Type of integers, storage size, and range of possible values in C++ programming language.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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The MC method conception starts in 1733 with the
or, translated to English:
The first solution proposed by Leclerc [2], in 1777, is considered one of the oldest geometrical probability solutions. The method basically consists in generating successive random samples
It seems to be a simple problem, but its solution ensued a sequence of different mathematical methodologies [3]. For example, in 1812, Laplace, using his theory of probability and theoretical calculations based on this methodology to determine an approximation to the π value [3, 4], presented a generalized solution in 3D space [3, 4, 5].
Following the main condition of independence for random variable enunciated by Leclerc [2], the MC method was proposed as an alternative solution to analytical mathematics to evaluate the behavior of random samples to predict a statistic sample distribution or a statistic behavior. This behavior can be assessed by empirical processes of drawing sequences of independent random samples and observing its behavior [6]. The strategy is simple in concept, but it is time-consuming, being the first computerized MC simulation developed and implemented by the working team of John and Klara von Neumann and Nick Metropolis with the advent of the computers in 1947–1948 [7].
There are different algorithms [8, 9, 10] implemented to apply different MC solutions by using different computational tools. Since the objective of this chapter is to present MC validation and/or reliability for application developers (AD), on a specific study case, we will not detail the different MC algorithms.
There are several characteristics that can be used to classify MC computational tools (MCCT); however, based on the objective of this chapter, the available ones will be classified according to its applicability as general and specific MCCTs. So, in section 2, the general concepts and MCCT code core (cross-sectional libraries and pseudorandom generators), including the specific and general MCCTs characteristics and some codes available nowadays, are going to be presented. In section 3, the validation and reliability of MCCT code concepts and main methods, including its limitations on the implementations of cross-sectional libraries and random generators, are going to be discussed. To illustrate this, a case study of validation for dosimetry in mammography using two MCCT methods for radiation transport (Geant4 and XRMC) is going to be presented. In the last section, the final considerations on choosing a MCCT and important issues on validation or reliability tests will be presented.
The MC method may be used to solve different kinds of problems. It may be used to solve problems that could also be solved by deterministic calculations, but it is usually more time-consuming than those and can increase the complexity of the solution. MC must to be applied, generally, when the change in the model follows a “time dependence” and is suitable for a stochastic calculation, which depends on a sequence of random numbers generated during the simulation. It means that a new execution of the solution with a new (different) sequence of random numbers for the same simulation will not give identical results. However, it will return values that agree with the results obtained from the previous sequence within some “statistical error” or in a statistical fluctuation range [11].
In a general manner, the problems that are in essence managed by random phenomena can be solved by applying MC [11, 12]. The main idea of MC method is to estimate a quantity, based on systems that use random numbers to simulate random walks [11], with an estimator computed from observed/experimental data [12]. Considering this idea, the core system of a MCCT is based on a randomized algorithm (random number generator) to manage probabilities (libraries of sampling distribution) [12]. A MCCT has other tools implemented, but for an AD, the knowledge of the MC core limitations is essential to estimate the accuracy and precision of the results.
Taking into account the proposition of MCCT for transport radiation, one may define core as the computational random number generator (randomized algorithm) and the cross sections for each possible process of interaction (probabilities, in the case of photons that can be the total attenuation cross sections for each possible process, or the differential cross sections—if applicable—or the energy transfer cross sections or the energy absorption cross sections). Let’s think about a traditional MC simulation as is represented in the following scheme (Figure 1). It is important to keep in mind that this is a simplified scheme of transport radiation designed to aid the understanding of the basics of MC processing. Before one starts to run1 an event2 in a MCCT, one may define the simulation universe (or world), including the geometry, material composition of the simulated objects, and, if necessary, the additional information needed for the interaction.
Simplified scheme of a traditional Monte Carlo simulation.
The run starts always with the generation of a primary particle (emitted by the radiation source), and it finishes when all histories were run. As one may observe in Figure 1, the system starts the run, after the geometry built and physics definition, by initializing the counter of the number of histories (
Is this particle inside the world? In MC simulation, the geometrical limits to follow the transport of radiation are the limits described on the geometry by the larger volume (the world) that will contain the other volumes. Some MCCTs have no world volume defined; usually if they are specific MC using variance reduction techniques that force the radiation to interact with the defined volumes, then the logic is different than the presented in the scheme in Figure 1.
Is this particle alive? In MCCT for transport radiation, there is a minimum energy to proceed the transportation, so if the particle kinetic energy is smaller than this minimum energy, then this particle will die, which means in MCCT all residual energy will be locally deposited and the particle will stop.
If the particle is alive and inside the world, then it is important to know if this particle will find a geometrical boundary and/or a different material in its path during the step. If the answer is
To illustrate the selection of random number, let’s create a hypothesis of a 40 keV photon interacting with a liquid water medium. In this case, the total attenuation cross section is 0.2683 cm2/g, being composed by coherent scattering (0.02874 cm2/g), incoherent scattering (0.1827 cm2/g), and photoelectric effect (0.05680 cm2/g).3 Figure 2 shows the simplified scheme that defines the process of interaction.
Scheme of the random generator logic to define a probability of interaction of a 40 keV photon into liquid water medium.
Considering the information in Figure 2, one may see that among the three possible processes of interaction a probability of approximately 10.71% for coherent scattering, 68.11% for incoherent scattering, and 21.18% for photoelectric effect. Then, the normalization of the probabilities for each process between 0 and 1 is performed, considering the total attenuation cross section as the normalizing factor, and these normalized probabilities are organized in a sequence of real values. The possible number of values between 0 and 1 depends on the variable type defined in the MCCT implementation for the random generator number. On the presented example, the random numbers in the intervals [0; 0.10714) identify coherent scattering [0.10714; 0.78824), incoherent scattering, and [0.78824; 1) photoelectric effect. It is important to note that the probability of occurrence is proportional to the quantity of random numbers in the sequence of values. In the case exemplified in Figure 2, the number 0.0053721 is in the range [0; 0.10714) and defines the photon transport by coherent effect. If the random number were 0.78824, the photoelectric effect would be simulated since this value is in the range [0.78824; 1).
During the simulation several processes may need to have a random number generated such as process of interaction (used in the above example), momentum direction of the particle, secondary particle momentum and kinetic energy, atomic effect (if considered in the simulation), probability of Auger effect, and momentum direction of the Auger electron or auto-absorption of the Auger electron, among others. After the random definition of some of the abovementioned characteristics, deterministic equations are applied to keep the Principle of Energy and Momentum Conservation. Regarding the core of MCCT, it is important to know, as an AD, the main validity and limitations of the random number generator and the cross-sectional libraries.
The random number generator may be classified as pseudorandom number generator (PRNG) or true random number generator (TRNG) [13]. The so-called PRNG uses a deterministic process to generate a series of outputs from an initial seed state which means that for the same input “seed” one may have the same output number [13, 14, 15]. As an example one may cite the <cstdlib> head of C++ rand() function. In this case, usually the random number generated is an integer, and to know the range of possible numbers, it helps the AD to understand the limitations of the number of histories that can be run without compromising the randomicity of the simulation [13, 14], the so-called period of random number generator [16]. Table 1 presents the different range of values generated among the possible integer variables according to [14].
Type | Storage size | Values range |
---|---|---|
Short | 2 bytes | −32,768 to 32,767 |
Int | 2 bytes or 4 bytes | −32,768 to 32,767 or −2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 |
Long | 4 bytes | −2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 |
Unsigned short | 2 bytes | 0 to 65,535 |
Unsigned integer | 2 bytes or 4 bytes | 0 to 65,535 or 0 to 4,294,967,295 |
Unsigned long | 4 bytes | 0 to 4,294,967,295 |
Type of integers, storage size, and range of possible values in C++ programming language.
Based on the value range presented in Table 1, one may see that different possible variable definitions of the random generator can affect the resolution of the simulation, which means that there is a limit of histories with a proper random behavior for a PRNG. The PRNG is used in several applications [15], and one advantage of using it on MCCT is the capability of reproducing the same sequence of pseudorandom numbers [14] that can be used to validate an application and/or to validate and test different installations of a MCCT under different environments (evaluating the accuracy and precision of the simulation in different conditions) [16].
The TRNG uses a non-deterministic source to produce randomness [13], and its advantage is that TRNG is unpredictable, unbiased, and independent [16]. The disadvantage on developing TRNG is that it is implemented in hardware, which limits the flexibility of this random number generator and since additional verification of randomness is required with every change of environment [16]. Because of the hardware implementation of TRNG, computers without a hardware random number generator will require a peripheral that will generate a TRNG seed to be used as incoming data for PRNG [16].
