\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3395",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Papillomavirus and Related Diseases From Bench to Bedside A Diagnostic and Preventive Perspective",title:"Human Papillomavirus and Related Diseases",subtitle:"From Bench to Bedside - A Diagnostic and Preventive Perspective",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Cervical cancer is the second most prevalent cancer among women worldwide, and infection with Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) has been identified as the causal agent for this condition. The natural history of cervical cancer is characterized by slow disease progression, rendering the condition in essence preventable and even treatable when diagnosed in early stages. Pap smear and the recently introduced prophylactic vaccines are the most prominent prevention options, but despite the availability of these primary and secondary screening tools, the global burden of disease is unfortunately still very high \nThis book will focus on the clinical and diagnostic aspects of HPV and related disease, highlighting the latest developments in this field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1072-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7137-9",doi:"10.5772/56594",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"human-papillomavirus-and-related-diseases-from-bench-to-bedside-a-diagnostic-and-preventive-perspective",numberOfPages:336,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c6c3820fb6deb675bd38fa1954ec4f56",bookSignature:"Davy Vanden Broeck",publishedDate:"April 30th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3395.jpg",numberOfDownloads:24979,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:21,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 23rd 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"93213",title:"Dr.",name:"Davy",middleName:null,surname:"Vanden Broeck",slug:"davy-vanden-broeck",fullName:"Davy Vanden Broeck",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93213/images/2523_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Davy Vanden Broeck, MSc, PhD obtained this MSc degree Biochemistry from Antwerp University (Belgium) with judicium Cum Laude. Afterwards he pursued a PhD in Biomedical Sciences (Antwerp University). Later, he joined the International Centre for Reproductive Health (ICRH) and research efforts focused on sexually transmitted viruses. Finally, he obtained two consecutive post-doc grants at Ghent University (Ghent, Belgium), with specific focus on papilloma virus research.\nCurrently, Dr. Vanden Broeck holds the position of professor Molecular Virology and heads the ICRH HPV/cervical cancer research team. Within this team, multi-disciplinary research is performed on the prevention of cervical cancer (vaccine, screening), as well as clinical/translational aspects of cervical cancer research, but equally fundamental research forms part of the research agenda.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Ghent University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1079",title:"Genitourinary Oncology",slug:"genitourinary-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"44399",title:"Molecular Diagnosis of Human Papillomavirus Infections",doi:"10.5772/55706",slug:"molecular-diagnosis-of-human-papillomavirus-infections",totalDownloads:3051,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Santiago 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\r\n\tTestosterone is the key male sex hormone that regulates fertility, muscle mass, fat distribution, and RBC production. Hypogonadism is a condition when testosterone levels fall below the normal value and, due to stress and other factors globally, low testosterone level is more and more common and supplementation is one of the important treatments that resolve such problem. Testosterone regulates several processes in the male body. When the levels drop in elderly men it causes hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, impairment of glucose metabolism, development of diabetes, etc. Despite being a male sex hormone, it also contributes to the sex drive, bone density, and muscle strength in women. An excess of testosterone manifests itself in male pattern baldness and infertility. Chronic ongoing low testosterone levels may lead to osteoporosis, mood swing, reduced energy, and testicular shrinkage.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in testosterone functions, uses, deficiency, and replacement therapy. This book will be interesting to general readers, clinicians, and researchers and will focus on the most evidenced-based developments of this critically important hormone.
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They can be obtained by a wide range of reactions, the most important being polyesterifications between dibasic acids and diols or their derivatives(Scheme 1).
Many other reactions have been reported for the synthesis of polyesters, such as reactions between dicarboxylic acid salts and dialkylhalides, reactions between chlorocarbonyloxy-terminated monomers and diacids, or reactions between bisketenes and diols. These reactions, however, cannot be applied to the synthesis of high molar mass polyesters under economically viable conditions and are limited to very specific laboratoryscale syntheses. Two notable exceptions are the ringopening polymerization of lactones and lactides for the production of degradable polyesters and the biosynthesis of aliphatic polyesters by bacteria or genetically modified plants during the last few years, a number of companies have put biodegradable polymers on the market. Almost all these polymers are polyesters or copolyesters: aliphatic polyesters such as poly (
The nature- aliphatic or aromatic- of the bivalent - R1- and - R2- radicals in polyester chains (Scheme 1) exerts a prefound influence on the properties of polyesters and define four main classes of linear polyesters.
