Effect of GC and stress on activities of various types of deiodinases in rat tissues (↑ – stimulatory effect; ↓– inhibitory effect; – no effect)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10578",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pharmacogenetics",title:"Pharmacogenetics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Pharmacogenetics is the study of the effects of individual genetics on drug responses. This book provides an overview of the current state of the pharmacological genetic aspects of these treatments. It discusses drugs with genetic information to support product labeling, clinical guidelines, or significant mechanical effects. Pharmacogenetic studies have also allowed us to better understand the pharmacology of medications used to treat neurologic and psychiatric disorders. This book also reviews the current state of the science and potential clinical utility of pharmacogenetic markers for these treatments. Furthermore, it highlights the in silico approach as a promising tool for further research on experimental pharmacology.",isbn:"978-1-83969-218-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-217-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-219-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92954",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"pharmacogenetics",numberOfPages:186,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"ca2bc2ff6e15a7b735d662d9664086b1",bookSignature:"Islam A. Khalil",publishedDate:"November 24th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10578.jpg",numberOfDownloads:1889,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 27th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 23rd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 13th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 12th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"226598",title:"Dr.",name:"Islam",middleName:null,surname:"A. Khalil",slug:"islam-a.-khalil",fullName:"Islam A. Khalil",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226598/images/system/226598.jpg",biography:"Islam A. Khalil received a BSc in Pharmaceutical Sciences from Misr University for Science and Technology, Egypt, in 2003, and an MSc and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutics from the Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Egypt, in 2009 and 2013, respectively. Currently, Dr. Khalil is Associate Professor of Pharmaceutics at the College of Pharmacy and Drug Manufacturing, Misr University for Science and Technology, Egypt. He worked previously as a postdoctoral research fellow in an American university in Cairo (Egypt), Zewail City for Science and Technology (Egypt), Brigham and Women\\'s Hospital - Harvard Medical School (USA), and Northeastern University (USA). His research activities focus on designing, developing, and evaluating nanomedicines for various biomedical applications, especially therapeutics and tissue regeneration. He also has considerable industrial research and development experiences to his credit. He received several awards including Best Applied Pharmaceutical Research in 2018 from the Arab Company for Drug Industries and Medical Appliances (ACDIMA) and the State Encouragement Award in Medical Sciences in 2020.",institutionString:"Misr University for Science and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Misr University for Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1199",title:"Pharmacogenetics",slug:"pharmacogenetics"}],chapters:[{id:"78925",title:"Introductory Chapter: Pharmacogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100403",slug:"introductory-chapter-pharmacogenetics",totalDownloads:131,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Islam A. Khalil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78925",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78925",authors:[{id:"226598",title:"Dr.",name:"Islam",surname:"A. Khalil",slug:"islam-a.-khalil",fullName:"Islam A. Khalil"}],corrections:null},{id:"76791",title:"Integrated Role of Nanotechnology and Pharmacogenetics in Diagnosis and Treatment of Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97643",slug:"integrated-role-of-nanotechnology-and-pharmacogenetics-in-diagnosis-and-treatment-of-diseases",totalDownloads:239,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"“One size fits all” is an erroneous paradigm in drug delivery, due to side effects/adverse effects and variability observed in drug response. The variability is a result of geneotypic variations (variability in genomic constitution) which is studied in the branch of science called Pharmacogenomics. The variability in drug response is studied by multigene analysis or profiling of whole-genome single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) and is recorded in terms of the pharmacokinetic (absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination) and pharmacodynamic (drug-receptor interaction, immune response, etc.) response of the drug. Therefore, a foray into this research area can provide valuable information for designing of drug therapies, identifying disease etiology, therapeutic targets and biomarkers for application in treatment and diagnosis of diseases. Lately, with the integration of pharmacogenomics and nanotechnology, a new facade for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases has opened up, and the prescription pattern of drugs has moved to pharmacotyping (individualized dose and dosage-form adjusted therapy) using nanoplatforms like nanobioconjugates, nanotheranostics, etc.",signatures:"Ruchi Chawla, Varsha Rani, Mohini Mishra and Krishan Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76791",authors:[{id:"340372",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"ruchi",surname:"chawla",slug:"ruchi-chawla",fullName:"ruchi chawla"},{id:"346004",title:"Ms.",name:"Varsha",surname:"Rani",slug:"varsha-rani",fullName:"Varsha Rani"},{id:"346005",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",surname:"Mishra",slug:"mohini-mishra",fullName:"Mohini Mishra"},{id:"346006",title:"Mr.",name:"Krishan",surname:"Kumar",slug:"krishan-kumar",fullName:"Krishan Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"79189",title:"Interindividual Variability of Cytochromes P450 2B Mediated Oxidation in Human Liver",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99328",slug:"interindividual-variability-of-cytochromes-p450-2b-mediated-oxidation-in-human-liver",totalDownloads:108,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The cytochromes P450 (CYPs) are a group of enzymes that are primarily responsible for oxidative drug biotransformation in people. CYP2B6, which metabolizes numerous drugs including bupropion, propofol and other drug shows great variability in rates of drug oxidation between individuals. In this chapter we discuss the contribution of selected genetic and environmental factors to this variability. Several studies identified and quantified the most common CYP2B6 mRNA splice such as deletion of exons 4 to 6 and of exon 4 which were significantly and negatively correlated with CYP2B6 protein and enzyme activity. CYP2B6 gene expression is highly inducible by phenobarbital. Alcohol ingestion has been associated with increased CYP2B6 levels this involves the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) and/or the pregnane X receptor (PXR). CYP2B7 is considered a pseudogene because of the presence of a single premature stop codon (TGA) in exon 7. In 10 out of 24 African-Americans (but none out of 48 European-Americans) there is a single nucleotide polymorphism that results in an arginine codon instead of a stop codon (X378R). The results of these studies identify certain CYP2B6 genetic polymorphisms, mRNA splicing variants, and alcohol ingestion as significant factors that determine interindividual variability of CYP2B-mediated oxidation of drugs in people.",signatures:"Abdulmohsen Alrohaimi, Bader Alrohaimi, Nada Alruwais and Kholoud Aldmasi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79189",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79189",authors:[{id:"340178",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abdulmohsen",surname:"Alrohaimi",slug:"abdulmohsen-alrohaimi",fullName:"Abdulmohsen Alrohaimi"},{id:"422748",title:"Ms.",name:"Kholoud",surname:"Aldmasi",slug:"kholoud-aldmasi",fullName:"Kholoud Aldmasi"},{id:"422750",title:"Dr.",name:"Nada",surname:"Alruwais",slug:"nada-alruwais",fullName:"Nada Alruwais"},{id:"427171",title:"Dr.",name:"Bader",surname:"Alrohaimi",slug:"bader-alrohaimi",fullName:"Bader Alrohaimi"}],corrections:null},{id:"74758",title:"Ivan Illich, Iatrogenesis and Pharmacogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95751",slug:"ivan-illich-iatrogenesis-and-pharmacogenetics",totalDownloads:345,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In Medical Nemesis - The expropriation of health, IVAN ILLICH highlights several aspects of the medicalization of society, which was already observed in the mid-1970s. He addressed the various forms of iatrogenesis, classifying the new disease caused by the set of medical care as an epidemic that would not exist if there were no medical intervention. Of the various forms of iatrogenesis, he also addressed drug iatrogenesis, including the cause of hospital admissions. In this article, more than 40 years after Illich’s seminal publication, we sought to revisit his thinking and assess the relevance of his narrative regarding the inconveniences resulting from the use of medicines, especially in their impacts on hospitalization, in addition to reflecting on the potential of pharmacogenetics to mitigate adverse events related to drugs that victimize people. After a brief presentation of Illich’s trajectory, a digression is made on the association between the concepts of medicalization and iatrogenesis, to then make quick considerations about social iatrogenesis, considering the effects of this phenomenon on society. After presenting the consequences of iatrogenesis, from a fluent literature review, an update of the findings is made, showing that the problem is relevant today. A brief conceptual presentation of pharmacogenetics is followed by some examples of its clinical consequences. It is concluded that, despite the unequivocal importance of pharmacotherapy, iatrogenesis remains a problem of increasing relevance. Pharmacogenetics presents itself as a possibility to minimize the problem, making it possible to expand its use in the practice of medical services.",signatures:"José Antonio Diniz de Oliveira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74758",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74758",authors:[{id:"339743",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose Antonio",surname:"DIniz Oliveira",slug:"jose-antonio-diniz-oliveira",fullName:"Jose Antonio DIniz Oliveira"}],corrections:null},{id:"75043",title:"Pharmacogenetics of Direct Oral Anticoagulants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95966",slug:"pharmacogenetics-of-direct-oral-anticoagulants",totalDownloads:267,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For more than 50 years, oral vitamin K antagonists were the choice of anticoagulant for the long-term treatment and prevention of arterial and venous thromboembolic events. In recent years, four direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs), dabigatran, rivaroxaban, apixaban and edoxaban have been compared with warfarin for thromboembolism prevention. These anticoagulants directly inhibit specific proteins within the coagulation cascade; in contrast, oral vitamin K antagonists inhibit the synthesis of vitamin K-dependent clotting factors. Dabigatran, a direct thrombin inhibitor, and rivaroxaban, apixaban and edoxaban, the factor Xa inhibitors, produce a more predictable, less labile anticoagulant effect. DOACs do not have limitations inherent vitamin K antagonists. DOACs have a predictable pharmacokinetic profile and are free of advers drugs reactions inherent in vitamin K antagonists. However, it is necessary to take into account the pharmacogenetic characteristics of the individual that can affect effectiveness and safety of use of DOACs. The results carried out to the present fundamental and clinical studies of DOACs studies demonstrate an undeniable the influence of genome changes on the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of DOACs. However, the studies need to be continued. There is a need to plan and conduct larger studies in various ethnic groups with the inclusion of sufficient associative genetic studies of the number of patients in each of the documented groups treatments with well-defined phenotypes.",signatures:"Natalia Shnayder, Marina Petrova, Elena Bochanova, Olga Zimnitskaya, Alina Savinova, Elena Pozhilenkova and Regina Nasyrova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75043",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75043",authors:[{id:"192072",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia",surname:"Shnayder",slug:"natalia-shnayder",fullName:"Natalia Shnayder"},{id:"341336",title:"Prof.",name:"Marina",surname:"Mihailovna Petrova",slug:"marina-mihailovna-petrova",fullName:"Marina Mihailovna