Sometimes, an association of random number generators (PRNG-PRNG and PRNG-TRNG) is implemented to increase the period of a random generator, but the randomness of the number generated must be tested and verified. Special care must to be taken attention on running MCCT in computational grids or clusters to ensure that every processor will have an independent random seed to start the process. If this requirement is not kept, inconsistencies in the results may happen turning them unrealistic and carrying with them statistical tendencies that do not represent the expected probabilities. Therefore, to guarantee the reliability of results of a MCCT, the AD must understand the random number generator and its period and limitations.
Considering the reliability of the MCCT in the example described above, when it is applied to low-energy radiation transport, the probabilities (e.g., cross-sectional libraries—total and differential—for photons), the distribution functions, and the transport models for particles, such as electrons, are indispensable. As a general rule, it is important to know the processes simulated and if there are one or more models to be evoked. To validate these characteristics, the MCCT requires a microscopic validation4 that in turn requires experimental data of the cross sections or distribution functions for different material and energy range. The microscopic validation is hard work to be performed by an AD; however, one may find the validation of the data libraries in the literature and/or online libraries [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27] and on independent validations published for specific MC codes [21, 28, 29, 30].
The MCCT may be classified according to its applicability as general purpose (GP) [31, 32, 33] or specific purpose (SP) [33, 34, 35]. It is important to understand that this classification refers to the possibility of using MCCT in different applications and not the kind of solution generated by the MCCT. All MCCTs present a general solution to the study case, when applied to the same particle types, degrees of freedom, and simulated quantities, taking into account the limitations of the implemented code and libraries.
Some MCCTs are developed considering the simulation of a wide range of particles and/or quantities. Usually these MCCTs simulate detailedly the radiation transport of primary and secondary particles using minimal approximations as possible. These MCCTs are called general purpose Monte Carlo toolkit (GPMCT), and they may be applied to solve a wide range of radiation transport problems: large energy range, different particle types, different geometries, and a large range of simulated processes. As examples, one may cite Geant4, MCNP, or FLUKA.
The geometry and tracking (Geant4) [36, 37, 38] is a MCCT that has a complete range of functionalities including tracking, geometry, physics models, and hits [36]. It was developed based on object-oriented technology and implemented in C++ programming language. The physics processes available cover a comprehensive range, including electromagnetic, hadronic, and optical ones with a large set of materials, chemical elements, and long-lived particles, over a wide energy range starting from 250 or 990 eV and extending to a few TeV. The extended package Geant4-DNA adds processes for the modeling of induced biological damage by ionizing radiation at DNA scale, which transports all particles using a discrete model [39, 40, 41, 42] extending the possibility of transport particles down to a few eV (the range is different to each particle and process). On Geant4, the AD may access a large cross-sectional library database, making possible to choose different radiation processes and, to each process, to select different transport models. On Geant4, the AD may implement different variance reduction methods and set different parameters to transport primary and secondary particles [43] among the more than 35 particles5 allowed [43]. AD may use Geant4 classes to create collections of interactions, named hits (G4VHit or G4THitsCollection), and/or evoke sensitive detector counters (G4MultiFunctionalDetector or G4VPrimitiveScorer) and/or implement his/her own personal class (a new sensitive detector or hit file) [44].
The Monte Carlo N-particle (MCNP6) [45, 46, 47, 48, 49] MCCT includes a powerful general source, a criticality source, and a surface source. In addition to that, this MCCT includes both geometry and output counter (named tally) plotters. MCNP is implemented on GNU Fortran and C/C++ compilers [49] being a continuous-energy, generalized-geometry, time-dependent, MC radiation-transport code designed to track many particle types over broad ranges of energies. This MCCT may simulate neutron, photon, electron, or coupled neutron/photon/electron transport and heavy ions [49]. It simulates different energy ranges for different particles: neutron energy range from 10−11 to 20 MeV for most of isotopes and up to 150 MeV for some others, photon energy range from 1 keV up to 100 GeV, and electron energy range from 1 keV to 1 GeV [50]. It has a rich collection of variance reduction techniques with an extensive collection of cross-sectional data. In addition, MCNP contains numerous tallies: surface current and flux, volume flux (track length), point or ring detectors, particle heating, fission heating, pulse height tally for energy or charge deposition, mesh tallies, and radiography tallies [46, 49]. This MCCT makes it possible to change transport parameters by command lines [46, 50].
The Fluktuierende Kaskade (FLUKA) [51, 52, 53] MCCT was implemented and presents a number of ADs interface routines in Fortran 77. It simulates accurately the interaction and propagation of radiation in matter of about 60 different particles,6 including photons and electrons from 100 eV or 1 keV to thousands of TeV, neutrinos, muons of any energy, hadrons of energies up to 20 TeV and all the corresponding antiparticles, neutrons down to thermal energies, and heavy ions. Efficiency on radiation transport has been achieved using a frequent access table look-up sampling, and accuracy is maximized by systematic use of double precision variables. It is provided with a large number of available options for an AD and has been completely restructured introducing dynamical dimensioning. It has the double capability to be used in a biased mode as well as a fully analogue code which means that while it can be used to predict fluctuations, signal coincidences, and other correlated events, a wide choice of statistical techniques is also available to investigate punch through or other rare events in connection with attenuations by many orders of magnitude [52]. FLUKA can generate several output cards: a main (standard) output file, two scratch files, a file with the last random number seeds, an error messages file (if any), and any number (including zero) of estimator output files. Generally, the AD may choose between formatted and unformatted output and may generate a personalized routine for additional outputs [53].
However, some MCCTs are developed to solve problems considering specific particles or specific geometrical conditions or specific simulated quantities. These MCCTs are called specific purpose Monte Carlo toolkit (SPMCT) and are usually optimized to use several approximations and variance reduction techniques. They are developed considering restrictions on applications, and very specific quantities are simulated. In general, the SPMCTs are faster than the GPMCTs to solve the same problem. As examples, one may cite XRMC, ITS TIGER series, PENELOPE, EGS, and ETRAN.
The X-Ray Monte Carlo (XRMC) [54] simulates accurately X-ray imaging and spectroscopy experiments of heterogeneous samples. This MCCT is implemented in C++ and is capable of simulating, in detail, complex experiments on generic samples using different variance reduction techniques by default. It was developed initially to simulate X-ray fluorescence and photon imaging. XRMC simulates the transport of photons only and makes it possible to simulate the following quantities: total fluence and fluence with energy binding and total energy fluence and energy fluence with energy binning. As output, it may generate a raw file with the transmission image [55], and if energy binning is evoked, the AD may define the bin size. On transport possibilities, the AD may define maximum scattering order number, maximum scattering order as transmission, first-order scattering or fluorescence emission, and second-order scattering or fluorescence emission or higher order. It also has the flexibility of activating or inactivating fluorescence [54, 55] process. The cross-sectional library evoked by XRMC is the
The integrated tiger series (ITS) [57, 58, 59], version 6, allows solutions of linear time-independent coupled electron/photon radiation transport problems. This MCCT employs accurate cross sections, sampling distributions, and physical models to describe the production and transport of the electron/photon cascade from 1.0 keV to 1.0 GeV [58, 59]. The ITS, version 6, was converted to Fortran 90 [59] with C++ links to CAD software. The availability of the source code allows the AD to tailor this MCCT to specific applications and to extend its capabilities to more complex applications. Overlaps in CAD geometry may be evaluated and reported in an output file [58]. The AD may set different parameters by command line like to define the cross section for different data sets, to deactivate the coherent photon scattering, to include (or not) binding effects in incoherent photon scattering, and/or to apply (or not) energy-loss straggling to electrons [59]. The AD may set different output information such as the energy and charge deposited in every subzone, the detailed energy and charge deposited in every subzone, and the geometry-dependent input settings [58]. ITS’ cross-sectional [58] suite of codes includes a multigroup version along with the multigroup cross-sectional generator CEPXS and a continuous-energy (XGEN) cross sections [58, 59]. In ITS, photons below 1 keV are locally absorbed, an alternative algorithm to electron transport was implemented named Generalized Boltzmann Fokker-Planck (GBFP), and the full transport capability for photons and electrons using the Livermore database is under development [58].