1.1.1. Aliphatic polyesters are low melting (40 - 80 °C) semicrystalline polymers or viscous fluids and present inferior mechanical properties Notable exceptions are poly (α- hydroxyacid)s and poly (β-hydroxyacid)s.
1.1.2. Aromatic–aliphatic polyesters, in which R 1 or R2 is aromatic, are generally high melting (150-270 °C) semicrystalline materials that find applications as engineering thermoplastics, films, or fibers.
1.1.3. Wholly aromatic polyesters, in which both R1 and R2 are aromatic, are either high-Tg amorphous polymers or very high melting semicrystalline polymers that often exhibit liquid crystalline properties.
1.1.4. Polyester thermoplastic elastomers, which are obtained by replacing a part of the R2 diol by dihydroxy polyether macro monomer, present biphasic morphology and rubberlike properties.
Polyester resin is attractive in different ways. This material is being used efficiently as folding resin, blend forming, film, fiber, surface covering, rubber and plasticizer. The common factor in these different materials is that all of them contain some joint in their main chain. Different methods for preparation of thermally stable polyester are shown below.
Kim & Yang (Kim & Yang, 2001, 2003, 2008) used phosphorous compounds and copolymerized together to produce polyesters which are resistant to flame and because of their suitable properties (Scheme 2).
Wang et al. (Wang, 2008) produced polyesters in which substituents have many alkyl groups. These polyesters have better solubility than polyesters with one alkyl group; however they are less thermo resistant. Polymer mit C5 - C10 are amorph and more than C10 are crystaline, its film is totally sleek (Scheme 3).
This type of polyesters (Akutsu et al., 1985, 1987, 1990, 1998, 1999) are produced with heterocyclic groups in their main chain by addition of quinoxaline cycle into the polymer main chain and reaction of quinoxaline hydroxyl compound with diacids and quinoxaline amine compound with dianhydrides. Existence of these groups causes high thermoresistance of the polymer where they will not show any mass depreciatory until 300 °C. They have suitable electrical properties and have capability to form film. These groups are also used in production of pigments (Scheme 4).
This kind of polyester is formed by solution (dilution) condensation polymerization. This polyester has been produced from aromatic diols with aromatic and aliphatic diacidchlorides in high efficiency (Asadi & Shadpour, 2010). These polymers are capable of forming film and semi-cristalline aromatic polyester-imides. The aromatic-aliphatic polyester-imides are amorphous due to their structure (Scheme 5).
Polyester-amide-esters are produced by reaction of diols which contain ester-amide-ester groups with aromatic and aliphatic diacidchlorides (Einollahi & Mehdipour, 2004). Totally, aromatic polymers have a minimum thermoresistance and maximum solubility. Films from these polymers are brittle (Scheme 6).
Aromatic unsaturated polyester is produced by solid state polymerization of glycolized diol (Boehme et al., 2006). Continuous glycolization is done by an extruder that unsaturated bonds appears as conjugated (Scheme 7).
Aromatic polyester-imide is produced by soluble condensation polymerization in high temperature (Behniafar et al., 2005). Pyridine is used as absorbent of produced hydrogen chloride. High solubility in polar solvent such as dimethyformamide and tetrahydrofuran, Tg about 300 °C and mass reduction about 10 % in 450 °C have been proven (Scheme 8).
This type of polyesters are produced by from sulfonic diols with sulfure in the main chain with aliphatic diacidchlorides possessing methylene groups from 2 to 10 groups (Hirano, 2004). They have high molecular weight and crystalline structure and also high thermo resistance (Scheme 9).
This polyester produced (Chern & Huang, 1998) with solution polycondensation in high temperature. These polyesters have good solubility and high molecular weight. Their 5 % mass reduction temperature is about 400 °C in N2 atmosphere. Their Young\'s modulus is about 40 MPa and their elongation at break is about 4 % (Scheme 10).
This polymer produced by Hahn & Zhu (Hahn & Zhu, 2007). This polymer is not soluble in organic solvents while soluble in polar solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO), dimethyformamide (DMF) and dimethyacetamide (DMAC). This polymer is crystalline (Scheme 11).
This polyester is produced in two steps in bulk polycondensation. These polyesters are among biopolymer and specifically polymers which are among green chemistry family (Fu & Liu, 2008). They have high molecular weight and to achieve this high molecular weight they have to be purified by washing (Scheme 12).
Synthesis of the monomer 2,3-Bis(4-hydroxy phenyl)-5-azaquinoxaline diol (DIOL) took place in two steps: first, the synthesis of 4,4’-dihydroxybenzil (DHB), and second, the reaction of DHB with 2,3 diamino pyridine. Both steps are described in Scheme 13.