Petrova"},{id:"341337",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",surname:"Bochanova",slug:"elena-bochanova",fullName:"Elena Bochanova"},{id:"341338",title:"BSc.",name:"Olga",surname:"Zimnitskaya",slug:"olga-zimnitskaya",fullName:"Olga Zimnitskaya"},{id:"341339",title:"BSc.",name:"Alina",surname:"Savinova",slug:"alina-savinova",fullName:"Alina Savinova"},{id:"341340",title:"Prof.",name:"Regina",surname:"Nasyrova",slug:"regina-nasyrova",fullName:"Regina Nasyrova"},{id:"344529",title:"MSc.",name:"Elena",surname:"Pozhilenkova",slug:"elena-pozhilenkova",fullName:"Elena Pozhilenkova"}],corrections:null},{id:"75855",title:"Possibilities of Combinatorial Therapy: Insulin Dysregulation and the Growth Hormone Perspective on Neurodegeneration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97002",slug:"possibilities-of-combinatorial-therapy-insulin-dysregulation-and-the-growth-hormone-perspective-on-n",totalDownloads:198,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"RTKs have been reported to be implicated in several neurodegenerative disorders and the roles of insulin receptor family have emerged as a key common pathway across diseases. Thus we focussed on the Insulin receptor family and discussed the irregulation from the growth hormone axis. The signaling, regulation and physiology of the production in liver and CNS has never been discussed in signaling perspectives and is extremely crucial for understanding the possibilities of IGF1 in neurodegeneration specifically. The commonalities across neurodegenerative diseases such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and protein misfolding and insulin pathway anomalies have been elucidated and correlated with the insulin pathway. The crosstalk possibilities of the pathways, along with other regulatory modes for the development of combinatorial therapy have been discussed to visualize a common platform for neurodegenerative diseases including AD, PD, HD, ALS and FTD. Furthermore, the incretin based therapies that have gradually emerged as alternatives for insulin based therapy due to its inherent drawback of resistance has been briefly discussed.",signatures:"Priyanka Sengupta and Debashis Mukhopadhyay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75855",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75855",authors:[{id:"341335",title:"Prof.",name:"Debasish",surname:"Mukhopadhyay",slug:"debasish-mukhopadhyay",fullName:"Debasish Mukhopadhyay"},{id:"341905",title:"Ms.",name:"Priyanka",surname:"Sengupta",slug:"priyanka-sengupta",fullName:"Priyanka Sengupta"}],corrections:null},{id:"76458",title:"Updates in Pharmacogenetics of Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97498",slug:"updates-in-pharmacogenetics-of-non-small-cell-lung-cancer",totalDownloads:299,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Though significant clinical advances have been made, lung cancer remains the most lethal, with a low 5-year survival rate. The variability in patient response towards therapy is substantial and is associated with lung cancer’s genomic landscape. Pharmacogenetic studies have deciphered many clinically relevant associations between tumor genetic alterations and their influences on drug efficacy, toxicity sensitivity and overall outcomes of cancer treatment. Biomarkers are tools in the arsenal that can help in the prediction, prognosis, diagnosis and follow-up of cancer treatment. Bulk and single-cell next-generation sequencing of large patient cohorts have generated a better understanding of the genetic underpinnings of lung cancer, and opening up personalized therapeutic opportunities. Immunotherapy and personalized medicine are providing hope for lung cancer patients. This review highlights the genetic alterations and important lung cancer biomarkers. The pharmacogenetic associations, personalized immunotherapy and challenges associated with effective therapy are also discussed. Pharmacogenetics and pharmacogenomics can open up new vistas for optimized, personalized NSCLC treatment.",signatures:"Munindra Ruwali, Keshav Moharir, Sanjiv Singh, Punita Aggarwal and Manash K. Paul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76458",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76458",authors:[{id:"245866",title:"Dr.",name:"Munindra",surname:"Ruwali",slug:"munindra-ruwali",fullName:"Munindra Ruwali"},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"},{id:"350737",title:"Prof.",name:"Keshav",surname:"Moharir",slug:"keshav-moharir",fullName:"Keshav Moharir"},{id:"350738",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanjiv",surname:"Singh",slug:"sanjiv-singh",fullName:"Sanjiv Singh"},{id:"350739",title:"MSc.",name:"Punita",surname:"Aggarwal",slug:"punita-aggarwal",fullName:"Punita Aggarwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"77417",title:"Pharmacogenomics of “Core” Essential Medicines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96581",slug:"pharmacogenomics-of-core-essential-medicines",totalDownloads:98,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Pharmacogenomics uses information about a person’s genetic makeup to choose the drugs dosage regimens that are likely to work best for that particular person. The genomic research has changed the “one size fits all” approach and opened the door to more personalized approaches that consider individual genetic makeup tend to enhance the efficacy and safety of drugs; thus saving time and money. Patient DNA influences multiple steps in which the drugs interact with the body and where will the drug act in the body. Genetic makeup-based prescription, design, and implementation of therapy do not only improve the outcome of treatments, but also reduce the risk of toxicity and other adverse events. The aim of the chapter is to explore the documented pharmacogenomics of essential as per pharmacogenomic biomarkers in drug labeling; and suggest efficacy and safety modifications. Polymorphism of drug metabolizing enzymes has the greatest effect on inter individual variability of drug response; affecting the response of individuals to drugs used in the treatment of diseases. Also, genetic deficiency of some enzymes limits effectiveness of drugs in treating concerned diseases. Gene testing prior to initiating concerned treatment is the best clinical practice that to enhance the efficacy and safety of drugs.",signatures:"Molungoa Sello",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77417",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77417",authors:[{id:"319470",title:"Mr.",name:"Sello",surname:"Molungoa",slug:"sello-molungoa",fullName:"Sello Molungoa"}],corrections:null},{id:"76684",title:"In Silico Studies on Pharmacokinetics and Neuroprotective Potential of 25Mg2+: Releasing Nanocationites - Background and Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97729",slug:"in-silico-studies-on-pharmacokinetics-and-neuroprotective-potential-of-sup-25-sup-mg-sup-2-sup-relea",totalDownloads:204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sharp blood circulation disorders are known for their capability to promote such abundant and hardly treatable pathologies as myocardium infarction and the ischemic brain stroke (“insult”). Noteworthy, the stroke — related brain tissue metabolic damages involve an essential ATP deplete clash along with a suppression of brain specific nucleotide — associated kinases and ATP synthase, both Mg2+ — dependent complex enzyme “machineries”. This itself makes the latter’s a legitimate target for some advanced pharmaceuticals as long as the drug — induced overstimulation of corresponding enzymatic activity is the case. Thus, magnetic isotope effects (MIE) of the nuclear spin possessing paramagnetic 25Mg2+ ions might modulate the brain creatine kinase, alfa-glycerophosphate kinase and pyruvate kinase catalytic activities in a way of a remarkable ATP hyperproduction required to compensate the hypoxia caused acute metabolic breakdown. To realize the Magnesium-25 pharmacological potential, a low-toxic amphiphilic cationite nanoparticles were introduced lately. Particularly, the Magnesium — releasing porphyrin-fullerene nanoadduct (cyclohexyl-C60-porphyrin, PMC16) has been proposed to meet expectations dealing with a targeted delivery of 25Mg2+ towards the brain ischemia surrounding areas. In order to optimize a multi-step [25Mg2+]4PMC16 preclinical trial scenario, the In Silico algorithms are to be developed and analyzed. In this study, these algorithms are in a focus with a special emphasize on a novel combination of slightly modified Gompertzian equation systems and a non-Markov population dynamics concept. This In Silico approach takes into account some literature-available patterns of brain hypoxia pathogenesis, the resulted simulation model could be considered as a promising tool for further research on experimental nanopharmacology of the ischemic stroke.",signatures:"Valentin V. Fursov, Ilia V. Fursov, Alexander A. Bukhvostov, Aleksander G. Majouga and Dmitry A. Kuznetsov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76684",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76684",authors:[{id:"336762",title:"Prof.",name:"Dmitriy A.",surname:"Kuznetsov",slug:"dmitriy-a.-kuznetsov",fullName:"Dmitriy A. Kuznetsov"},{id:"336765",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentin V.",surname:"Fursov",slug:"valentin-v.-fursov",fullName:"Valentin V. Fursov"},{id:"336770",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander A.",surname:"Bukhvostov",slug:"alexander-a.-bukhvostov",fullName:"Alexander A. Bukhvostov"},{id:"351662",title:"Mr.",name:"Ilia V.",surname:"Fursov",slug:"ilia-v.-fursov",fullName:"Ilia V. Fursov"},{id:"351666",title:"Prof.",name:"Aleksander G.",surname:"Majouga",slug:"aleksander-g.-majouga",fullName:"Aleksander G. Majouga"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9048",title:"Current and Future Aspects of Nanomedicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c34656bf6a7c08401e1108338c2a1bf6",slug:"current-and-future-aspects-of-nanomedicine",bookSignature:"Islam Ahmed Hamed Khalil",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9048.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"226598",title:"Dr.",name:"Islam",surname:"A. Khalil",slug:"islam-a.-khalil",fullName:"Islam A. Khalil"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1785",title:"Pharmacology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b348683369ba1d19f0384156a871dc06",slug:"pharmacology",bookSignature:"Luca Gallelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79424",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Gallelli",slug:"luca-gallelli",fullName:"Luca Gallelli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"769",title:"Clinical Applications of Pharmacogenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc4dfeab3f9ad2c3423c83f2ef44cb26",slug:"clinical-applications-of-pharmacogenetics",bookSignature:"Despina Sanoudou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/769.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65710",title:"Dr.",name:"Despina",surname:"Sanoudou",slug:"despina-sanoudou",fullName:"Despina Sanoudou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"erratum-public-perceptions-of-values-associated-with-wildfire-protection-at-the-wildland-urban-inter",title:"Erratum - Public Perceptions of Values Associated with Wildfire Protection at the Wildland-Urban Interface: A Synthesis of National Findings",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68989.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68989",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68989",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68989",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68989",chapter:{id:"65057",slug:"public-perceptions-of-values-associated-with-wildfire-protection-at-the-wildland-urban-interface-a-s",signatures:"Jason Gordon, Adam S. Willcox, A.E. Luloff, James C. Finley and Donald G. Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"65057",slug:"public-perceptions-of-values-associated-with-wildfire-protection-at-the-wildland-urban-interface-a-s",signatures:"Jason Gordon, Adam S. Willcox, A.E. Luloff, James C. Finley and Donald G. Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"12174",leadTitle:null,title:"Genetic Polymorphisms",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5922df051a2033c98d2edfb31dd84f8c",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12174.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 28th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 27th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 15th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 14th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185545",firstName:"Martina",lastName:"Usljebrka Kauric",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185545/images/4749_n.jpg",email:"martina.u@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"41160",title:"Role of Glucocorticoids in Regulation of Iodine Metabolism in Thyroid Gland: Effects of Hyper-And Hypocorticism",doi:"10.5772/52043",slug:"role-of-glucocorticoids-in-regulation-of-iodine-metabolism-in-thyroid-gland-effects-of-hyper-and-hyp",body:'A close relationship between the key bodily regulatory systems, hypophysis-adrenal and hypophysis-thyroid systems, is fairly well-known.