The penetration and energy loss of positrons and electron (PENELOPE) [60], version 2014, MCCT simulates the coupled electron-photon transport as well as photons, electrons, and positrons. The PENELOPE simulation algorithm is based on a scattering model combining numerical databases with analytical cross-sectional models for the different interaction mechanisms being applicable to energies from few hundred eV up to approximately 1 GeV. Photon transport is simulated by means of the standard, detailed simulation method. Electron and positron transports are simulated based on a mixed procedure, which combines a detailed simulation with a condensed one [60, 61, 62, 63]. The implementation of the cross-sectional libraries considers EPDL7 total cross sections for photoelectric absorption and Rayleigh scattering, XCOM8 cross sections for pair production, and SUMGA9 function for total atomic cross sections and Compton scattering. PENELOPE can simulate the emission of characteristic X-rays and Auger electrons resulting from vacancies produced in K, L, M, and N shells by photoelectric absorption, Compton scattering, triplet production, and electron/positron impact. In PENELOPE 2014, the elastic collisions of electrons and positrons are simulated, using numerical partial-wave cross sections for free neutral atoms by elastic scattering of electrons and positrons by atoms (ELSEPA) program that is a database distributed by ICRU Report 77 (2007) [60]. The output may be defined using Fortran subroutines, where the AD may get different quantities such as number of materials that were loaded, mass density of specific materials, characteristics of the slowing down for charged particles, energy of the particle at the beginning of the track segment, effective stopping power of soft energy-loss interactions, and energy lost along the step, among others [61].
The electron gamma shower (EGS) MCCT may be found on different main versions, EGS5 and EGSnrc. Both versions of EGS are implemented in Mortran3 language, which is a preprocessor for Fortran [64, 65]. The origins of EGS MCCT are documented in NRC-PIRS-0436 report [66]. The EGS5 simulates the coupled transport of electrons and photons in an arbitrary geometry for particles with energies from a few keV up to a several hundred GeV [64] depending on the atomic numbers of the target materials. The EGSnrc10 (Electron Gamma Shower from National Research Council) is an extended and improved version of the EGS MCCT, having specific modeling implementations to electron and photon transport through matter. It includes the BEAMnrc software component that models beams traveling through consecutive material components, ranging from a simple slab to the full treatment head of a radiotherapy linear particle accelerator (linac). EGSnrc is particularly well-suited for medical physics applications (research and devices development) being used for medical radiation detection, medical image based on x-radiation, and dosimetry for a specific volume. However, due to the flexibility of this MCCT, the AD may use it for different applications such as in industrial linac beams, X-ray emitters, radiation shielding, and more. The EGSnrc simulates the radiation transport in homogeneous materials for photons, electrons, and positrons with energies between 1 keV and 10 GeV. It incorporates significant refinements in charged particle transport and better low energy cross sections and makes it possible to define elaborated geometries and particle sources [65].
The electron transport (ETRAN) MCCT transports electrons and photons through extended media being developed by the National Bureau of Standards. This MCCT has various versions representing mainly refinements, embellishments, and different geometrical treatments that share the same basic simulation algorithm based on random sampling the path of electrons and photons as they travel through matter. The algorithms and computational tools written at other laboratories, such as Sandia’s older SANDYL code and their more current series of the TIGER, CYLTRAN, and ACCEPT codes, together have been called ETRAN model too.
When an AD chooses a MCCT, it is important to consider:
The characteristics of the application: type of primary and secondary particles and their energy range, quantities to be simulated, geometry and material composition of the simulated universe;
The capabilities of the MC code: if the code can handle properly the transport of primary and (if necessary) secondary particles in the energy range of interest, if it is possible to simulate the necessary quantities, and if it can handle the transport simulation in all material compositions expected and how it simulates the geometry of interest;
The limitations of the MC code: transport processes and models simulated in the energy range of interest (search for microscopic validation of the cross-sectional libraries published) and how accurate the MCCT is on simulating the dosimetric quantities and the particle fluxes (search for macroscopic validation published), being recommended that the AD proceeds his/her own macroscopic validation;
The computational performance: verifying the running time to get an acceptable statistical fluctuation in the results for the cases of interest and, in some cases, checking the RAM memory used to build the virtual universe and the memory used to save the output files;
Considering those minimal guidelines on choosing a MCCT, there is a good chance for the AD to not have unresolvable problems during the development of an application. Now, if you, as an AD, still have questions about the proper MCCT to choose, keep in mind the best one is the MCCT able to solve your “problem” (accuracy of the results) with an adequate statistical fluctuation (precision of the results). In addition to that, an AD at least should be able to install and to use the MCCT interface, being aware of the common limitation of it. All these characteristics may be found, usually, in the manual (user manual and physics process manual).
To guarantee that one application is realistic, it is important to test it (computational code) in different ways. There are several known ways to test a computational code and its parts; however, in this section, the focus is to present the concepts applied on developed applications for MCCTs such as verification, validation, comparison, and reliability.
When one is working in an application for MCCT, it is important to understand the concepts that may guarantee its internal consistency and accuracy. The IEEE 1012–2016 gives a general description of software verification and validation, and the IEEE 24765–2017 gives a detailed description of these concepts defining these terms.
According to [68], “
When experimental data is not available, it is possible to use other MCCT or deterministic models to compare to the MC application results. In this way, one is performing a
A
It is possible to combine
IEEE 730–2014—IEEE Standard for Software Quality Assurance Processes
IEEE 982.1–2005—IEEE Standard Dictionary of Measures of the Software Aspects of Dependability
IEEE 1012–2016—IEEE Standard for System, Software, and Hardware Verification and Validation (corrigendum 1012–2016/Cor 1–2017)
IEEE 1016–2009—IEEE Standard for Information Technology-Systems Design—Software Design Descriptions
IEEE 12207–2017—ISO/IEC/IEEE International Standard—Systems and software engineering—Software life cycle processes
IEEE 14764–2006—ISO/IEC/IEEE International Standard for Software Engineering—Software Life Cycle Processes—Maintenance
IEEE 15026–1—Revision-2019—ISO/IEC/IEEE Approved Draft International Standard—Systems and Software Engineering—Systems and Software Assurance—Part 1: Concepts and Vocabulary
IEEE 15026–2-2011—IEEE Standard—Adoption of ISO/IEC 15026–2:2011 Systems and Software Engineering—Systems and Software Assurance—Part 2: Assurance Case
IEEE 15026–3-2013—IEEE Standard Adoption of ISO/IEC 15026–3—Systems and Software Engineering—Systems and Software Assurance—Part 3: System Integrity Levels
IEEE 15026–4-2013—IEEE Standard Adoption of ISO/IEC 15026–4—Systems and Software Engineering—Systems and Software Assurance—Part 4: Assurance in the Life Cycle
IEEE 24765–2017—ISO/IEC/IEEE International Standard—Systems and software engineering—Vocabulary
IEEE 29119–1-2013—ISO/IEC/IEEE International Standard—Software and systems engineering—Software testing—Part 1: Concepts and definitions
IEEE 29119–2-2013—ISO/IEC/IEEE International Standard—Software and systems engineering—Software testing—Part 2: Test processes
IEEE 29119–3-2013—ISO/IEC/IEEE International Standard—Software and systems engineering—Software testing—Part 3: Test documentation
IEEE 29119–4-2015—ISO/IEC/IEEE International Standard—Software and systems engineering—Software testing—Part 4: Test techniques
IEEE 29119–5-2016—ISO/IEC/IEEE International Standard—Software and systems engineering—Software testing—Part 5: Keyword-Driven Testing
IEC 61508–0 (2005–2101)—Functional safety of electrical/electronic/ programmable electronic safety-related systems—Part 0: Functional safety
IEC 61508–1 (2010–2104)—Functional safety of electrical/electronic/ programmable electronic safety-related systems—Part 1: General requirements
IEC 61508–2 (2010–2104)—Functional safety of electrical/electronic/ programmable electronic safety-related systems—Part 2: Requirements for electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems
IEC 61508–3 (2010–2104)—Functional safety of electrical/electronic/ programmable electronic safety-related systems—Part 3: Software requirements
IEC 61508–4 (2010–2104)—Functional safety of electrical/electronic/ programmable electronic safety-related systems—Part 4: Definitions and abbreviations
IEC 61508–5 (2010–2104)—Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems—Part 5: Examples of methods for the determination of safety integrity levels
IEC 61508–6 (2010–2104)—Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems—Part 6: Guidelines on the application of IEC 61508–2 and IEC 61508–3
IEC 61508–7 (2010–2104)—Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety-related systems—Part 7: Overview of techniques and measures
IEC 61511–1 (2003–2101)—Functional safety—Safety instrumented systems for the process industry sector—Part 1: Framework, definitions, system, hardware and software requirements
IEC 61511–2 (2003–2007)—Functional safety—Safety instrumented systems for the process industry sector—Part 2: Guidelines for the application of IEC 61511–1
IEC 61511–3 (2003–2003)—Functional safety—Safety instrumented systems for the process industry sector—Part 3: Guidance for the determination of the required safety integrity levels
ISO/IEC 25010:2011—Systems and software engineering—Systems and software Quality Requirements and Evaluation (SQuaRE)—System and software quality models
There are two ISO documents under development at the moment: the ISO/DTR 11462–3 Guidelines for implementation of statistical process control (SPC)—Part 3: Reference data sets for SPC software validation and ISO/NP TR 11462–4 Guidelines for implementation of statistical process control (SPC)—Part 4: Reference data sets for measurement process analysis software validation.
