Crystallographic data using analytical analysis for NiO samples.
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In solid-state chemistry, the study of compound has been expanded to the crystal structure level. The law of definite proportions, the law of constant composition, and the law of conservation of mass state that a chemical compound always contains exactly the same proportion of elements by mass. All chemical compounds obeying these laws are called as stoichiometric compounds. While nonstoichiometric compounds are the chemical compounds deviated from stoichiometry, namely their elemental composition cannot be represented by a ratio of well-defined natural numbers, and therefore violate the law of definite proportions, hence a nonstoichiometric compound is a type of special solid-state compound with definite structure and thermodynamic characteristics, which differs from its stoichiometric counterpart and a mixture. Due to defect structure in a continuous manner, these compounds are different with stoichiometric compounds. Beside some unusual information on solid-state chemistry, stability, and dynamics can be explore through their structure and characteristic. These nonstoichiometric compounds exhibit different properties such as conductivity, magnetism, catalytic nature, color, and other unique solid-state properties, which have important technological applications.
Experimental and calculated results demonstrate that the migration of anion and cation vacancies and the formation of insulating vacancy clusters near the vicinity of the interface are the fundamental switching mechanism [1]. The enhancement in photoconduction under below-band gap light illumination is attributed to the transition from defect levels (e.g., oxygen vacancies) [2]. The unique properties are determined by their solid phase composition, thermodynamic properties, and crystal defect structure. These properties depend upon the structure and phase of the crystal; hence, the unit cell parameter plays an important role in nonstoichiometric compound, which varies in a definite manner. The microscopic structural and macroscopic thermodynamical properties also vary with phase and unit cell parameters. The X-ray diffraction study reveals that as the composition of the nonstoichiometric compound changes, the cell parameter and other property continuously changes, which is different from crystalline stoichiometric compound. Hence, X-ray diffraction and chemical analysis are important tools to investigate the nonstoichiometry [2]. The lattice defect can be analyzed by their different properties [2]. Hence, nonstoichiometry plays very important role in the solid compounds of transition metals and becoming a challenge and new opportunity in chemistry. Therefore, study of the nonstoichiometric compounds has become an interesting field in solid-state chemistry and defect chemistry.
There are significant structural changes that are seen in nonstoichiometric compounds. The phase of matter changes as external conditions such as pressure, temperature, or chemical composition are varied. Due to sudden change in these external thermodynamical conditions, the crystalline structure also changes. Thus, an abrupt change in thermodynamical conditions, such as specific volume, entropy, or specific heat, also changes the derivatives of free energy. Therefore, these parameters can be used as a helpful indicator of phase transitions. The abrupt changes can identify them as driven by a pseudo phase transition that is a result of a sharp switch of predominant defect species [3]. The defect that is introduced by sudden change in conditions, changes the physical properties of a material. It is quite different from the abrupt variation in physical properties that arises from symmetry or ordering change in a conventional phase transition. Therefore, according to the conventional classification, a defective state of a material cannot be labeled as a distinct physical phase compared with the perfect one.
In this chapter, we tried to understand the effect of change in stoichiometry of nickel oxide compound. We have prepared the samples of nickel oxide with thermal decomposition method. The samples were analyzed by different characterized methods and found to nonstoichiometric. The effect of nonstiochiometry on oxidation state, bonding between oxygen and nickel, magnetic property, specific heat, and structural property were studied.
The compounds with uniform physical phase in which unit cell parameters vary with its composition in a continuous manner are nonstoichiometric. The free energy of such compounds is function of composition and temperature of the system. The chemical potential depends on the composition of solid, and due to microscopic and macroscopic characteristics, the structural and thermodynamical property changes. Different parameters of crystallography cell, obtained by X-ray diffraction analysis, change due to nonstoichiometry. This parameter continuously varies with its composition [3].
Element composition is the main criteria to classify the nonstoichiometric compounds. These compounds exist only in the condensed state. Transition metal oxides are generally nonstoichiometric, some nitrides and sulfides also comes under such category [4, 5, 6]. Most nonstoichiometric compounds have compositions that are close to those of stoichiometric compounds and can be expressed by formulas such as WO3−x, Co1−xO, Zn1+xO, and Ni1−xO, in which x is a positive quantity much smaller than 1. In the first case, an oxygen vacancy would be formed, and in some cases, there is metallic deficiency that is seen. Due to deviation from stoichiometric composition, it would result in the formation of some lattice imperfections. Hence, in some nonstoichiometric compounds, there are anionic vacancies and in some, there are cationic vacancies. These vacancies are formed due to defects in the lattice structures of crystalline substances, such as the absence of ions from sites that would normally be occupied. The crystallographic point defects are the main defects in which interstitial atoms and vacancies resulting from excess or deficiency of a component element. Point defects are an important cause of formation of the nonstoichiometric compounds. There are two main point defects in nonstoichiometric compounds namely Frenkel defect and Schottky defect. The Frenkel defect explains a defect in the molecule, where an atom or ion (normally, the cation) leaves its own lattice site vacant and instead occupies a normally vacant site, while the Schottky defect forms when vacancies are created when oppositely charged ions leave their lattice sites. Formation of theses vacancies in stoichiometric system helps in maintaining an overall neutral charge in the ionic solid. These created vacancies are filled by the movement of surrounding atoms, due to which new vacancies are formed. The formation of defects in the crystal will lead to a decrease in the density of the crystal or metal. This can be understood by Figure 1.
Schottky and Frenkel defects.