However, the mechanisms of their interaction at different levels have not been conclusively established. This is of considerable interest due to glucocorticoids and thyroid hormones playing a key role in regulation of the most important systems of vital activity and adaptation. The role of glucocorticoids in regulation of thyroid cell function is interesting due to marked growth of thyroid pathology in different world’s regions, along with considerably improved iodine prevention [1], as well as an increased level of environmental stressogenicity. One should also note an increased tension in life of the individual and the society on the whole (psychological, social and other types of stress). The development of the society has actually created a new human environment with a raised level of stressogenic factors. The chronic stress –induced development of hypercorticism can play a significant pathogenetic role in the changed thyroid function which does not only depend on bodily iodine allowances.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) [2, 3, 4], iodine [4, 5], thyroglobulin (ThG) [6], estrogens [7], cytokines [8] and other biologically active molecules play an important role in regulation of thyroid cell functions. It is interesting that deficiency of iodine, the key substrate for synthesis of thyroid hormones, decreases the activity of the HPA-axis. It was found [9] that rats with chronic iodine deficiency showed the absence of a normal circadian rhythm of corticosterone secretion and a weakened secretory rise of a corticosterone level under stress that remains to be diminished in amplitude during a month following restoration of the iodine status.
Thyroid cell function can be regulated by glucocorticoids via changes in the concentrations of the pivotal bioregulators: thyroid-stimulating hormone, TSH, iodine and thyroglobulin. The mechanisms and effects of these interactions call for further studies. Thyrocytes express glucocorticoid receptors, alpha (GR-alpha) and beta (GR-beta), which seem to play an important role in differentiation of thyroid cells since cells of thyroid adenoma demonstrated a decrease of mRA GR-alpha and an increase in GR-beta [10].
Relationships between the hypothalamo-hypophyseal-adrenal (HHA) and hypothalamo-hypophyseal-thyroid (HHT) systems were established at different regulatory levels. Administration of a thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) was accompanied by a decreased adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) level in blood serum of stressed rats [11]. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) increased plasma TSH and T4 [12]. Banos C. et al. [13] demonstrated that administration of 2 mg ACTH to healthy volunteers decreased the TSH response to TRH. These results characterize certain antagonism between TSH and ACTH.
TSH synthesis is determined by balance of positive regulation and negative regulation by TRH and triiodothyronine (T3), respectively; in addition, somatostatin and dopamine also exert inhibitory control (Diagram 1). Glucocorticoids decreased serum TSH in animals and humans. Administration of a high dose of dexamethasone not only suppressed TSH but also decreased the TSH response to TRH administration [14]; the suppressive effect of dexamethasone on TSH decreased in elderly people [15].
Administration of a single dose of hydrocortisone (500 mg) increased both TSH production and stimulation by TRH [16]; only long-term hypocorticism (Cushing’s disease) may be a cause for decreased TSH level. The earlier recovery (up to control values) of the diurnal rhythm of TSH than that of cortisol suggests that the TSH rhythm is not under the direct control of circulating cortisol [17]. In adrenalectomized rats the TSH level decreased in serum but not in the pituitary gland [18]. Glucocorticoids decrease blood serum TSH concentrations in humans and animals. Dexamethasone administration to hypothyroid rats decreased serum TSH; dexamethasone augmented a T3-induced decrease of TSH. However, changes in pituitary TSH α- and β-subunit mRNA concentrations were not found [19].
Effect of glucocorticoids on TSH. +, stimulatory effect; -, inhibitory effect; ↓ – weakening of stimulatory effect; ↑ – enhancement of inhibitory effect
Kakucska I. et al. obtained clearer results on the effects of glucocorticoids on the hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid axis [20]. In the paraventricular hypothalamic nuclei of adrenalectomized rats, an increase in corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) mRNA occurred in parallel to the increase (68.3%) in pro-TRH mRNA. On the contrary, administration of corticosterone or dexamethasone caused a marked decrease in CRH mRNA and pro-TRH mRNA by 43.2 and 73.3%, respectively. Insignificant changes in pro-TRH mRNA were found in the lateral hypothalamus.
Mechanisms of the stress-induced decrease in TRH/TSH secretion possibly involve glucocorticoids, cytokines, and opioids. Recently, a new regulatory mechanism, involving pituitary neuromedin B, gastrin-releasing peptide, and pituitary leptin, acting as local inhibitors of TSH release, has been proposed [21]. In vitro studies have shown that the lipocortin-1 (LC1) protein is a mediator of the glucocorticoid-induced suppression of TSH secretion by the anterior pituitary [53]. Treatment of anterior pituitary cells with 0.1 μM dexamethasone significantly increased the amount of LC1, associated with the outer surface of the pituitary cells and decreased the intracellular content of LC1. Addition of an N-terminal LC1 fragment (residues 1-188) decreased TSH release mediated by vasoactive intestinal peptide and forskolin, but failed to influence those initiated by 10 μM BAYK 8644, the calcium channel stimulator. The inhibitory action of dexamethasone was substantially reversed by a specific monoclonal anti-LC1 antibody [22]. The inhibitory effect of dexamethasone was used for monitoring of subclinical hypothyroidism in obese patients. Administration of TRH after dexamethasone increased the TSH level only in hypothyroid patients but not in euthyroid obese patients [23].
Iodine uptake is the most important function of thyroid cells; it is controlled by TSH, which stimulates 131I uptake in vivo and in vitro and also expression of sodium-iodide symporter (NIS) in the culture of human thyrocytes [24]. Sodium-iodide symporter (NIS) is located on the apical membrane of thyrocytes; its activity is coupled to Na+,K+-ATPase. TSH influences transcription of NIS gene through Pax-8 and factors activated by intercellular interaction during folliculogenesis [25]. High iodine doses directly inhibit iodide uptake by influencing regulation of NIS protein and mRNA expression [26, 27].
Immobilization stress and also ACTH administration to rats with pituitary damages increased 131I uptake by the thyroid gland in vitro [28]. Cultivation of FRTL-5 thyrocytes under hypoxic conditions was accompanied by increase iodide uptake [29]; heat stress (15 min at 45°C) eliminated this effect. Using culture of ewe thyroid gland follicles it was found that combination of TSH and 10 nM cortisol was optimal for stimulation of iodide uptake without additive and synergistic effects; this effect was also reproduced by combination of TSH with dexamethasone [30]. In addition, the stimulating effect of TSH was potentiated by physiological concentrations of insulin and insulin-like growth factors (IGF I and IGF II). Subsequent studies demonstrated a direct biphasic effect of hydrocortisone on metabolism of thyroid gland cells. Physiological concentrations of hydrocortisone (1—1000 nM) in a dose-dependent manner stimulated TSH- and 8-bromo-cAMP-induced iodide uptake, realized via increased production of cAMP and activation of cAMP-dependent metabolic pathways in the primary cultures of porcine thyrocytes [31]. The stimulating effect of hydrocortisone in combination with TSH was inhibited by the glucocorticoid antagonist RU486; the specific hydrocortisone effect appears to be mediated by a thyrocyte glucocorticoid receptor.
It is suggested that the stimulating effect of glucocorticoids on 131I uptake may be used for treatment for breast cancer [32] and prostate cancer [33]. Incubation of NP-1 cells with dexamethasone (10–8–10–6 M) caused a 1.5-fold increase in iodide uptake, and a 1.7-fold increase in expression of Na+/I–- simporter (NIS) mRNA and protein concentration; NP-1 cell death increased from 55 to 95%, thus suggesting increased cytotoxicity of 131I. These studies (employing clonogenic assay and nonradioactive proliferation assay) also revealed that treatment of NP-1 cells decreased proliferation of prostate cancer cells. Thus, stress (at least acute stress) may be considered as a factor activating iodide content in the thyroid gland; however, univocal solution of this problem requires further investigations because of multilevel effects of glucocorticoids on thyroid homeostasis
Single reports on the effect of stress or glucocorticoids on iodide oxidation by thyroperoxidase (TPO), thyroglobulin iodination and subsequent thyroid hormone secretion are available in the literature. Corticosterone administration for 10 days in three different doses (25, 50, 100 mg per 100 g of body weight) inhibited thyroid gland TPO of juvenile female turtles [34], but the mechanism of the inhibitory effect was not studied. Studies in this direction are especially important due to the key role of TPO in thyroid hormone biosynthesis.