3.1.1.1. 4, 4’-Dihydroxybenzil (Moylan et al., 1993)
In a 1 L, three-necked, round-bottom flask equipped with a reflux condenser, a magnetic stirrer bar, and a nitrogen inlet were placed 6 g (22 mmol) of 4,4\'- dimethoxybenzil, 60 ml of acetic acid (HOAc), and 300 ml HBr (68%). The suspension was heated at reflux with stirring for 4 h to become a homogeneous yellow solution which was cooled to room temperature, during which a yellow solid was formed. The solid was filtered, washed with cold water several times, recrystallized in HOAc, and dried in vacuum oven. The yellow needles obtained in a yield of 82% (3.3 g), which starts to melt at 244 °C.
3.1.1.2. 2,3-Bis(4-hydroxy phenyl)-5-azaquinoxaline
A 500 ml, round-bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirrer bar, a reflux condenser, a Dean–Stark trap and a nitrogen inlet was charged with 0.48 g (2 mmol) of 4,4\'-dihydroxybenzil, 0.22 g (2 mmol) of 2,3-diaminopyridine, 50 ml of toluene, and 36 ml of deoxygenated acetic acid. The reaction mixture was stirred at reflux for 12 h, during which the generated water was collected in the Dean-Stark trap. The reaction vessel was let to cool to room temperature, and then poured into 500 ml slurry of ice and water containing 7.2 ml of HCl (37%). The precipitate was filtered and recrystallized in ethanol. The dark yellow powder was obtained with a yield of 85% and melting at 324 °C.
3.1.1.3. Synthesis of the model compound
Model compound was prepared from 2,3-bis(4- hydroxyphenyl)-5-azaquinoxaline and benzoyle chloride by using conventional method, Scheme 14. A two-necked round-bottom flask equipped with a magnetic stirrer bar, a reflux condenser and a nitrogen inlet/outlet tube was charged with DIOL (0.314 g, 1 mmol) in 20 ml DMF and 0.8 ml triethylamine. A solution of benzoylechloride ( 0.244 g, 2 mmol) in 10 ml DMF was added drop wise at 0 °C. The reaction was stirred for 5 h at room temperature. The solution was then poured into water, and the precipitate was filtered and washed several times with the solution of NaHCO3. The solid product was then dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C (Scheme 14).
3.1.1.4. Synthesis of polyesters
Polyesters were prepared from polycondensation of 2,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-azaquinoxaline with aromatic and aliphatic dicarboxylic dichlorides such as terephthaloyle dichloride, isophthaloyle dichloride, sebacoyle dichloride and adipoyle dichloride. A typical synthesis procedure for the preparation of polyesters was conducted in three-necked, round-bottom flask equipped with a nitrogen inlet, a condenser and a magnetic stirrer bar. The flask was charged with the diol (0.628 g, 2 mmol) in 20 ml DMF and 0.8 ml triethylamine. A solution of terephthaloyle dichloride (0.406 g, 2 mmol) in 10 ml DMF was added drop wise at 0 °C. The reaction mixture was stirred for 5 h at room temperature. The solution was then poured into water and the precipitate was filtered and washed several times with the solution of NaHCO3. The solid product was then dried in a vacuum oven at 60 °C. The synthesis procedure and the polymer designations are shown in Scheme 15.
3.2.1.1. 4-Nitrobenzoylchoride (Mallakpour & Nasr, 2002)
A 100 ml flask was charged with a mixture of 4-nitrobenzoic acid. (5.00 g, 29,9 mmol), 5 ml thionyl chloride and 20 ml ethylacetate. Subsequently the mixture was stirred at reflux temperature for 2 hours to obtain a transparent solution. Next the additional content of thionyl chloride and solvent was extracted out of solution by using distillation and was poured into cold water. The yellow powder produced was separated by filtration. Then the product dried in vacuum oven at 50 0C. A purified sample was obtained by recrystallization form carbontetrachloride and obtained in 95% yield (5.436 g) with the melting point of 71-72 °C.
3.2.1.2. 4.Nitrobenzoylazide (Mallakpour & Nasr, 2002)
A 100 ml flask was charged with 4-introbenzoylchloride (5.43 g, 29.2 mmol) and 10 ml acetone. The mixture was subsequently stirred at 5 0C temperature and then added dropwise of a sodiumazide solution (1.69 g, 30.1 mmol) in 7 ml water for 30 minutes. The solution was stirred for additional 1 hour and the white precipitate was filtered and dried at air. A purified sample was obtained in a 90% yield (4.95 g) with the melting point of 73-75 0C.