On this section a comparison between XRMC version 6.5.0-2 (henceforth called XRMC) [54, 55] and Geant4 version 10.02.p02 (henceforth called Geant4) [36, 37, 38] is presented, as well as the validation of both MCCTs using experimental data collected on three different mammographs. For validation the following measurements were performed: exposure (X), kerma, half-value layer (HVL), inverse square law (ISL), and backscattering (BS). Limitations, advantages, and disadvantages of using a general and specific MCCT will be commented too. Absolute and normalized quantities were selected because it is important to know the correction factor for total number of photons generated per mAs per total irradiated area for each equipment (this number is characteristic of each X-ray tube and will change with the time), and the combination of these quantities helps to define the best approximation for this correction factor in the simulation to get results closer to the clinical reality.
It is important to inform that each setup had the data collected with calibrated equipment (electrometers and ionizing chambers) available at their institutions and performed by the same person that developed the application with both MCCTs. The simulated geometries are the same used on the data collection. In the following, a brief description of the measurement equipment and simulated setup is presented:
Mammomat Inspiration [69, 70] (henceforth called Inspiration)—measurements were performed with electrometer and ionizing chamber TNT 12000 kit (Fluke) and Al 99% purity filters. SIMULATION: dry air-sensitive volume of 15 cm3; focal spot as point-source irradiating homogeneously on circular surface of 2.08 cm of radius; spectra for acceleration voltages 25, 30, and 35 kVp; track-additional filtration combination Mo-Mo (30 μm) and Mo-Rh (25 μm); spectra of ripple 0%; target tilt angle of 20o; and a window of 0.8 mm of beryllium (Be). The HVL calculations are based on a source-to-detector distance of 41.0 cm for different Al thickness filtration; and X data were collected and simulated to source-to-detector distances 26, 40, 50, and 60 cm.
Mammomat 3000 [71] (henceforth called M3000)—measurements were performed with electrometer Victoreen model 660–1 (1315REV) and ionizing chamber Victoreen model 660-4A (512REV). SIMULATION: dry air-sensitive volume of 4 cm3; focal spot as point-source irradiating homogeneously on a circular surface of 10.0 cm2; spectra of ripple 0%; target tilt angle of 22o; a Be window 0.8 mm thick; track-additional filtration combinations of Mo-Mo (30 μm), Mo-Rh (25 μm), and W-Rh (50 μm); and spectrum acceleration voltages of 24 up to 32 kVp, in steps of 2 kVp. The BS was calculated considering simulators of BR12 epoxy and polymethilmetacrilate, considering a source-to-detector distance of 60.0 cm and simulator thicknesses of 4, 5, 6, and 8 cm.
Lorad MIII [72] (henceforth called Lorad)—measurements were performed with electrometer Modified Keitlhy (model 602) and ionizing chamber for mammography MPT SN 442. SIMUALTION: dry air-sensitive volume of 6.0 cm3; focal spot as point-source irradiating homogeneously on a rectangular surface of (18.0 × 24.0) cm2; spectra for acceleration voltages from 26 to 34 kVp, in steps of 2 kVp; track-additional filtration combination of Mo-Mo (30 μm) and Mo-Rh (25 μm); spectra of ripple 0%; target tilt angulation of 16o; and a Be window 0.8 mm thick. The X measurements were performed with compression paddle and by minimizing the BS effects by increasing the distance between the bucky and the ionizing chamber.
It is important to evaluate all the available possibilities on the MCCT to get a realistic perspective of the configurations. Because of that, two modes to describe the transport model were evaluated on XRMC (transmission (T) and with scattering for dosimetry (D)). In Geant4, the different radiation transport physics models recommended for low energy photons and electrons (standard-option3 (
to use the ratio of the simulated and experimental KERMA to get a correction factor, generally using primary beam with different kVp and mAs, in the range of energy of interest, collecting the KERMA with the minimization of scattering effects or
to use a normalized quantity, for example, normalized HVL, to evaluate the proximity of the behavior of the simulated and experimental curves and then use a good of fit (GoF) test on the non-normalized HVL to estimate the best correction factor to fit the amplitude of the simulated to the experimental data.
In both cases, the error estimation of the experimental data as well as the quantification of the statistical fluctuations of the MC method must be taken into account.
The XRMC does not return the absorbed energy or dose as an output information, so to make the comparison of quantities calculated in same conditions possible, the calculations are based on the incoming spectra on the surface of the sensitive volume. The Geant4 application was planned to collect the spectra on the surface of the sensitive volume, and the same calculations applied to XRMC results were used. On the other hand, for Geant4 validation, the absorbed energy in the sensitive volume was used. The statistical fluctuations were based in a sequence of 10 runs with different seeds for each evaluated case, for both MCCTs, and the average and standard deviation of the data were calculated and used on data analyses.
It is important to compare quantitatively experimental to simulated data for validation. Several statistical tests usually may be applied generally: Chi-square (
Relative difference between simulated and experimental data considering normalized data, with outliers, for different modeled spectra and all studied mammographs: Inspiration (a), M3000 (b), Lorad (c), and all equipment (d).
Transport models and spectrum identification | Inspiration (HVL) | M3000 (BS) | Lorad (HVL) | All | M3000 (Mo30Mo) | M3000 (Mo25Rh) | M3000 (W-25Rh) | Lorad (Mo30Mo) | Lorad (Mo25Rh) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
XRMC_T–Barnes | 0.3025 | NA | 1.0000 | 0.9988 | NA | NA | NA | 1.0000 | 0.7265 |
XRMC_T–Catalogue | 0.0687 | NA | 0.5859 | 0.3125 | NA | NA | NA | 0.9258 | 0.1466 |
XRMC_D–Barnes | NA | 1.0000 | NA | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | NA | NA |
XRMC_D–Catalogue | NA | 1.0000 | NA | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | NA | NA |
G4 | 0.2463 | 1.0000 | 0.0817 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9998 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.1966 | 1.0000 | 0.0785 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.1049 | 0.2069 |
G4 | 0.1481 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | 0.3636 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.0710 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | 0.9993 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.1811 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.2397 | 1.0000 | 0.1113 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9999 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.1564 | 1.0000 | 0.7587 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9997 | 0.0597 |
G4 | 0.3511 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | 0.3811 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.2383 | 1.0000 | 0.0102 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.3842 | 0.0018 |
G4 | 0.2494 | 1.0000 | 0.9703 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.2405 |
G4 | 0.3756 | 1.0000 | 0.0600 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.0328 | 0.3994 |
G4 | 0.1910 | 1.0000 | 0.0290 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | 0.9905 |
G4 | 0.0331 | 1.0000 | 0.6826 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.1454 | 0.9993 |
χ2 p values for the validation for both MCCTs considering normalized quantities for all studied cases.
Transport models and spectrum identification | Inspiration (HVL) | M3000 (BS) | Lorad (HVL) | All | M3000 (Mo30Mo) | M3000 (Mo25Rh) | M3000 (W-25Rh) | Lorad (Mo30Mo) | Lorad (Mo25Rh) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
G4 | 0.9777 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9999 |
G4 | 0.9149 | 1.0000 | 0.9671 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.6334 | 0.9972 |
G4 | 0.2139 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9808 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.1595 | 1.0000 | 0.9975 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9200 | 0.9974 |
G4 | 0.8606 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9999 |
G4 | 0.7994 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9637 |
G4 | 0.1660 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.1572 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9997 |
G4 | 0.9767 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9998 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.6809 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9998 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.4828 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.7014 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | 0.9965 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.6993 | 1.0000 | 0.1663 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.000 |
The graphics in Figure 3 present a visual interesting result for the evaluation of the relative difference between experimental and simulated data taking experimental data as reference. It shows that different systems may be better represented by different modeled spectra. The Inspiration setup (Figure 3a) shows similar results for both modeled spectra since all relative differences for median, first and third quartiles, are between −10 and −2%. A small number of outlier data are observed in this case. The M3000 (Figure 3b) evaluation clearly presents better accuracy and precision using spectra from Barnes et al. [74], since it presents all median data closer to 0% and the lowest data dispersion among the three mammographs represented by smallest first and third quartiles (in the range of −3 and 2%). For Lorad (Figure 3c) a better accuracy of the results is visible when spectrum from Barnes et al. [74] is used specially with Geant4, because all data for these spectra presented median closer to 0% and the data for catalogued spectra [73] presented medians between −6 and −3%. However, for this mammograph, there is no difference on precision when both modeled spectra are used, being observed that the data between first and third quartiles for Barnes et al. [74] are in the range of −4 and 8% and for catalogued spectra [73] between −10 and 1%. These differences between spectra are more evident in Geant4 simulations. All mammographs presented outliers for the evaluation of the relative differences. In an evaluation of all mammographs studied, one may observe (Figure 3d) that the spectrum from [74] was generally more accurate and precise than the spectra from [73]. In the case of Geant4, the simulated absorbed energy seems to present smaller dispersion than the calculated data based on spectra at the detector entrance surface (observe the first and third quartiles in Figure 3d). Even observing this general tendency on data dispersion, it is not possible to conclude that one calculation methodology for the dosimetric quantities is better than the other, since this tendency was only observed for one of the three studied mammographs (Figure 3b).
