The eleventh revision of the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11) and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Adapted from [25, 26].
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10127",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",title:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Biotechnological Applications of Biomass provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of the art of biomass utilization in agriculture and pharmaceuticals. The information contained herein is useful to researchers and other readers interested in biomass utilization and production of bioproducts.",isbn:"978-1-83881-182-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-180-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-183-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89320",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"biotechnological-applications-of-biomass",numberOfPages:638,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"17b4ebfda66ea073a28d609bc6b1dd67",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso, Thiago Olitta Basso and Luiz Carlos Basso",publishedDate:"August 18th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10127.jpg",numberOfDownloads:17805,numberOfWosCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:60,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:89,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 28th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 18th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 17th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 5th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 4th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",middleName:null,surname:"Peixoto Basso",slug:"thalita-peixoto-basso",fullName:"Thalita Peixoto Basso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/139174/images/system/139174.png",biography:"Thalita Peixoto Basso received her bachelor’s degree in Agriculture Engineering. During this period, she studied the fermentation characteristics of Saccharomyces cerevisiae isolated from ethanol industrial processes. She obtained her master’s degree from the University of Sao Paulo (ESALQ/USP), Brazil. During this time, she isolated and selected fungi with high cellulose activity for enzymatic hydrolysis of sugarcane bagasse. She received her Ph.D. from the Agricultural Microbiology Program, ESALQ/USP, with a period as a visiting scholar at the University of California Berkeley and the Energy Bioscience Institute. Meanwhile, she worked on the improvement of S. cerevisiae by hybridization for increased tolerance toward inhibitors from second-generation ethanol substrates. Currently, she is a collaborating professor and postdoctorate working with metabolomics and proteomics of fermentation processes in the Genetics Department, ESALQ/USP.",institutionString:"University of São Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"4",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"27117",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago Olitta",middleName:null,surname:"Basso",slug:"thiago-olitta-basso",fullName:"Thiago Olitta Basso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27117/images/system/27117.jpg",biography:"Thiago Olitta Basso is an assistant professor in the Chemical Engineering Department, University of Sao Paulo (USP), Brazil. Currently, he is involved with teaching and researching microbial physiology, microbial interactions, and strategies of metabolic and evolutionary engineering for the biotechnology sector. He worked at Novozymes as a senior scientist in its R&D Department, acting as a project leader in yeast physiology and fermentation optimization for traditional (1G) and advanced (2G) biofuels. He holds a BS in Pharmacy and Biochemistry from USP and an MSc in Biotechnology from the University of Abertay, Scotland, UK. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biotechnology from USP, under Andreas Gombert´s supervision. Part of his Ph.D. was done at the Delft University of Technology, in the group of Prof. Jack Pronk.",institutionString:"University of São Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"27097",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Basso",slug:"luiz-carlos-basso",fullName:"Luiz Carlos Basso",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27097/images/system/27097.jpg",biography:"Luiz Carlos Basso holds a bachelor’s degree in Agriculture Engineering from the University of Sao Paulo (ESALQ/USP) in 1969, a master’s degree in Soil and Plant Nutrition from ESALQ/USP in 1973, Ph.D. in Biological Science from São Paulo State University (UNESP), and postdoctorate from Institut des Produits de la Vigne, Montpellier and Superior Technical Institute, Lisbon, in 1989. Since 1980, he has been involved with yeast biochemistry and physiology, aiming to increase ethanol yield using the fed-batch industrial process. During the last fifteen years, he has conducted a yeast selection program resulting in the most widely used Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains (PE-2 and CAT-1) in the Brazilian ethanol industry. Currently, he is a senior professor at ESALQ/USP teaching Biochemistry (for undergraduate students), Biochemistry and Physiology of Yeast Fermentation (for graduate students), and selecting tolerant strains for lignocellulosic inhibitors.",institutionString:"University of São Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"885",title:"Bioenergy",slug:"sustainable-energy-bioenergy"}],chapters:[{id:"73832",title:"Biomass Conversion Technologies for Bioenergy Generation: An Introduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93669",slug:"biomass-conversion-technologies-for-bioenergy-generation-an-introduction",totalDownloads:1008,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over the last century, there has been increasing debate concerning the use of biomass for different purposes such as foods, feeds, energy fuels, heating, cooling and most importantly biorefinery feedstock. The biorefinery products were aimed to replace fossil fuels and chemicals as they are renewable form of energy. Biomass is a biodegradable product from agricultural wastes and residues, forestry and aquaculture. Biomass could be sourced from a variety of raw materials such as wood and wood processing by-products, manure, fractions of organic waste products and agricultural crops. As a form of renewable energy, they have the advantages of easy storage, transportation, flexible load utilization and versatile applications. The aim of this study is to provide an overview for thermochemical and biochemical biomass conversion technologies that were employed currently. Attention was also paid to manufacture of biofuels because of their potentials as key market for large-scale green sustainable biomass product.",signatures:"Abdurrahman Garba",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73832",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73832",authors:[{id:"245271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdurrahman",surname:"Garba",slug:"abdurrahman-garba",fullName:"Abdurrahman Garba"}],corrections:null},{id:"73215",title:"Biomass Pretreatment and Characterization: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93607",slug:"biomass-pretreatment-and-characterization-a-review",totalDownloads:954,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass has the potential to replace conventional fuels in a number of applications, particularly in biofuel production. It is an abundantly available renewable material with great potential as a feedstock for bioconversion processes for the production of energy, fuels and a variety of chemicals. Due to its biogenic origin, the carbon dioxide released from its combustion process does not impact atmospheric carbon dioxide. Despite these merits, a major problem hindering its widespread use has always been its recalcitrant nature, in terms of its inherent characteristics, which are unfavorable to its use in bioconversion and bio refinery processes. This makes it necessary for biomass to be pretreated before use in any conversion process for maximum product recovery. However, a major issue with regards to biomass pretreatment is the lack of rapid, high throughput and reliable tools for assessing and tracing biopolymer components of biomass relevant to the energy production potential of the biomass. This chapter therefore presents an overview of the pretreatment and characterization of biomass relevant to energy, fuels and chemicals production. The information provided will bequeath readers with the basic knowledge necessary for finding an auspicious solution to pretreatment problems and the production of energy from pretreated biomass.",signatures:"Anthony Anukam and Jonas Berghel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73215",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73215",authors:[{id:"323140",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",surname:"Anukam",slug:"anthony-anukam",fullName:"Anthony Anukam"},{id:"330589",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas",surname:"Berghel",slug:"jonas-berghel",fullName:"Jonas Berghel"}],corrections:null},{id:"73256",title:"Getting Environmentally Friendly and High Added-Value Products from Lignocellulosic Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93645",slug:"getting-environmentally-friendly-and-high-added-value-products-from-lignocellulosic-waste",totalDownloads:316,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, alternatives have been sought for the reuse of lignocellulosic waste generated by agricultural and other industries because it is biodegradable and renewable. Lignocellulosic waste can be used for a wide variety of applications, depending on their composition and physical properties. In this chapter, we focus on the different treatments that are used for the extraction of natural cellulose fibers (chemical, physical, biological methods) for more sophisticated applications such as reinforcement in biocomposites. Due to the different morphologies that the cellulose can present, depending from sources, it is possible to obtain cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs), micro- nanofibrillated cellulose (MFC/NFC), and bacterial nanocellulose (BNC) with different applications in the industry. Among the different cellulose nanomaterials highlighted characteristics, we can find improved barrier properties for sound and moisture, the fact that they are environmentally friendly, increased tensile strength and decreased weight. These materials have the ability to replace metallic components, petroleum products, and nonrenewable materials. Potential applications of cellulose nanomaterials are present in the automotive, construction, aerospace industries, etc. Also, this chapter exhibits global market predictions of these new materials or products. In summary, lignocellulosic residues are a rich source of cellulose that can be extracted to obtain products with high value-added and eco-friendly characteristics.",signatures:"Elizabeth Quintana Rodríguez, Domancar Orona Tamayo, José Nicacio González Cervantes, Flora Itzel Beltrán Ramirez, María Alejandra Rivera Trasgallo and Adriana Berenice Espinoza Martínez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73256",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73256",authors:[{id:"278524",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Quintana Rodríguez",slug:"elizabeth-quintana-rodriguez",fullName:"Elizabeth Quintana Rodríguez"},{id:"279854",title:"Dr.",name:"Flora Itzel",surname:"Beltran Ramirez",slug:"flora-itzel-beltran-ramirez",fullName:"Flora Itzel Beltran Ramirez"},{id:"279856",title:"Dr.",name:"Domancar",surname:"Orona Tamayo",slug:"domancar-orona-tamayo",fullName:"Domancar Orona Tamayo"},{id:"279858",title:"BSc.",name:"José Nicacio",surname:"Gonzalez-Cervantes",slug:"jose-nicacio-gonzalez-cervantes",fullName:"José Nicacio Gonzalez-Cervantes"},{id:"331125",title:"Dr.",name:"María Alejandra",surname:"Rivera Trasgallo",slug:"maria-alejandra-rivera-trasgallo",fullName:"María Alejandra Rivera Trasgallo"},{id:"336412",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana Berenice",surname:"Espinoza Martinez",slug:"adriana-berenice-espinoza-martinez",fullName:"Adriana Berenice Espinoza Martinez"}],corrections:null},{id:"74117",title:"Laboratory Optimization Study of Sulfonation Reaction toward Lignin Isolated from Bagasse",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93662",slug:"laboratory-optimization-study-of-sulfonation-reaction-toward-lignin-isolated-from-bagasse",totalDownloads:530,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bagasse is scientifically defined as waste from the extraction of sugarcane liquid after the grinding process. Bagasse is biomass which is used as raw material to be processed into surfactants. Bagasse fiber cannot be dissolved in water because it consists mostly of cellulose, pentosane and lignin. The optimum conditions for obtaining the highest yield and the best conversion of bagasse to lignin were achieved when used 80 mesh bagasse and 3 M NaOH as a hydrolysis agent. Then lignin is reacted with 0.25 sodium bisulfite to the surfactant sodium lignosulfonate. Lignin and sodium lignosulfonate were further characterized using a FTIR spectrophotometer to determine the components contained therein. The lignin component consists of phenolic functional group elements, aliphatic and aromatic groups, ketone groups, aren functional groups, amine groups and alkyl groups along with standard lignin components. Likewise with lignosulfonates, with indicator components consisting of C═C alkenes, Sulfate S═O, C═O carboxylic acids and S-OR esters. The NMR test was resulted the monomer structure of SLS surfactant bagasse. The results indicate that the lignin isolation process from bagasse has been successfully. Likewise, the sulfonation of lignin to lignosulfonate is also successful.",signatures:"Rini Setiati, Septoratno Siregar and Deana Wahyuningrum",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74117",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74117",authors:[{id:"271621",title:"Dr.",name:"Rini",surname:"Setiati",slug:"rini-setiati",fullName:"Rini Setiati"},{id:"291882",title:"Prof.",name:"Septoratno",surname:"Siregar",slug:"septoratno-siregar",fullName:"Septoratno Siregar"},{id:"291884",title:"Dr.",name:"Deana",surname:"Wahyuningrum",slug:"deana-wahyuningrum",fullName:"Deana Wahyuningrum"}],corrections:null},{id:"74065",title:"Agroenergy from Residual Biomass: Energy Perspective",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93644",slug:"agroenergy-from-residual-biomass-energy-perspective",totalDownloads:356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The search for energy alternatives from renewable and clean sources has been gaining prominence at the international level, due to the increased demand for energy and the future depletion of fossil fuels, coupled with the concern with environmental issues. The generation of electricity distributed from the use of biomass can contribute to the conservation of the environment, the diversification of the energy matrix, the national economic development, the generation of jobs in the agro-industry and in the distribution of clean energy, as a sustainable alternative. This chapter aims to present information related to the use of different residual biomass as an energy alternative for Brazil, with a focus on electricity generation, based on a bibliographic survey, where it is highlighted as the best sources of biomass for electricity generation in the country, observing the profitability and viability for logistics and national economy.",signatures:"Cintia de Faria Ferreira Carraro, André Celestino Martins, Ana Carolina da Silva Faria and Carla Cristina Almeida Loures",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74065",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74065",authors:[{id:"323601",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Cintia",surname:"de Faria Ferreira Carraro",slug:"cintia-de-faria-ferreira-carraro",fullName:"Cintia de Faria Ferreira Carraro"},{id:"323602",title:"Prof.",name:"Carla Cristina",surname:"Almeida Loures",slug:"carla-cristina-almeida-loures",fullName:"Carla Cristina Almeida Loures"},{id:"329013",title:"B.Sc.",name:"André Celestino",surname:"Martins",slug:"andre-celestino-martins",fullName:"André Celestino Martins"},{id:"329014",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ana Carolina",surname:"da Silva Faria",slug:"ana-carolina-da-silva-faria",fullName:"Ana Carolina da Silva Faria"}],corrections:null},{id:"73230",title:"The Potential of Biomass in Africa and the Debate on Its Carbon Neutrality",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93615",slug:"the-potential-of-biomass-in-africa-and-the-debate-on-its-carbon-neutrality",totalDownloads:645,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To enhance the energy security and promote energy diversity, biomass sources of energy are viable resources worldwide. Bioenergy is an organic source of power derived from various feedstock including fuel wood, energy crops, solid wastes, and residues of plants. This book chapter explores the use of biomass in Africa and the technical and economic potential of these resources for energy supply in the continent. Findings of literature revealed that the potential of biomass is high in Africa due to availability of land, its preference due to limited electricity supply and the exorbitant nature of fossil fuels, the assorted variety of energy crops suitable for growth in the continent and the green nature associated with the resource. The chapter also established that bioenergy is renewable and not carbon neutral. As such, accurate computation of its resultant greenhouse gas emissions based on their sequestration and emission rates is strongly advised to optimize biomass for energy utility and sustainability compared to conventional energy sources.",signatures:"Joan Nyika, Adeolu Adesoji Adediran, Adeniyi Olayanju, Olanrewaju Seun Adesina and Francis Odikpo Edoziuno",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73230",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73230",authors:[{id:"323960",title:"Dr.",name:"Adeolu