosperm cell walls.
In basmati rice, equidistant pentagonal or hexagonal cells arranged in honeycomb fashion in the elongating variety and in breadth wise swelling types, long, rectangular and arranged radially in columns extending from the centre to the periphery. Microscopic examination of endosperm sections of the experimental materials revealed differences between elongating and non elongating groups of rice in respect of shape and arrangement of cells as represented by Sood et al. in Figure 1
Anatomical study of elongating and non elongating rice kernels. (1, 2) Transverse sections of elongating and non elongating types (3, 4) Longitudinal sections of elongating and non elongating types. Source: Sood
Internal kernel cracks were higher in aged rice kernels than the non-aged rice kernels in three popular Malaysian rice cultivars (Mahsuri, Mahsuri Mutant and Puteri). The number of cracks in kernel during cooking increased at higher temperature (110°C) compared to lower temperature (90°C). Kernel aging and temperature positively associated with internal physical structure of the rice kernel. From the above study, it is concluded that ageing and internal kernel cracks might influence the cooked kernel elongation [17].
Kernel lengthwise increase without increase in girth is a desirable characteristic in high quality premium rice. Bao
Inheritance pattern of cooked kernel elongation ratio is controlled by single gene and influenced by some modifiers [13]. Kernel elongation governed by additive [19] or non-additive [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28] or both additive and non additive gene action [29]. Hence genetics of kernel elongation has not been elucidated due to its complex nature and inconsistent pattern [30].
Elongation ratio and elongation index are highly heritable [31, 32]. This trait under polygenic control, involving epistasis, additivity, and genotype × environment interactions [33]. Three crosses were made among Mahsuri mutant, Mahsuri and 9192 to study the segregation pattern of cooked kernel elongation. The frequency distribution of kernel elongation ration of the population showed bimodal curve. However, in crosses of Mahsuri mutant and mahsuri (and its reciprocal crosses) the bimodal was skewed towards lower kernel elongation. Hence this character might be influenced by one or two loci [13].
The parental lines did not showed significant differences in kernel elongation ratio, however the progeny exhibited much larger range of variation due to transgressive segregation. It is difficult to conclude about inheritance pattern of kernel elongation in rice since the segregation pattern is not stable in different crosses and very little information is available on about inheritance pattern of kernel elongation of rice [34].
Genetic models used to analyse the cooked rice elongation traits of indica rice in two environments and identified that rice grain quality was mainly controlled by genotype, major gene effects and environment interactions. Milled and cooked rice length exhibited higher narrow sense heritability’s than cooked rice elongation which indicate that early selection would be possible for milled and cooked rice length but not for cooked rice elongation [33].
Waxy gene allele involved in determination of cooked rice elongation. The closely linked marker of waxy locus will facilitate the replacement of poor quality parent alleles [11] and waxy gene region control the cooked rice grain quality traits viz., elongation, length, width, width expansion ad water absorption [35]. Elongation index showed positive significant association with most of the grain quality traits which might be due to starch deformation caused by soaking or boiling.
Water absorption showed positive association with cooked rice elongation [36]. Aroma showed positive correlation with kernel elongation and both are highly influenced by environment. Elongation of rice can be influenced by both the l/b ratio and the amylose contents [37]. Kernel elongation is a physical phenomenon and influenced by gelatinization temperature [38]. Grain elongation has been associated with intermediate amylose and low gelatinization temperature.
Gene or quantitative trait loci for aroma and cooked kernel elongation were linked and present on chromosome 8.
A QTL was identified on chromosome 8 for kernel elongation [39]. Rani [40] found that a functional marker targeting an SNP in the GS3 is associated with kernel elongation. Tian
Amarawathi
Acga
Rice grain quality improvement through targeted genome editing is a fast, sustainable and cost effective approach. Conventional plant breeding methods depends on naturally existing germplasm variations. The introgression through backcrossing requires much time and screening of large population by marker assisted selection requires more energy. The reverse genetic approaches enhance the speed of plant breeding through targeted genome modifications [49] (Figure 2).
An illustration of rice grain quality improvement through the CRISPR/Cas9 system.
Premium quality rice grain is the demand of a growing population with better living standards. Presently, the CRISPR/Cas9 system has all genome editing capabilities, e.g., knock-in, knockout, knockdown, and expression activation. This system has tremendous untapped potential, has formed an ever-expanding genetic toolbox for plant biologists to investigate functional genomics, and is a helping hand for breeders to integrate important genes into the genomes of important crops. The successful application of CRISPR/Cas9 for tissue engineering and human stem cell modification has led to further developments in the field of precise genome editing. The ability to target multiple genes via multiplexed genome editing strategies can facilitate pathway-level research to engineer complex multigenic rice grain quality attributes. Previously, few studies have been conducted that are related to targeted mutagenesis for rice grain quality improvement. The pathways of rice grain quality are not well understood, and they can be investigated for the genetic mechanisms controlling quality attributes. The development of novel regulatory components from naturally existing peripherals (genes, promoters, cis-regulatory elements, small RNAs, and epigenetic modifications) can facilitate the engineering of regulatory pathways for different elements of rice grain quality. The rapid shift of research toward the utilization of CRISPR/Cas9 systems for targeted mutagenesis could be a promising approach for overcome barriers to breeding improved quality rice.
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",metaTitle:"Copyright Policy",metaDescription:"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish and distribute publications.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/copyright-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
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\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. 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