It is important to note that these are qualitative observations valid for the database (equipment and setups) of this study or similar conditions of energy range and irradiation geometry. To have a quantitative evaluation, one needs to evaluate the statistical significance of the results. Table 2 presents the
The null hypothesis12 is rejected if
Table 3 presents the
The evaluation same as before was performed with the absolute measurements, first applying the theoretical correction factor, and then the semiempirical correction factor was applied to estimate the number of photons emitted per mAs per total irradiated area. Figure 4 presents the qualitative evaluation for all studied cases and absolute values considering the theoretical correction factor.
Relative difference between simulated and experimental data considering absolute data, with theoretical correction and showing outliers, for the different modeled spectra and all studied mammographs: Inspiration (a), M3000 (b), Lorad (c), and all equipment (d).
As expected, the relative differences increase when absolute values are compared. This was expected since under this condition the results are dependent of the number of photons emitted per mAs per total irradiated area, considering each setup configuration (peak tension, track target-add filtration combination, and stability of the electrical network associate to the wave rectification of the tube generator). All mammographs presented outlier data, and, in a general observation, one may see that Inspiration setup (Figure 4a) presented again a systematic behavior with median values between 0 and 30% and first and third quartiles between −10 and 80%. In this case, the simulated data overestimated the experimental data. Compared to the results presented in Figure 3a, it suggests that the simulated normalization factor is larger than the experimental one, causing this systematic behavior for normalized HVL to present simulated values that are always smaller than experimental ones. M3000 (Figure 4b) presents few cases with outliers (Geant4
To better evaluate the significance of the findings in Figure 4, it is important to apply a statistical evaluation. Tables 4 and 5 are presenting
Transport models and spectrum identification | Inspiration (HVL Mo30Mo) | Inspiration (HVL Mo25Rh) | M3000 (Mo25Rh) | M3000 (W-50Rh) |
---|---|---|---|---|
XRMC_T–Barnes | <0.001 | 0.1035 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
XRMC_T–Catalogue | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0,0453 |
XRMC_S–Barnes | NA | NA | <0.001 | <0.001 |
XRMC_S–Catalogue | NA | NA | 0.0028 | 0.8740 |
G4 | 0.1174 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.1250 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | <0.001 | 0.9867 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.5026 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.7886 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | <0.001 | 0.9854 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.1907 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.0224 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4liv–Catalogue | <0.001 | 0.9869 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4liv–Catalogue–Calc | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Transport models and spectrum identification | Inspiration (HVL Mo30Mo) | Inspiration (ISL Mo30Mo) | Inspiration (ISL Mo25Rh) | M3000 (Mo30Mo) | Lorad (Mo-XMo) | Lorad (Mo-XRh) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
G4 | 0.9841 | 0.84732 | 0.9999 | 1.000 | 0.8953 | 0.05693 |
G4 | 0.0894 | 0.06821 | 0.3586 | 0.5481 | 0.0249 | 0.0586 |
G4 | 0.0676 | 0.0269 | 0.9685 | 0.0957 | 0.6954 | 0.0568 |
G4 | 0.05832 | 0.0384 | 0.8437 | 0.7865 | 0.7864 | 0.6785 |
G4 | 0.8284 | 0.0145 | 0.0725 | 0.8679 | 0.0978 | 0.6604 |
G4 | 0.6983 | 0.9421 | 0.8796 | 0.5647 | 0.0413 | 0.0211 |
G4 | 0.6753 | 0.0261 | 0.2246 | 0.3540 | 0.7953 | 0.7894 |
G4 | 0.9485 | 0.8475 | 0.1000 | 0.0039 | 0.8796 | 0.6854 |
G4 | 1.0000 | 0.6735 | 0.0516 | 0.7865 | 0.9999 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.0768 | 0.1276 | 0.6875 | 0.5694 | 0.9574 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.0107 | 0.0554 | 0.1534 | 0.7865 | 0.7865 | 0.3451 |
G4 | 0.0544 | 0.0895 | 0.5674 | 0.6352 | 0.4731 | 0.8966 |
Table 4 is presenting the validation for the mammographs that had at least one
Table 5 is presenting the
The
Based on the
HVL—the curve of KERMA as function of the additional Al filtration thickness for the same acceleration voltage
ISL—the tendency of the KERMA as function of the distance between focal spot and detector surface for the same acceleration voltage
BS—the tendency of the KERMA as function of the thickness of the scatterer considering the scatterer (or considering the backscattered radiation) and the tendency of the KERMA as function of the thickness of the scatterer without considering the scatterer (or not considering the backscattered radiation)
All cases used to generate the semiempirical correction factor considered the best GoF test results for the amplitude when applied to the simulated data for one acceleration voltage and track target-additional filtration combination for a specific mammograph. The best value for the amplitude in each case was used as semiempirical correction factor to be applied as a multiplication factor on the theoretical correction factor for the total number of photons per mAs per total irradiated area.
Tables 6 and 7 are presenting the
Transport models and spectrum identification | Inspiration (HVL) | Inspiration (ISL) | M3000 (BS) | Lorad (HVL) | All | M3000 (Mo30Mo) | M3000 (Mo25Rh) | M3000 (W-25Rh) | Lorad (Mo30Mo) | Lorad (Mo25Rh) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
XRMC_T–Barnes | 0.2502 | 0.0754 | NA | 1.0000 | 0.9889 | NA | NA | NA | 1.0000 | 0.7265 |
XRMC_T–Catalogue | 0.0603 | 0.0564 | NA | 0.5859 | 0.2123 | NA | NA | NA | 0.82734 | 0.1466 |
XRMC_S–Barnes | NA | NA | 1.0000 | NA | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.8009 | 1.0000 | NA | NA |
XRMC_S–Catalogue | NA | NA | 1.0000 | NA | 1.0000 | 0.9990 | 0.9990 | 1.0000 | NA | NA |
G4 | 0.2635 | 0.2384 | 0.9987 | 0.0817 | 0.7669 | 0.9871 | 0.9987 | 1.0000 | 0.8996 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.1006 | 0.0845 | 1.0000 | 0.0785 | 0.8876 | 0.8997 | 0.9946 | 1.0000 | 0.1073 | 0.2069 |
G4 | 0.1182 | <0.001 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | 0.3636 | 0.9999 | 0.8954 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.0653 | <0.001 | 1.0000 | <0.001 | 0.0457 | 1.0000 | 0.9997 | 1.0000 | 0.0819 | 0.0211 |
G4 | 0.1398 | 0.1294 | 0.9998 | 0.1101 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9989 | 0.0521 |
G4 | 0.1263 | 0.5643 | 1.0000 | 0.7587 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9982 | 1.0000 | 0.9897 | 0.0597 |
G4 | 0.2151 | <0.001 | 0.9988 | <0.001 | 0.0381 | 0.9675 | 0.9999 | 1.0000 | 0.0467 | <0.001 |
G4 | 0.2299 | <0.001 | 0.8999 | 0.0302 | 0.0569 | 0.9999 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.3747 | 0.0138 |
G4 | 0.1946 | 0.1112 | 0.9979 | 0.9703 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.1435 |
G4 | 0.2384 | 0.1349 | 0.9977 | 0.0690 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9734 | 1.0000 | 0.0528 | 0.2694 |
G4 | 0.7910 | <0.001 | 0.0357 | 0.0490 | 0.0428 | 0.9863 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.0521 | 0.7092 |
G4 | 0.0301 | <0.001 | 0.8073 | 0.5762 | 0.0665 | 1.0000 | 0.9763 | 1.0000 | 0.1454 | 0.8968 |
Transport models and spectrum identification | Inspiration (HVL) | Inspiration (ISL) | M3000 (BS) | Lorad (HVL) | All | M3000 (Mo30Mo) | M3000 (Mo25Rh) | M3000 (W-25Rh) | Lorad (Mo30Mo) | Lorad (Mo25Rh) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
G4 | 0.9777 | 0.2463 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9999 |
G4 | 0.9149 | 0.1966 | 1.0000 | 0.9671 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.6334 | 0.9972 |
G4 | 0.2139 | 0.1481 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9808 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.1595 | 0.0710 | 1.0000 | 0.9975 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9200 | 0.9974 |
G4 | 0.8606 | 0.2494 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9999 |
G4 | 0.7994 | 0.3756 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9637 |
G4 | 0.1660 | 0.1910 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.1572 | 0.0331 | 1.0000 | 0.0002 | 0.4832 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.0401 |
G4 | 0.9767 | 0.1595 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9997 |
G4 | 0.6809 | 0.8606 | 1.0000 | 0.8765 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.4828 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.7014 | 0.7994 | 1.0000 | 0.9212 | 0.9994 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.6993 | 0.1660 | 1.0000 | 0.1663 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 |
The application of semiempirical correction factors shows a better approximation for absolute values. When one compares the results corrected by the theoretical factors (Table 4) to the results corrected by theoretical factors associated to semiempirical factors (Table 6), the increase of cases that did not reject the null hypothesis is visible. With the exception of Geant4
The comparison between both MCCTs after applying the semiempirical correction factor is presented in Table 7. As was expected there was an increase of the
To compare the results generated by both MCCTs directly, the
Transport models and spectrum identification | Inspiration | M3000 | Lorad | All |
---|---|---|---|---|
G4 | 0.9149 | 0.6566 | 0.9671 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.1595 | 0.0521 | 0.9975 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.7994 | 0.1182 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.1572 | 0.0653 | 0.9975 | 0.4832 |
G4 | 0.6809 | 0.1398 | 0.8765 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.6993 | 0.1263 | 0.1663 | 1.0000 |
Anderson-Darling p values for the comparison between XRMC and Geant4 (references) considering the spectrum at detector entrance surface for all physics lists and studied cases.