Adesoji",surname:"Adediran",slug:"adeolu-adesoji-adediran",fullName:"Adeolu Adesoji Adediran"},{id:"323961",title:"Mrs.",name:"Joan",surname:"Nyika",slug:"joan-nyika",fullName:"Joan Nyika"},{id:"323963",title:"Prof.",name:"Adeniyi",surname:"Olayanju",slug:"adeniyi-olayanju",fullName:"Adeniyi Olayanju"},{id:"323966",title:"Dr.",name:"Olanrewaju Seun",surname:"Adesina",slug:"olanrewaju-seun-adesina",fullName:"Olanrewaju Seun Adesina"},{id:"328978",title:"Dr.",name:"Francis Odikpo",surname:"Edoziuno",slug:"francis-odikpo-edoziuno",fullName:"Francis Odikpo Edoziuno"}],corrections:null},{id:"77187",title:"A General Overview of Sweet Sorghum Genomics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98539",slug:"a-general-overview-of-sweet-sorghum-genomics",totalDownloads:302,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sorghum is one of the main cereal crops, its consumption is large, since it provides grain, fiber and biofuel. Likewise, its genome, with only 10 diploid chromosomes, makes it an attractive model for research and genetic improvement. Sorghum is the most studied C4 plant of its genus; several lines have been developed under three main characteristics: grain, forage and sugar biomass. Compared to other crops, sweet sorghum possesses high levels of highly fermentable sugars in the stem. Also, it has the ability of producing high production yields in marginal lands. These characteristics make it and attractive crop for the generation of biofuels. Molecular markers associated to several resistances and tolerances to biotic and abiotic factors have been described in literature. These allow the development of high-density linkage maps, which, along with the rising availability of sorghum genomes, will accelerate the identification of markers and the integration of the complete genome sequence. This will facilitate the selection of traits related to biofuels and the marker-assisted genetic improvement. Most of the information presented in this review is focused in Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench. However, from the bioenergetics perspective, it is limited to sweet sorghum, which represents a promising opportunity for further studies.",signatures:"Raymundo Rosas-Quijano, Abraham Ontiveros-Cisneros, Noé Montes-García, Arturo Díaz-Franco, Alfredo Vázquez-Ovando and Didiana Gálvez-López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77187",authors:[{id:"352784",title:"Prof.",name:"Didiana",surname:"Galvez-Lopez",slug:"didiana-galvez-lopez",fullName:"Didiana Galvez-Lopez"},{id:"352786",title:"Prof.",name:"Raymundo",surname:"Rosas-Quijano",slug:"raymundo-rosas-quijano",fullName:"Raymundo Rosas-Quijano"},{id:"352787",title:"MSc.",name:"Abraham",surname:"Ontiveros-Cisneros",slug:"abraham-ontiveros-cisneros",fullName:"Abraham Ontiveros-Cisneros"},{id:"352789",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfredo",surname:"Vazquez-Ovando",slug:"alfredo-vazquez-ovando",fullName:"Alfredo Vazquez-Ovando"},{id:"419202",title:"Dr.",name:"Noé",surname:"Montes-García",slug:"noe-montes-garcia",fullName:"Noé Montes-García"},{id:"419500",title:"MSc.",name:"Arturo",surname:"Diaz-Franco",slug:"arturo-diaz-franco",fullName:"Arturo Diaz-Franco"}],corrections:null},{id:"72955",title:"Current Situation and Future Outlook of Forest Biomass Production and Its Utilization in Japan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93433",slug:"current-situation-and-future-outlook-of-forest-biomass-production-and-its-utilization-in-japan",totalDownloads:414,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The current situation of forests and forestry as well as woody biomass utilization in Japan was described, and the future outlook for the use of forest biomass in Japan was presented. Many planted forests are now becoming mature, so the operational efficiency in forestry should be improved not only by the development of the forest infrastructure but also by the full mechanization of the logging system. The Kyoto Protocol adopted in 1997 promoted the energy utilization of waste woody biomass such as mill residues and wood-based waste materials, and the launch of the Feed-in Tariff scheme for renewable energy (FIT) in 2012 promoted the energy utilization of once-unutilized thinnings. In order to further expand the production of forest biomass and its utilization for energy, logging residues, small-sized trees, and short rotation woody coppices (SRWC) are promising. Thus, low-cost harvesting technologies should be developed as soon as possible, with reference to machines and systems operating in foreign countries where the utilization of such forest biomass is making steady progress.",signatures:"Takuyuki Yoshioka",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72955",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72955",authors:[{id:"322969",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuyuki",surname:"Yoshioka",slug:"takuyuki-yoshioka",fullName:"Takuyuki Yoshioka"}],corrections:null},{id:"74679",title:"Location Analysis and Application of GIS in Site Suitability Study for Biogas Plant",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95508",slug:"location-analysis-and-application-of-gis-in-site-suitability-study-for-biogas-plant",totalDownloads:339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Proper livestock waste management and development of robust system for the treatment of the bio-waste has been emphasized and investigated by several searchers. Utilization of bio-waste for bio-energy production is advantageous for sustainable environment and socio-economic viewpoints. This study therefore is essential in providing critical strategy needed in situating bio-energy plants, consideration was made in the application of geospatial technology owing to it wide adoption and numerous advantages. Data for site analysis of biogas plant was obtained from GIS organizations and agency, the biomass generation and sites data was obtained from field survey. The biomass potential was based on paunch content generated in the various 43 abattoirs in the study area. The ArcGIS 10 software was used for all GIS operations and subsequent map production. The final suitability index map was obtained by overlaying the land use suitability map with the biomass spatial density layer. The suitable areas were divided into 4 classes: the Most Suitable, Highly Suitable, Moderate Suitable and Not Suitable. The study indicates that suitable sites are predominant in the East and central region of the study area, this study is essential in developing framework for siting biogas plant.",signatures:"Emmanuel C. Chukwuma, Chinenye F. Okey-Onyesolu, Daniel C. Anizoba and Joseph I. Ubah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74679",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74679",authors:[{id:"315803",title:"Dr.",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Chukwuma",slug:"emmanuel-chukwuma",fullName:"Emmanuel Chukwuma"},{id:"344071",title:"Dr.",name:"Faith C.",surname:"Okey-Onyesolu",slug:"faith-c.-okey-onyesolu",fullName:"Faith C. Okey-Onyesolu"},{id:"344072",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel C.",surname:"Anizoba",slug:"daniel-c.-anizoba",fullName:"Daniel C. Anizoba"},{id:"344073",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph C.",surname:"Ubah",slug:"joseph-c.-ubah",fullName:"Joseph C. Ubah"}],corrections:null},{id:"77512",title:"Silvopastoral Systems for Energy Generation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98844",slug:"silvopastoral-systems-for-energy-generation",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The silvipastoral systems are characterized by the association between tree crops, pastures and animals and can also constitute an efficient and sustainable means of supplying forest biomass for energy purposes such as electric, mechanical and thermal energy generation. It is an unconventional energy alternative and the evaluation of the energy potential offered by this productive system depends on several factors, such as management techniques, forest species, silvipastoral system characteristics and the design of the conversion and energy utilization process. In this context, it was developed a mathematical model to determine the energy efficiency of silvipastoril production system integrated with a cogeneration system for the production of thermal, mechanical and electrical energy. It can be concluded that these results are advantageous in relation to the conventional modalities of energy generation, taking into account the prices of electricity practiced in the market.",signatures:"Cid Marcos Gonçalves Andrade, Sérgio Inácio Gomes, Mauro Antônio da Silva Sá Ravagnani and Eugênia Leandro Almeida",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77512",authors:[{id:"330939",title:"Prof.",name:"Cid Marcos G.",surname:"Andrade",slug:"cid-marcos-g.-andrade",fullName:"Cid Marcos G. Andrade"},{id:"418506",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio",surname:"Inácio Gomes",slug:"sergio-inacio-gomes",fullName:"Sérgio Inácio Gomes"},{id:"418507",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",surname:"Antônio da Silva Sá Ravagnani",slug:"mauro-antonio-da-silva-sa-ravagnani",fullName:"Mauro Antônio da Silva Sá Ravagnani"},{id:"418508",title:"MSc.",name:"Eugênia Leandro",surname:"Almeida",slug:"eugenia-leandro-almeida",fullName:"Eugênia Leandro Almeida"}],corrections:null},{id:"73542",title:"Market Prospecting and Assessment of the Economic Potential of Glycerol from Biodiesel",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93965",slug:"market-prospecting-and-assessment-of-the-economic-potential-of-glycerol-from-biodiesel",totalDownloads:939,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Glycerol from biodiesel is a potential raw material for synthesis of several products with high added value. The world demand and the market value of these products are important information for defining the best investment for the implantation of a biorefinery. The information is available on websites of social associations, production companies and market consulting companies and can be mined, free of charge. The International Trade Center (ITC), with information on world trade and websites linked to the foreign trade agencies of every country, such as Comex Stat, in Brazil, are relevant search sources. In this context, this work presents procedures and search techniques for prospecting such information. Such a procedure is illustrated through a case study for which a search of market parameters for glycerol and its derivatives was carried out for use in the process design and economic evaluation of an industrial plant. It was found that crude glycerol had a market price close to US$ 170/ton, in 2019. Among its derivatives, acrylic acid, acrylonitrile and 1,3-propanediol have great potential for the development of new processes, within the scope of a biorefinery. Industrially, acrylic acid (US$ 1100/ton) and acrylonitrile (US$ 1500/ton) are produced from propene (US$ 880/ ton) and 1,3-propanediol (US $ 2000/ton) comes from glucose (US$ 460/t) or ethylene oxide (US$ 1200/t), which encourages the development of new sustainable processes.",signatures:"Alisson Dias da Silva Ruy, Ana Luíza Freitas Ferreira, Antônio Ésio Bresciani, Rita Maria de Brito Alves and Luiz Antônio Magalhães Pontes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73542",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73542",authors:[{id:"98033",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita Maria",surname:"De Brito Alves",slug:"rita-maria-de-brito-alves",fullName:"Rita Maria De Brito Alves"},{id:"328306",title:"BSc.",name:"Ana Luíza",surname:"Freitas Ferreira",slug:"ana-luiza-freitas-ferreira",fullName:"Ana Luíza Freitas Ferreira"},{id:"328307",title:"BSc.",name:"Alisson",surname:"Dias Da Silva Ruy",slug:"alisson-dias-da-silva-ruy",fullName:"Alisson Dias Da Silva Ruy"},{id:"328308",title:"Dr.",name:"Antônio Ésio",surname:"Bresciani",slug:"antonio-esio-bresciani",fullName:"Antônio Ésio Bresciani"},{id:"328309",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Antônio",surname:"Magalhães Pontes",slug:"luiz-antonio-magalhaes-pontes",fullName:"Luiz Antônio Magalhães Pontes"}],corrections:null},{id:"74308",title:"Collagen: From Waste to Gold",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94266",slug:"collagen-from-waste-to-gold",totalDownloads:696,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Industrial processing of bovine hides into leather results in many unusable hide off-cuttings, shavings and trimmings. This waste raw material is under-utilised and presents a waste valorisation opportunity to derive a high-value product such as collagen. Collagen is a highly sought-after protein which consists of three polypeptide chains, comprising 30% of the mammalian body’s protein, being the main component of skin, connective tissue and cartilage. The demand for collagen is rising at approximately 20% annually and global collagen-based biomaterials market is predicted to reach US$5 billion by 2025. This chapter presents a waste valorisation opportunity to extract collagen from waste bovine hide off-cuttings. Further, it discusses collagen extraction method optimization and methods used to investigate physicochemical properties of collagen are reviewed.",signatures:"Safiya Noorzai and Casparus J.R. Verbeek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74308",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74308",authors:[{id:"102391",title:"Dr.",name:"Casparus J.R.",surname:"Verbeek",slug:"casparus-j.r.-verbeek",fullName:"Casparus J.R. Verbeek"},{id:"323904",title:"Dr.",name:"Safiya",surname:"Noorzai",slug:"safiya-noorzai",fullName:"Safiya Noorzai"}],corrections:null},{id:"74170",title:"Composting of Pig Effluent as a Proposal for the Treatment of Veterinary Drugs",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94758",slug:"composting-of-pig-effluent-as-a-proposal-for-the-treatment-of-veterinary-drugs",totalDownloads:374,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pig farming currently occupies a prominent place in the southern states of the Brazil, owning approximately 50% of the national squad, estimated at 42 million pig heads. However, the swine activity contributes significantly to the generation of environmental impacts on the environment. Recently, the greatest need for animal protein has exerted pressures on the current animal production system and one of the alternatives has been to the use of veterinary medicines, which have several uses ranging from therapeutic use, preventive in the treatment of various diseases and as growth promoters. Its indiscriminate and uncontrolled use is currently endangering the environmental balance of producing sites through effluent contamination. Many producers have been using contaminated slurry as a biofertilizer. In this sense, further studies on techniques and processes of treatment of organic effluents contaminated by veterinary drugs are necessary. Alternative low-cost and environmentally viable treatment systems are needs to minimize the entry into the environment of these contaminants. Therefore, the composting process that can defined as a process of aerobic microbial decomposition of organic matter and nutrient recycling can be an alternative for the treatment of effluents contaminated by veterinary drugs.",signatures:"Robson Evaldo Gehlen Bohrer, Mastrângello Enivar Lanzanova, Ramiro Pereira Bisognin, Marciel Redin, Eduardo Lorensi de Souza, Daniela Mueller de Lara, Divanilde Guerra, Danni Maisa da Silva, Maiara Figueiredo Ramires and Diego Armando Amaro Da Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74170",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74170",authors:[{id:"322709",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson Evaldo Gehlen",surname:"Bohrer",slug:"robson-evaldo-gehlen-bohrer",fullName:"Robson Evaldo Gehlen Bohrer"},{id:"326542",title:"Dr.",name:"Danni Maisa da",surname:"Silva",slug:"danni-maisa-da-silva",fullName:"Danni Maisa da Silva"},{id:"327057",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo Lorensi De",surname:"Souza",slug:"eduardo-lorensi-de-souza",fullName:"Eduardo Lorensi De Souza"},{id:"327061",title:"MSc.",name:"Diego Armando Amaro Da",surname:"Silva",slug:"diego-armando-amaro-da-silva",fullName:"Diego Armando Amaro Da Silva"},{id:"327062",title:"Dr.",name:"Marciel",surname:"Redin",slug:"marciel-redin",fullName:"Marciel Redin"},{id:"337297",title:"Dr.",name:"Divanilde",surname:"Guerra",slug:"divanilde-guerra",fullName:"Divanilde Guerra"},{id:"337298",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela Mueller",surname:"De Lara",slug:"daniela-mueller-de-lara",fullName:"Daniela Mueller De Lara"},{id:"337299",title:"Dr.",name:"Maiara Figueiredo",surname:"Ramires",slug:"maiara-figueiredo-ramires",fullName:"Maiara Figueiredo Ramires"},{id:"337300",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramiro Pereira",surname:"Bisognin",slug:"ramiro-pereira-bisognin",fullName:"Ramiro Pereira Bisognin"},{id:"337301",title:"Dr.",name:"Mastrângello Enivar",surname:"Lanzanova",slug:"mastrangello-enivar-lanzanova",fullName:"Mastrângello Enivar Lanzanova"}],corrections:null},{id:"73334",title:"A Comparative Study of MSW to Emery in Oman",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93745",slug:"a-comparative-study-of-msw-to-emery-in-oman",totalDownloads:569,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The adverse impact of the energy production from fossil fuels is now well recognized globally; therefore, the move toward renewable and sustainable energy has become an integral part to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This chapter presents a comparative study considering a waste-to-energy plant to produce electricity in Oman. A research strategy that includes both qualitative and quantitate research methods were adopted to evaluate the MSW generation and emissions, electricity consumption and emissions, public participation in waste segregation, and to estimate the reduction in emission by considering a 5000 tons/day waste-to-energy plant in Oman. The results show that the current emission from fossil fuels to meet the electricity requirement of 70,633.37 Million kWh/year is 161.781 Million tonnes (CO2/year). Similarly, the emissions from MSW which currently stood at 2.159 million tons/year are 3,424,247 tons CO2/year. A 5000 ton per day waste-to-energy plant will not only produce 29.30 million kWh daily but will also enable an annual reduction of 24,527 million kg CO2. Such an initiative will help Oman to improve its sustainability performance in energy, climate change, waste reduction, and economic growth and will pave the road to achieve the relevant SDGs by 2030.",signatures:"Tariq Umar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73334",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73334",authors:[{id:"322616",title:"Dr.",name:"Tariq",surname:"Umar",slug:"tariq-umar",fullName:"Tariq Umar"}],corrections:null},{id:"72179",title:"Production Pathways of Acetic Acid and Its Versatile Applications in the Food Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92289",slug:"production-pathways-of-acetic-acid-and-its-versatile-applications-in-the-food-industry",totalDownloads:1684,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Acetic acid is a commodity chemical with the global demand of approximately 15 million tons per year with several applications in the chemical and food industry. The production of acetic acid can be widely categorized into chemical and fermentative routes, with the chemical route being the predominant one in the current industrial practice. In this chapter, we have reviewed the most recent developments in acetic acid production and applications over past two decades, including process intensification and catalysis by keeping the main emphasis on process sustainability. Acetic acid is used in several industrial sectors such as chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, polymer and paints, food and beverages. Furthermore, acetic acid has several applications in food industry and is traditionally known as vinegar. In addition, it is an acidulant, which is used to give a characteristic flavor profile to food. It can be used for microbial decontamination of meat and as a mild descaling agent in the food industry. More recently, acetic acid is reported to be used as an antimicrobial edible food coating agent. The diversified food culture has a significant demand in the development of such kind of innovation and acetic acid can be an efficient solution.",signatures:"Gunjan Deshmukh and Haresh Manyar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72179",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72179",authors:[{id:"316193",title:"Dr.",name:"Haresh",surname:"Manyar",slug:"haresh-manyar",fullName:"Haresh Manyar"},{id:"316199",title:"Dr.",name:"Gunjan",surname:"Deshmukh",slug:"gunjan-deshmukh",fullName:"Gunjan Deshmukh"}],corrections:null},{id:"71830",title:"Xylanase and Its Industrial Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92156",slug:"xylanase-and-its-industrial-applications",totalDownloads:868,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lignocellulosic biomass is a renewable raw material. Industrial interest with new technology has grown to take advantage of this raw material. Different microbial enzymes are treated with biomass to produce the desired products under ideal industrial conditions. Xylanases are the key enzymes that degrade the xylosidic linkages in the xylan backbone of the biomass, and commercial enzymes are categorized into different glycoside hydrolase families. Thermophilic microorganisms are an excellent source of thermostable enzymes that can tolerate the extreme conditions of industrial processing. Thermostability of xylanases from thermophilic microorganisms has given the importance for a specific activity at elevated temperatures and distinction due to biochemical properties, structure, and mode of action. Optimized xylanases can be produced through genetic engineering: a novel xylanase is isolated from an extreme environment and then genetically modified to improve suitability for industrial contexts. Recombinant protein techniques have made it possible to engineer and express thermostable xylanases in bacteria, yeasts, and filamentous fungi. We will discuss the biotechnological potential of xylanases from thermophilic microorganism and the ways they are being optimized and expressed for industrial applications.",signatures:"Abdul Basit, Wei Jiang and Kashif Rahim",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71830",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71830",authors:[{id:"279285",title:"Dr.",name:"Kashif",surname:"Rahim",slug:"kashif-rahim",fullName:"Kashif Rahim"},{id:"316927",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiang",surname:"Wei",slug:"jiang-wei",fullName:"Jiang Wei"},{id:"317907",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdul",surname:"Basit",slug:"abdul-basit",fullName:"Abdul Basit"}],corrections:null},{id:"74057",title:"Chemical Modification of Xylan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94208",slug:"chemical-modification-of-xylan",totalDownloads:421,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Our study is part of the general context of valuing by-products from the wood industry, which consists of the chemical modification of xylan by synthesis of branched copolymers such as xylan-g-PLLA. The used xylan is extracted from chestnut and 4-dimethylaminopyridine (DMAP) is the catalyst. In fact, the synthesis of xylan-graft-poly (L-lactide) copolymer starting from natural and renewable resource products xylan and L-lactide is performed under different conditions. The results of the grafting reaction are unfavorable due to longer time because of depolymerization reactions. Another result is the solubility and insolubility of the copolymers synthesized in water. This first result indicates that there is a change in the properties of xylan. Moreover, the solubility of the xylan-g-PLLA copolymers is different from one study to another. Grafting of PLLA onto xylan was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and 1HNMR analyzes. The dynamic mechanical analysis showed that the xylan-g-PLLA plastic materials have interesting thermomechanical properties.",signatures:"Djamila Kerrouche, Nabila Rouba and Vincent Chaleix",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74057",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74057",authors:[{id:"315966",title:"Dr.",name:"Djamila",surname:"Kerrouche",slug:"djamila-kerrouche",fullName:"Djamila Kerrouche"},{id:"318237",title:"Dr.",name:"Nabila",surname:"Rouba",slug:"nabila-rouba",fullName:"Nabila Rouba"},{id:"318238",title:"Prof.",name:"Vincent",surname:"Chaleix",slug:"vincent-chaleix",fullName:"Vincent Chaleix"}],corrections:null},{id:"73872",title:"The Application of Solid State Fermentation for Obtaining Substances Useful in Healthcare",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94296",slug:"the-application-of-solid-state-fermentation-for-obtaining-substances-useful-in-healthcare",totalDownloads:442,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the current review we summarised the research involving solid state fermentation (SSF) for the production of compounds that could be used in healthcare (terpenoids, polyphenols, fibrinolytic enzymes, mycophenolic acid and others). We described several groups of obtained agents which hold various activity: antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, immunosuppressive, anticoagulant and others (e.g. anticancer or anti-diabetic). It seems that especially terpenoids and polyphenols could be useful in that field, however, other substances such as enzymes and fatty acids play important role as well. We described main groups of microorganisms that are applied in SSF of those compounds, particularly Bacillus genus and fungi, and where possible provided information regarding genes involved in those processes. We also compared various approaches toward optimisation of SSF.",signatures:"Łukasz Wajda and Magdalena Januszek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73872",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73872",authors:[{id:"322395",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Łukasz",surname:"Wajda",slug:"lukasz-wajda",fullName:"Łukasz Wajda"},{id:"326148",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Januszek",slug:"magdalena-januszek",fullName:"Magdalena Januszek"}],corrections:null},{id:"73619",title:"Microalgae: The Multifaceted Biomass of the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94090",slug:"microalgae-the-multifaceted-biomass-of-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:494,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microalgae are unicellular, eukaryotic organisms which possess unique qualities of replication, producing biomass as a precursor for biofuels, nutraceuticals, biofertilizer, and fine chemicals including hydrocarbons. Microalgae access nitrates and phosphates in wastewater from municipalities, industries, and agricultural processes to grow. Wastewater is, therefore, culture media for microalgae, and provides the needed nutrients, micronutrients, inorganic and organic pollutants to produce microalgae biomass. Suitable strains of microalgae cultivated under mesophilic conditions in wastewater with optimized hydrodynamics, hydraulic retention time (HRT), luminous intensity, and other co-factors produce biomass of high specific growth rate, high productivity, and with high density. The hydrodynamics are determined using a range of bioreactors from raceway ponds, photobioreactors to hybrid reactors. Carbon dioxide is used in the photosynthetic process, which offers different growth stimuli in the daytime and the night-time as the microalgae cultivation technique is navigated between autotrophy, heterotrophy, and mixotrophy resulting in microalgal lipids of different compositions.",signatures:"Donald Tyoker Kukwa and Maggie Chetty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73619",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73619",authors:[{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"323336",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald",surname:"Kukwa",slug:"donald-kukwa",fullName:"Donald Kukwa"}],corrections:null},{id:"73988",title:"Microalgae Cultivation in Photobioreactors Aiming at Biodiesel Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93547",slug:"microalgae-cultivation-in-photobioreactors-aiming-at-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:434,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The search for a renewable source as an alternative to fossil fuels has driven the research on new sources of biomass for biofuels. An alternative source of biomass that has come to prominence is microalgae, photosynthetic micro-organisms capable of capturing atmospheric CO2 and accumulating high levels of lipids in their biomass, making them attractive as a raw material for biodiesel synthesis. Thus, various studies have been conducted in developing different types of photobioreactors for the cultivation of microalgae. Photobioreactors can be divided into two groups: open and closed. Open photobioreactors are more susceptible to contamination and bad weather, reducing biomass productivity. Closed photobioreactors allow greater control against contamination and bad weather and lead to higher rates of biomass production; they are widely used in research to improve new species and processes. Therefore, many configurations of closed photobioreactors have been developed over the years to increase productivity of microalgae biomass.",signatures:"Mateus S. Amaral, Carla C.A. Loures, Fabiano L. Naves, Gisella L. Samanamud, Messias B. Silva and Arnaldo M.R. Prata",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73988",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73988",authors:[{id:"138047",title:"MSc.",name:"Carla C.A.",surname:"Loures",slug:"carla-c.a.-loures",fullName:"Carla C.A. Loures"},{id:"322352",title:"Dr.",name:"Mateus S.",surname:"Amaral",slug:"mateus-s.-amaral",fullName:"Mateus S. Amaral"},{id:"324661",title:"Prof.",name:"Arnaldo M.R.",surname:"Prata",slug:"arnaldo-m.r.-prata",fullName:"Arnaldo M.R. Prata"},{id:"324662",title:"Prof.",name:"Messias B.",surname:"Silva",slug:"messias-b.-silva",fullName:"Messias B. Silva"},{id:"324665",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiano L.",surname:"Naves",slug:"fabiano-l.-naves",fullName:"Fabiano L. Naves"},{id:"328171",title:"Dr.",name:"Gisella L.",surname:"Samanamud",slug:"gisella-l.-samanamud",fullName:"Gisella L. Samanamud"}],corrections:null},{id:"73644",title:"Microalgae Growth under Mixotrophic Condition Using Agro-Industrial Waste: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93964",slug:"microalgae-growth-under-mixotrophic-condition-using-agro-industrial-waste-a-review",totalDownloads:487,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microalgae has a great potential to produce biofuels and bioproduct but the cost is still too high mainly due to the biomass production. Mixotrophic cultivation has been pointed as microalgae cultivation mode for biomass/bioenergy production with lower cost and able to make remediation of organic waste. The proposals of this work was to make a review of microalgae growth under mixotrophic condition using agro-industrial waste. Agro-industrial by-products and wastes are of great interest as cultivation medium for microorganisms because of their low cost, renewable nature, and abundance. However biotechnological technologies are necessary to develop the production of microalgae on a large scale.",signatures:"Izabel Pereira, Adriano Rangel, Bruna Chagas, Bruno de Moura, Stela Urbano, Roberto Sassi, Fabiana Camara and Cíntia Castro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73644",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73644",authors:[{id:"142834",title:"MSc.",name:"Stela",surname:"Urbano",slug:"stela-urbano",fullName:"Stela Urbano"},{id:"322756",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Bruna",surname:"Chagas",slug:"bruna-chagas",fullName:"Bruna Chagas"},{id:"325694",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriano",surname:"Rangel",slug:"adriano-rangel",fullName:"Adriano Rangel"},{id:"325695",title:"MSc.",name:"Izabel",surname:"Pereira",slug:"izabel-pereira",fullName:"Izabel Pereira"},{id:"325696",title:"Dr.",name:"Cintia",surname:"Castro",slug:"cintia-castro",fullName:"Cintia Castro"},{id:"325697",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",surname:"De Moura",slug:"bruno-de-moura",fullName:"Bruno De Moura"},{id:"325698",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Sassi",slug:"roberto-sassi",fullName:"Roberto Sassi"},{id:"329901",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiana",surname:"Camara",slug:"fabiana-camara",fullName:"Fabiana Camara"}],corrections:null},{id:"73998",title:"Magnetic Field Application to Increase Yield of Microalgal Biomass in Biofuel Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94576",slug:"magnetic-field-application-to-increase-yield-of-microalgal-biomass-in-biofuel-production",totalDownloads:328,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Use of fuels from non-renewable sources has currently been considered unsustainable due to the exhaustion of supplies and environmental impacts caused by them. Climate change has concerned and triggered environmental policies that favor research on clean and renewable energy sources. Thus, production of third generation biofuels is a promising path in the biofuel industry. To yield this type of biofuels, microalgae should be highlighted because this raw material contains important biomolecules, such as carbohydrates and lipids. Technological approaches have been developed to improve microalgal cultivation under ecological conditions, such as light intensity, temperature, pH and concentrations of micro and macronutrients. Thus, magnetic field application to microalgal cultivation has become a viable alternative to obtain high yields of biomass concentration and accumulation of carbohydrates and lipids.",signatures:"Lucielen Oliveira Santos, Pedro Garcia Pereira Silva, Sharlene Silva Costa and Taiele Blumberg Machado",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73998",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73998",authors:[{id:"323381",title:"Prof.",name:"Lucielen",surname:"Oliveira Santos",slug:"lucielen-oliveira-santos",fullName:"Lucielen Oliveira Santos"},{id:"331702",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Garcia Pereira Silva",slug:"pedro-garcia-pereira-silva",fullName:"Pedro Garcia Pereira Silva"},{id:"331703",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharlene Silva",surname:"Costa",slug:"sharlene-silva-costa",fullName:"Sharlene Silva Costa"},{id:"331704",title:"Dr.",name:"Taiele",surname:"Blumberg Machado",slug:"taiele-blumberg-machado",fullName:"Taiele Blumberg Machado"}],corrections:null},{id:"73244",title:"Valorization of Lignocellulosic and Microalgae Biomass",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93654",slug:"valorization-of-lignocellulosic-and-microalgae-biomass",totalDownloads:520,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lignocellulosic biomass has gained increasing recognition in the past decades for the production of value-added products (VAPs). Biomass feedstocks obtained from various sources, their composition, and pretreatment techniques employed for delignification into bioenergy production are discussed. The conversion processes of biomass into VAPs involve various methods. Notable among them are biochemical conversions; namely, anaerobic digestion and ethanol fermentation, and thermo-chemical conversions; namely, pyrolysis and gasification which are considered in this chapter. Microalgae can adapt to changes in the environment, producing biomass that serves as a precursor for a variety of biomolecules, such as proteins, which find their application in pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and biofuel industries. Suitable strains of freshwater microalgae biomass contain high levels of lipid which can be harnessed for bioenergy production. Hence, the advancement in the conversion of biomass into VAPs could help scientists and environmentalists for sustainable use of biomass in future developments.",signatures:"Edward Kwaku Armah, Maggie Chetty, Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji and Donald Tyoker Kukwa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73244",authors:[{id:"281613",title:"Dr.",name:"Maggie",surname:"Chetty",slug:"maggie-chetty",fullName:"Maggie Chetty"},{id:"323336",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald",surname:"Kukwa",slug:"donald-kukwa",fullName:"Donald Kukwa"},{id:"324641",title:"Dr.",name:"Edward Kwaku",surname:"Armah",slug:"edward-kwaku-armah",fullName:"Edward Kwaku Armah"},{id:"326294",title:"Dr.",name:"Jeremiah Adebisi",surname:"Adedeji",slug:"jeremiah-adebisi-adedeji",fullName:"Jeremiah Adebisi Adedeji"}],corrections:null},{id:"73696",title:"Recent Advances in Algal Biomass Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94218",slug:"recent-advances-in-algal-biomass-production",totalDownloads:576,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The promise of algae to address the renewable energy and green-product production demands of the globe has yet to be realized. Over the past ten years, however, there has been a substantial investment and interest in realizing the potential of algae to meet these needs. Tremendous progress has been achieved. Ten years ago, the price of gasoline produced from algal biomass was 20-fold greater than it is today. Technoeconomic models indicate that algal biocrude produced in an optimized cultivation, harvesting, and biomass conversion facility can achieve economic parity with petroleum while reducing carbon-energy indices substantially relative to petroleum-based fuels. There is also an emerging recognition that algal carbon capture and sequestration as lipids may offer a viable alternative to direct atmospheric CO2 capture and sequestration. We review recent advances in basic and applied algal biomass production from the perspectives of algal biology, cultivation, harvesting, energy conversion, and sustainability. The prognosis is encouraging but will require substantial integration and field testing of a variety of technology platforms to down select the most economical and sustainable systems to address the needs of the circular economy and atmospheric carbon mitigation.",signatures:"Meghna Rajvanshi and Richard Sayre",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73696",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73696",authors:[{id:"323202",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",surname:"Sayre",slug:"richard-sayre",fullName:"Richard Sayre"},{id:"327666",title:"Dr.",name:"Meghna",surname:"Rajvanshi",slug:"meghna-rajvanshi",fullName:"Meghna Rajvanshi"}],corrections:null},{id:"74277",title:"Use of Olive Mill Wastewaters as Bio-Insecticides for the Control of Potosia Opaca in Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93537",slug:"use-of-olive-mill-wastewaters-as-bio-insecticides-for-the-control-of-em-potosia-opaca-em-in-date-pal",totalDownloads:328,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The date palm is one of the most economically important perennial plants of the North Africa and in Morocco, where it is extensively cultivated for food and many other commercial purposes. Palm trees are threatened by many pests such as Potosia opaca newly identified in Morocco, especially in Marrakesh and Errachidia regions. In addition, olive mill wastewaters (OMW) are an environmental problem in olive oil producing countries such as Morocco. Generally, these effluents are drained into ecosystems without any pre-treatment. To reduce their negative impact and to get benefits in particular from their high phenolic content, OMW were used as bio-insecticides in crude form. The results showed that crude OMW were effective to control this pest causing a weight loss similar to Cordus insecticide (17% vs. 15%) and mortality almost similar to Kemaban insecticide. OMW’s biocide potential was related principally to their high phenolic content. Based on HPLC analysis, ten phenolic molecules were identified, including two which were revealed as the major monomeric phenolic compounds in OMW, 0.248 g/L of hydroxytyrosol and 0.201 g/L of tyrosol. In this chapter, the potential use of OMW as bio-insecticides for the control of P. opaca in date palm is discussed.",signatures:"Abdelilah Meddich, Abderrahim Boutasknit, Mohamed Anli, Meriame Ait Ahmed, Abdelilah El Abbassi, Hanane Boutaj, Mohamed Ait-El-Mokhtar and Ali Boumezzough",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74277",authors:[{id:"307126",title:"Prof.",name:"Boumezzough",surname:"Ali",slug:"boumezzough-ali",fullName:"Boumezzough Ali"},{id:"322362",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelilah",surname:"Meddich",slug:"abdelilah-meddich",fullName:"Abdelilah Meddich"},{id:"327801",title:"Dr.",name:"Abderrahim",surname:"Boutasknit",slug:"abderrahim-boutasknit",fullName:"Abderrahim Boutasknit"},{id:"327936",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Anli",slug:"mohamed-anli",fullName:"Mohamed Anli"},{id:"327937",title:"Ms.",name:"Meriame",surname:"Ait Ahmed",slug:"meriame-ait-ahmed",fullName:"Meriame Ait Ahmed"},{id:"327938",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdelilah",surname:"El Abbassi",slug:"abdelilah-el-abbassi",fullName:"Abdelilah El Abbassi"},{id:"327939",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanane",surname:"Boutaj",slug:"hanane-boutaj",fullName:"Hanane Boutaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"72932",title:"Fungal Biomass Load and Aspergillus flavus in a Controlled Environment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93307",slug:"fungal-biomass-load-and-em-aspergillus-flavus-em-in-a-controlled-environment",totalDownloads:328,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fungal biomass quantification is critical in understanding the interactions between the pathogen and susceptibility or resistance of the host plant as well as identifying competition between individual fungal spp. in disease progression. In the present chapter, two maize lines grown in different climatic regions of Kenya were infected with an aflatoxigenic A. flavus isolate (KSM014) and fungal colonization of the maize plant tissues was monitored by measuring fungal biomass load after 14 days in a controlled environment. The objective of the study was to determine whether the maize line colonized was a factor in increasing or limiting the growth of an aflatoxigenic strain of Aspergillus flavus.",signatures:"Alfred Mitema and Naser Aliye Feto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72932",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72932",authors:[{id:"304785",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfred",surname:"Mitema",slug:"alfred-mitema",fullName:"Alfred Mitema"},{id:"323258",title:"Dr.",name:"Naser",surname:"Aliye Feto",slug:"naser-aliye-feto",fullName:"Naser Aliye Feto"}],corrections:null},{id:"73709",title:"Role of Decomposers in Agricultural Waste Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93816",slug:"role-of-decomposers-in-agricultural-waste-management",totalDownloads:814,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, agricultural waste residue management by bio-organisms is discussed along with different types of decomposition processes. Tons of agricultural wastes are produced every year. These agricultural wastes create major environmental problems without effective means of management methods. There are many technologies being used for the decomposition, which mainly include anaerobic decomposition, compositing, fermentation, etc. All these decomposition processes depend upon the different soil-inhabiting microbes. These microbes are the key components of agri-residue decomposition process. Every step of decomposition requires different microbes. Various sets of catalytical enzymes are involved for the catabolic procedures of organic matter. By successive catabolic reactions, all the organic matters are mineralized into soil essential constituents, which will be the most effective sources of macro- and micronutrients for the soil fertility. Working efficiency of these microbes depends upon different parameters like moisture, temperature, pH, etc. The vitality and efficiency of microbes can be enhanced by using various inert carriers. If the efficiency of these soil microbes enhances by various factors, then the rate of decomposition could be enhanced to handle this ever-increasing problem of agriculture residue in near future.",signatures:"Nusrat Iqbal, Amrish Agrawal, Saurabh Dubey and Jitender Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73709",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73709",authors:[{id:"315502",title:"Dr.",name:"Saurabh",surname:"Dubey",slug:"saurabh-dubey",fullName:"Saurabh Dubey"},{id:"317856",title:"Ms.",name:"Nusrat",surname:"Iqbal",slug:"nusrat-iqbal",fullName:"Nusrat Iqbal"},{id:"332608",title:"Dr.",name:"Amrish",surname:"Agrawal",slug:"amrish-agrawal",fullName:"Amrish Agrawal"},{id:"332610",title:"Dr.",name:"Jitendra",surname:"Kumar",slug:"jitendra-kumar",fullName:"Jitendra Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"73450",title:"Gasification of Biomass",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93954",slug:"gasification-of-biomass",totalDownloads:795,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Gasification is an indirect combustion of solid and liquid biomass by converting them to combustive syngas. Gasification is an alternative process for the traditional combustion, in which the emission of dust and toxic gases can be minimized. In this chapter, a comparison of these two biomass-to-heat conversion processes applied on biomass is presented in term of environmental impacts and technological benefits with a hope to provide readers a basic view of choices. Gasification is classified as in term of gasification agents, non-catalytic and catalytic process, and plasma assisted process. Popular types of gasification equipment, aka gasifiers, are introduced with working principles, through which the advantages and weakness of technology are briefly discussed.",signatures:"Thanh Phong Mai and Dinh Quan Nguyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73450",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73450",authors:[{id:"291521",title:"Prof.",name:"Dinh Quan",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"dinh-quan-nguyen",fullName:"Dinh Quan Nguyen"},{id:"301392",title:"Prof.",name:"Thanh Phong",surname:"Mai",slug:"thanh-phong-mai",fullName:"Thanh Phong Mai"}],corrections:null},{id:"73806",title:"Numerical and Experimental Analysis of Thermochemical Treatment for the Liquefaction of Lemon Bagasse in a Jacketed Vessel",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94364",slug:"numerical-and-experimental-analysis-of-thermochemical-treatment-for-the-liquefaction-of-lemon-bagass",totalDownloads:407,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this work, it was investigated the time evolution of thermal profile inside a liquefaction vessel and how the temperature and time of reaction influenced liquefaction yield. Liquefaction was performed in two different ways: (1) Experimental Analysis; (2) Numerical 3-D model, using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). Liquefaction was performed using lemon bagasse samples, glycerol and sulphuric acid, as catalyst. Temperature and liquefaction Yield (LY) were measured for different time of reaction (30, 60 and 90 minutes). From experimental data, LY were higher than 70 wt% for 90 minutes reaction. The increase in the temperature inside the reactor occurred due to the conduction and natural convection phenomena. Although the jacketed vessel was fed with steam at 125°C, working conditions allowed the heating of the mixture to less than 100°C. CFD thermal profile was in accordance with experimental data. They showed it was necessary 60 minutes to achieve a steady state of heating in the mixture inside this liquefaction vessel. From CFD transient simulations, it was observed some oscillations and detachment from experimental data, which may be due to changes in fluids properties along the process. Despite this consideration CFD could satisfactory analyse heat transfer in this liquefaction process.",signatures:"Brenno S. Leite, Daniel J.O. Ferreira, Sibele A.F. Leite and Vanessa F.C. Lins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73806",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73806",authors:[{id:"168180",title:"Prof.",name:"Vanessa F. C.",surname:"Lins",slug:"vanessa-f.-c.-lins",fullName:"Vanessa F. C. Lins"},{id:"240200",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel J.O.",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"daniel-j.o.-ferreira",fullName:"Daniel J.O. Ferreira"},{id:"323539",title:"Dr.",name:"Brenno S.",surname:"Leite",slug:"brenno-s.-leite",fullName:"Brenno S. Leite"},{id:"323540",title:"Dr.",name:"Sibele A. F.",surname:"Leite",slug:"sibele-a.-f.-leite",fullName:"Sibele A. F. Leite"}],corrections:null},{id:"73112",title:"Investigation of Nonisothermal Combustion Kinetics of Isolated Lignocellulosic Biomass: A Case Study of Cellulose from Date Palm Biomass Waste",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93549",slug:"investigation-of-nonisothermal-combustion-kinetics-of-isolated-lignocellulosic-biomass-a-case-study-",totalDownloads:412,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The efficient and high yielding acid-base and Organosolv methods were studied for cellulose isolation from date palm lignocellulose waste biomass and thereafter analyzed for nonisothermal kinetic and thermodynamic parameter determination using model-free methods. The structural and chemical characterization of the isolated celluloses revealed structures and functional groups characteristics of cellulose. Thermal decomposition analysis revealed one major peak with average mass loss of 72.51 ± 0.7% and 55.82 ± 1.1% for the acid-base and Organosolv method, respectively. This occurred in the temperature region between 250 and 350°C associated with cellulose degradation and contrasted with the three peaks detected in the original biomass. The kinetic and thermodynamic results revealed a strong relationship between the average activation energy and average change in enthalpy with a difference of 5.23 and 147.07 kJmol−1 for Organosolv and acid-base methods, respectively. The Gibbs’s free energy results revealed that Organosolv cellulose pyrolysis would reach equilibrium faster in KAS, Starink and FWO models with average ΔG values of 115.80 ± 36.62, 115.89 ± 36.65, and 119.45 ± 37.98 kJmol−1, respectively. The acid-base method for FWO model gave negative entropy values. The Malek method revealed the acid-base and Organoslv cellulose pyrolysis mechanism as (gα=−ln1−α14) and (gα=−ln1−α13), characterized by random nucleation and growth, respectively.",signatures:"Emmanuel Galiwango and Ali H. Al-Marzouqi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73112",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73112",authors:[{id:"324157",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Emmanuel",surname:"Galiwango",slug:"emmanuel-galiwango",fullName:"Emmanuel Galiwango"},{id:"324158",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali H.",surname:"Al-Marzouqi",slug:"ali-h.-al-marzouqi",fullName:"Ali H. Al-Marzouqi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73760",title:"Economics, Sustainability, and Reaction Kinetics of Biomass Torrefaction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94400",slug:"economics-sustainability-and-reaction-kinetics-of-biomass-torrefaction",totalDownloads:442,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass torrefaction is capable of significantly improving the quality and properties of solid biofuels. It is often referred to as complex reactions involving the decomposition of lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose as well as moisture evaporation due to several reactions involved. To evaluate the efficiency of the torrefaction process as well as the reactor performance, considering the economics of biomass torrefaction including the total production cost and capital investment, production capacity, feedstock input, feedstock type, pre-treatment, procurement and transportation costs is of high importance. In this Chapter, the economics of torrefaction process will be discussed. In addition, ways to ensure competitiveness of torrefaction technology will be explained provided factors including the use of plant with larger capacity, integrated system features such as pelletization, and moisture content of the feedstock, are properly considered. Thereafter, the concept of sustainability of biomass torrefaction in relation with the environmental factor (sustainable forest management), social factor (revitalization of rural areas), and economic factor (fossil fuels dependence and renewable energy consumption) will be presented.",signatures:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73760",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73760",authors:[{id:"323103",title:"Dr.",name:"Temitope Olumide",surname:"Olugbade",slug:"temitope-olumide-olugbade",fullName:"Temitope Olumide Olugbade"}],corrections:null},{id:"75168",title:"Soft Sensors for Biomass Monitoring during Low Cost Cellulase Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96027",slug:"soft-sensors-for-biomass-monitoring-during-low-cost-cellulase-production",totalDownloads:361,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Low cost cellulase production has become a major challenge in recent years. The major hurdle in the production of biofuel and other products from biomass is the lack of efficient economically feasible cellulase. This can be achieved by proper monitoring and control of bioprocess. In order to implement any control scheme, the accurate representation of the system in the form of a model is necessary. There are many challenges associated with modeling the fermentation process such as inherent nonlinear dynamic behavior, complexity of process due to co-existence of viable and nonviable cells, presence of solid substrates, etc. Toward the achievement of this goal, researchers have been developing new techniques that can be used to monitor the process online and at-line. These newer techniques have paved the way for designing better control strategies that can be integrated with quality by design (QbD) and process analytic technology (PAT).",signatures:"Chitra Murugan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75168",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75168",authors:[{id:"306600",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Chitra",surname:"Murugan",slug:"chitra-murugan",fullName:"Chitra Murugan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7238",title:"Fuel Ethanol Production from Sugarcane",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3b4eb4ac5837543b99bd6e1a1a4cacc",slug:"fuel-ethanol-production-from-sugarcane",bookSignature:"Thalita Peixoto Basso and Luiz Carlos Basso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7238.