The electron microscopy study of thyrocytes revealed accumulation of colloidal droplets in follicle cytoplasm; this suggests that prednisone may decrease basal secretion of thyroid hormones by inhibiting lysosomal hydrolysis of colloid in the follicular cells [35].
It is known that most of T3 effects are realized via nuclear receptors of thyroid hormones. T3 and glucocorticoid hormones synergistically interact in biosynthesis of growth hormone in the rat pituitary and in the T3-induced metamorphoses in amphibians. Glucocorticoid hormones potentiated metabolic effect of T3 [36]. Dexamethasone increased rat liver specific receptor binding of thyroid hormones. Dexamethasone administration to adrenalectomized rats increased the concentration of protein and mRNA of beta 1 receptor [36]. Molecular studies employing transfection of COS-7 cells revealed that dexamethasone increased transcription activity of thyroid hormone receptor beta 1 promoter [36].
Brain, liver, kidney, heart, muscles, and immune system are the most important targets for thyroid hormones. It is possible that glucocorticoids control tissue levels of T3. Acute stress (footshock) increased the brain T3 content in male and female rats by 12—19% [37]. Two days of total water and food deprivation as stress increased the thymus lymphocyte T3 content in weanling and adult female rats [38], which was normalized after 48 h [39]. It is known that thyroxine (T4) is the main hormone produced by the thyroid gland, however, since it does not exhibit biological activity and therefore thyroxin may be considered as a prohormone or a plasma storage form of thyroid hormones, which plays an important physiological role. A family of selenocysteine oxidoreductases known as iodothyronine deiodinases (D) plays the major role in T4 activation. Three types of these enzymes (mainly determining realization of the hormonal effect of thyroid hormones) have been identified. Their localization and activity are tissue-specific (Scheme 2, 3).
Glucocorticoids exhibit differentiated tissue- and age-specific effects on various tissue deiodinases [40, 41]; they also regulate deiodinases during embryogenesis. Dexamethasone administration to pregnant ewes increased activity of DI in the fetal liver and decreased DIII activity in fetal kidneys [42]. In 20-day-old fetuses, glucocorticoids had no effects on circulating thyroid hormone levels despite their clear decrease in the activity of hepatic and renal deiodinases and an increased activity in the brain, thereby indicating that in this age thyroid circulating thyroid hormone levels are more dependent on thyroidal secretion than on peripheral deiodination. In 5-day-pups, dexamethasone increased blood T3 and T4 and DII activity in the liver, kidney but not in the brain; however, in 12-day-old pups, the dexamethasone effects were maintained only on liver and kidney DIII activity [43].
Tissue distribution of deiodinases
Forms of thyroid hormone utilization by various
Types of deiodinases | Target tissues | Effect | Reference |
DI | fetal liver, ewes | ↑ | [42] |
DIII | fetal kidneys, ewes | ↓ | [42] |
DIII | 5-day-pups liver, rat | ↑ | [43] |
DIII | 5-day-pups kidneys, rat | ↑ | [43] |
DIII | 5-day-pups brain, rat | – | [43] |
DIII | brown adipose tissue, rat | ↓ | [58] |
DII | brain, rat | ↑ | [44] |
DI | liver, rat | ↓ | [51] |
DI | kidneys, rat | ↓ | [52] |
DI | hepatocytes in vitro | ↑ | [54] |
Effect of GC and stress on activities of various types of deiodinases in rat tissues (↑ – stimulatory effect; ↓– inhibitory effect; – no effect)
Effects of stress on deiodinase activity in various tissues still require better elucidation. The most significant effect of glucocorticoids was found on brain DII activity. Even mild, short-term stress (intraperitoneal injection of saline, intragastric intubation, and two different forms of handling (being grasped as for intraperitoneal injection and being moved from one cage to another, and a 2-h period spent in a slowly rotating drum) caused a significant increase in brain DII activity [44], this was accompanied by a 300%-increase in T3 concentration. These effects were not found in the liver and no changes of DI activity were found in the brain and liver. Dexamethasone caused up-regulation of DII activity [45]. Administration of steroidogenesis inhibitors (aminoglutethimide and metyrapone) to rats decreased adrenal DII activity both in physiological rest and under stress [46]; this suggests normal corticosterone levels required for a deiodinase response to the stress treatment. It appears that the glucocorticoid regulation of DII is the most differentiated. Recent in vitro data obtained using mouse and rat pituitary cells demonstrated that addition of glucocorticoids increased the activity of this enzyme and its mRNA [47], whereas the opposite effect was obtained in mouse mammary gland epithelial cells [48]. In the AtT-20 mouse pituitary tumor cells, glucocorticoids and CRH stimulated expression of mRNA and activity of DII [49]. Effects of glucocorticoids, found in experiments on cultivated hypophyseal cells, confirm their important stimulatory role in the metabolism of thyroid hormones in the CNS.
A decrease in blood thyroid hormones and TRH mRNA seen in fasting and food deprivation was accompanied by the increase DII activity and DII mRNA. Studies of mechanisms of DII activation during fasting revealed that the decrease in leptin levels plays a permissive role during glucocorticoid-induced regulation of the DII enzyme [50].
There are contradictory data on the effects of glucocorticoids on DI activity in various tissues. Cold stress of rats either for 24 h or 28 days (as well as that combined with immobilization) significantly reduced DI activity in the liver [51]. Immobilization of rats for 6 - 8 h was accompanied by the decrease in DI activity in the liver and kidneys; this was attributed to the decrease in the enzyme activity rather than to decreased substrate availability because serum T4 concentration remained unchanged [52]. In adult rats, glucocorticoids decreased DI activity in the liver [53]. In vitro studies on the cultured rat hepatocytes revealed the opposite effects: glucocorticoids increased DI activity and expression of DI mRNA [54]. In kidney NRK 52E cells, dexamethasone increased DI activity and expression of DI mRNA, while in cultured pituitary tumor cells, glucocorticoids did not influence DI mRNA [55]. In the fish
The decrease in plasma T3 and the increase in rT3 concentrations observed in stress may be associated with glucocorticoid stimulation of DIII [57]. Regulatory mechanisms of effects of thyroid hormones in various tissue cells have not been conclusively established. Glucocorticoids decreased DIII expression in rat brown adipose tissue [58]. The study of deiodinase activities in human cell lines revealed that estradiol increased DIII activity in ECC-1 cells, dexamethasone inhibited DIII in WRL-68 cells only in the presence of fetal calf serum in the medium [59]. Dexamethasone in a dose-dependent manner decreased the stimulatory effect of T3 on ICAM-1 protein in human ECV 304 cells [74].
All these results indicate that glucocorticoids modulate effects of thyroid hormones by influencing deiodinase activity in various target tissues. They cause significant increase of DII activity in the brain (and thus increase brain T3 level); stress exhibited inhibitory effect on DI activity in the liver and kidneys. Nevertheless, mechanisms underlying glucocorticoid regulation of T4 deiodination in various tissues require further investigation.
Taking into consideration the multilevel effects of glucocorticoids on the thyroid status and peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormones, a study of functional activity of the thyroid gland under conditions of adrenal impairments appears to quite reasonable.
Adrenalectomy in rats increased thyroid gland stimulation by TSH and its secretory activity [60]. In patients with adrenal insufficiency cessation of replacement glucocorticoid therapy resulted in an increase of T3 and a decrease of (reversive triiodothyronine) rT3 concentrations, whereas the level of T4 and TSH remained basically unchanged [61].
There are clinical case reports on impairments of thyroid function in patients with hypercorticism before and after adrenalectomy and with adrenal insufficiency. The state of the pituitary-adrenal axis mainly determines the thyroid status in humans. Under hypercorticism in patients with Cushing’s syndrome there were decreased serum concentrations of thyroid hormones and TSH; in addition, in 56.2--66.6% there was a prevalence of thyroid nodular disease; this was significantly higher than in the control group [63]. Long-term hypercorticism in patients with Cushing’s syndrome was accompanied by inhibition of basal and TRH-stimulated TSH secretion [62]. These patients had an attenuated pituitary response to TRH administration and there was a negative correlation between plasma levels of TSH and cortisol (but not T3); after convalescence the reaction to TRH normalized [64]. There was a single case report on the development of Graves’s disease characterized by pronounced hyperthyroidism after a successful surgical operation in a patient with Cushing’s syndrome [65]. Authors suggest that suppression of hypercorticism activated latent autoimmune processes in the thyroid gland. Graves’s disease with hyperthyroidism manifestations was diagnosed 9 months after unitaleral adrenalectomy in a woman with Cushing’s syndrome [66]. In some patients subjected to surgical adrenalectomy for hypercorticism transitory dysfunction of the thyroid gland with symptoms of hypo- or hyperthyroidism developed [67]. Silent thyroiditis developed in a female patient after unilateral adrenalectomy for treatment of Cushing’s syndrome followed by a gradual tapering of replacement dose of prednisolone to 5 mg/day; thus thyroiditis was characterized by low TSH, increased thyroid hormone levels, extremely low iodine uptake and increased titers of antimicrosomal and antithyroglobulin antibodies [68]. Recent observations have demonstrated that secondary hypothyroidism and hypercalciemia are consequences of the glucocorticoid deficiency developed after adrenalectomy for Cushing’s syndrome [69].