Nickel oxide is an antiferromagnetic [7] and Mott-Hubbard insulator [7]. Nickel oxide (NiO) has been among some of the transition metal oxide, which is most thoroughly studied by the researchers. It can be easily synthesized and is very low in preparation cost, the nature of this material is such that it has low toxicity and it is environmental friendly. These properties of nickel oxide attracted considerable interest of the researchers. Due to its versatility, nickel oxide is useful in number of applications, such as transparent conductive film [8], chemical sensors [9], and resistive random access memory [10]. The positive electrode in batteries [11] and in quantum dot light emitting devices as a hole transport layer [12] are some of the very latest and important applications of nickel oxide material. The condition of synthesis of the material plays very important role in the applications. If the condition of sample preparation changes, then the oxygen content of the sample also changes, and NiO of different stoichiometry (Ni1−δO) can be obtained. In such samples, the composition ratios between nickel and oxygen are not exactly 1:1. Because of excess oxygen and vacancies on Ni site, nickel oxide thus becomes a p-type metal-deficit semiconductor [8]. The findings of investigations done by authors suggest that Ni vacancy is the most dominant point defect present in the system, rather than oxygen interstitial [13, 14]. The distribution of vacancy over a particular volume is an important issue. Due to difference in the nature of surface and bulk, the defect formation and hence distribution of vacancy will be different. The charge transport in NiO, as in other transition metal oxides, is of the thermally activated hopping type, and electron holes are localized at cation lattice sites. The nature of defect clusters and complexes in metal-deficit NiO, as well as the role of specific impurities, influence remarkably the different characteristic properties of nonstoichiometric NiO. This specific vacancy distribution has its strong effect on the overall electrical [15], optical [16], and thermal [17] properties, depending strongly on its stoichiometry.
The main reason for changes in properties could be the excess oxygen present in the samples. This excess oxygen also changes the oxidation state of nickel, which produces a vacancy at the metal side to produce cation vacant nickel oxide. As the temperature of sintering of precursor increases, the excess of oxygen decreases. Due to increase in the excess of oxygen, densities of nickel oxide and activation energy of electrical conductivity decrease, but the lattice parameter of such samples is unaffected [18]. The diffusion of vacancies to the crystal surface is the main reason for the decrease in vacancies [19].
NiO adopts the NaCl structure, with octahedral Ni(II) and O2− sites. The conceptually simple structure is commonly known as the rock salt structure. Like many other binary metal oxides, the nonstoichiometry is accompanied by a color change, with the stoichiometrically correct NiO being green and the nonstoichiometric NiO being black. Bulk material of NiO has a cubical crystal structure, and it shows antiferromagnetic behavior below Neel temperature, and above it, the structure is transformed into a cubic one with paramagnetic behavior [20]. The change in the particle size is attributed to the excess oxygen present in nonstoichiometric nickel oxide. Scientist suggested that due to the change in oxygen content of the sample, the complexity of the disordered arrangement, volume distribution, and random orientation of the magnetization vector changes; hence, thermal, optical, electrical, magnetic, and many other properties of sample change. Due to the change in the particle size of antiferromagnetic materials sintered at different temperatures, the surface to volume ratio becomes sufficiently large. Because of their large surface area, the existing uncompensated spins give a nonzero net magnetic moment.
Preparation of compound plays an important role in its characteristic properties. Nonstoichiometric compounds, whose composition and structure are known, are very important as they have unique optical, electrical, magnetic, thermal, and mechanical properties. The selection of precursor for design and tailoring the materials of different stoichiometry for desirable performance is of great interest. By means of effective and precise control of the composition, defect, and structure, the nonstoichiometry can be created. Depending on the conditions of preparation, the sintering temperature, in particular, NiO samples of various surface areas, colors, and degrees of nonstoichiometry can be prepared. Nickel oxide can easily be prepared via several methods, including chemical route, evaporation [12], sputtering [8], chemical deposition [21], oxidation of nickel [22], sol-gel method [23], and thermal decomposition [24]. Thermal decomposition method is a typical powder preparation method, which is simple, low-cost, and fast endothermic process.
Nonstoichiometric nickel oxide was obtained by thermal decomposition of nickel nitrate hexahydrate [25]. Typically, about 5 g Ni(NO3)2.6H2O was decomposed thermally in open air for 3 hours at 400°C to produce nickel oxide sample with a particular content of oxygen (Ni1−δO). The product thus obtained was pure and contains no other mixture. This exothermic reaction is noncatalytic and does not require any other substance to initiate the reaction. The output material obtained by breaking down the precursor is nickel oxide and gaseous parts, which are escaped from the system freely. The decomposition mechanism of this process takes the minimum time-temperature condition. This sample was denoted as NiO400. Similarly, seven other samples were prepared at 500, 600, 700, 800, 900, 1000, and 1100°C. They were denoted NiO500, NiO600, NiO700, NiO800, NiO900, NiO1000, and NiO1100, respectively.
The study of compositions, substance phase, and defect are main parameters to characterize nonstoichiometric compounds. The effect of nonstoichiometry on composition, structure, and other properties is studied while characterizing these types of solids. These properties highly depend on the defects in the crystal. In the present study, composition can be determined by means of chemical analysis by iodometric titration, which was corroborated by thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA). Phase and structure can be examined through X-ray diffraction, XPS analyses, and relationship of the composition, structure, and properties can be detected using FTIR, magnetic measurement, and specific heat measurement. So, we can categorically confirm that the nickel oxide is a nonstoichiometric compound rather than a stoichiometric compound. Furthermore, this FTIR also confirms the bonding of oxygen with metal ions, and shift in the FTIR peaks indicates change in stoichiometry of the as prepared samples.
Oxidation sate along with chemical nature and binding state were analyzed by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS). This method is a surface analytical method, hence all the properties that change with composition were studied by this method. The behavior of transition temperature with change in stoichiometry was studied by temperature dependence of magnetic susceptibility (c) and heat capacity (Cp).
To confirm the phase structure of polycrystalline powder sample, X-ray diffraction technique is one of the most important methods. This method can be used for the determination of the phase structure and unit cell parameters. The XRD measurements of the nonstoichiometric nickel oxide samples are conducted with the help of Bruker D8 Advance X-ray diffractometer. Cu Kα radiation (0.154 nm) is used for the analysis, and measurements were done in the angle ranging 10–90°. Silicon strip technology is used to detect the scattered X-ray radiations.