3.2.1.3. 1-Ethoxycarbonly-4-(4-introphenyl) semicarbazide (Mallakpour & Nasr, 2002)
A 250 ml flask was charged with 4-nitrobenzoylazide (4.00 g, 21 mmol) and 75 ml dried toluene. The mixture was subsequently stirred under N2 at reflux temperature for 6 hours. The solutions was cooled and filtered. The solution was cooled at 5 0C and then charged dropwise with a mixture of ethylhydrazin carboxilate (ethyl carbazate) (2.70 g, 21 mmol) and 40 ml dried toluene in 15 minutes. The solution was stirred for 30 minutes in ice bed and for 1 hour at room temperature. The solution refluxed for 3 hours, cooled, filtered and dried at 70 0C for one day. A purified sample was obtained in a 93% yield (4.8 g) with the melting point of 219-220 0C.
3.2.1.4. 1-Ethoxycarbonyl-4-(4-aminophenyl)semicarbazide (Mallakpour & Nasr, 2002)
A 250 ml flask was charged with 1-ethoxycarbonyl- 4- (4-nitrophenyl) semicarbazide (3.04 g, 11.3 mmol), SnCl2.2H2O(9.37 g, 4.3 mmol) and 15 ml ethanol. The mixture was subsequently stirred under N2 at reflux temperature for 4.5 hourse to obtain a transparent solution. The solution was cooled with ice bed and water and stirred for 15 minutes. The pH of solution was raised to 10 with a solution of sodium hydroxide 30%. The mixture was put in 30 ml ethylacetate. Afterward the white powder was filtered and dried at 70 0C for one day. A purified sample was obtained in a 82% yield (2.2 g) with the m.p. >340 0C.
3.2.1.5. 4-(4-aminophenyl )-1,2,4-triazolidyne -3.5-dione (Urazole) (Mallakpour & Nasr, 2002)
A 100 ml round flask was charged with pure sodium (0.23 g, 10 mmol) dissolved in 14 ml absolute ethanol. The solution was under N2 and added 1-ethoxycarbonyl -4-(4-aminophenyl) semicarbazide (2 g, 8.4 mmol). The mixture was subsequently stirred under N2 at reflux temperature for 4.5 hours and cooled with ice bed. The solution was neutralized with HCl 30%. The with product was filtered (1.38 g, 86%), recrystallized with hot water and dried. A purified sample was obtained in a 86% yield (1.38 g) with the melting point 270-273 0C.
3.2.1.6. 4-(4- phthalimidophenyl) -1, 2, 4-triazolidyne -3, 5-dione (Mallakpour & Nasr, 2002)
A 25 ml round flask was charged with 4-(4-aminophenyl) urazole (0.2 g, 1.04 mmol) and a mixture of solvents acetic acid/ pyridine (3/2) and anhydride phthalic (0.15 g, 1.04 mmol). The mixture was subsequently stirred at room temperature for 2 days till the amic acid was produced as a white precipitate. The solution was stirred at reflux temperature for 8 hours and then filtered and the white precipitate washed with ethanol, filtered and dried. The white purified sample (1.38 g) was obtained in a 76% yield (0.46 g) with the melting point of 363-365 0C (Scheme 16).
3.2.1.7. 4-(4-phthalimidophenyl)-1,2,4-triazolidyne-3,5-diamine
A 10 ml round flask was charged with 4-(4-phthalimidophenyl)-1,2,4-triazolidyne-3,5dion
3.2.1.8. 4-(4-phthalimidophenyl)-1,2,4-triazolidyne-3,5-diol
To a 250 ml. three –necked flask equipped with a mechanical stirrer and an addition funnel were added 4-(4-phthalimidophenyl)-1,2,4-triazolidyne-3,5-diamine (6.06 g, 0.0100 mol), concentrated hydrochloric acid (22 ml), and water (100 ml). The solution was cooled to 0 °C in an ice bath. A solution of sodium nitrite (1.45 g, 0.0210 mmol) in water (10 ml) was added at 0 - 5 °C. the resulting solution was poured into a cold solution of phosphoric acid (20 ml) in water (1.8 l l). After stirring for 5 min. The organe mixture was heated at the boiling point for 10 min. The mixture was cooled and extracted with diethyl ether (3 x 200 ml). The combined organic phase was extracted with 2 N sodium hydroxide solution (2 x 50 ml).The combined aqueous phase was acidified with concentrated hydrochloric acid, extracted with diethyl ether (3 x 100 ml) and dried with magnesium sulfate (Scheme 18).