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"139174",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Thalita",surname:"Peixoto 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Interestingly, cyclodextrins are produced hundreds-of-thousands of tons every year through environmentally benign techniques and methods. More importantly, their crucial properties can be altered significantly through their ability to form inclusion complexes and also utilize their functionalizations. Remarkably, their unique ‘molecular encapsulation feature’ had already been exploited in a myriad of industrial products, technologies, & analytical practices. And their fascination towards researchers & industrialists worldwide could be seen from their diverse vital applications in pharmacy, biomedicine, nanotechnology, environmental protection, wastewater treatment, solar cells, conducting polymer, catalysis, drug-carriers, agrochemistry & cosmetology, etc. In contrast to the earlier books on cyclodextrins, herewith we planned to showcase the new developments in this emerging area with an intention, Of where this wonderful field presently stands and where it might go in years to come. Hope this new package in cyclodextrin chemistry would be informative to the readers of both academia & industry in addition to the undergraduate and post-graduate students.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-258-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-257-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-259-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"31f22441bda291f7968afd488ec33073",bookSignature:"Dr. Rashid Ali",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11901.jpg",keywords:"Structural Features, Physiochemical Properties, Cyclodextrin-Metals Hybrids, Aggregates, Photochemical Applications, Host-Guest Chemistry, Molecular Recognization, Drug Delivery, Cyclodextrin Polymers, Nanoscience & Nanotechnology, Industrial, Environmental",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 31st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 30th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in supramolecular & organic chemistry, Dr. Rashid Ali received his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay. His 12 years of research experience include a post-PhD at Sookmyung W. University, South Korea. He published more than 45 original papers in journals like Nature Chemistry, JACS, and Green Chemistry and authored an upcoming book entitled ‘Indicator Displacement Assays (IDAs): An Innovative Molecular Sensing Approach’.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"334623",title:"Dr.",name:"Rashid",middleName:null,surname:"Ali",slug:"rashid-ali",fullName:"Rashid Ali",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334623/images/system/334623.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rashid Ali is a pioneering researcher engaged in the area of supramolecular & organic chemistry who earned his Ph.D. from the Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay, at present one of the best institutes in India. He has 12 years of research experience, one spent at Sookmyung Women's University, South Korea, and is a holder of more than 45 original papers published in journals including Nature Chemistry, JACS, Chem. Commun., Green chemistry, and Coord. Chem. Rev. He has also published several book chapters and many more are on the way; he authored a book (currently under preparation) in Bentham Science entitled ‘Indicator Displacement Assays (IDAs): An Innovative Molecular Sensing Approach’. Besides having numerous collaborations worldwide he is also a reviewer for numerous international journals. 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The vascular alterations and immunological activation lead to progressive fibrosis of multiple organ systems including the skin, the gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, and the lungs. Disease-associated changes can have a negative impact on sexual functioning [1, 2]. Generally, sexuality in systemic sclerosis has been a neglected area so far, especially female sexual dysfunction. Impaired sexual functioning in women was probably less studied due to the complexity and multifactorial nature of female sexual response. A little bit more attention was paid to erectile dysfunction, where etiology is more pronounced even though women are affected by this disease more often [3, 4, 5]. The etiology of sexual dysfunctions in systemic sclerosis is not well known; the causes are multifactorial and are related to both the disease symptoms and the therapy. The most common physical problems associated with female sexual dysfunction include vaginal dryness, dyspareunia, vaginal tightness, Raynaud’s phenomenon, fatigue, generalized pain, muscle weakness, joint contractures, heartburn, and dyspnea. Presence of depression, fear, changes in face and body appearance, and lack of self-esteem are the psychological aspects, which can play a key role in the pathogenesis of sexual dysfunction in systemic sclerosis patients [6]. The etiology of erectile dysfunction is a little bit more understood. It is considered to be a result of microangiopathic changes. Due to corporal fibrosis and myointimal proliferation, the blood flow in the penile arteries is reduced.
\nSeveral studies have suggested that sexual dysfunction is a widespread problem in both men and women with SSc. It is more prevalent than in general population and other chronic diseases [7]. The most common symptoms of female sexual dysfunction are vaginal tightness, dryness, and dyspareunia [7, 8]. More severe sexual dysfunction is usually associated with depression symptoms, aging, and functional impairment [2, 9, 10]. The prevalence of erectile dysfunction is about 80% [11, 12, 13]. In women, more than half of the SSc patients experience some sexual problems [7, 8]. The management of erectile dysfunction has been more studied compared to female sexual dysfunction treatment. However, the number of publications regarding the efficacy of erectile dysfunction treatment in SSc patients is still very limited and further research is needed. The treatment of female sexual dysfunction in SSc women has not been paid much attention so far. There are only general recommendations available.
\nIn order to better understand why and how systemic sclerosis may affect sexual functioning, there is an overview of sexual response models, developed over the past few years, which led to the current diagnostic and classification criteria for sexual dysfunction. The first model of female sexual response was described by Masters and Johnson in 1966. They published that a normal female sexual response consists of four consecutive phases including desire, plateau phase, orgasm, and resolution. It was supposed that in both women and men, the sexual response is commenced by desire which is influenced by the activity of two brain centers—dopamine sensitive excitatory center and serotonin sensitive inhibitory center. These centers send a signal going through the descendent nervous system into the spinal cord from where the genital sexual reaction is triggered. The arousal phase is mediated by the parasympathetic nervous system, which leads to vascular and genital changes such as enlargement of the clitoris, dilatation of perivaginal arterioles, and lubrication and expansion of two-thirds of the vagina. The following level of excitement is referred to the plateau phase that lasts until the orgasm. The orgasm phase is accompanied by contractions of pelvic floor muscles, increased heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure. After reaching orgasm, the body usually calms down and this phase is called the refractory or resolution phase (Figure 1) [14].
\nThe four-phase model of female sexual response cycle; BP = blood pressure, HR = heart rate, and RR = respiratory rate. Modified according to [
In 1979, this model was modified by Kaplan into a three-phase model, which consists of desire, arousal, and orgasm [15]. Based on this linear model, the diagnostic and classification system was developed. The World Health Organization International Classifications of Diseases-10 (ICD-10) and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) by the American Psychiatric Association were established. The ICD-10 focused on how physical factors influenced sexual response, whereas DSM-IV classification emphasized more emotional and psychological aspects of female sexual dysfunction. Because both approaches followed the linear model of sexual response, which was later criticized for not taking into consideration the complexity of female sexual response, the new classification was needed [16].
\nIn 1998, the Sexual Function Health Council of the American Foundation for Urologic Disease (AFUD) convened an interdisciplinary congress, which was attended by 19 experts on female sexual dysfunction selected from five countries. The aim was to develop a consensual definition and classification based on the ICD-10 and DSM-IV. The new developed classification has been extended to include psychogenic and organic causes of desire, arousal, orgasm, and sexual pain disorders. An essential point of this classification is the personal distress criterion considering sexual complaint as a disorder only if it causes a subjective feeling of distress [17].
\nFurther research has shown that the model of female sexual response is still incomplete and that many aspects affecting women’s sexual function have been omitted. Studies reported that women often describe overlapping phases of sexual response in variable sequences. For instance, the unfounded assumption that desire always precedes arousal has been mistaken, and based on the women self-report and research data, it was proven that arousal and desire co-occur and reinforce each other. It was also found that motivation for sexual activity is much more complex than the mere presence of sexual desire defined as thinking or fantasizing about sex. Women in different surveys cited that increased desire for sexual activity may be caused by the emotional closeness of a partner or intimacy that increases female well-being and self-image, which may include the sense of feeling attractive, appreciated, loved, or desired. If enough appropriate sexual stimulation is provided, enough time and intimacy are available, the woman’s enjoyment and excitement can be intensified. The type of stimulation, time needed, and interpersonal context are highly individual. Moreover, spontaneous desire can be affected by the menstrual cycle, which usually decreases with age and grows with a new relationship. These new findings have surpassed the original hypothesis that women’s sexual response must always begin with sexual desire (thoughts and fantasies) and its absence is the result of a disorder. In addition, it was confirmed that, unlike men, there is no correlation between female subjective excitement and genital congestion. Subjective excitement could be influenced by interpersonal relationships, contextual factors, privacy, appropriateness, general emotional status, emotional relationships, biological factors, presence of depression, the influence of hormones (dopamine, testosterone), and others. In 2003, therefore, a revision of the current definition was done. The International Definitions Committee consisting of 13 experts from seven countries convened and proposed new definitions, which take into account new findings in the field of female sexual response [18, 19, 20].
\nCurrent definition was again revised in 2010 by the International Consensus of Sexual Medicine, where the movement away from the nonoverlapping linear model toward a more circular model depicting the variety of triggers of women’s desire was accepted. It was emphasized that innate sexual fantasies and thoughts are not necessary for healthy sexual functioning and that desire is the result of sexual incentive that may be physically or subjectively perceived. Based on the previous findings, the arousal disorder was reclassified into subjective arousal disorder, genital arousal disorder, combined genital and subjective arousal disorder, and persistent genital arousal disorder. In May 2013, DSM-V was released, which also takes the focus away from the four-phase model, removed the sexual aversion disorder and merged vaginismus and dyspareunia into a new genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder. It was finally noted that sexual dysfunction is a result of both psychological and biological and many other contributing factors [15, 21]. In 2015, the Fourth International Consultation on Sexual Medicine presented the new set of definitions of all forms of sexual dysfunction in women and men, which was based on ICD-10 and DSM-V (Figure 2) [22].
\nNonlinear model of female sexual response cycle. The initial stage of female sexual response is sexual neutrality, but with positive motivation (left). The reasons why a woman is willing to initiate or agree to sexual activity can be that she wants to feel loved, share physical pleasure or be emotionally closer to her partner, please her partner, or she wants to increase her own satisfaction. Stimuli for sexual activity are being processed in the woman’s mind, influenced by biological and psychological factors, and result in subjective sexual arousal. If sexual stimuli last sufficiently long, sexual arousal and enjoyment will intensify, and it can trigger a desire for further sexual activity. It is important to note that desire appears at this point, not in the initial phase. When the stimulation continues and no negatives outcomes are involved, the process results in sexual satisfaction (with or without orgasm). Modified according to [
The newest changes in nomenclature of female sexual dysfunction came in May 2018, when the World Health Organization developed the eleventh revision of the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11). The ICD-10 classification of sexual dysfunctions was separated to two main groups: “organic” and “nonorganic” conditions. The nonorganic sexual diseases were classified as mental and behavioral disorders and organic belonged to diseases of the genitourinary system chapter. However, since ICD-10 definition, lots of evidences have been accumulated regarding the causes of sexual dysfunction, which often involve a combination of physical and psychological factors. The ICD-10 classification was therefore not consistent with clinical approaches in sexual health. ICD-11 diagnostic guidelines organize sexual dysfunctions into four main groups:
sexual desire and arousal dysfunctions;
orgasmic dysfunctions;
ejaculatory dysfunctions; and
other specified sexual dysfunctions.
Moreover, a separate grouping of sexual pain disorders has been established. Where possible, categories in this new classification of sexual dysfunctions apply to both men and women even though the differences in sexual response are known. On the other hand, the neural pathways and neurotransmitters mediating sexual response are the same for both men and women. Separate sexual dysfunction categories are provided where clinical manifestations differ [24].
\nThe overview of current diagnostic criteria of sexual dysfunctions is presented below in Table 1. The present definition according the WHO ICD-11 is: “Sexual Dysfunctions are syndromes that comprise the various ways in which adult people may have difficulty experiencing personally satisfying, noncoercive sexual activities. Sexual response is a complex interaction of psychological, interpersonal, social, cultural and physiological processes and one or more of these factors may affect any stage of the sexual response. In order to be considered a sexual dysfunction, the dysfunction must: (1) occur frequently, although it may be absent on some occasions; (2) have been present for at least several months; and (3) be associated with clinically significant distress” [25].
\nICD-11 (2018) | \nDSM-5 (2013) | \n
---|---|
Chapter: conditions related to sexual health | \n|
Grouping: sexual dysfunctions | \nGrouping: sexual dysfunctions | \n
Category: hypoactive sexual desire dysfunction | \nCategory: female sexual interest/arousal disorder; male hypoactive sexual desire disorder | \n
Category: sexual arousal dysfunction | \nCategory: female sexual interest/arousal disorder | \n
Category: orgasmic dysfunction | \nCategory: female orgasmic disorder | \n
Category: ejaculatory dysfunction | \nCategory: erectile disorder | \n
Subcategory: male early ejaculation | \nCategory: premature (early) ejaculation | \n
Subcategory: male delayed ejaculation | \nCategory: delayed ejaculation | \n
Category: other specified sexual dysfunction | \nCategory: other specified sexual dysfunction | \n
Category: unspecified sexual dysfunction | \nCategory: unspecified sexual dysfunction | \n
Grouping: sexual pain disorders | \n\n |
Category: sexual pain-penetration disorder | \nCategory: genito-pelvic pain/ penetration disorder | \n
Persons with systemic sclerosis can experience a variety of symptoms that may affect all aspects of life, including sexual functions. The exact etiopathogenesis of sexual dysfunctions in systemic sclerosis is not well known; the causes are multifactorial and are related to both the disease symptoms and the therapy. Medical, pathophysiological, psychological, and social components may be involved in sexual dysfunction. Both physical and psychological problems arising from disease-related condition contribute to partnership difficulties, less active and less enjoyable sexual life [3, 27, 28].