XRD analysis was employed to investigate the crystallinity and purity of the solid product obtained by thermal conversion in air of the polycrystalline compounds. Figure 2 shows XRD patterns of Ni1−δO samples, NiO400, NiO500, NiO700, NiO1100 and NiO600, NiO800, NiO900, and NiO1000. XRD peaks match well with the standard XRD of with no other impurity peaks, showing that these samples were of a single phase in nature in each of them. The XRD data show the presence of the characteristic peaks for NiO at 2θ in the range of 10–90°, in accordance with JCPDF File 47-1049. The lattice parameters were obtained from the following relationship analytically: sin2θ = C (h2 + k2 + l2), where C = λ2/4a2. The results of the X-ray structural analysis are given in Table 1.
X-ray diffraction patterns of different nonstoichiometric samples.
Intensity (%) | 2θ | Sin2 θ | h2 + k2+l2 | C | (hkl) | a(Å) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
61.69 | 37.279 | 0.1022 | 3 | 0.034 | (111) | 4.1772 | 4.1775 |
100 | 43.472 | 0.1365 | 4 | 0.034 | (200) | 4.1727 | |
44.83 | 62.901 | 0.2722 | 8 | 0.034 | (220) | 4.1772 | |
15.68 | 75.416 | 0.3741 | 11 | 0.034 | (311) | 4.1772 |
Crystallographic data using analytical analysis for NiO samples.
On comparing peaks obtained in X-ray analysis with standard JCPDF File 47-1049, we conclude that the precursor salt is transformed to NiO. Hence, data from analytical and structural analysis corroborate with the experimental data. This indicates that the NiO obtained by thermal conversion in air of the poly-nuclear coordination compounds is face-centered-cubic phase, also known as the bunsenite structure (lattice constant a of cubic unit cell, 0.4177 nm). Phase of the NiO prepared by thermal decomposition method is stable, as no other peaks were seen in the structural analysis.
Further, Sherrer formula: L = kλ/βcos(θ) is used to calculate the mean crystallite size of the NiO sample where L is the crystallite size, k is the Sherrer constant, usually taken as 0.89, λ is the wavelength of the X-ray radiation (0.154056 nm for Cu Kα), and β is the full width at half maximum (FWHM) of diffraction peak measured at 2θ.
The deduced values of crystallite size of the analyzed NiO samples are reported in Table 2, which indicates that as the sintering temperature of precursor increases the crystallite size of NiO changes.
Compounds | a (Å) | V (Å3) | Rf factor | Bregg’s R-factor | Rp | Rwp | Re | χ2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
NiO (400°C) | 4.176 | 72.82 | 2.39 | 3.94 | 24 | 16.7 | 14.9 | 1.26 | 240 |
NiO (500°C) | 4.174 | 72.74 | 4.44 | 4.33 | 29 | 19.6 | 16.7 | 1.38 | 290 |
NiO (700°C) | 4.172 | 72.64 | 4.04 | 4.51 | 22 | 15.8 | 13.3 | 1.16 | 350 |
NiO (1100°C) | 4170 | 27.58 | 20.4 | 31.7 | 56 | 37.4 | 22.3 | 2.67 | 460 |
Rietveld parameters of different NiO samples.
XRD patterns were profile-refined using the Full-Prof software package (http://www-llb.cea.fr/fullweb/). Figure 3 gives the representative Rietveld profile fit for NiO400 and NiO700 samples along with different patterns obtained by using Fm3m (225) space group. The XRD analysis indicates that samples of nickel oxide have only one face-centered-cubic (fcc) phase. Table 2 gives the parameters of samples found in the characterization. XRD study reveals all the peaks of NiO that are present, and the calculation indicates unit cell volume changes with stoichiometry.
Rietveld profile fit for NiO400 and NiO700 samples.
In nonstoichiometric compounds, there exist defects in the lattice structures of crystalline substances. As there are no absolute defect-free crystals at T > 0 K, hence these defects are related to nonstoichiometry. To determine oxygen content, that is, change in vacancy of nickel oxide formed by thermal decomposition method, the redox iodometric titration is the suitable method. For iodometric titration, standardized sodium thiosulfate and potassium iodide solution were used as a titrant and titrand, and starch solution is used as an endpoint indicator. The result obtained from iodometric titration was matched by the results of thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA). The TGA system with the top of the line METTLER TOLEDO ultra-micro balance with unique built-in calibration weights ensures an accuracy of 0.1 mg was used.
For iodometric titrations, 0.0025 g sample was dissolved in KI and HCl solution. The concentration of KI was 0.1 mol−1 and concentration of HCl was ca. 0.1 mol−1, titration was carried out using sodium thiosulfate (2.023 × 10−3 mol−1) as a titrant. The starch solution was added prior to the end-point being reached as it acts as indicator. Table 1 shows the results of excess oxygen in NiO samples obtained by iodometric titration. The oxygen content of the samples indicates that the ratio of oxygen concentration to nickel concentration is greater than 1 for those samples, which were prepared below 700°C, and as the temperature increases above 700°C, the O/Ni ratio becomes nearly equal to 1.
The result of iodometric titration indicates that, on sintering, the precursor below 700°C nickel oxide having different oxygen contents can be prepared. As the sintering temperature is raised above 700°C, the excess oxygen present in the samples evolved, and the sample becomes stoichiometric. It can also be inferred from the above results that the oxidation state of nickel ions is also affected by sintering temperature. This titration also gives the amount of Ni3+ present in the samples, and hence the percentage of excess oxygen can also be determined. This can be obtained by considering that two Ni3+ ions correspond to three ions of O2−.
The excess oxygen content of the samples was also calculated by TGA. The TGA analysis was performed in the inert atmosphere, in which the change in weight of a sample was analyzed with respect to temperature. TGA characterizes the materials according to its compositions. For our samples, by obtaining the weight loss with respect to increase in temperature, the weight of the excess oxygen is determined directly. Figure 4a gives the information about the thermogravimetric (TG) curve and its differential curve for NiO400 sample. Between 200 and 300°C, the sudden change in the mass of the sample is observed, and this indicates the amount of excess oxygen released in the heating process. This change in weight can also be associated with the desorption of oxygen from sample, which confirms nonstoichiometry. The other peak seen in the curve can be associated by the evaporation of the physically bound water. Hence, this change in the weight does not have any contribution to the estimation of excess oxygen.