In 103 patients with ACTH deficiency Murakami T. et al. [70] found signs of hypothyroidism (a decrease in free T3 and T4 concentrations, high TSH) and characteristic symptoms of clinical manifestations of thyroid insufficiency (cold intolerance, muscle rigidity, loss of interest in life). After hydrocortisone therapy all signs of impairments of the pituitary-thyroid axis disappeared in more than 70% cases; this suggests that glucocorticoid insufficiency is one of reasons underlying thyroid dysfunction. A high TSH level was found in patients with Addison’s disease; administration of glucocorticoids caused dose-dependent inhibition of TRH-induced stimulation of TSH secretion; it is possible that glucocorticoids regulate pituitary sensitivity to TRH [71].
Moderate hypothyroidism is a consequence of exogenous or endogenous hypercorticism. In prepubertal children with nonclassical congenital adrenal hyperplasia (NCCAH) TSH and cortisol were secreted in a pulsatile and circadian fashion with a clear nocturnal TSH surge; daytime TSH levels were lower in the NCCAH group than in control children. The cross-correlation analysis of the 24-h raw data demonstrated that TSH and cortisol were negatively correlated, with a 2.5-h lag time [72].
Adrenalectomy not only reduced plasma corticosterone levels to almost zero, but also decreased plasma T3 and T4 levels, but diurnal rhythms of the HPT axis did not depend on rhythms of the HPA axis [73]. In pregnant female rats adrenalectomized on gestation day 8 there was a decrease in TRH mRNA, increase in serum TSH, and a decrease of T3 only in females [74]; it appears that maternal glucocorticoids determine the development of the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in progeny.
Conclusion. The analysis of the literature data shows that the role of glucocotricoids in regulation of iodine metabolism in thyroid cells as well as their effects on the HHT system have not been conclusively established. Very few data are available on early changes in thyrocyte iodine metabolism induced by psychoemotional stress which characterize triggering of adaptation in metabolic systems. The idea is very important of the mechanisms of iodine oxidation and organification and the function of the key enzyme in thyroid hormone biosynthesis, TPO, with the activity governing synthesis of thyroid hormones. This seems to be especially topical in relation to increased levels of stressogenic factors in human environment and functions of all the systems under the stress of hypocoticism.
The goal of the above research is to assess the effects of glucocorticoids on the activities of the main steps of thyroid iodine metabolism and to study the features of iodine metabolism under exposure to short-term and chronic psychoemotional stresses.
Administration of high doses of potassium iodide to animals with normal and reduced glucocorticoid status.
To measure the contents of protein-bound and free iodine in the thyroid homogenate, the proteins were sedimented with 5.2% perchloric acid and 0.125 ml of the supernatant was used to determine free iodine concentration, the sediment was used to measure protein-bound iodine concentration. After the separation of the iodine fractions, the procedure of measurement corresponded to that described above (I total).
Under psychoemotional stress, the corticosterone content was most elevated (405.8-447.7%) for 15-60 min. It was decreased following 2 hours after stress cessation (2.9-fold) and increased after 6 hours (2.1-fold) at the post-stress period (Fig. 1). Analysing the wave-like dynamics of changes in corticosterone concentration at the post-stress period, we should note that the rats were stressed in the morning (9.00 to 10.00 a.m.) and the rise in corticosterone concentration at the post-stress period was not related to its circadian rhythm (since the circadian rhythm of corticosterone is characterized by maxima per 20.00 hour). The corticosterone concentration was observed to increase in the afternoon (16.00 p.m.) after 6 hours following the post-stress period, and this elevation of serum corticosterone is a characteristic manifestation of a regulatory feedback mechanism. As a response to a marked reduction of corticosterone concentration after 2 hours following stress, the ACTH concentration elevated, which induced a new wave in increasing blood and adrenal corticosterone concentration that is a manifestation of the adaptation syndrome.
Blood serum (A) and adrenal (B) corticosterone concentrations in rats at acute stress and post-stress periods, after exposure to psychoemotional stress (n=8).
The dynamics of changes in the parameters characterizing thyroid iodine metabolism was of a wave-like pattern, which indicates a pronounced response of the rat thyroid to stress. This was most pronounced for changes
in the index If, which is quite explicable. During 15-30 min of stress the thyroid total iodine concentrations remained unchanged (176.9-234.9 µg/g tissue). However, after 60 min, its content was 39.3% decreased in comparison with 15-and 30-min stress (Fig. 2А). During the acute stress phase (15-30 min), intensification of iodide organification was noticed: the concentration of its protein-bound fraction was 37.6% elevated, and the ratio of protein-bound I to total I was 1.2-fold increased (Fig. 2B). The 70.5% elevation of free iodide concentration in the thyroid gland (Fig. 2C) was probably due to activation of proteolytic processes in thyroglobulin and thyroid hormone formation. We cannot also exclude activation of iodine uptake with consideration for the absence of iodine supply to the body during stress, which can be due to increased activities of tissue deiodinases. Along with this, in spite of the evidence for Na+/I–- simporter expression in some cells (salivary and mammary glands) the literature lacks information about other iodine depots in addition to the TG. After 60-min stress, the thyroid showed diminished concentrations of free and protein-bound iodine, which seemed to be a consequence of highly active secretory processes and inhibition of iodine organification, TPO activity (Fig. 3) remained at a level of control values during 30-min exposure to stress, decreasing by 34.8% after 45 min, which was accompanied by a 16.8% reduction of protein-bound I concentration. The stress- induced drop in TPO activity can be due to changed kinetic parameters of the enzyme. TPO was found to be sensitive to elevation of ROS concentrations and aldehyde products of lipid peroxidation in thyroid cells [81]. Moreover, an important role in this case can be played by a decreased TSH level that regulates key processes in the TG. Taking into consideration the antagonistic relations between ACTH and TSH, one can suggest the metabolic changes in the TG to be caused by a stress-induced increase of the ACTH level which can induce a decrease of TSH production.
The correlation analysis of the results did not show a correlation between thyroid TPO activities and glucocorticoid levels in the blood serum and adrenal glands. After 60-min stress, a negative correlation was found between the total thyroid iodide and adrenal corticosterone (r= –0.952, p=0.003). In the control group, the content of adrenal corticosterone positively correlated with the protein-bound I to total I ratio (r=0.955, p=0.01), which indicates involvement of glucocorticoids in regulation of iodine homeostasis in the TG.
The decrease in corticosterone concentration after 2 h following the stress exposure was followed by activation of TPO (3.6-fold) as opposed to 60-min stress and control (3.4-fold). The TPO activation at the post-stress period suggests the presence of regulatory mechanisms for its activity which are related to a corticosterone level since it is at that period that its blood and adrenal concentrations were diminished most appreciably. The subsequent elevation of corticosterone concentrations in 4 and 6 h within the recovery period was followed by a dramatic decrease of thyroid TPO activity.
Rat thyroid total (A), protein-bound (B), and free (C) concentration of iodine during acute stress and post-stress periods. A, B, C, D, E, F, G represent respective designations for groups of animals. B, C, E. F represent statistically significant change in the parameter (p< 0.05) compared to the corresponding group
Rat thyroid TPO activity at acute stress and post-stress periods.A, B, C, D, E, F, G represent corresponding designations for animal groups.A, B, C, D, E represent statistically significant changes in parameter (p<0.05) compared to the corresponding group.
Rat blood iodine concentration at acute stress and post-stress periods.A, B, C, D, E, F, G represent corresponding designations for animal groups.A, B, C, D, E, F represent statistically significant changes in the parameter (p<0.05) compared to the corresponding group.
The iodine status restoration after the 2- h post-stress period is characterized by elevated concentrations of total I, protein-bound I and free I (55.5, 38.3 and 40.8%, respectively). A marked restoration to the control values of all the thyroid parameters studied was noticed after 4-6 h following the cessation of stress exposure. Under physiological conditions, the blood serum iodine content was not high (approx. 20 µg/l). However, acute stress diminished its level (52.3%) at the post-stress recovery period (after 6 h following stress), which can be a consequence of restoration of the iodine status in the thyroid (Fig. 4).
Control | Stress, 15 min | Stress, 30 min | Stress, 45 min | |
Groups | А | B | C | D |
Т4 total, nM | 59.4±4.1 | 60.6±3.6 | 60.5±2.4 | 59.09±4.4 |
Т3 free, nM | 2.9±0.22 | 2.9±0.21 | 2.3±0.12 | 2.3±0.20А,B |
Stress, 60 min | Stress, 60 min + 2-hour post-stress periods | Stress, 60 min + 4-hour post-stress periods | Stress, 60 min + 6-hour post-stress periods | |
Groups | E | F | G | H |
Т4 total, nM | 58.7±3.5 | 59.1±2.2 | 64.8±6.0 | 51.6±4.5 |
Т3 free, nM | 2.1±0.21 А,B | 2.7±0.29 | 2.1±0.13А,B,F | 2.0±0.26 А,B,F |
Rat blood T4 and T3 concentrations at acute stress and post-stress periods
The stress exposure did not produce significant changes in the concentration of blood serum total T4. However, the free T3 content lowered at the 30th minute of stress and remained to be 18.6 to 28.5% lowered throughout the experiment. It was not until 2 hours later that it increased up to the control values (Table 1).
Our findings show involvement of the TG in adaptation of the body to acute stress. We should note the thyroid ability to a rapid recovery of the iodine status at the post-stress period. Throughout a short period of time (15-30 min), the acute stress induced activation and uptake of iodide and thyroid hormone secretion.
However, oxidation of iodide was inhibited and the contents of total I, protein-bound I and free I were decreased after 45 and, significantly, after 60 min.
The 60-min exposure to psychoemotional stress revealed a negative correlation between the concentration of total I in the thyroid and the corticosterone concentration in the adrenals (r= –0.952, p=0.003). This shows that overproduction of glucocorticoids under stress induces a decrease of thyroid iodine content, resulting in a negative iodine balance at the post-stress period. The 2-hour recovery period is characterized by a pronounced activation of thyroid iodine metabolism (TPO activity rose over 3-fold), and the partial restoration of the thyroid iodine status (after 4-6 hours) was accompanied by a decreased blood serum iodine content.