3.3.1.1. Benilbisthisosemicarbazone diamine LH6 (Arquero et al., 1998)
The thiosemicabazide (3.64 g, 40.30 mmol) was dissolved in 40 ml of 2N HCl and 1ml of conc. HCl and then added to a suspension of benzyl (4,24 g, 20.20 mmol) in 50 ml of methanol and a few drops of conc. HCl. The mixture was stirred for 6 h at room temperature. The yellow solid was filtered off, washed with methanol and dried in a vacuum oven at 70 °C for 2 h. A yellow solid product was obtained in a 75% yield which starts to melt and decompose at 240 0C (Scheme 19).
3.3.1.2. Benilbisthisosemicarbazone diol
To a 250 ml. three –necked flask equipped with a mechanical stirrer and an addition funnel were added Benilbisthisosemicarbazone LH6 (3.56 g, 0.0100 mol), concentrated hydrochloric acid (22 ml) and water (100 ml). The solution was cooled to 0 °C in an ice bath. A solution of sodium nitrite (1.45 g, 0.0210 mmol) in water (10 ml) was added at 0-5 °C. The resulting solution was poured into a cold solution of phosphoric acid (20 ml) in water (1.8 l). After stirring for 5 min. The organe mixture was heated at the boiling point for 10 min. the mixture was cooled and extracted with diethyl ether (3 x 200 ml). The combined organic phase was extracted with 2 N sodium hydroxide solution (2 x 50 ml). The combined aqueous phase was acidified with concentrated hydrochloric acid, extracted with diethyl ether (3 x 100 ml) and dried with magnesium sulfate (Scheme 20).
The Andaman-Nicobar Islands, located approximately 650 nautical miles far off from the Coromandel Coast of the Peninsular India between the latitudes 6° 45″ to 13° 41” N and the longitudes 92° 12″ to 94° 16″ E, are characterised with enchanting seascapes bordering rocky or sandy beaches with lush green tropical rainforests. This archipelago comprises around 325 major islands and islets which offer a total insular landmass of roughly 8249sq km in the Bay of Bengal. According to periodical enumerations on flora of the Andaman-Nicobar Islands by various botanists from the Botanical Survey of India could ascertain the occurrence of 2649 plant taxa comprising 2508 species, 32 subspecies, 103 varieties and 6 forma under 1109 genera within 238 families belonging to 4 different plant groups, namely Bryophytes (mosses), Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms and Angiosperms [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. The plant genetic resources (PGR) of the Andaman-Nicobar Islands have a wide range of economically significant gene pools of lesser known plant taxa and wild prototypes of several popular cultivars. Wild occurrence of popular cultivars like coconut palms, betel nut palms, betel vines were recorded since centuries ago from these islands [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. The apparent wild occurrence of these popular cultivars among several uninhabited islands over a century ago substantiate to suggest an interesting argument in phytogeographical studies on Andaman-Nicobar Islands as these islands might be a centre of origin of these species.
The tropical rainforests occurring in Andaman-Nicobar Islands is the last stronghold of pristine rainforests within the Indian territory, perhaps only exception being the slopes of the Western Ghats where it has been remarkably disturbed and degraded by human interventions (Figures 1–17). Andaman-Nicobar Islands obviously represents one of the richest repositories of insular biodiversity in the Bay of Bengal within a limited geographical area. The unique geographical location of this archipelago between the two major biodiversity areas (Indian Subcontinent and Malesian Islands) bestowed with an incomparable distribution of plant species with representatives of the Indian, Myanmarese, Thai, Malaysian and Indonesian floras. The flora of the Andaman group of islands shows closer affinity towards Indo-Myanmarese-Thai floras, while the Nicobar groups of islands demonstrates similarity towards the flora of Indonesia and Malaysia [2, 9].
Onge couple at settlement in Little Andaman Island (1994).
An old photograph of an Onge hut (source Kloss C. Boden 1903).
An Onge climbing on a tree for honey collection (source – PRD, A & N Administration 1980).
Shompen man along with a woman (Great Nicobar) source: Anthropological survey of India, Port Blair.
Shompen lady along with her children (source – PRD, A & N Administration, 1980).