Transport models and spectrum identification | Inspiration | M3000 | Lorad | All |
---|---|---|---|---|
G4 | 1.0000 | 0.8671 | 1.0000 | 0.9768 |
G4 | 0.9999 | 0.9975 | 1.0000 | 0.9999 |
G4 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 1.000 |
G4 | 1.0000 | 1.0000 | 0.9999 | 1.0000 |
G4 | 0.9998 | 0.8765 | 1.0000 | 0.9154 |
G4 | 1.0000 | 0.1663 | 1.0000 | 0.3687 |
Kolmogorov-Smirnov p values for the comparison between XRMC and Geant4 (references) considering the spectrum at detector entrance surface for all physics lists and studied cases.
Another important characteristic of MCCT to take into account is the running time. In this example, the XRMC Transmission mode reduced the running time around 2.5 times compared to Geant4
When the experimental spectra of the X-ray equipment (in this example for mammographs) are available, it is better to use the experimental ones and the correction factors associated to it. However, it is important to keep in mind that it should be the spectra generated by the X-ray tube that is being used, since each tube (even the ones with the same characteristics produced by the same manufacturer) may have a difference on efficiency conversion due to minimal differences in its manufacturing. Besides that, a periodical verification of the amplitude correction factor for the number of photons generated per mAs per total irradiated area (or solid angle) must be applied since the tube wear can affect the conversion efficiency due to the deposition of atoms of the track-target on the window surface (by sputtering effect) or by the releasing of atoms from the track-target into the volume of the tube low pressure air.
The objective of this chapter was to present the main concepts of validation and reliability applied to MC application development to dosimetry and imaging, presenting a minimal validation that can be performed by MCCT ADs. It is important to note, as an AD in MC, that it is always valid to have your own experimental data to validate the application in the contour limitations of your problem. If experimental data for validation or modeled data for comparison are not available; at least a reliability test should be performed to ensure the quality of the results generated by the MCCT.
On choosing a MCCT, one needs to pay attention to the characteristics of the application, the capabilities and limitations of the MCCT code, and its computational performance. Besides that, the best MCCT is the one that the AD knows how to use (installing, developing applications, and extracting useful data). To do that the AD needs to have knowledge of a programing language or, at least, to understand the logic of input data in MCCT, to understand the experiment or clinical reality to be described in the simulation, and to have the notions of the processes and models of transport significant to the study case.
Regarding the results for the example used in this chapter the evaluation presented as follows:
Validation—the statistical evaluation presented no null hypothesis rejection for XRMC results and presented the rejection of null hypothesis for few Geant4 cases evaluated considering normalized data. The XRMC presented the best agreement to the experimental data. Considering Geant4 the Livermore was the best physic list option. For absolute quantities calculated by applying semiempirical correction factors, all mammographs presented
Comparison—the spectra generated at the entrance surface of the detector by both MCCTs always presented
Reliability—the qualitative reliability evaluation based on graphics makes possible to observe that the more consistent data occurs for the simulation of the M3000. The graphics allowed to observe the tendencies when comparing simulated data to experimental data considering overall data and specific subgroups. This visual observation shows a consistency with the statistical tables, presenting sensitivity to help on data classification for a detailed analysis.
The methods to test a MCCT application are indispensable in the good practice of computational dosimetry and imaging because they guarantee the quality of the results, helping on the evaluation of the methodology limitations and making it possible to improve the trustability of the application and its results transposing with safety the “
India recently witnessed two unnerving suicide events. In 2018, 10 family members of the Chundawat family from
The phenomenon of suicide can be viewed as a spectrum and the only way to arrive at any meaningful suicide prevention strategy is to first understand this psycho-social phenomenon in its different expressions. At a time when India is grappling with issues of mental health, this chapter aims to draw attention to the emerging trend of clustering and contagion in suicidal behavior, its nature as well as its manifestation, as witnessed in the contemporary Indian social cultural set-up.
Recently, the rate of cluster suicides in India has been growing rapidly since the last decade. It is a matter of deep concern as it became a massive social problem and thus, effective interventions and solution for suicide prevention need to be developed at the earliest.
There is a shift in the predominance of the number of suicides from the elderly to the younger people all over the world. India is labeled as “Suicide Capital of South-East Asia’ as it has recorded the highest number of suicides in South-East Asia in 2012, according to a WHO report [2] also in 2016 the number of suicides in India had increased to 230,314 and suicide was the most common cause of death in both the age groups of 15–29 years and 15–39 years. India has a major contribution to global suicide deaths as it increased from 25·3% in 1990 to 36·6% in 2016 among women, and from 18·7 to 24·3% among men.
There are several different types of mass suicide events that can occur, each for a different reason and for different goals. Form historical perspective the most infamous events of mass suicides are those that are related to religious groups or cults.
An understanding of the historical trends with respect to suicide in India takes us back to the ancient scriptures that emerged in the Indian society. After having reviewed different Indian scriptures such as the Upanishads, the Bhagvad Gita and the Brahma Sutras it was concluded that suicide is not either explicitly condemned or glorified nor is it seen as a crime in these ancient Indian texts [3]. Although suicide does find mention in the great epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, it appears that whether such behavior was approved or disapproved depended on the intent of killing oneself, which was perhaps more important than the behavior itself. Thus, if suicide was undertaken due to selfish reasons, it was likely to be disapproved, but if it was undertaken for heroic or self-sacrificial reasons, it was seen in a more positive light. Within the Indian context, it is also debatable whether taking one’s life to attain self-realization or enlightenment should be considered “suicide” or not. In such instances, a more suitable term seems to be “leaving one’s body” rather than “killing oneself.” Some Indian philosophical systems have emphasized on the existence of soul or atman, which is eternal and imperishable in nature, therefore death is then considered an end to the body or gross physical matter and not the soul.
In some religions such as Jainism there is provision known as “sallekhana” or “sanyasa-marana.” It can be defined as the religious practice of voluntarily fasting to death by gradually reducing the intake of food. It is linked to the attainment of “moksha,” the liberation from the cycle of life and death [4]. Sallekhana is sanctified morally and ethically by the Jain community, thus it is not considered an act of suicide. These observations point towards the increasing necessity of a culturally based understanding of suicide. Hinduism condemns suicide, but in specific instances accepts it as a meritorious act of self-sacrifice. It is cited in the Manusmriti that libations of water, which are usually offered to the departed souls, should not be offered to those who commit suicide.