The following correlations were established at the post-stress recovery period:
after 4 hours, the blood serum iodide concentration negatively correlated with the corticosterone concentration (r= –0.831, p=0.040);
after 6 hours, there was a highly significant correlation (r=0.937, p=0.006) between the blood corticosterone level and the ratio of protein-bound I to total I;
The data for the recovery period demonstrate that the blood corticosterone level can be viewed as a factor inducing a decrease of blood iodine concentration in rats.
Thus, the short-term stress (5-30 min) induced activation of biosynthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones. The most important regularity of the post-stress period is restoration of the thyroid iodine status due to activation of iodine uptake and organification as well as the presence of a close negative correlation between the thyroid concentration of I total and the adrenal corticosterone concentration (r= –0.956, p=0.003). After 6 h of the recovery period, the concentration of blood corticosterone was positively correlated to the ratio of protein-bound I/total I in the TG (r=0.937, p=0.006). A close correlation found between the levels of corticosterone and iodine in the thyroid gland may primarily show possible regulatory effects of glucocorticoids on iodine uptake. But no effects of glucocorticoids on TPO were found, which definitely indicates the absence of direct interactions. However, elevation of thyroid iodine concentration, induced by glucocorticoids, can activate TPO.
The above findings show that the exposure to stress induced a marked imbalance in the thyroid iodine status which was rapidly recovered at the post-stress period due to the decreased blood serum iodine concentration and that the restoration of the thyroid iodine status is most closely related to the glucocorticoid status.
We studied the effects of 30-min psychoemotional stress on the iodine metabolism after administration of three daily doses of potassium iodide (KI was administered directly before the exposure to stress). The administration of three daily doses of KI increased 4.3-fold the blood iodine level within 6 hours. This concentration was decreased to the control values after 24 h (Fig. 5). In the group of rats subjected to stress, the iodine content also increased (296.7%) after 30 min following the administration of 3 daily doses of KI. In contrast to the control rats, the stressed rats showed a pronounced maximum of blood iodine concentration after 6 h (839.4% elevation, 170.7µg/l). After 24 h, the level of blood iodine in the stressed rats did not differ from that in the controls. The stress-induced changes in the kinetics of blood iodine concentration are a consequence of a disturbed regulation of iodine homeostasis. The dramatic, over 800%, elevation of blood iodine concentration can be due to an imbalance in the activity of its uptake: lowering of uptake in the TG and activation of uptake in the gastrointestinal tract at the post-stress period. It should be noted that it is at that period that the rat blood showed an increase in the corticosterone concentration (Table 2). A comparative examination of the curves characterizing changes in thyroid iodine concentrations in two animal groups (Fig. 5 B) shows that after 24 h, the thyroid iodine concentration elevated 1.7-fold in the control rats and remained essentially unchanged in the stressed rats (1.2-fold increase).
The 30-min psychoemotional stress leveled off the increase in the thyroid iodine status after administration of 3 daily KI doses. The changed concentrations of thyroid protein-bound I and free I (Fig. 5, B and C) reflect changes in TPO activity in the thyroid gland (Fig. 5D). The administration of 3 daily KI doses was accompanied by activation of its organification in the group of control rats within 1 h (the level of protein-bound I was increased by 54.1%) and elevation of its concentration by 74.3% after 24 h.
Effect of 30-min exposure to psychoemotional stress on iodine content in rat blood serum (A), total iodine (B), protein-bound iodine (C), activity of TPO (D) in rat thyroids after administration of 3 daily doses of KI within 24 h of the post-stress period
The dynamics of changes in TPO activity in the stressed animals treated with 3 daily doses of KI had an essentially opposite character in comparison with the controls (Figure 5D). The post-stress increase in TPO activity after 1 h was accompanied by 41.5% decrease of its activity by 6 h as opposed to the initial level. As compared to the control animals, the activity of TPO in the thyroid of the stressed rats diminished over 2-fold, whereas the concentration of protein-bound I decreased 1.4-fold after 24 h following the administration of 3 daily KI doses.
The data obtained indicate that the 30-min exposure to stress after the administration of 3 daily KI doses changed the kinetics of iodine metabolism in rats within 24 h of the post-stress period. These data reflect complex relationships between the regulatory effects of the pituitary-thyroid and pituitary-adrenal systems as well as the whole complex of metabolic stress changes in the organism in respect to the key steps in thyroid iodine metabolism. Stress enhances the iodine inhibitory effect.
Before KI administration | After KI administration | |||||
30 min | 1 h | 3 h | 6 h | 24 h | ||
Blood corticosterone, nM | 302.8±28.5 | 1279.1± 101.6* | 1580.4± 118.9* | 2135.8± 260.7* | 1778± 194.9* | 472.7± 47.4 |
Before stress | After administration of KI and exposure to stress | |||||
30 min | 1 h | 3 h | 6 h | 24 h | ||
Blood corticosterone, nM | 302.8±28.5 | 2571.6± 282.7* | 867.8± 104.5* | 664.3± 100.5* | 1661.8± 272.5* | 697.7± 75.9* |
Effect of 30-min stress exposure on corticosterone concentration in rat blood after administration of 3 daily doses of KI within 24 h of post-stress period
The most pronounced stress-induced changes in iodine metabolism after administration of physiological KI doses (3 daily doses) are characterized by:
abnormal kinetics of changes in blood iodine concentration within 24 h after administration of KI, which was manifested by accumulation of blood iodine (839.4% elevation) after 6 h at the post-stress period;
changes in the kinetics of iodine uptake and oxidation in the TG, which results in a decreased content of total I and protein-bound I in thyroids of stressed rats after administration of 3 daily doses of KI as opposed to the control group which showed an increase of these parameters.
A research was carried out into a short-term stress effect (daily, over a long period of time) on the activities of the key steps in iodine metabolism in the rat thyroid. The data obtained indicate that daily 20-min exposure to stress (4 weeks) induced pronounced changes in thyroid iodine metabolism.
Figure 6 shows that the total thyroid iodine content in stressed animals was elevated 1.97- fold as opposed to controls and amounted to 491.8±15.5 µg/g tissue. The contents of its protein-bound and free fractions corresponded to 329.9±8.3 µg/g tissue and 161.8±18.4 µg/g tissue, which was 1.6-and 3.1-fold higher compared to the controls. The increased thyroid iodine concentration was accompanied by a changed ratio of its various fractions (Table 3). The 2-fold elevated free I/protein-bound I ratio and the lowered protein-bound I/total I ratio (1.18-fold) are indicative of a lowered efficiency of thyroid iodine organification under stress.
Effect of 4-week psychoemotional stress (20 min, daily) on contents of total I, protein-bound I and free I in the rat thyroid
Indices | Control | Stress |
Free I/protein-bound I | 0.26±0.034 | 0.50±0.066* |
Protein-bound I/total I | 0.79±0.021 | 0.67±0.028* |
Urinary I, µg/l | 17.9±2.29 | 22.2±1.94 |
Effect of short-term daily psychoemotional stress on the ratio of different rat thyroid iodine fractions and urinary iodine excretion
Indices | Control | Stress |
T4 total, nM | 49.2±2.82 | 51.7±3.34 |
T3 total, nM | 1.2±0.06 | 1.3±0.07 |
TPO, µmol/min x g tissue | 23.4±2.70 | 20.9±2.91 |
Thyroid weight, mg | 15.7±0.63 | 13.3±0.47* |
Thyroid cytosolic protein, mg/g tissue | 158.5±3.6 | 137.9±5.3* |
Effect of short-term daily psychoemotional stress on the concentration of blood thyroid hormones, TPO activity, thyroid weight and thyroid protein concentration
No changes were found in the activity of TPO, the key enzyme of thyroid hormone biosynthesis (Table 5). The thyroid weight in stressed rats was lowered by 18%, whereas the protein concentration in the thyroid cytosolic fraction – by 13%. The blood thyroid hormone content at the post-stress period was maintained at the level of control values (Table 5), the level of corticosterone was increased by 32.8% (Table 6) and the weight of the adrenal glands rose by 13%.
Indices | Control | Stress |
Blood serum corticosterone, nM | 383.2±65.9 | 509.2±90.0# |
Adrenal corticosterone, nmol/g tissue | 152.8±17.9 | 176.2±30.8 |
Adrenal weight, mg | 46.6±1.9 | 52.7±2.5* |
Effects of short-term daily psychoemotional stress on adrenal weight, blood corticosterone concentration and corticosterone concentration in rat adrenals.
As our data show, stress caused multidirectional changes in the activities of the key steps of thyroid iodine metabolism. The elevated content of the total and free iodine is a consequence of stimulation of its absorption at the post-stress period [28]. The decreased efficiency of iodine organification may be due to TPO inhibition and lowering of thyroglobulin concentration. The stress-induced lowering of thyroid TPO activity was shown earlier. As Table 7 demonstrates, the repeated exposure to short-term stress during 7 days and over was accompanied by a decrease of thyroid TPO activity both directly after exposure to stress (46.9-56.6%) and after 24 h following its cessation (59.2-60.7%).
Index | Control | Stress, 7 days | Stress, 14 days | ||
TPO, µmol/min g protein | 153.5±15.2 | 81.4±21.43* | 60.2±4.9* | 66.6±9.4* | 62.6±18.22* |
Effect of short-term (20 min) psychoemotional stress (daily, 7, 14 days) on thyroid TPO activity
Effects of stress on iodine oxidation and organification in thyroid cells have not been virtually investigated. We found only one study on female tortoises. Thyroid TPO activity in young female tortoises was lowered after ten-fold administration of corticosterone (25, 50, 100 µg/100 g body weight) [34]. Nothing has been known of the effect of stress on thyroglobulin biosynthesis. However, the diminished level of thyroid protein-bound I can be stipulated by its impaired biosynthesis. Moreover, a consequence of stress was a 13%- decreased total protein concentration in the thyroid cytosolic fraction. This certainly applies to thyroglobulin, taking into consideration that it amounts to 75-80% and up of the total thyroid protein.