Shompen hut (source Kloss C. Boden 1903).
Andaman–Nicobar Islands (source: Census of India, 1991).
The interrelationship between the Plant Kingdom and the Animal Kingdom is one of the intriguing subjects in vegetation dynamics, especially among isolated insular regions. The insular human population of the Andaman-Nicobar Islands could be classified into ethnic tribes or original inhabitants, old settlers who came before Indian independence and the migrants after independence. The Andaman-Nicobar tribal groups (Great Andamanense, Jarawas, Sentinelese, Onges and Shompens) except Nicobarese (Nicobar Islands) could precisely be considered as the stakeholders of insular genetic diversity, since they are mostly depend on insular biodiversity for their livelihood. The native Negritude tribes of the Andaman Islands principally Jarawas, Sentinelese and Onges are rather hunter-gatherers, sustaining on wild or marine food resources and have practically no cultivation practice; Unlike the tribes of the Andaman Islands, the Nicobaries, the indigenous people of Car Nicobar, Katchal, Kamorta, Nancowry, Chowra etc. are maintaining some genetic diversity of cultivars in their native islands. The
The aboriginals of Andaman group of islands are Negritude race of 13 primitive tribes, mostly being extinct, and the remaining are collectively termed as ‘Great Andamanese’. Currently, the indigenous people of Andaman group of islands are being classified into four groups, namely, the Great Andamanese, the Jarawa, the Onge and the Sentinelese. Interestingly, the indigenous people of Nicobar group, Nicobarese and Shompens belong to the Mongoloid race.
The Onges, presently around 100 in number on the road of extinction, are confined to within two pockets of the Little Andaman Island
The Shompens are another primitive tribe living in Great Nicobar with two distinct divisions, the smaller division being designated as Coastal Shompens or Mawa Shompens inhabited East Coast of the island. They are very shy people; while the other group, designated as Forest Shompens, are rather hostile and are living in interior regions of Alexendra River and Galathia River areas and both groups are totally isolated with each other. According to Patnaik
Two endemic plant taxa in Andaman-Nicobar Islands are reported as honey bee repellent species.
As regards to the taxonomy of
The Onges and Shompens are two distinct ethnic indigenous dwindling communities of the Andaman-Nicobar Islands. The Shompens were constitutes one-sixth of the total indigenous insular population during remote past [30]. Curiously, the present population of both communities are lower than 100 numbers of individuals and being endangered owing to various genetic and environmental reasons. Interestingly, the Shompen vernacular name of the species,
The terms ‘honeybee repellent or insect repellent’ is rather confusing with reality. In fact the active principles or phytochemical molecules from the plant extracts block the receptors of the insects or honeybees to detect the intruder’s presence on their combs. Precisely, the phytochemical molecules act as ‘bite preventing element’ rather than ‘insect repellent ingredient’ and obliviously, the efficacy varies with the quantity and quality of the active ingredients. The studies on
Insular habitats are of remarkable significance in conservation of global plant diversity, although they comprise only 5% of the total landmass of the world, approximately one quarter of all known extant vascular plants are endemic to insular habitats [33]. Apart from this, insular landmasses also have a remarkable function to the livelihood, economy and cultural diversity of 600 million islanders, approximately one-tenth of the present human population of the world [34]. The plant genetic resource (PGR) of the Andaman-Nicobar Islands ranges from sea weeds to several economically important higher plant species. It includes several endemics with promising economic values such as medicinal species used by primitive insular aborigines, wild occurrence of popular cultivars (coconut, betel nut, betel vine, etc.), wild relatives of popular cultivars (spice plants, rice, pluses, yams, aroids, fruit plants etc) landraces of cultivars (rice, coconut, betel nut, betel vine etc), timber yielding species (about 60 classified tree species), lesser known endemic insect repellent species (used by aborigines for honey collections), economically promising minor forest produce (canes, bamboos etc), endemic wild relatives of plantains (
The authors are thankful to all Forest officials of the Andaman Nicobar Administration at Port Blair and Great Nicobar Island for all logistic and manpower supports for exploration at Great Nicobar Island and also Dr. Rajan, Zoological Survey of India, Port Blair for all technical support during preparation of the manuscript. The authors also wish to record their sincere thanks to the Director, Anthropological Survey of India, Port Blair and Andaman-Nicobar Administration for providing rare old photographs of Onges and Shompens. The authors also would like to acknowledge Kerala State Council for Science Technology and Environment (KSCSTE) for financial assistance for the studies.
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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. 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