In India’s past, there have also been widespread instances of “Sati” and “Jauhar” or “Juhar.” These practices were considered courageous and an act to save honor. “Jauhar” or “Juhar” was practiced by Rajput women and involved mass self-immolation, primarily to avoid capture, enslavement and rape by any foreign invader. While, “Jauhar” happens to be an example of mass suicide in India, when it comes to contemporary times the picture is different. There are growing instances of cluster suicide in India. The Burari deaths and the Telangana student suicides are examples of this growing trend.
History is replete with unforgettable cases of mass suicides. Mass suicide of Jonestown is perhaps one such haunting example that springs to memory. It is popularly known as “People’s temple mass suicide.” In the 1970s, Jim Jones, a self-styled prophet established a “socialist community” in Guyana named Jonestown. Jones was popular for his notorious image and was under the scanner for financial fraud and child abuse. Establishing an isolated community in a remote corner was perhaps one of the best ways to sustain his delusions and escape arrest. However, even after he moved to Guyana investigations against him continued. Moreover, his followers who moved with him soon discovered that the utopian world promised to them i.e. “an agricultural commune rich with food, where there were no mosquitoes or snakes and where temperatures hovered around a perfect 72° every single day” was a big lie. Instead, they were starving, living in hot and humid climate, full of mosquitoes and snakes. Naturally, his followers began looking for ways to flee. It has been reported that distressed by his followers’ attempts to run away; he ordered them to consume a cyanide-laced potion, which eventually resulted in the death of over 900 people. Later analysis has revealed it as more appropriately a case of mass homicide rather than suicide, as his followers were surrounded by Jones’s armed guards, thus they were left with no other option than to die. Jonestown massacre is a classic example of how one man’s delusion can be contagious to a mass of people.
Similar cases of mass suicide have been reported in different areas of the world, including the Heaven’s Gate Mass Suicide in California, where 39 people of the eccentric Heaven’s Gate cult committed suicide. They were all dressed identically, were lying on their bunk beds with plastic bags around their heads. They were misled by their Marshall that a UFO was following the comet Hale Bopp and leaving the human world was the only way to evacuate this earth and reach a better cosmic world [5].
In Uganda, the Movement of the Restoration of ten Commandments of God (MRTCG) was a Catholic group that was convinced that the world would come to an end when the millennium calendar began. On 17 March 2000, they resorted to self-immolation and poisoning.
In all of these cases, it can be observed that the self-proclaimed cult leaders exploited the vulnerabilities of people to meet their own ends. The fabled utopian land is often based on religious foundation. These cases are also testimony to the failure of reason. People when promised of “ideal land” and “perfect future” are willing to stake everything that they have; blindly following the one “messiah” that promises them a better life or rather a better death.
Mass suicide can be defined as the simultaneous suicide of all the members of a social group [6]. Mancinelli has subdivided mass suicides into two categories: Firstly, (a) hetero-induced, in which a particular population has reacted to oppression, it is typical of defeated and colonized populations forced to escape from reality that does not acknowledge their human dignity, thus people may choose to kill themselves rather than submit to their oppressors. These deaths are often looked upon as heroic and may find a place among cultural myths and legends. Secondly, (b) self-induced, in which the motivation is related to a distorted evaluation of reality, without there being either an intolerable situation or a real risk of death. The question perhaps is whether these categorizations are enough to encompass the range of suicidal behavior that occurs in the present Indian society.
Suicide cluster has been defined as “a series of three or more closely grouped deaths within three months that can be linked by space or social relationships. In the absence of transparent social connectedness, evidence of space and time linkages are required to define a candidate cluster. In the presence of a strong demonstrated social connection, only temporal significance is required” [7]. Another type of suicide cluster referred to as “mass clusters”, has been commonly defined as “a temporary increase in the total frequency of suicides within an entire population relative to the period immediately before and after the cluster, with no spatial clustering” [8].
Cluster suicide can be differentiated from mass suicide as a “pocket” phenomenon. It is defined by its contextual factors. Generally, studying clusters becomes more difficult than studying masses, as both temporality and spatiality of the event takes prime importance in its understanding. Again the Burari deaths and Telangana student suicides prove to be examples of the importance of local factors that played a role in these acts.
There are two main types of suicide clusters:
A new concept has been introduced recently that is
Most attention has focused until recently on a greater than expected number of suicides in specific locations and time periods (“point clusters”), such as the cluster of suicides that occurred in Burari in Delhi where 11 members of a family committed suicide cumulatively.
It is observed that the mechanisms underlying suicide clusters are unclear. It has been proposed that point clusters may result from a process of “contagion,” whereby one person’s suicidal thoughts and behaviors are transmitted from one victim to another through social or interpersonal connections [10, 12].
In India there are several categories of suicide cluster which are related with their area of profession. Some of them are students’ suicide, family suicide and farmers’ suicide.
Student suicide: Now a day’s education is becoming society’s most critical responsibility as it is more related with social status. Students have to face many challenges that affect their life directly or indirectly like academic stress caused by the very system of education, acquisition of grades, coping up with peer pressure & parental pressure and the emotional disturbances to secure good marks and position. Poor scholastic performance, rising expectations from parents, getting involved in relationships these are the reasons which prompt a student to commit suicide.
Kota in State of Rajasthan in India is well known for its coaching of students for various admission exams after 12th standard. It has become the suicide city as the number of students committing suicide has increased drastically. By the end of the year 2018 three medical/ IIT students committed suicide within four days which brought unsettling case of students suicides. Total 19 students committed suicide in 2018.
A recent example of student suicide cluster was in Indian state of Telangana where more than 20 students killed themselves within a week after declaration of intermediate examination results. Due to the occurrence of these incidents, India’s education system is criticized as a poor one in which students are under heavy pressure not just to pass examinations but to exceed expectations at all costs. The instrumental value of education in India is its potential in generating socio-economic and cultural capital through a promise of decent job opportunities in the future.
Family suicide: takes place when a whole family is unanimously agreeing to take the critical step to commit suicide together. There has been a vast increase in the family suicide cases in last 2–3 years. This phenomenon came in light after the death of 11 members of family in the mysterious Burari case’. After few days of Burari case, seven members of family committed suicide in July 2018, According to police, the family was reeling under financial hardships. In March, 2013 the same thing happened in Gangapur District of Rajasthan where eight members of a family consumed poison to committed suicide together. The family was highly religious. They also made a video before suicide.
Recently in July, 2019 three members of a family ended up their life by consuming some toxins in Punjab. According to police records, some sort of family tension within the household led to this extreme step. Again after few days three of family members were found hanging on IIT campus.
Farmer Suicide: Two thirds of India’s population are dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. The earth is most generous employer in this country of a billion [14] ‘It is the agricultural sector that the battle for long term economic development will be won or lost. For over a decade, famer suicides have been a serious public policy concern. More recently, this has also led to shrill outcry from the media and much politicking. The government response to the crisis of farmer suicide has mostly been simplistic and in some cases perhaps aggravating [1].
This is a particular concern for country. It is observed that huge debts, inadequate income from agriculture to repay the borrowed money, the absence of any help from outer sources, are the main cause of farmer’s suicide, making them choose to end their lives. Factors contributing to the high rate of suicide in this vulnerable population include economic adversity, exclusive dependence on rainfall for agriculture, and possibly monetary compensation to the family following suicide.
Contagion has been defined as an underlying assumption that “suicidal behavior may facilitate the occurrence of subsequent suicidal behavior, either directly (via contact or friendship with the index suicide) or indirectly (via the media) [9].
It is necessary to distinguish various types of individual suicide that might be imitated. One type of suicide relates to some symbolic or group activity which creates group pressure(s) that cause an individual to kill oneself (a form of altruistic suicide). A second type that might trigger imitative suicide involves individual’s prominence in specialized occupations, e.g., a well-known artist or businessperson. It is possible that such suicides might cause suicide among individuals with similar occupational backgrounds who have experienced crisis or failure. However, this imitation is only likely to occur among a small subgroup of the population. A third category that might trigger imitative suicide is the suicide of national celebrities, i.e., individuals who are well known and recognized by name and pictorial image by the larger American public. These individuals have usually achieved prominence in an occupation subject to significant public exposure, but some social actors may become celebrities through their social connections with other prominent celebrities [15].
Philips [16] examined U.S. and U.K. suicide rates from 1947 to 1968 and reported that suicides increased after highly publicized deaths by suicide. He proposed that news reports of suicides influenced suicide risk by means of “suggestion”. He dubbed this the “Werther effect.” Projective identification has been regarded as a psychoanalytical concept, which refers to feelings of empathy towards suicide. There is a blurring of self and suicide followed by a re-internalization of projection, leading to suicidal behavior.
In Priming [17], activation of one thought may trigger related pre-programmed thoughts. Media images stimulate related thoughts in the minds of audience members.