The main regulator of TPO and thyroglobulin synthesis is TSH whose secretion is inhibited by glucocorticoids [20], which can induce depression of thyroid hormone synthesis. Stress is suggested to cause a decrease of TSH production via pituitary neuromedin B, gastrin-releasing peptide and pituitary leptin acting as local inhibitors of TSH release under stress [21]. It was found that lipocortin -1 is a mediator of glucocorticoid-induced suppression of TSH secretion by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland [21].
The inhibitory effect of stress seems to be followed by activation of thyroid metabolism at the post-stress period and the restoration of thyrocyte function is related to activation of thyroid hormone secretion, which is confirmed by resorption of colloid and depletion of thyroid follicules. These conditions disturb the thyroglobulin synthesis/secretion balance. As a result, the thyrocytes and follicular lumen accumulate a considerable amount of non-organified iodine, which is confirmed by our findings. Stress decreases thyroid weight, which can be both a consequence of its hypersecretion and destructive processes; the mechanism of this change is certainly interesting.
The experimental findings show that a consequence of the repeated exposures to psychoemotional stress are pronounced structural and metabolic changes in the TG that are characterized by an elevated iodine content, a decreased extent of its organification, development of oxidative stress and lymphocyte infiltration along with the impaired thyroid follicular structure. The mechanisms of the regularities found call for detailed research and are of great interest to disclose the pathogenesis of autoimmune thyroiditis, thyroid carcinoma as well as the contribution of the thyroid component to development of endemic and nodular goiters.
There are presently no unambiguous data on the role of stress in induction of thyroid pathology in humans. Individual cases have been described of autoimmune thyroiditis developed after surgical treatment of hypercorticism (Cushing’s syndrome) [65]. A pronounced stress effect can be an onset of Graves’ disease [82]. There were reports about relationships between stress and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis [83]. According to Polish researchers [84] secondary adrenal deficiency can be a cause of autoimmune thyroid diseases in humans: stress affects the immune system, and immunologic modulations are considered to be a factor inducing autoimmune thyroiditis in genetically prone individuals [85]. Stress hormones, affecting antigen-presenting immune cells, can influence the differentiation of bipolar T-helpers from Th1 to Th2 phenotype, which causes suppression of cellular immunity and enhancement of humoral immunity. Stress is likely to contribute to the development of Graves’ disease by shifting the Th1/Th2 ratio from Th1 to Th2. Recovery after stress or immunosuppressive effect of pregnancy can induce a “reverse shift” in Th2 → Th1, causing autoimmune (sporadic) thyroiditis [85].
Stress-induced impairment of thyroid function characterized by development of oxidative and iodine stress is likely to be viewed as a main mechanism of thyroid ageing in humans and, consequently, to be a cause of diseases of age related to thyroid deficiency [86, 87]. Further studies are needed to disclose the mechanisms of stress-induced impairment of thyroid functions.
The above findings confirm that stress considerably changes thyroid iodine metabolism, affecting its uptake and organification. Since all the experimental studies were carried out using models characterizing hyperfunction of the adrenal glands (stress), a comparative investigation of iodine metabolism in rats with adrenal deficiency should be done in order to establish the biochemical mechanisms.
The glucocorticoid status in rats was assessed by the level of corticosterone which was lowered 4.4 to 6.4-fold in adrenalectomized (AE) rats compared to controls. Adrenal deficiency was a cause of 44.2 % - decreased thyroid TPO activity (Fig. 7B). The administration of 1000 daily doses of KI (a dose=70 mg/kg) decreased thyroid TPO activity in the TG of the control rats and elevated it in the glucocorticoid-deficient animals with to the control values. The administration of 1000 daily doses of KI was accompanied by increases in thyroid total I (42.2%), protein-bound I (19.1%) and free I (90.6%) in AE rats (Fig. 8). This indicates that under hypocorticism the regulatory mechanisms for thyrocyte functions can be disturbed by high iodine doses.
Effect of single administration of 1000 daily doses of KI on concentration of blood serum corticosterone (nM) (A) and TPO activity (µmol/min x g protein) in thyroids of intact and AE rats (B)
Effect of single administration of 1000 daily KI doses on contents of total I, protein-bound I and free I in thyroids of rats with normal and decreased glucocorticoid statuses
The blood thyroid hormone levels in AE rats were above the control values (27% for T4 and 35% for T3), but administration of KI lowered the concentrations of T4 by 41.1% and T3 by 34% compared to the AE animals. T4 was 29% decreased even in comparison with the controls (Fig. 9).
Effect of single administration of high KI dose on concentrations of total blood serum T4 and T3 in rats with normal and decreased glucocorticoid statuses
Index | Control | 1000 daily doses of KI | АE | АE+1000 daily doses of KI |
А | B | C | D | |
TBARS, nmol/g tissue | 131.2±8.9 | 212.5±22.9А | 150.4±15.0 | 115.5±9.6B,C |
Cаtalasa, μmol/min×g protein | 36.8±1.3 | 40.0±1.6 | 32.2±0.8А,B | 33.7±1.7B |
SOD, activity u./min×g protein | 43.2±4.2 | 56.8±1.4А | 51.1±2.0А,B | 48.9±2.9B |
GR, μmol/min×g protein | 24.0±1.2 | 22.7±1.0 | 26.7±1.0B | 25.5±1.5 |
Effect of single administration of 1000 daily doses of KI on TBARS levels and antioxidant enzyme activities in thyroids of rats with normal and decreased glucocorticoid statuses
In contrast to the rats with the normal glucocorticoid status, in which the administration of KI inhibited the thyroid function and induced activation of oxidative processes (62.0% elevation of TBARS concentration, 54.3% activation of SOD), the adrenalectomized rats did not show activation of lipid peroxidation (the level of TBARS was decreased by 23.2%, Table 8).
The AE animals demonstrated elevated concentrations of T3 and T4 in the blood serum (Fig. 9). These changes seemed to be caused by alterations in thyroid iodine metabolism since the contents of its different fractions did not change under decreased glucocorticoid status (Fig. 8). It was found earlier that AE caused enhancement of liver thyroxin-binding globulin synthesis and its binding capacity in the blood [88] as well as inhibition of the peripheral metabolism of thyroid hormones. Enhancement of deposition of blood thyroid hormones and, consequently, inhibition of their metabolism may cause elevation of thyroid hormone concentrations.
Most interesting changes were found after administration of high iodine doses to rats. In contrast to control animals with the characteristic acute Wolff – Chaikoff’s effect, we did not observe inhibition of iodide organification in this group. Moreover, a pronounced lowering of T4 and T3 concentrations in the blood serum of AE rats after the administration of high iodine doses suggests that the cause of the absence of the Wolff-Chaikoff’s effect under hypocorticism can be impaired maturing of the prohormone, thyroglobulin, and abnormal secretion of thyroid hormones to the blood, which provides for elevated concentration of protein-bound I in this group. Elevated TSH concentrations and enhanced NIS expression and, consequently, increased uptake of iodide absorption by the TG are also possible.
Our findings show that the effects of the single administration of the high KI dose on the activity of hormonogenesis in thyroids from normal and AE animals are multidirectional. Thyroids from the intact rats show inhibition of iodide organification accompanied by induction of oxidative stress, whereas the hypocorticoid rats demonstrate a reverse effect: activation of iodide uptake and organification as well as a decrease in the intensity of lipid peroxidation. These results are of a considerable interest in relation to some clinical studies which prove that impairments in the glucocorticoid status can be linked to development of autoimmune thyroid diseases. Lowering of the functional activity in the hypophyseal link (ACTH) and/or the adrenal (cortisol) link was noted in patients with autoimmune tyroiditis [89, 90]. It was shown that autoimmune tyroiditis and diabetes mellitus are developed on the average 7 years after autoimmune damage of the adrenal glands [91]. In patients suffering from hypercorticism of different genesis, AE contributes to development of autoaggression in their thyroids [68, 66, 92]. It is suggested that puerperal thyroiditis, as a consequence of a temporary decrease of the glucocorticoid status in females at the puerperal period [93], is due to ACTН-releasing hormone inhibition of the synthesis and secretion of maternal hypothalamic ACTH-releasing hormone and that this inhibition is of a placental origin. It should be mentioned that impaired functional activities of the pituitary-adrenal axis are also noted in other autoimmune diseases [94]. The mechanisms of the regularities found certainly require further studies since the literature lacks information on this problem.
Glucocorticoid deficiency is a cause for impairments of the adequate regulation of the thyroid status and thyroid iodine metabolism. It was interesting to study the properties of the iodine metabolism after its repeated administration to rats with adrenal deficiency.
After 2 weeks following AE, the blood serum thyroid hormone concentrations in operated animals were partially restored and amounted to 23.7-42.3% of the control values (Fig. 10)
Effect of 14-day administration of 1-500 daily doses of KI on blood serum corticosterone concentration in AE rats.
Studies on the thyroid iodine metabolism showed that repeated administration of high KI doses resulted in 46.9-115.7% increased concentrations of total I and caused 120.4 to 223.9% elevations of free I in all the experimental groups (Fig. 11). Glucocorticoid hormones are likely to inhibit iodide uptake by erythrocytes since the levels of nonorganified iodine were 1.2-fold increased after AE in rats which did not receive supplementary KI. One more confirmation is a more considerable growth of free I concentrations in thyroids of rats with hypocorticism (120.4-223.9%, Fig. 11) compared to controls (94.8-128.0%) after administration of KI at the same doses. Iodine organification in AE rats was enhanced by 32-86% in rats treated with 3 to 500 daily doses of KI (Fig. 11). TPO activity in AE rats was 29.4% elevated and 2.4, 3.9 and 3.7-fold increased (Table 9) after administration of 3, 100 and 500 KI daily doses.