TGA curves of nonstoichiometric Ni1−δO samples for (a) NiO400, (b) NiO500, (c) NiO700, and (d) NiO1100; heating rate of 5°C per min. The curves indicate the change in oxygen content of different samples as the sintering temperature increases.
Unlike NiO400 TG and DGA curves for three more samples, that is, NiO500, NiO700, and NiO1100 were plotted and shown in Figure 4b–d. It is clear from the graphs that the loss in weight decreases as the sintering temperature for sample preparation increases. The change in mass for NiO500 sample is less than that of NiO400 sample and is negligible for the sample prepared above 700°C. The change in weight of samples directly indicates about excess oxygen present in the sample, which can be directly obtained from above TG curves and is shown in Table 3. Comparing the calculated excess oxygen in these nonstoichiometric samples by two different methods, it is understood that both results are similar to each other.
Samples | Excess oxygen in iodometric titration (%) | Excess oxygen in thermogravimetric analysis (%) |
---|---|---|
NiO400 | 7.2 | 7.8 (6.4)* |
NiO500 | 2.5 | 2.8 |
NiO600 | 1.4 | 1.6 |
NiO700 | 1.1 | 1.2 |
NiO800 | 0 | 0 |
NiO900 | 0 | 0 |
NiO1000 | 0 | 0 |
NiO1100 | 0 | 0 |
Excess oxygen calculated from iodometric titration and TGA.
% excess oxygen calculated for NiO400 sample prepared in presence of oxygen.
We have also prepared another sample of nickel oxide at 400°C, and the main difference is that this sample was prepared in the presence of oxygen. This sample is synthesized to understand the essential feature of excess oxygen in these nonstoichiometric samples. Figure 5 shows the TG and DGA curves of this sample. The curves shown in Figure 4a and in Figure 5 are almost similar. Hence, the samples of NiO400 prepared in air and in oxygen atmosphere are identical to each other. The weight of excess oxygen of sample prepared in presence of oxygen is slightly less as compared to NiO400 sample, which was prepared in air. The difference in loss of weight percentage is calculated, and the values are reported in Table 3. Hence from iodometric and TGA analysis, it can be understood that due to rearrangement of atoms at high temperature, the defects of atoms get heals up and the sample that was nonstoichiometric at low temperature becomes stoichiometric. This is due to change in oxidation state with respect to change in temperature of sintering of precursor.
TGA curve of NiO400 prepared in oxygen atmosphere.
FTIR spectroscopic study of Ni1−δO samples provides valuable information about the phase composition and the way in which oxygen is bonded to metal ions. Figure 6a–d show infrared (IR) transmission spectra of NiO400, NiO500, NiO700, and NiO1100 samples having different stoichiometry in the range between 400 and 4000 cm−1. We observed a prominent peak in spectrum between 440 and 460 cm−1. The slight shift in this peak for different samples is observed. This shift in the peak is noticed for all those samples that were sintered below 700°C. The reason of such peak shift can be attributed to stoichiometry of the samples. The observation of such peak in the long wavelength region, analogous to previous reports [26], could be assigned to the Ni–O stretching vibration mode, and the shifting is an indication of the nonstoichiometry present in these samples. In fact, in this long wavelength transverse optical mode, in which the sublattice of Ni2+ ions moves 180° opposite to the sublattice of O2− ions for bulk NiO has been reported to lie between 390 and 405 cm−1 [27].
FTIR of nonstoichiometric Ni1_dO samples for (a) NiO400, (b) NiO500, (c) NiO700, and (d) NiO1100.
Some more peaks at 1032, 1383, and 1612 cm−1 in nonstoichiometric samples sintered below 700°C are seen prominently, which indicates the presence of hydroxide ions, nitrate ions, and some organic compounds. It is instructive to mention that the thermal analysis evidently identifies that the Ni(NO3)2.6H2O was decomposed completely to NiO at temperatures higher than 600°C [28]. The samples that are sintered till 600°C may contain some organic molecules. Further, some of the bands found to be disappeared as the decomposition temperature increases as TGA data indict that at higher sintering temperature excess oxygen decreases [28]. Some carbon impurities are also present in the spectra, indicated by 2924 and 3456 cm−1 peaks in the spectrum. Hence, FTIR data shown in Figure 6a–d, TGA data shown in Figure 4a–d, and iodometric analysis data are corroborating each other and indicate that the samples are nonstoichiometric in nature. Analyzing the data obtained by the vacancy model, the concentration of hole in nickel oxide indicates that there is deficiency of metal in Ni1−δO. Cationic vacancies of nickel in NiO are formed at nickel side due to the presence of excess oxygen. These vacancies can be ionized to create Ni3+ ions via the following reaction:
one ionized nickel vacancy (
The majority of defects in nonstoichiometric nickel oxide is electron holes, which creates the vacancies. The vacancy model crated by holes is confirmed by a Seebeck coefficient [29], electrical conductivity [30], and other measurements. The kinetic measurements of the rate of oxidation of nickel metal to nickel oxide are also given by vacancy model [31]. The physical and chemical properties of nonstoichiometric nickel oxide are altered by the defect processes, and hence excess oxygen becomes prominent role player in such crystals.
By calculating inter atomic potentials, the energies of defect formation, migration, and substitution can be calculated by the atomistic simulation [32]. In the present case, the potential describing interionic interactions is represented by ionic pair-wise potentials of the form Eq. (2) Here, the first term represents long-range Coulomb, the second term corresponds to Hafemeister and Flygare form of short-range repulsive energies [33], and Van der Waals multipole are represented by third and fourth terms, respectively.
The symbols:
Samples | b (10−12 erg) | P (Å) | F (eV) |
---|---|---|---|
NiO400 | 39.51 | 0.388 | 39.592 |
NiO500 | 39.46 | 0.388 | 39.602 |
NiO600 | 39.40 | 0.388 | 39.612 |
NiO700 | 39.38 | 0.388 | 39.623 |
NiO800 | 39.40 | 0.388 | 39.612 |
NiO900 | 39.41 | 0.388 | 39.612 |
NiO1000 | 39.57 | 0.388 | 39.518 |
NiO1100 | 39.41 | 0.388 | 39.612 |
Interatomic potential parameter of nickel oxide sintered at different temperatures as discussed in Eq. (2).