\nThe most common physical symptom is skin tightness. Due to skin tightness, the fingers becomes fixed in bent position, which could interfere with sexual foreplay, touch, and masturbation. If skin tightening causes the mouth to shrink, kissing or oral sex could become difficult. Sometimes the skin become stiffer around the vaginal introitus, which often leads to painful penetration, and changes in the vaginal mucosae causing lubrication disorder contribute to this [27, 29, 30]. Specifically, 56% of SSc female patients reported painful penetration during the intercourse [31]. The sexual difficulties such as vaginal tightness, dryness, and dyspareunia were reported by more than half of systemic sclerosis female patients [7, 8]. It was also published that vaginal tightness (71%), dyspareunia (56%), and ulceration (23%) were the most common symptoms of sexual dysfunction observed in 60 women with systemic sclerosis [31]. These genital tract abnormalities could be associated with a decrease in number and intensity of orgasm, which are also often observed in SSc individuals [32].
\nA majority of the systemic sclerosis patients experience Raynaud’s phenomenon, which can affect not only fingers and toes but also tongue and nipples. This is another reason, why the cuddling, foreplay, and oral sex could become uncomfortable and unpleasant [27]. In addition, a lot of patients suffer from secondary Sjögren’s syndrome characterized by drying of oral, nasal, ocular, and vaginal mucosae. The prevalence of Sjögren’s syndrome in systemic sclerosis ranged in different studies from 20 to 69% depending on the criteria used and sample size. In Saad’s study, 37% from 83 systemic sclerosis female patients reported Sjögren’s syndrome, 56% of them had impaired sexual function, and vaginal dryness was the most presented symptom [29].
\nAnother disease-related problem that impedes sexual activity is the affection of musculoskeletal system. The presence of joint contractures, stiffness, or pain leads to limited range of motion and it could restrict the ability to engage in sexual activities. Other aspects that reduced exercise capacity are muscle weakness and fatigue. It can be difficult to become sexually aroused when extremely tired. The consequence of skin thickening and other physical changes is the impaired body image, self-esteem, and sexuality. However, it has been also reported that body image dissatisfaction does not correlate with reduced sexual function [30]. In a different study, the major reasons for decreased sexual activity in married women with SSc were fatigue, altered body image, and pain [2]. Regarding psychological factors, depression is another often presented symptom that has been significantly associated with a sexual function disorder [8].
\nThere are a few more causes that could lead to less active sexual life in SSc patients. For instance, in rare cases, the fibrotic process of visceral vessels leads to renal impairment that may have an impact on sexual desire and orgasm. It is usually the medication used to treat kidney problems rather than the problems themselves. Also, gastrointestinal problems such as heartburn or chronic diarrhea may disrupt sexual activities [7].
\nTo sum up, existing studies of sexual function among women with SSc have concluded that sexual dysfunction is common in comparison to the general population. It was even showed a significantly greater decrease in orgasm and its intensity in SSc female patients compared to other systemic rheumatic diseases—rheumatoid arthritis and systemic lupus erythematosus [31]. What is more, Knafo et al. [4] published that the prevalence of sexual dysfunction is higher in SSc than in other chronic diseases such as breast cancer, gynecological cancer, or HIV positivity. On the other hand, Impens et al. [33] maintain that SSc women remain sexually active despite the psychological and physical difficulties caused by the disease. In this study, only 17% of women suffered from female sexual dysfunction primarily caused by systemic scleroderma. Other reasons for sexual inactivity were the absence of a partner (37%), personal choice (32%), and the health status of respondents’ partners (20%).
\nThe first step in the diagnosis of female sexual dysfunction is a detailed personal, sexual, pharmacological, and psychosocial history. Where necessary, further examination by a psychiatrist, gynecologist, or physiotherapist is indicated. There are several objective methods assessing female sexual function, such as laboratory tests including hormonal profile or Doppler ultrasonography. However, laboratory tests in clinical practice are used only as auxiliary diagnostic methods. With duplex Doppler ultrasonography, it is possible to display a blood flow in cavernous tissue vessels, which is performed either under basal conditions or during sexual stimulations (vibrational or audiovisual) and objectified sexual arousal reactions. The most commonly used physiological method for evaluating sexual response is vaginal photoplethysmography, which investigates vascular reactivity during sexual arousal. It is based on the assessment of congestion of the vaginal mucosae. Other methods include electromyography, measurement of changes in vaginal pressure, and measurement of pH [34, 35].
\nAnother widespread screening method is the questionnaire survey. Self-report questionnaires have a long history of use in psychological and sociological studies of sexual behavior. For example, Derogatis Sexual Function Inventory is a 245-item, multidimensional scale that evaluates a wide range of sexual behavior in 10 separate domains. Despite the very strong psychometric properties, this scale is not widely used in clinical trials due to its excessive length and complexity. Instead, several short evaluation scales have been developed [36, 37]. Currently, the female sexual function index (FSFI) is the “gold standard” in assessment of female sexual functioning [38]. FSFI is a widely used tool that has been validated for use across multiple populations including women of various age groups, in various health problems and sexual dysfunctions. It has been developed as a simple multidimensional self-assessment tool for assessing the key domains of female sexual function. The questionnaire consists of 19 items that evaluate sexual function over the last 4 weeks in six domains: sexual desire, sexual arousal, lubrication, orgasm, satisfaction, and pain [39]. Since the first validation study, it has been translated into more than 20 languages and validated in over 30 countries [40, 41].
\nIt has to be noted that both objective methods and questionnaire screenings have their limitations. The main disadvantage of objective methods is the absence of an intimate condition that can play a key role in the female subjective arousal. Basson et al. published that intimacy and desire are essential to women’s sexual activity. Raina et al. reported that intimacy leads to emotional arousal of a woman, followed by sexual desire and physical arousal that result in sexual satisfaction. These findings suggest that the presence of intimacy can be crucial in examining sexual arousal, and its absence can lead to a lack of emotional excitement and consequently to incomplete sexual responses [35, 42, 43]. On the contrary, the questionnaires are filled in private and evaluate women’s real sexual experiences. Moreover, this method is not time-consuming and costly. However, as with any brief self-report scale of a complex psychophysiological construct, the questionnaire assessment has notable practical and theoretical limitations. Self-reported screening does not provide objective information but only patient’s subjective perception.
\nIn terms of FSFI, its drawback is the assessment of sexual activity in the past 4 weeks. Of course, there are number of reasons why women may be sexually inactive during a 4-week period and it does not necessarily imply significant sexual dysfunction. For example, the absence of sexual partner is a very common reason, why patients are not sexually active. Specifically, the FSFI questionnaire contains 15 questions, which could be answered “No sexual activity” or “Did not attempt intercourse.” Both possible responses are scored as zero that could become problematic when lower scores indicate severer sexual dysfunction. In that case, the FSFI could produce biased results. Other inaccurate data may be the result of relatively vague terminology. A problematic issue seems to be to define and measure sexual desire and subjective sexual arousal. Studies suggest that women often have difficulty distinguishing desire and arousal in their sexual experience. Another drawback of the FSFI questionnaire is that questions in orgasm subscale are basically focused on the orgasmic function associated with penile-vaginal contact. In fact, the vagina is primarily a reproductive organ with little sensitivity, and clitoral stimulation is more important for female orgasm. Therefore, achieving orgasm should be judged more in conjunction with masturbation or oral sex than sexual intercourse [38, 44].
\nThe FSFI is also the most common questionnaire evaluating sexual function in women with systemic sclerosis. It has been used by an Italian team to evaluate the prevalence of sexual dysfunction in 46 women with SSc. The second purpose of this trial was to investigate the association with sociodemographic, physical, psychological, and disease-related variables. Compared to healthy controls, only the FSFI desire subscale score was significantly lower. The overall score did not substantially differ from healthy controls. The association with health status, functional ability, mouth affection, hand disability, and presence of depression was reported [10]. A very similar study has been conducted in the Netherlands. The FSFI was used to assess the sexual function of 69 SSc women aged 18–60 years. It was that the FSFI total score and the subscale scores for lubrication, orgasm, arousal, and pain were significantly lower in comparison with healthy population in the same age. Impaired sexual functioning and sexual distress were associated with marital distress and depressive symptoms [9]. Levis et al. first detected women with SSc who had engaged in sexual activities with their partner in the past 4 weeks, and then only sexually active patients completed a 9-item version of the FSFI. The aim of this Canadian cross-sectional multicenter study was to evaluate sociodemographic and clinical variables that distinguish sexually active from inactive patients and identify the source of pain during and after sexual activity in sexually active patients. The results showed that in total only 17% of 547 women were sexually active without sexual disorder [45]. The same group of scientists in different project used a shortened version of FSFI to compare sexual activity and impairment rates of women with systemic sclerosis to general population data. Among women with SSc, 296 of 730 (41%) were sexually active and 181 (61%) of sexually active patients reported sexual dysfunction. It means that only 115 of 730 (16%) patients engaged in sexual activities without impairment. It was also confirmed that SSc patients are significantly less likely to be sexually active and more likely to be sexually impaired than the general population of women [46]. Severe sexual dysfunction was also observed in married women with systemic sclerosis. About 8 out of 10 women achieved low scores in the FSFI questionnaire assessed, and all the subscales were affected in this study. The reasons why patients reported decrease in the frequency of intercourse since the onset of their disease and a diminished desire for a sexual relationship were fatigue, altered body image, and pain [2].
\nThe management of female sexual dysfunction in the general population is based on the understanding of the basic physiology of female sexual response. Currently, several approaches of female sexual function treatment are available. It is known that some antidepressants can cause sexual dysfunction as a side effect. Antidepressants, such as SSRIs, are commonly associated with hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD) and they have to be eliminated or dosed at lower levels. In women with major and disabling mood disorders, the adjustment of antidepressants requires a continuous collaboration with the prescribing psychiatrist, because dosage adjustments of antidepressants must be done very gradually [47]. Bupropion, buspirone, mirtazapine, vortioxetine, and vilazodone have been found to have lower rates of antidepressant-induced sexual dysfunction than other antidepressants, and they can be a suitable medication options for the treatment of depression [48, 49, 50].
\nAnother option, primarily used in menopausal women, is hormonal therapy. Estrogen therapy may be used to increase clitoral sensitivity and libido and to reduce pain during and after sexual intercourse. In women with menopause-related sexual dysfunction that have estrogen treatment experience improved sexual desire, vaginal atrophy and vaginal dryness [49]. Transdermal estradiol has been found to be a preferred therapy for depleted estrogen. It is considered as the most effective therapy available for reducing vasomotor symptoms and associated menopausal symptoms with minimal adverse effects. Intravaginal estrogens combined with mechanical dilatations are also highly effective for treatment of vaginal atrophy [47]. Testosterone replacement therapy may also be considered to increase sexual desire and libido. Several high-quality sources documenting that transdermal testosterone is effective in restoring sexual desire are available [47]. Intramuscular testosterone combined with estradiol in postmenopausal women had a positive impact on sexual desire, arousal, and frequency of sexual fantasies compared with women without testosterone treatment [51].
\nFlibanserin is the first nonhormonal treatment for female sexual dysfunction to be approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The approval, in August 2015, occurred fully 18 years after the approval of sildenafil, the first treatment for erectile dysfunction. Flibanserin is a 5-HT 1A agonist and 5-HT 2A antagonist and is indicated for acquired hypo-active sexual desire disorder in premenopausal women. It is strongly recommended to avoid consumption of alcohol while using flibanserin treatment, because several serious adverse events were found: dizziness, loss of consciousness, hypotension, and circulatory collapse [49]. Another drug approved by the FDA is ospemifene, which is indicated in treatment of dyspareunia in postmenopausal women. It is a selective estrogen receptor modulator that can be prescribed when hormone replacement therapies fail. The daily dose of 60 mg of ospemifene has been found to be effective and tolerable for postmenopausal women with vaginal dryness and atrophy [52, 53]. To improve sexual functioning in domains of arousal, orgasm, and satisfaction, bupropion can be used, whose efficacy is based on the influence of dopamine and norepinephrine reuptake [54]. Although phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) inhibitors are mostly used in erectile dysfunction treatment, they can be used in women as well. Sildenafil has been found to significantly improve arousal, orgasm, and enjoyment in women without sexual dysfunction. In women with antidepressant-associated sexual dysfunction, sildenafil (in dose ranges of 50–100 mg) has also shown good efficacy [49].
\nRehabilitation treatment can be useful in patients suffering from vaginism, dyspareunia, and anorgasmia due to pelvic muscle spasms. Adequate exercises can lead to normalization of muscle tension and relaxation [55]. Psychotherapy is recommended where the pathogenesis of sexual dysfunction has a psychological nature. Because recent studies have suggested that more severe sexual dysfunctions in patients with SSc are significantly associated with the presence of depression [2, 9, 10], the psychotherapy should be an integral part of the treatment of sexual dysfunction in SSc patients. In terms of sexual pain disorder, psychotherapy seems to be immediately helpful although objective research on the long-term efficacy of psychotherapy for sexual pain disorder is limited and difficult to evaluate [47].
\nThere are some general recommendations for women with systemic sclerosis that may help to continue enjoying an active, fulfilling sexual life. If sexual activity is reduced due to pain, it can be alleviated by use of pain medication. The sexual activity can be scheduled for a time the pain will be at a minimum. A warm bath or shower before sexual activity often eases arthritic stiffness. The range of motion exercises before sex may help to reduce the stiffness. If the range of motion is limited and do not allow comfortable position, then it seems to be a good solution to experiment with sexual positions and try to find those that are the most suitable [3, 56]. If sclerosis has caused the mouth to shrink, physical therapist or occupational therapist can teach patients how to do the exercises to stretch the mouth. The regular stretching can improve the range of motion of the mouth and make kissing and oral sex more enjoyable. When fingers become fixed in a bent position, its possible to integrate stretching exercises as well and use the other part of hands (thumbs, wrists, or backs of the hands) to touch yourself or partner. An auxiliary material such as vibrators, creams, and lotions can also be used to enhance sexual activity. In order to avoid fatigue, patients with SSc may schedule their sexual activity for that part of the day when they still have enough energy, because becoming sexually aroused, when tired, is difficult. To prevent a Raynaud episode, it is necessary to keep entire body warm. It is possible to turn up the thermostat, leave some clothes on, or use extra blankets. When vaginal dryness and dyspareunia occur, the use of vaginal moisturizers on a regular basis along with lubricants as needed for sexual activity is the initial step in managing these symptoms. Women can choose from a number of commercially available lubricants that are either water based, mineral or plant oil based, or silicone based [47, 55]. Dilator therapy is an another option that can be useful in treatment of vaginal tightness. This method offers a nonsurgical approach to restore vaginal capacity and elasticity and alleviate sexual discomfort. If the penetration is still painful, there are alternative sexual activities like clitoral stimulation that can be sometimes more enjoyable than intercourse. If there is no interest in sex, still it is possible to stay physically close by holding or caressing one another [3, 56].