Social Integration and regulation: Where there is a lack of social ties in the community, social integration is low, leading to individualism and egoistic suicide and where interests of groups dominate those of individuals, altruistic suicides result [18].
Homophily or assortative relating [10]: The tendency of people to preferentially associate with one another and associative susceptibility, [19] where a stressful event occurring in a local community will affect several vulnerable individuals independently of each other.
Certain religious beliefs may leave people feeling guilty for things they have done and may lead them to think that they cannot be forgiven. Some believe that sacrificing themselves will earn them a reward (like going to heaven) or in countries like Japan, shame or dishonor may be a reason, like hara-kiri or seppuku.
The multidimensional nature of suicides is reflected in the array of motives and risk factors associated with it. It has been referred to as “multidimensional, multifactorial malaise” [20]. Previous researches have mostly studied the psycho-social risk factors associated with suicides. It appears that both individual factors as well as situational factors intermingle in a complex manner to determine suicidal behavior. The demographics of suicide in India [21] reveals factors such as Age, Gender, Marital status, Education, Family structure, Urban vs. rural residence, Occupation and Precipitating event, play a role determining suicidal behavior. As per the National Crime Records Bureau 2009 data [22], the top 10 causes or correlates of suicide in 2009 were identified as family problems (23.7%), illness (21%) [including insanity/mental illness (6.7%)], unemployment (1.9%), love affairs (2.9%), drug abuse/addiction (2.3%), failure in examination (1.6%), bankruptcy or sudden change in economic status (2.5%), poverty (2.3%), and dowry dispute (2.3%). In addition, the high rates of suicide among persons with mental illness and drug abuse/addiction are of much concern. Substance abuse, problems with parents-in-law and spouses and mental illness are the risk factors that are increasingly gaining momentum in the Indian society [23].
There are vulnerable individuals with negative self-esteem, socially isolated, who tend to internalize feelings and conflicts and are over-dependent on their families. Drug and alcohol abuse, employment problems, a history of self-harm have been quoted as possible causes [24].
Mass suicides are seen as suicide pacts in couples or families rather than as part of religious cults as in western societies. Suicide pacts almost always involve people well known to each other, mostly spouses, most of them childless. However, there is an emerging trend for cyber-based internet-facilitated suicide pacts which increasingly involve two or more strangers who meet on the internet and share similar world views. Such cases have been reported in the press, but have not been studied in a scientific manner [20].
Those who are especially susceptible to suicide contagion are adolescents with suicidal thoughts and people with depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, schizophrenia and PTSD.
Exposure to previous trauma makes a person susceptible to develop PTSD, especially in cases of physical and emotional proximity to the event and victim. Rumination followed by intrusive thinking are additional causes. In such instances long term emotional support is needed, which if found missing, has its adverse consequences. The mass trauma caused by mass suicide is likely to affect the mental health of individuals. Depression has been regarded as a key risk factor for suicide. Substance abuse, chronic pain, a family history of suicide, a prior suicide attempt and impulsiveness plays a major role in adolescent suicides.
The media sometimes gives intense publicity to “suicide clusters” - a series of suicides that occur mainly among young people in a small area within a short period of time. These have a contagious effect especially when they have been glamorized, provoking imitation or “copycat suicides”. This phenomenon has been observed in India on many occasions, especially after the death of a celebrity, most often a movie star or a politician. The wide exposure given to these suicides by the media has led to suicides in a similar manner. Copying methods shown in movies are also not uncommon. This is a serious problem especially in India where film stars enjoy an iconic status and wield enormous influence especially over the young who often look up to them as role models.
Two prominent methods are psychological and psychosocial autopsy.
In depth study of the history of suicide prior to the suicidal act is known as psychological autopsy [25]. Psychological autopsy is a method created by Shneidman [26]. It has become widespread in the last 2–3 decades.
Psychological autopsy is a depth study of a person’s mental state by analyzing medical records, interviewing friends and family and conducting research into their state of mind prior to death.
The psychological autopsy report provides detailed information about the death using various sources including the autopsy report, medical records, relevant documents and information gathered from interviews with key informants.
It was conceived as a means to help forensic pathologists clarify the nature of deaths regarded as unresolved and that could be associated with natural or accidental causes, suicide or homicide. The method was also used to investigate the reasons behind self-inflicted deaths and to provide comfort to family members of individuals who have died this way.
Psychosocial autopsy is understanding of emotional, social, economic and cultural reasons and circumstances associated with suicide among individuals. The aim is to investigate and analyze the relevance of interacting variables.
Some of the key goals of the Psychological Autopsy:
Obtaining an in-depth understanding of the decedent’s personality, behavior patterns, and possible motives for suicide; identify behavior patterns—reactions to stress, adaptability, changes in habits or routine Establish presence or absence of mental illness.
The demographic and clinical features of suicide cluster victims have been described by researchers. Only some studies [19, 27] adopt a more methodologically robust design, such as case–control study. Only a small number of possible risk factors for suicide were examined, like gender, age-group, marital status, area of residence, method of suicide. Studies using multi-level methodology are needed to determine which individual or contextual factors contribute to clustering of suicidal behavior. Longitudinal studies on suicide clusters combined with environmental factors are needed. It is not always possible to determine retrospectively whether or not a person in a suicide cluster knew about the suicide of another cluster member [28].
Suicide is often related to depression, social isolation and loss of meaning in life. Some strategies at the individual level are:
Talk to those intimately connected first prior to media coverage, possibly one who is trained in crisis care therapy.
Identify vulnerable persons for mass/cluster suicides, e.g. people who had a negative interaction with the person before suicide and feel that they were responsible for suicide, people who were in suicide pact, people who were previously suicidal.
Screen those at high risk, screening by trained counselors, screening for emotional and mental health problems, symptoms of depression and suicide risk.
Provide post-care after suicide counseling by crisis counselors available in schools and make sure students know these resources are readily available.
Offer case-management services at schools and universities.
Provide mental health screening for depression and suicide.
Share information about mental health with parents.
Mass suicides can be prevented at community level by designing of strategies by community leaders. All sectors of the community need to be included: public health, mental health, Education, Local government, parent groups, media, as no single agency has the requisite expertise to deal with the suicide cluster. The plans need to be adapted to the particular needs, resources and cultural characteristics of the community. Suicide prevention training needs to be provided in schools. Peer-helping needs to be encouraged. It is based on the premise that an informal helping network exists. This group teaches how to reach out adults for help. Tele-health services need to be in places which are manned by counselors, mental health clinicians, social workers and clinical psychologists. Having counselors on the sites of memorials, suicide anniversaries and other events related to suicides can also be of great help.
Addressing the environment, e.g. the internet environment and how students interact with each other on the net is also needed. Mass suicides can impact those living in the community deeply. Hence strategies at the community level have a great role to play.
The cultural/social resources include guidance from elders for addressing grief, informal community gatherings, where community members share stories and draw on a shared sense of spirituality and cultural history to overcome crises and impact of suicides and suicide clusters. The elders can pass on the wisdom and traditions on how to thrive through harsh conditions. The mutual care and concern for others, shared purpose. Spirituality helps to a great extent in dealing with traumas of life. Traditional culture helps to ground individuals and provide a framework to view their place in the world. Communities need to connect youth to their culture. Elders can share stories of how they used to deal with crisis situations in the past before our generation. School–based programs need to be organized on suicide signs and risk factors. Developing and promoting prosocial adult and peer mentors and role models are likely to help in a great way. Culture camps can be organized where youth (at community and school level) are exposed to their traditional life ways.
Psychological autopsy studies have found that media can be of great help by not publishing/telecasting the method used to kill oneself, not suggesting that the death was due to a similar reason or achieved a goal such as fame or revenge and listing resources to those who are struggling.
Treatment of mental illness can reduce the risk for suicide and increase the quality of life. One needs to be beware of warning signs like increased use of drugs/alcohol, statements threatening to hurt self, looking for access to fire arms, pills etc. statements of hopelessness, helplessness etc., increased anger and rage, highly reckless behavior, paired with recent losses, including deaths, break-ups, job or financial losses.
Mass suicide in across the globe is an age-old act which was carried out by individuals and was neither condemned nor glorified nor seen as a crime. The intent of the act determined its approval or disapproval. With the change in scenario, more number of cluster suicides has been reported in the present Indian society which can be categorized into family, farmers and students. Psychosocial autopsy has revealed imitation, suggestibility, contagion, lack of social integration, priming, associative susceptibility, guilt, mental illness and a host of other causes behind this act. Preventive strategies need to be addressed at individual, community and cultural level. In future, more methodologically sound and preferably longitudinal studies are needed to gain better insight into this suicide type so that preventive strategies can be targeted appropriately.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
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\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
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The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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