The chemical properties and stoichiometry of nickel oxide were studied by XPS analysis. For NiO500 and NiO700, XPS spectra of Ni (2p) core level are shown in Figure 7a and b, while the XPS spectra for NiO400 and NiO1100 are shown in Figure 8.
High-resolution XPS spectra of the Ni (2p) core levels of the Ni oxides decomposed at a temperature of (a) 500°C and (b) 700°C. The XPS spectra were decomposed using Voigt peak function fittings.
High-resolution XPS spectra of the Ni (2p) core levels of the Ni oxides decomposed at a temperature of (a) 400°C and (b) 700°C. The XPS spectra were decomposed using Voigt peak function fittings.
In both the spectra, distinct peaks for different binding energies can be observed clearly along with the double peak features. These double peak features represented for the Ni (2p) core levels are observed in all samples. Voigt peak fitting function is used to analyze the double peak features of Ni(2p3/2) and Ni(2p1/2). These peaks were fitted within the Shirley background. The binding energy of 853.7 (±0.2), 855.5 (±0.2), 860.6 (±0.2), 865.9 (±0.2), 871.4 (±0.2), 873.3 (±0.2), 877.9 (±0.2), and 880.7 (±0.2) eV represented by a, a′, b, b′, c, c′, d, and d′ are associated with all eight peaks, which are perfectly fit. The peaks marked as a, a′, c, and c′, represent core levels of Ni2+(2p3/2), Ni3+(2p3/2), Ni2+(2p1/2), and Ni3+(2p1/2), respectively. The decomposed shake-up satellite peaks (marked as b, b′, d, and d′) were observed at ∼7.1(±0.2) or 10.2(±0.2) eV and ∼6.3(±0.3) or ∼7.1(±0.2) eV higher in binding energy than that of Ni2+(2p3/2), Ni3+(2p3/2), Ni2+(2p1/2), and Ni3+(2p1/2) peaks, respectively. The magnetic chemical state of Ni2+ and Ni3+ ions can be associated with the double peak features of Ni(2p). The consecutive shake-up satellite peaks also give information of the same [36]. The positions of the XPS peaks obtained in different nonstoichiometric samples are analogs to previous studies [37]. The O(1 s) XPS spectra of the samples obtained were similar to each other. Figure 8 shows the O(1 s) spectra Voigt peak fitting function within the Shirley background. The binding energy of 529.3 and 531.1 eV with FWHM of 1.2 and 1.7 eV are clearly observed in the figure for oxygen spectra. Hence, two peaks are clearly obtained for O(1 s) spectra. The lower binding energy peak observed at 529.3 eV corresponds to the O(1 s) core level of O2− anions associated with Ni-O chemical bonding. However, higher binding energy peak observed at 531.1 represents the surface contamination or presence of hydroxyl (−OH) groups [37].
The close analysis of decomposed XPS spectrum revealed that the intensity of the peaks assigned to core levels of Ni3+(2p3/2) and Ni3+(2p1/2) is larger than that of core levels Ni2+(2p3/2) and Ni2+(2p1/2) at decomposition temperature of 400 and 500°C. However, the intensity of the peaks of Ni2+(2p3/2) and Ni2+(2p1/2) core levels has increased than that of the peaks of Ni3+(2p3/2) and Ni3+(2p1/2) core levels after the decomposition temperature of 700°C and is continued to increase for the temperature of 1100°C. The intensity ratio obtained for the peaks of the Ni2+(2p3/2) and Ni3+(2p3/2) core levels (i.e., Ni2+/Ni3+) has increased from 0.85 (±0.03) to 1.23 (±0.03) with an increase in the temperature from 400 to 1100°C.
It is evident that for the samples prepared at 500 and 700°C have more prominent variation of intensity, and hence the Ni2+ and Ni3+ are more easily bifurcated at these temperatures because the conversion of Ni3+ ions into Ni2+ ions is fast. And the binding energy difference (ΔE) of 17.7 (±0.1) eV between the Ni(2p3/2) and Ni(2p1/2) peaks is very close to that of 17.8 eV for oxidized Ni and significantly larger than that of 17.2 eV for metallic Ni [38]. Hence, all the nickel is converted into oxide form, and there is no nickel present in the metal form. This can be confirmed by XPS investigation that the nonstoichiometric NiO400 contains Ni3+ ions in higher quantity as compared to NiO1000. The XPS analysis also corroborates with our TGA analysis for nonstoichiometric nickel oxide. Hence, the oxygen content of the samples can be controlled by controlling the temperature of preparation of samples. Hence, nonstoichiometry in nickel oxide can be created by controlling temperature of preparation.
The magnetic characterization of nonstoichiometric samples was performed to obtain the magnetic susceptibility (χ). These measurements were done for selected samples of NiO400 and NiO1100. Temperature-dependent magnetic susceptibility (χ) is shown in Figure 9. This measurement was performed at an applied magnetic field of 7 Tesla. Both zero-field-cooled (ZFC) and field-cooled (FC) conditions were employed to measure the susceptibility (χ) of nonstoichiometric nickel oxide samples. We observed a reversible behavior with negligible hysteresis of χ for different stoichiometry. It is interesting to describe that sample shows paramagnetic (PM) to antiferromagnetic (AFM) transition. This transition is observed at the Néel temperature T
Magnetization for ZFC and FC curves of nonstoichiometric Ni1−δO samples for NiO400 and NiO1100 in 7 T applied field as a function of temperature.
Figure 10 shows the change in specific heat with respect to temperature of nonstoichiometric NiO. The irregularity or the change in specific heat for different samples is found in the vicinity of
The temperature variation of specific capacity of nickel oxide samples sintered at different temperatures. Curve shows shifting in TN due to different oxygen contents of the samples.