\nSeveral options for the treatment of female sexual dysfunction in normal population are available. The management of impaired sexuality in women with systemic sclerosis was less studied and the further research is strongly needed. What is essential and beneficial for the patients is the team-based model of care for management of sexual dysfunction including a medical provider, physical therapist, occupational therapist, psychotherapist, and sex therapist [57].
\nSystemic sclerosis is an autoimmune connective tissue disorder characterized by following typical findings: endothelial changes, microangiopathic damages, and progressive fibrosis. These pathological processes may affect various organs including penile arteries leading to erectile dysfunction (ED). Male erectile dysfunction is defined as the consistent inability to reach and maintain an erection sufficient to permit satisfactory sexual performance. It is a widespread issue in men with systemic sclerosis. Sexual dysfunction in men has been given more attention than female sexual dysfunction, and the etiology is more obvious compared to women. Erectile dysfunction is a result of microangiopathic changes, when the blood flow is reduced in the small penile arteries due to corporal fibrosis and myointimal proliferation [5]. It was proven that damage of the penile cavernous arteries occurs in almost all SSc patients regardless of clinical symptoms. They are characterized by the presence of hyperechoic spots, suggesting fibrotic changes and low peak systolic velocities that are signs for vascular alterations [58].
\nThe prevalence of erectile dysfunction in SSc patients ranged from 12 to 81% in different studies [28]. However, most studies agree that about 80% of SSc men are affected [11, 12, 13]. It was also found that ED is more prevalent in systemic sclerosis than other inflammatory rheumatic diseases. In a majority of men with systemic sclerosis, ED started to manifest after the onset of the disease. The mean duration from the onset of the first SSc symptom to erectile dysfunction was around 3 years [12]. Risk factors of erectile dysfunction such as smoking, hypertension, diabetes, and steroid use have been investigated. It was found that only self-reported history of nerve damage and diabetes are significant for predicting the likelihood of ED in systemic sclerosis. There are also risk factors that are presented in non-SSc men as well, like older age or alcohol consumption. The ED association with more severe diseases in terms of worse skin involvement, elevated pulmonary arterial pressures, presence of restrictive lung disease, and muscular and renal involvement in SSc patients was also confirmed [5, 12, 13, 59].
\nThe most likely hypothesis of ED in SSc is a combination of vascular and fibrotic abnormalities. In men with SSc, decreased penile blood pressure, impaired peak systolic and diastolic blood flow in the penile arteries, and the presence of veno-occlusive dysfunction were found. Also, a decreased penile temperature and a slow recovery after cold exposure were reported. A duplex sonography was conducted to reveal the thickening of tunica albuginea and diffuse hyperechogenic spots within the corpora cavernosa. All these findings point to the microangiopathic cause of ED in male SSc patients. This is confirmed by the fact that no carotid artery thickening has been found in SSc, which would predict atherosclerotic macroangiopathy. From a histological point of view, the ED cause in SSc men is the presence of severe corporal fibrosis, increased collagen production by penile smooth muscle cells, and increased accumulation of extracellular matrix. Due to these changes, penile hypoxia arises, which can lead to overexpression of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 and TGF-β1 receptors in the corpora cavernosa, which are important profibrotic regulators of collagen synthesis and production of extracellular matrix. In addition, endothelin (ET-1) is also released by penile smooth muscle cells. Thus, penile hypoxia stimulates penile fibrosis. Therefore, it can be assumed that once ED in patients with SSc is manifested (due to disease), its next mechanisms are similar to those of non-SSc population. Other causes such as hormonal abnormalities or neurological causes have not been confirmed. No disturbances have been found in follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, serum testosterone, prolactin, estradiol, and thyroid hormones in SSc patients [5, 11, 59, 60].
\nThe diagnosis of erectile dysfunction in SSc patients is not always easy. We are following the common steps starting with taking a detailed history. Then assessment with appropriate questionnaires and dynamic penile Duplex ultrasound is required. The ambiguity lies in the fact that penile vascular damage occurs in almost all SSc patients, regardless of clinical symptoms and the questionnaire results that often do not match with vascular findings. Thus, it is always better to carry out both investigations: the duplex ultrasound to document the degree of vascular involvement and self-administered questionnaire. The International Index of Erectile Function is the standardized and most widely used tool for evaluating erectile dysfunction. As mentioned above, penile temperature in SSc patients is lower than in healthy individuals. Since cutaneous temperature depends on cutaneous blood flow and thermal exchanges with deeper tissues, these findings could suggest the presence of functional alterations of both tissue properties and blood flow. Therefore, assessing changes in thermal properties and temperature control processes of the penis in SSc patients could provide a potential clue in diagnosis of erectile dysfunction. It has to be noted that with the progression of micro/macrovascular damage in the natural course of the disease, a concomitant penile fibrosis and veno-occlusive dysfunction occur and usually lead to difficult-to-treat ED. We should pay attention in cases where the reduced blood flow is observed, for example, on the hands (Raynaud’s phenomenon), because it can suggest that the penile arterial flow will be also altered, and it may be a sign of initial stage of ED in SSc patients [61, 62].
\nIt is not a mistake to initiate ED treatment by eliminating general cardiovascular risk factors including lifestyle, psychological, or drug-related factors, but such treatment is often unsatisfactory. This step usually has beneficial effect on erectile function in the general population [63]. Phosphodiesterase-5 (PDE-5) inhibitors are recommended as a first-line option for pharmacotherapy. In non-SSc men, this group of drugs causes the relaxation of smooth muscle cells and temporarily increases arterial blood flow in the penis. However, to achieve an erection, sexual stimulation is required, because this class of drugs is not considered as an initiator of erection. Several types of PDE-5 inhibitors are currently available. The most commonly used are sildenafil (Viagra), tadalafil (Cialis), and vardenafil (Levitra). Except these, newer molecules of PDE-5 inhibitors can be used, for example, mirodenafil, udenafil, and avanafil. All types of PDE-5 inhibitors are effective and safe regarding the treatment of ED in the normal population. The differences are only in their half-lives, when, for instance, tadalafil is effective for up to 36 hours whereas the effectiveness of sildenafil is only 12 hours. The choice of a PDE5-I depends on the frequency of intercourse and the patient’s personal experience [64, 65]. However, research on the efficacy of PDE-5 inhibitors is very limited in SSc patients [5]. Proietti et al. reported that once-daily tadalafil improved both erectile function and vascular measures of cavernous arteries in men with SSc-related erectile dysfunction. Also, an increase in frequency of morning erections and decrease in plasma ET1 levels were found. They suggest that daily tadalafil dose could play a potential role in preventing progression of penile fibrosis and erectile dysfunction in male SSc patients [58]. Furthermore, long-acting PDE-5 may lead to a decrease in the frequency and severity of Raynaud’s phenomenon and the promotion of digital ulceration [66].
\nPatients who do not respond to PDE-5 inhibitors may be offered to try vacuum constriction devices. It was reported that patients who used the vacuum therapy system for a month to increase blood oxygenation in the corpora cavernosa and then employed the vacuum constriction device to maintain penile erection for sexual intercourse significantly improved their erectile function and sexual satisfaction [67]. However, there are no reports about the use of this system in patients with SSc.
\nAnother option for the treatment of erectile dysfunction is prostaglandin analogues, which can be administered via intracavernous injections or intraurethral application. Alprostadil is a stable form of prostaglandin E1 that increases the concentration of cyclic adenosine monophosphate and decreases the intracellular calcium concentration, resulting in the relaxation of smooth muscle cells. Several studies reported the efficiency of alprostadil in the general population, but in terms of SSc patients, it was reported that a substantial percentage of SSc patients did not respond adequately to intracavernous prostaglandin E1 injections [68].
\nWhen pharmacotherapy fails and the patient wants a permanent solution, the surgical implantation of a penile prosthesis may be considered as the third-line option. Penile prosthesis improved erectile dysfunction in over 70% of men in the general population. Available prostheses are either malleable (semirigid) or inflatable (two or three pieces), but it should be considered that there are two main complications of penile prosthesis implantation—the mechanical failure and infection [5, 64, 65].
\nMost of the treatment options described above have not been verified in patients with systemic sclerosis yet. In spite of the fact that erectile dysfunction is common in men with systemic sclerosis, demographics, risk factors, and ED treatments have not been sufficiently investigated. Only a small case series has described unsatisfactory results with on-demand sildenafil (25–50 mg). The higher dose of sildenafil has not been investigated. Tadalafil has been slightly better evaluated in the treatment of SSc-related erectile dysfunction. The efficiency of 20 mg tadalafil on demand and 20 mg tadalafil in a fixed alternate day regimen has been compared. The results showed that flow-mediated dilatation and peak systolic velocities of cavernous arteries at penile duplex ultrasound improved significantly with the alternate day treatment; but no significant changes were observed after the on-demand tadalafil dosing. In addition, the alternate day regimen also reduced the plasma levels of ET-1 and vascular cell adhesion molecule as markers of endothelial function [68]. Therefore, long-term administration of tadalafil and its constant plasma level seems to have a positive effect on the treatment of ED in male SSc patients.
\nSexual dysfunction is a common problem in both men and women with systemic sclerosis. Erectile dysfunction is the dominant issue in males, which seems to be tightly linked to vascular dysfunction. Sexual dysfunction in the female patient is not less prevalent, but it is considerably more complex and it has been less studied. Several diagnostic approaches have been established to assess sexual dysfunction. Also, there are some treatment options available, but most of them have not been sufficiently verified in patients with systemic sclerosis. Further research regarding sexual dysfunction in patients with systemic sclerosis is strongly needed.
\nThis work was supported by grants AZV NV18-01-00161A, 16-33542A, 16-33574A, and institutional support of the Ministry of Health of the Czech Republic for the Institute of Rheumatology number: 023728 and GA UK 1578119.
\nThe agricultural production systems are generally based on technological dependence of high-yield varieties and the use of agrochemicals, causing an imbalance in different agroecosystems. The crops had turned to be susceptible to plague organisms to which before they were not and have proliferated because their natural enemies have eliminated the selection pressure has been favored by the monoculture or by the excessive use of plaguicides, what has conducted to the rupture of resistance of host and resistance toward the pesticides.
\nThose, as mentioned above, do rethink the actual technological management of the crops, researching less aggressive options with low or without environmental impact. This focus allows the searching of microbial alternatives as biological control agents of diseases, as a viable option to reduce their impact, enhancing the yield and quality of the agricultural products. The economic production losses caused by pests and diseases worldwide are estimated to be 36.5% on average, where 14.1% is caused by diseases, 10.2% by insects, and 12.2% by weeds, without considering the 6–12% of agricultural products postharvest losses. Although it estimated that in developing countries, these could reach up to 50% of production losses, considering only the disease, it estimates that annual losses worldwide can reach about 220 billion dollars. Overall, the diseases from plants can destroy crops before and after harvest or yield partial losses and cause loss of quality in the products harvested.
\nFor example, the apple scab caused by
The worldwide market of biopesticides was of 1213 million dollars in 2010 and 3222 million dollars in 2017; the annual rate increases to 15.8% since 2012 besides 2017. Within this market, bioinsecticides represented 46% in 2011, and biofungicides were of 600.5 million dollars, reaching 1447 million in 2017. The annual rate from 2012 to 2017 grows up at 16.1%. Given that there currently exists a market demand for free products of pesticide waste, huge agrochemical companies are in the market of bioproducts, acquiring biocontrol companies and developing new biotechnological products.
\n\n
Due to the abovementioned and because there is a large number of species from both microorganisms, their isolation and identification for their possible commercial use are necessary; some of the species of
The first step for correct identification of antagonist microorganisms depends on isolation. In the case of
This kind of identification has gained acceptance because it presents more precision and reliability among several strains of
Species specificity | \nPrimer sequences (5′–3′) | \nProduct size (bp) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n | \nHAR-1.6F: GTACCTCGCGAATGCATCTA HAR-1.6R: GGCTATGACCATGATTACGC | \n1600 | \n[17] | \n
\n | \nT2AF: CTCTGCCGTTGACTGTGAACG T2AR: CGATAGTGGGGTTGCCGTCAA | \n507 | \n[18] | \n
\n | \nTvCTT56f: CTTGATGACAAGCCAAAAGG TvCTT56r: GAAGAGAGGACATAGGGTCTGG | \n289 | \n[19] | \n
\n | \nQ01_4F: GCACACCAACTGCTGGAGCTT Q01_4R: CACGCTGACAATGACCGACAC | \n1017 | \n[20] | \n
\n | \nTh-F: CGGTGACATCTGAAAAGTCGTG Th-R: TGTCACCCGTTCGGATCATCCG | \n444 | \n[21] | \n
\n | \nFPforw1: CACATTCAATTGTGCCCGACGA PSrev1: GCGACACAGAGCACGTTGAATC | \n218 | \n[22] | \n
Examples of species-specific primers for
Morphologic characteristics of different
\n
However, the treatment with heat can be different depending on the species because endospores of some strains are more resistant to heat than others [24]. Due to this, the drying treatment is considered more gentle; this method consists of placing the samples on a dryer at 70°C for 1 h [25]. The considerable variety of physiology of
Several molecular approaches are currently utilized for the identification of microorganisms; in this sense, the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in combination with 16S rRNA is a tool frequently used for identification of
\n
Species specificity | \nPrimer sequences (5′–3′) | \nProduct size (bp) | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
\n | \np-gyrA-f: CAGTCAGGAAATGCGTACGTCCTT p-gyrA-r: CAAGGTAATGCTCCAGGCATTGCT | \n741 | \n[28] | \n
\n | \ntrpE(G) F: TTTGAATCCGAGCCCTTATG trpE(G) R: ACATACATTTCGGGGGATGA | \n78 | \n[29] | \n
\n | \nGC-U968(F): GCAACGCGAAGAACCTTAC L1401(R): GCGTGTGTACAAGACCC | \n490 | \n[30] | \n
\n | \nBL8AF: TCACAACCCGTTGACGACAA BL8AR: CGTGTCCGAGTGTGCGTTATAT | \n247 | \n[31] | \n
Examples of species-specific primers for
The antifungal activity of
Several research were carried out to determine the antifungal activity of
Some studies by Osorio et al. [23] mentioned a Trichoderma spp. as controller. They reported the overgrowth of
Inhibition of
Usually,
Likewise, then
Antagonistic effect of
Generally, the production of the secondary metabolites from biological agents such as
However, our workgroup has standardized the method in microdilution on plate, which consists in an adaptation of the technique proposed by Masoko et al. [38]; polystyrene microplates of 96 wells are used; in all wells, 100 μl of liquid medium is placed; column 1 is the negative control, column 2 consists of the positive control, and column 3 is a control which consists of the fermentation medium. Starting in column 4, 100 μl of the secondary metabolites from strains is mixed in a pipette with 100 μl of the liquid medium, and then 100 μl of the mixture is transferred to the next column, discarding the last 100 μl from column 12, to get serial microdilutions to 50.00% of the secondary metabolites. Once the microdilutions are carried out, the growth developer 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride is added in the whole plate; the concentration of the growth developer is the lowest reported in the literature, as an excess of this indicator can interfere with the growth of the pathogen or react with reagents from the medium; this indicator measures the respiratory activity associated with electron transport chains, and when reduced, it precipitates forming a complex, intense red color; its use is due to its high sensitivity to detect inhibition of microorganisms with deficient amounts of antimicrobial products; besides that, the red coloration is a visual indicator of the antimicrobial activity of the treatment. Finally, starting in column 2, 10 μl of a spore solution of the fungus at a concentration of 1 × 108 in all wells is added, keeping all the wells a volume of 150 μl in total; each microplate is considered a replicate. The microplates are incubated in agreement with the necessary conditions of the fungus on absorbance realized at 490 nm in a spectrophotometer. The secondary metabolites from the different strains placed in the rows A to F. To calculate the growth and inhibition percentage, the following formulas used: % Growth = (A − B/C)(100); where A is treatment absorbance, B is negative control absorbance, C is positive control absorbance, and % Inhibition = 100 – % Growth.