Consequently, the net moment of uncompensated surface spins would fluctuate accordingly and in turn, significant downshift the
The samples of different oxygen contents of nickel oxide were synthesized by thermal decomposition method. The structure of these samples was characterized by X-ray diffraction spectroscopy, and full-proof refinement was used for indexing. The nonstoichiometry of these samples was recognized by iodometric titration and thermogravimetric analysis. Both these techniques give the excess oxygen content of samples, which was found to be similar. Different phases of nickel oxide were confirmed by the FTIR studies. The shift in FTIR pattern indicates about the nonstoichiometry of samples. The change in stoichiometry of sample is also responsible for the defect creation in the samples, as XPS results indicate that nickel vacancy can be created in samples with varying sintering temperatures. Those samples that were sintered at low temperature have high defect as compared to sample sintered at high temperature. The ZFC and FC curves are nearly identical to each other but the susceptibility changes with stoichiometry. The observed specific heat anomaly in the vicinity of
The authors would like to thank Dr. A. M. Awasti, Dr. Mukul Gupta, and Dr. V. Ganesan, Centre Director, UGC-DAE-CSR, Indore, India for providing heat capacity measurements and XRD facilities. Financial support from the Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), the Department of Science and Technology (DST), New Delhi, and the Madhya Pradesh Council of Science and Technology (MPCST), Bhopal (NK) are gratefully acknowledged.
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
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Shields"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6156",title:"Lepidoptera",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b5d586ee7920aa6388b521b833916453",slug:"lepidoptera",bookSignature:"Farzana Khan Perveen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6156.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"56325",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70098",title:"Contact-Mediated Eyespot Color-Pattern Changes in the Peacock Pansy Butterfly: Contributions of Mechanical Force and Extracellular Matrix to Morphogenic Signal Propagation",slug:"contact-mediated-eyespot-color-pattern-changes-in-the-peacock-pansy-butterfly-contributions-of-mecha",totalDownloads:1279,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Butterfly wing color patterns are developmentally determined by morphogenic signals from organizers in the early pupal stage. However, the precise mechanism of color-pattern determination remains elusive. Here, mechanical and surface disturbances were applied to the pupal hindwing of the peacock pansy butterfly Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758) to examine their effects on color-pattern determination. Using the forewing-lift method immediately after pupation, a small stainless ball was placed on the prospective major eyespot or background of the developing dorsal hindwing to cause a wing epithelial distortion, resulting in deformation of the major eyespot. When the exposed dorsal hindwing was covered with a piece of plastic film or placed on a surface of a glass slide, an adhesive tape, or a silicone-coated glassine paper, the major eyespot was effectively reduced in size without a direct contact with the covering materials. The latter two treatments additionally induced the size reduction of the minor eyespot and proximal displacement and broadening of parafocal elements through a direct contact, being reminiscent of the temperature-shock-type modifications. These results suggest the importance of mechanical force and physicochemical properties of planar epithelial contact surface (i.e., extracellular matrix) to propagate morphogenic signals for color-pattern determination in butterfly wings.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Joji M. Otaki",authors:[{id:"208068",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joji",middleName:"M.",surname:"Otaki",slug:"joji-otaki",fullName:"Joji Otaki"}]},{id:"56320",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70050",title:"Synergistic Damage Response of the Double-Focus Eyespot in the Hindwing of the Peacock Pansy Butterfly",slug:"synergistic-damage-response-of-the-double-focus-eyespot-in-the-hindwing-of-the-peacock-pansy-butterf",totalDownloads:888,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Eyespot color patterns in butterfly wings are determined by the putative morphogenic signals from organizers. Previous experiments using physical damage to the forewing eyespots of the peacock pansy butterfly, Junonia almana (Linnaeus, 1758), suggested that the morphogenic signals dynamically interact with each other, involving enhancement of activation signals and interactions between activation and inhibitory signals. Here, we focused on the large double-focus fusion eyespot on the hindwing of J. almana to test the involvement of the proposed signal interactions. Early damage at a single focus of the prospective double-focus eyespot produced a smaller but circular eyespot, suggesting the existence of synergistic interactions between the signals from two sources. Late damage at a single focus reduced the size of the inner core disk but simultaneously enlarged the outermost black ring. Damage at two nearby sites in the background induced an extensive black area, possibly as a result of the synergistic enhancement of the two induced signals. These results confirmed the previous forewing results and provided further evidence for the long-range and synergistic interactive nature of the morphogenic signals that may be explained by a reaction-diffusion mechanism as a part of the induction model for color-pattern formation in butterfly wings.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Mayo Iwasaki and Joji M. Otaki",authors:[{id:"208068",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Joji",middleName:"M.",surname:"Otaki",slug:"joji-otaki",fullName:"Joji Otaki"},{id:"208071",title:"MSc.",name:"Mayo",middleName:null,surname:"Iwasaki",slug:"mayo-iwasaki",fullName:"Mayo Iwasaki"}]},{id:"75753",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96637",title:"Managing a Transboundary Pest: The Fall Armyworm on Maize in Africa",slug:"managing-a-transboundary-pest-the-fall-armyworm-on-maize-in-africa",totalDownloads:513,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) invaded Africa in 2016, and has since spread to all countries in sub-Saharan Africa, causing devastating effects on mainly maize and sorghum. The rapid spread of this pest is aided by its high reproductive rate, high migration ability, wide host range and adaptability to different environments, among others. Since its introduction, many governments purchased and distributed pesticides for emergency control, with minimal regard to their efficacy. In this chapter, we review efforts towards managing this pest, highlight key challenges, and provide our thoughts on considerations for sustainable management of the pest.",book:{id:"9666",slug:"moths-and-caterpillars",title:"Moths and Caterpillars",fullTitle:"Moths and Caterpillars"},signatures:"Michael Hilary Otim, Komi Kouma Mokpokpo Fiaboe, Juliet Akello, Barnabas Mudde, Allan