\nIn general, the selection principle of strains is the determination of their antagonistic capacity; the method of microdilution in plate is to some extent interesting since it allows determined quickly and efficiently in time and costs its capacity of antifungal inhibition. Several studies demonstrate the effectiveness of secondary metabolites in the control of phytopathogenic fungi with PDA medium; Osorio et al. [23] mentioned that the inhibiting effect by
Antifungal activity of secondary metabolites from different
Likewise, the PDA method or the microdilution in plate method can be an excellent technique to evaluate substance with antifungal activity as the secondary metabolites; in this sense, Jimenez et al. [36] observed that secondary metabolites obtained from
Percentage of inhibition of secondary metabolites obtained from
In another study, Tucuch-Pérez et al. [39] reported six
(a) Percentage inhibition of microbial extracts from
The results generated by the microplate dilution method are consistent with the results obtained from indirect test by confrontation or dual test, such as shown in the following results against fungi isolated from crops as melon, pepper, and others, which are produced in different zones from Mexico. In melon crop, the root and stem rot disease is a big problem; in this context, Espinoza-Ahumada et al. [40] studied the in vitro antagonist effects of
Antagonistic agent | \n\n | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
FRR-1 | \nFRG-2 | \nFAF-3 | \nFRE-4 | \nFCA-5 | \nFHA-6 | \n|
\n | \n46.9A,ab\n | \n38.4B,abc\n | \n31.4BC,bc\n | \n34.8CD,bc\n | \n28.2CD,c\n | \n41.6DE,ab\n | \n
\n | \n51.4AB,ab\n | \n38.9B,c\n | \n37.8B,c\n | \n42.9BC,bc\n | \n41.2BC,bc\n | \n55.2C,a\n | \n
\n | \n45.7B,a\n | \n38.6B,a\n | \n37.2B,a\n | \n42.4B,ca\n | \n34.6C,a\n | \n46.4D,a\n | \n
\n | \n57.2A,b\n | \n61.5A,ab\n | \n64.3A,ab\n | \n62.3A,ab\n | \n54.9A,b\n | \n74.1A,a\n | \n
\n | \n54.9AB,b\n | \n55.4A,b\n | \n56.1A,ab\n | \n60.5A,ab\n | \n57.9A,b\n | \n64.7B,a\n | \n
\n | \n49.8A,ab\n | \n58.3A,a\n | \n54.9A,a\n | \n51.1A,ab\n | \n50.3BC,a\n | \n64.7B,a\n | \n
Percentage of antagonism of different biological agents against
High letters indicate comparison between columns; low letters indicate comparison between rows. Percentages of inhibition with different letters are significantly different (p ≤ 0.5).
Microbial agents antagonist to
In a work carried out by Francisco et al. [41], where the behavior of
From different research projects under greenhouse conditions, we have found satisfactory results both in the disease suppression and in the promotion of growth and quality in crops. Hernández-Castillo et al. [24], made an experiment under greenhouse conditions using silty clay soil from an experimental batch previously plot with chile crop and were symptoms of wilting incidence were express. The experiment included three bacterial strains of the genus
Incidence (A) and severity (B) in plant traits with
In Figure 9, we can see that the harmful microbiological population rate also reduced with the use of organisms considered as beneficial, according to the final count at the end of the experiment; that could be because antagonistic bacteria are capable of influencing biocontrol mechanisms against phytopathogenic fungi such as antibiosis, siderophores, competition for nutrients, and production of hydrolytic enzymes. Similarly, Ulacio et al. [44] evaluated organic matter and antagonistic microorganisms as management strategies against white rot in garlic cultivation. These authors reported that the fungus
Colony-forming units from initial (Pi) and final populations of phytopathogenic soil fungi after applying
Some microorganisms posess the ability by several ways to reduce the incidence and severity of diseases in crops, and also can participate in the stimulation of plant growth, yield, and crop quality. Figure 10A and B shows the values related to the promotion of root length (A) and its weight (B), where this effect is clearly observed. In Figure 10C and D, it was observed that
Root length (A), dry rot weight (B), height (C), fresh fruit weight (D), and increments in chile pepper plant by effect
Likewise, del Ángel et al. [45] found a decrease in the incidence and severity of the disease caused by
Effect of endophytic bacteria on plant height and stem diameter in bean crop under greenhouse condition.
Jimenez et al. [36] report results obtained on apple fruit and trees under the direct influence of the application of CFU from
Treatment | \nIncidence (%) in fruit | \nSeverity (lesions) in fruit | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
15 days | \n60 days | \n15 days | \n60 days | \n|
\n | \n18.12 ± 2.4a | \n51.87 ± 5.5b | \n1.82 ± 0.6ab | \n8.02 ± 0.7b | \n
\n | \n6.25 ± 5.2b | \n42.50 ± 6.5b | \n1.07 ± 0.8b | \n5.30 ± 0.5b | \n
\n | \n15.00 ± 3.5a | \n55.00 ± 5.4b | \n1.77 ± 0.5ab | \n7.62 ± 0.2b | \n
\n | \n5.62 ± 4.7b | \n45.62 ± 5.2b | \n1.00 ± 0.0b | \n6.32 ± 0.7b | \n
Control | \n19.37 ± 4.7a | \n91.25 ± 4.3a | \n2.65 ± 0.5a | \n14.57 ± 0.3a | \n
The incidence in apple fruits by
Treatments with the same letter are statistically equal to each other (p < 0.05).
Expression of symptoms caused by
The field experiment is carried out to test biocontrol agents for control
Treatments | \nIncidence (%) in leaves | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|
15 days | \n30 days | \n45 days | \n60 days | \n|
\n | \n8.12 ± 6.9ab | \n11.25 ± 1.2bc | \n13.12 ± 2.1bc | \n22.50 ± 4.8b | \n
\n | \n6.25 ± 2.1ab | \n11.25 ± 2.5bc | \n11.87 ± 2.4bc | \n17.50 ± 4.6b | \n
\n | \n8.13 ± 3.8ab | \n13.12 ± 5.5bc | \n13.75 ± 4.7bc | \n20.62 ± 2.4b | \n
\n | \n2.50 ± 1.7b | \n6.25 ± 1.4c | \n6.25 ± 1.4c | \n10.62 ± 1.3c | \n
Control | \n18.12 ± 4.1a | \n21.87 ± 3.1a | \n23.75 ± 4.3a | \n31.87 ± 3.8a | \n
The incidence in apple leaves by
Treatments with the same letter are statistically equal to each other (p < 0.05).
Espinoza-Ahumada et al. [40] aimed to find more environmentally friendly alternatives to the wilting of chile pepper; they evaluated the application of biological agents for this purpose under field conditions. For this, an experiment is established where different genotypes of chile pepper are evaluated (Serrano, HS-52, Coloso, HS-44, Centauro, Paraíso and Tampiqueño 74 cv.) generated by INIFAP-Mexico. In this experiment, the microbial agents
Microbial agents | \nSerrano chile pepper varieties | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HS-52 | \nColoso | \nHS-44 | \nCentauro | \nTampiqueño 74 | \nParaíso | \n|
\n | \n10.67a | \n18.17ab | \n16.84a | \n19.17a | \n12.5a | \n10.00a | \n
Consortium | \n26.67ab | \n15.5ab | \n10.50a | \n15.33a | \n19.83a | \n10.67a | \n
\n | \n29.17ab | \n29.67b | \n20.07a | \n20.5a | \n21.83a | \n19.5a | \n
Thiabendazole | \n21.00ab | \n6.83a | \n19.51a | \n24.17a | \n10.33a | \n16.17a | \n
Control | \n31.83b | \n21.33ab | \n21.51a | \n23.33a | \n24.67a | \n22.33a | \n
Incidence of the disease (%) in serrano chile pepper varieties inoculated with microbial agents in the field.
Mean values on the same column indicated by different letters are statistically different (p < 0.05) according to the LSD test.
Disease evaluation in the presence of treatments of consortium and
Treatment | \nSerrano chile pepper varieties | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HS-52 | \nColoso | \nHS-44 | \nCentauro | \nTampiqueño 74 | \nParaíso | \n|
\n | \n11.3ab | \n18.43a | \n10.8a | \n6.83a | \n7.83ab | \n6.93a | \n
Consortium | \n8.33a | \n16.28a | \n24.45a | \n12.76a | \n14.35ab | \n6.46a | \n
\n | \n14.4ab | \n19.16a | \n15.09a | \n11.54a | \n17.6b | \n16.22ab | \n
Thiabendazole | \n20.04b | \n14.07a | \n17.97a | \n15.74a | \n6.56a | \n18.24b | \n
Control | \n19.45ab | \n24.35a | \n24.07a | \n13.65a | \n17.96b | \n18.43b | \n
Severity of the disease (%) in serrano pepper with respect to treatments.
Mean values on same column indicated by different letters are statistically different (p < 0.05) according to LSD test.
The effects on yield as the weight and size of the fruit showed by the use of microbial agents applied alone or in combination as shown in Table 8. When
Microbial agents | \nTotal yield in chile pepper varieties (t ha−1) | \n|||
---|---|---|---|---|
HS-52 | \nCentauro | \nParaíso | \nHS-44 | \n|
\n | \n15.67a | \n13.22a | \n8.48b | \n7.55a | \n
Consortium | \n10.37ab | \n11.52ab | \n10.59a | \n13.04a | \n
\n | \n7.26b | \n8.18ab | \n5.41b | \n10.3a | \n
Thiabendazole | \n10.02ab | \n8.69ab | \n7.44b | \n10.62a | \n
Control | \n5.98b | \n5.15b | \n2.59b | \n6.94a | \n
Total yield, length, and weight of fruit of the serrano chile pepper crop obtained with the use of microbial agents.
Mean values on the same column indicated by different letters are statistically different (p < 0.05) according to the LSD test.
This behavior of positive effect has already evidenced with the use of different
In other field tests with
Expression of incidence of coffee rust. (a) Plants with treatment based on bio formulate based on
The positive interaction between
In addition to the above aspects, plants can develop an increase in resistance to pathogen infection by treatment with a wide variety of biotic and abiotic inducers. Among the biotic inducers, we have the same phytopathogens, the growth-promoting rhizobacteria, and the microbial agents of the species of the genera
Among the abiotic inducers are salicylic acid (SA), jasmonic acid (JAS), β-aminobutyric acid, ethylene, chitosan, potassium, sodium or magnesium phosphate, acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM), menadione, sodium bisulfite, and phosphites. The application of these inducers causes specific biochemical changes that occur after their application such as expression of genes that code for PR proteins; the increase of certain defense-related enzymes such as polyphenol oxidase, lipoxygenase, peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL); the accumulation of phytoalexins and phenolic compounds; and the reinforcement of the cell wall with lignin deposition.
\nIn this regard, we have observed changes in the endogenous levels of salicylic acid and jasmonic acid in potato plants in response to foliar application of microbial consortiums based on
(a) Salicylic acid production on potato leaves in a different time. T1 =
The resistance induction is associated with some defense gene expression as encoding pathogenicity-related proteins (PR), for example, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, which is crucial in the synthesis of phytoalexins, because these constitute highly toxic compounds to the pathogen. On the other hand, PAL is part of the synthesis of salicylic acid and phenolic compounds that reduce the incidence of diseases in plants. It has also shown that
The results shown in this chapter allow to demonstrate the efficacy of
The authors acknowledge the financial support for the development of research from the National Council of Science and Technology of Mexico (CONACYT), University Autonomy Agrarian Antonio Narro and Greencorp Biorganiks of Mexico, S.A. de C.V corporation.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"23",type:"subseries",title:"Computational Neuroscience",keywords:"Single-Neuron Modeling, Sensory Processing, Motor Control, Memory and Synaptic Pasticity, Attention, Identification, Categorization, Discrimination, Learning, Development, Axonal Patterning and Guidance, Neural Architecture, Behaviours and Dynamics of Networks, Cognition and the Neuroscientific Basis of Consciousness",scope:"Computational neuroscience focuses on biologically realistic abstractions and models validated and solved through computational simulations to understand principles for the development, structure, physiology, and ability of the nervous system. 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Particularly interesting are models of various types of more compound functions and abilities, various and more general fundamental principles (e.g., regarding architecture, organization, learning, development, etc.) found at various spatial and temporal levels.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11419,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"13818",title:"Dr.",name:"Asim",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatti",slug:"asim-bhatti",fullName:"Asim Bhatti",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/13818/images/system/13818.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Deakin University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},{id:"151889",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao Luis Garcia",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa",slug:"joao-luis-garcia-rosa",fullName:"Joao Luis Garcia Rosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/151889/images/4861_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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