Tekkara Obonyom, Anani Yaovi Bruce, Winnifred Aool Opio, Peter Chinwada, Girma Hailu and Pamela Paparu",authors:[{id:"331168",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:"Hilary",surname:"Otim",slug:"michael-otim",fullName:"Michael Otim"},{id:"339328",title:"Dr.",name:"Girma",middleName:null,surname:"Hailu",slug:"girma-hailu",fullName:"Girma Hailu"},{id:"339330",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela",middleName:null,surname:"Paparu",slug:"pamela-paparu",fullName:"Pamela Paparu"},{id:"339339",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Chinwada",slug:"peter-chinwada",fullName:"Peter Chinwada"},{id:"339340",title:"Ms.",name:"Winnifred",middleName:null,surname:"Aool Opio",slug:"winnifred-aool-opio",fullName:"Winnifred Aool Opio"},{id:"339341",title:"Dr.",name:"Anani",middleName:null,surname:"Bruce Yaovi",slug:"anani-bruce-yaovi",fullName:"Anani Bruce Yaovi"},{id:"339345",title:"Mr.",name:"Allan",middleName:"Obonyom",surname:"Tekkara",slug:"allan-tekkara",fullName:"Allan Tekkara"},{id:"339346",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliet",middleName:null,surname:"Akello",slug:"juliet-akello",fullName:"Juliet Akello"},{id:"339347",title:"Dr.",name:"Barnabas",middleName:null,surname:"Mudde",slug:"barnabas-mudde",fullName:"Barnabas Mudde"},{id:"339349",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaboe",middleName:null,surname:"Komi K Mokpokpo",slug:"fiaboe-komi-k-mokpokpo",fullName:"Fiaboe Komi K Mokpokpo"}]},{id:"57286",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71158",title:"Mitochondrial Genomes of Lepidopteran Insects Considered Crop Pests",slug:"mitochondrial-genomes-of-lepidopteran-insects-considered-crop-pests",totalDownloads:1214,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"In this chapter, the complete mitochondrial genome of Guatemalan potato moth, Tecia solanivora (Povolny, 1973) (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae) is presented as a model to understand how to characterize and study a mitogenome in insects. It was sequenced, analyzed, and compared with other lepidopteran insects. T. solanivora mitogenome is a circular double-stranded molecule, typically found in insects and containing 37 genes, all them well described over the other lepidopteran mitogenomes sequenced. Interestingly, in this mitogenome was found a gene arrangement in the tRNA-Met gene different from the ancestral arrangement, but commonly present in insect mitogenomes. Other important characteristics are the high A + T-biased and negative AT- and GC-skews contents, but also unusual canonical start codons in 12 protein-coding genes and an incomplete stop codon in the cytochrome oxidase subunit II gene consisting of just a Thymine. Another common feature shared with lepidopteran mitogenomes is the A + T-rich region. It is characterized by having 325 bb, the ‘ATAGA’ motif, a 17 bp poly (T) stretch and a (AT)8 element preceded by the ‘ATTTA’ motif. Likewise, this mitogenome has 21 intergenic spacer regions. In addition, an update about other recent mitogenomes research done mainly over lepidopteran insects considered crop pests is presented. On the other hand, a novel development based on induced mutations by CRISPR-Cas9 in the mitogenomes seeking applicable capability for pest control is shown. The utility of this study is to improve scientific databases and support future studies of population genetic in lepidopteran.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Viviana Ramírez-Ríos, Javier Correa Alvarez and Diego Villanueva-\nMejia",authors:[{id:"206827",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:"F.",surname:"Villanueva-Mejía",slug:"diego-villanueva-mejia",fullName:"Diego Villanueva-Mejía"},{id:"214479",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Correa Alvarez",slug:"javier-correa-alvarez",fullName:"Javier Correa Alvarez"},{id:"219660",title:"MSc.",name:"Viviana",middleName:null,surname:"Ramírez-Ríos",slug:"viviana-ramirez-rios",fullName:"Viviana Ramírez-Ríos"}]},{id:"56208",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69958",title:"Molecular Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Lepidoptera with Special Reference to Influence of Wolbachia Infection in the Genus Polytremis",slug:"molecular-phylogeny-and-taxonomy-of-lepidoptera-with-special-reference-to-influence-of-wolbachia-inf",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides a case of genus Polytremis Mabille, 1904 (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), to explain the molecular phylogeny and taxonomy of Lepidoptera and the influence of Wolbachia infection. Earlier studies of Lepidoptera were focused mainly on the morphological classification, population distribution, and identification of new species. As the supplementary to morphological research, analysis of DNA has been widely used in the phylogenetic studies of Lepidoptera. The study provides a conservative estimate that the Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis nascens Leech (1893) is 31%, and no significant difference in the prevalence is found between the sexes. The Wolbachia infection mainly prevails in populations of P. nascens in southern China, which influence the diversity of mtDNA in P. nascens by a Wolbachia-induced sweep. The Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis fukia Evans (1940) is 47% and shows a weak association existed between mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and wFuk1 infection status.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Weibin Jiang",authors:[{id:"207420",title:"Dr.",name:"Weibin",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"weibin-jiang",fullName:"Weibin Jiang"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57369",title:"Introductory Chapter: Lepidoptera",slug:"introductory-chapter-lepidoptera",totalDownloads:7031,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Farzana Khan Perveen and Anzela Khan",authors:[{id:"75563",title:"Dr.",name:"Farzana Khan",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"farzana-khan-perveen",fullName:"Farzana Khan Perveen"}]},{id:"57355",title:"Lepidoptera Collection Curation and Data Management",slug:"lepidoptera-collection-curation-and-data-management",totalDownloads:1558,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The collections of Lepidoptera often serve as foundational basis for a wide range of biological, ecological, and climate science disciplines. Species identification and higher taxa delimitation based on collection specimens and especially, on types test scientific hypotheses, provide multiple types of evidence for a broad range of users. Curation and data management approaches applied in Lepidoptera collections benefit greatly from many newly developed information techniques, which link and integrate data. Mostly attention is focused on clean verified collection and taxonomic literature mining data to obtain correct species-group and higher taxa names, as well as reliable data on the distribution of Lepidoptera and their trophic interactions. Collection creation and management became a subject of natural sciences itself. The chapter provides a historic overview on collection creation and curation together with a short discussion on collection goals and purposes. The creation of a virtual collection based on interlinked data is emphasized. Information science and data management tools became very important in Lepidoptera collection curation. The complexity of techniques and computing tools used in taxonomy and the increase in the amount of data that can be obtained by collection-based disciplines make it necessary to automate data gathering, manipulation, analysis, and visualization processes.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Jurate De Prins",authors:[{id:"213731",title:"Dr.",name:"Jurate",middleName:null,surname:"De Prins",slug:"jurate-de-prins",fullName:"Jurate De Prins"}]},{id:"57731",title:"Taxocenotic and Biocenotic Study of Lepidoptera (Rhopalocera) in Rucamanque: A Forest Remnant in the Central Valley of the Araucanía Region, Chile",slug:"taxocenotic-and-biocenotic-study-of-lepidoptera-rhopalocera-in-rucamanque-a-forest-remnant-in-the-ce",totalDownloads:1254,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Considering that butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera) are sensitive to physical and climatic changes, e.g. of temperature, humidity and solar radiation, produced by disturbances in their habitat, a survey of this group was carried out in a small remnant of native forest (Rucamanque) in the central valley of the Araucanía Region of Chile. The object was to record the composition, abundance and diversity of Rhopalocera in grassland, forest and the ecotone between them during spring and summer. The study recorded 1190 individual butterflies belonging to 25 species, 18 genera, 8 sub-families and 4 families. The highest values of species richness and abundance were obtained in the summer, of 25 species and 953 individuals; in the spring, 9 species were recorded with a total of 237 individuals. The greatest diversity and homogeneity were found in the ecotone habitat (H′=3.86; J′=0.88; λ =0.08); the values for grassland were (H′=2.73; J′=0.67; λ =0.23) and for forest (H′=2.55; J′=0.71; λ =0.23); these environments being less diverse and more homogeneous. The greatest taxocenotic similarity was found between grassland and the ecotone (54%), and the least similarity appeared between the ecotone and forest (34%). The greatest biocenotic similarity was found between the ecotone and forest (48%), and the lowest correspondence was between grassland and forest (4.18%).",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Hernán Navarrete Parra and Ramón Rebolledo Ranz",authors:[{id:"193813",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rebolledo Ranz",slug:"ramon-eduardo-rebolledo-ranz",fullName:"Ramón Eduardo Rebolledo Ranz"},{id:"217930",title:"Prof.",name:"Hernán",middleName:null,surname:"Navarrete",slug:"hernan-navarrete",fullName:"Hernán Navarrete"}]},{id:"56208",title:"Molecular Phylogeny and Taxonomy of Lepidoptera with Special Reference to Influence of Wolbachia Infection in the Genus Polytremis",slug:"molecular-phylogeny-and-taxonomy-of-lepidoptera-with-special-reference-to-influence-of-wolbachia-inf",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter provides a case of genus Polytremis Mabille, 1904 (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae), to explain the molecular phylogeny and taxonomy of Lepidoptera and the influence of Wolbachia infection. Earlier studies of Lepidoptera were focused mainly on the morphological classification, population distribution, and identification of new species. As the supplementary to morphological research, analysis of DNA has been widely used in the phylogenetic studies of Lepidoptera. The study provides a conservative estimate that the Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis nascens Leech (1893) is 31%, and no significant difference in the prevalence is found between the sexes. The Wolbachia infection mainly prevails in populations of P. nascens in southern China, which influence the diversity of mtDNA in P. nascens by a Wolbachia-induced sweep. The Wolbachia infection rate in Polytremis fukia Evans (1940) is 47% and shows a weak association existed between mitochondrial DNA haplotypes and wFuk1 infection status.",book:{id:"6156",slug:"lepidoptera",title:"Lepidoptera",fullTitle:"Lepidoptera"},signatures:"Weibin Jiang",authors:[{id:"207420",title:"Dr.",name:"Weibin",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"weibin-jiang",fullName:"Weibin Jiang"}]},{id:"75535",title:"Role of Pheromone Application Technology for the Management of Codling Moth in High Altitude and Cold Arid Region of Ladakh",slug:"role-of-pheromone-application-technology-for-the-management-of-codling-moth-in-high-altitude-and-col",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The codling moth is a threat to the apple industries in India. Currently, no solutions are available for the management of codling moth in Ladakh. Therefore, all fresh fruits from Ladakh are still banned due to quarantine regulations. Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh are the three main apple producing states of India, both in quality and quantity. The ban on all fresh fruits from Ladakh directly affects the economy of rural populations. These fruits are sold in all the local markets of Kargil and Leh. Apples damaged by the larvae of codling moth are less preferred by inhabitants, tourists, and security forces, a large area of Ladakh is bordered with China and Pakistan. Field demonstration trials revealed significantly less fruit damage in apple orchards in different hamlets of Ladakh using pheromone dispensers, pheromone baited traps, and two applications of insecticides for codling moth management. A demonstration of the use of pheromone and pheromone dispenser technology for area-wide management for high dense populations of the codling moth in Ladakh has revealed successful results in the orchards of the apple growers. Area-wide management of the codling moth in some villages, using dispenser technology has shown promising results. The ban of fresh fruits in Ladakh may not be, therefore, appropriate as management of the codling moth appears to be successful with the use of pheromone dispenser technology. This technology will, surely, boost the apple industry and have a great potential for establishing commercial orchards and quality apples in high altitudes in the second-highest cold arid region of the world.",book:{id:"9666",slug:"moths-and-caterpillars",title:"Moths and Caterpillars",fullTitle:"Moths and Caterpillars"},signatures:"Barkat Hussain, Faizaan Ahmad, Ejaz Ahmad, Wasim Yousuf and Mohd Mehdi",authors:[{id:"319667",title:"Dr.",name:"Barkat",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"barkat-hussain",fullName:"Barkat Hussain"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"316",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 14th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. Vouros",slug:"deep-multiagent-reinforcement-learning-methods-addressing-the-scalability-challenge",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Multi-Agent Technologies and Machine Learning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11445.jpg",subseries:{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems"}}},{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:59,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",middleName:null,surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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