Control | Daily doses of KI administered to AE animals | |||||
No administration | 1 | 3 | 100 | 500 | ||
TPO, µmol/min×g protein | 173.9±22.5 | 193.8±10.3 | 275.4±77.4 | 387.9±78.4* | 616.5±178.1* | 579.7±120.6* |
Effect of 2-week administration of 1 to 500 daily doses of potassium iodide on TPO activity (µm/min×g tissue) in thyroids of AE rats
Effect of 14-day administration of 1-500 daily doses of KI on the concentrations of total I, protein-bound I and free I in thyroids of AE rats
Effect of 14-day administration of 1 to 500 daily doses of potassium iodide on the concentrations of total T4 and T3 in the blood serum of rats with normal and lowered glucocorticoid statuses
The repeated and single administrations of excess potassium iodide to rats with hypocorticism were characterized by activation of iodide metabolism in the TG, which was followed by development of pronounced hyperthyroidism in AE animals. The blood serum total T4 concentration (Fig. 12) was increased by 52-100% in rats with adrenal deficiency treated with KI for 14 days compared to control animals. The T3 concentration (Fig. 12) reached 145.5-177.5% of the control level.
In this situation, a pronounced disturbance in the regulatory mechanisms of the pituitary-thyroid axis may be observed, which is accompanied by development of hypothyroidism and indicates a permissive (coordinating) role of glucocorticoids in regulation of thyroid homeostasis.
Our findings indicate that regulation of iodide uptake is very closely related to the state of the pituitary-adrenal system. Excess iodine intake under hypocorticism causes development of hyperthyroiditis.
Short-term stress (5-30 min) induced activation of biosynthesis and secretion of thyroid hormones. The most important established regularity of the post-stress period is restoration of the iodine thyroid status due to activation of uptake and organification of iodine as well as a negative correlation between the total thyroid concentration and adrenal corticosterone concentration (r= –0.952, p=0.003), which indicates participation of glucocorticoids in regulation of iodine thyroid homeostasis.
The most pronounced stress-induced changes in iodine metabolism after the treatment by physiological KI doses (3 daily doses) are characterized by:
disturbed kinetics of blood iodine content within 24 h following the KI treatment, which was characterized by accumulation of blood iodine (826%) after 6 hours following the post-stress period;
changed dynamics of thyroid uptake and oxidation of iodine, which caused a decrease in the concentrations of total I and protein-bound I in thyroids of stressed rats after the treatment with 3 daily doses of KI in contrast to the control group which showed elevation of these indices.
It was shown that repeated exposure to short-term psychoemotional stress (for 4 weeks) induced pronounced structural and metabolic changes in the thyroid gland that were characterized by elevated iodine content, as well as a decrease of the extent of its organification and development of oxidative stress.
The lowered glucocorticoid status in rats is characterized by increased blood thyroid hormone concentrations and decreased TPO activity (44.2%). In contrast to the animals with normal glucocorticoid status, the AE rats did not show any inhibitory effect of high iodine doses (Wolff-Chaikoff’s effect) after the single administration of 1000 daily doses of KI, and activation of thyroid iodide uptake and organification was observed.
The 2-week administration of KI (1-500 daily doses) to rats with glucocorticoid deficiency increased the levels of free iodine (120-224%) and protein-bound iodine (32-86%) as well as thyroid TPO activity. In contrast to controls, this was followed by development of pronounced hyperthyroiditis (T4 amounts to 152-200% and T3 – 145 to 177% of the control values), which is a consequence of impairments in the key mechanisms of thyrocyte regulation and shows a permissive (coordinating) role of glucocorticoids in respect to the given effects.
The state of chronic stress may be a cause of impaired iodine metabolism in thyroid cells, which can induce development of hypothyroiditis and autoimmune thyroid pathology. Deficiency of the pituitary-adrenal system enhances the probability of development of hyperthyroiditis.
AcknowledgementWe are grateful to her colleagues and post –graduate students at the Institute of Pharmacology and Biochemistry of the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Dr. Sergey Chumachenko (Ph.D. in Biology), Dr. Sergey Lupachik (Ph.D. in Biology), Ms. Daria Goreva and Ludmila Kiryukhina for the assistance in the implementation of this project.
Because aflatoxins are xenobiotic to animals and humans, they must consume diet with contaminated aflatoxins. Cereals, spices, oilseeds, tree nuts, and dried fruits exhibits greater susceptibility to aflatoxin contamination with maize and groundnuts being the widely consumed staple foods throughout Africa [7, 8]. Contaminations are influenced by many factors and can occur at any stage of food production (preharvest, harvest, and postharvest storage).
To protect consumers from the harmful effects of aflatoxins, a number of nations and International recognized organizations have established regulations for aflatoxins in food and animal feed. In United States and European Union, the Food and Drug Administration has established maximum limits of 20 μg/kg and 4 μg/kg respectively. At the moment few regulations on aflatoxin exit in Africa, as a result majority of these countries live on the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additive (JECFA) recommendation of 2 μg/kg body-weight per day [9, 10].
Processing methods and conditions, which are heavily influenced by multitudinous intrinsic and extrinsic factors are supposed to be involved in degrading and reducing aflatoxins levels in foods and beverage to safe and standards levels. Therefore, this review focuses on advances in the elucidation of activities of aflatoxin by indigenous processing methods. Furthermore, it summarizes the impact of variations in indigenous processing conditions in aflatoxins degradation [10, 11].
Fungal growth and their corresponding mycotoxin production are controlled by several factors including temperature, water availability, pH, light and nature of substrate, which vary among species to species and isolated strains. Although it has become difficult to describe a set of optimum conditions for growth and production of mycotoxins, it has generally been agreed that adequate amount of moisture and temperature are crucial for aflatoxin biosynthesis in cereal and legumes during storage [12].
Reports on minimum and optimum water activity levels required for aflatoxin production differs among authors, but are within the range of 0.78 to 0.84 for
It is well documented that storage systems and the length of storage increase fungal infestation of grains and their subsequent production of mycotoxins [14, 15]. Despite the suggestion that there is a limited increase in aflatoxin contamination of grain from field to storage [16], it has been argued that more than 6 months storage length assures efficient growth of
Although it is arguable that the increased aflatoxin occurrence in stored grains is simply due to the increased favorable environmental conditions for
Total aflatoxin concentration (μg/kg) of maize grain stored in triple layer hermetic bags (PICS), polypropylene (PP) and jute sack for 35 weeks. A = moisture level < 13%, n = 7; B = moisture level between 13% and 14%, n = 13; C = moisture level > 14%, n = 7.
Another study conducted by Ng’ang’a et al. [17] to determine the impact of three storage materials on aflatoxin levels under three moisture levels (moisture level < 13%, n = 7; moisture level between 13% and 14%, n = 13; and moisture level > 14%, n = 7) showed that jute sacks and polyethene promoted aflatoxin production in grains stored for 35 weeks under all the moisture levels (Figure 1). Similarly, total mold counts in the maize grain was higher in maize grain stored in jute sack and polypropylene sacks [17].
In contrast, a study conducted by Worku et al. [23] did not find significant increased aflatoxin in maize (n = 149) stored in mud mix with teff straw, (13.1 ± 2.3–14.7 ± 2.8 ng/g; n = 33), polypropylene bag (13.7 ± 3.4 ng/g; n = 116). Similar to this distribution of aflatoxin in storage structure, it was shown that highest aflatoxin levels were found in maize stored in polypropylene and nylon sacks compared to those stored in granaries [24].
A variety of indigenous processing methods have shown to influence aflatoxin content in food and feed. These methods could be physical (cleaning and segregation; roasting; boiling; and milling), chemical or biological (fermentation). Although these methods are not used in exclusion, each stage have an inherent impact on the levels of aflatoxin in the final products [25, 26, 27, 28].
Drying methods affects aflatoxin status in grain and is possibly the most important factor that determine subsequent fungal contamination and production of aflatoxin in grain under storage [21, 29]. Regardless of the moisture levels of harvested grains and source of drying energy, the level and rate of production of mycotoxin would partly be influence by drying methods. Indigenous dry methods used in Africa are broadly categories into three main groups; in-field drying, on-platform drying and on-ground drying. In sub-Saharan Africa especial in West Africa, the tradition on-field drying methods where maize cobs and other cereal grains are allowed to dry on the maize plants before harvest has resulted in significant increased fungal infestation, insect damage and aflatoxin concentration [30].
Despite the suggestion that groundnuts dried on clean tarpaulin could reduce aflatoxin concentration compared to the traditional on-ground drying [21], it was recently shown that tarpaulin increased aflatoxin levels of three different varieties of groundnut during dried at two different locations in Ghana [31].
Physical separation (cleaning, and sorting) affects aflatoxin status in processed or raw kernels. Hand picking coupled with floating and density techniques are the most widely home-based indigenous separation methods employed in Africa to remove unwanted and mycotoxin contaminated kernels, while willowing is involved in removing dust and fine particles. The efficacy of these methods varies, depending on the level of contamination of raw materials, maturity of grains and on the percentage of removed grains [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 33]. Physical cleaning and separation procedures, where mycotoxin contaminated kernels are removed from good kernel, can result in 40–80% reduction in aflatoxin levels [26]. Immature shrivelled kernels and dehulled shrivelled immature kernels if not removed can increase total aflatoxin, AFG1, AFB2 and AFB1 levels in processed peanuts kernels by up to 67%, 92%, 94% and 57% respectively [33]. Similarly, Phillips et al. [31] after separating denser peanuts from less dense ones using tap water mentioned that less dense peanuts contain higher aflatoxin contents (21 out of 29 samples) and may increase total aflatoxin levels of processed kernels by 95% (mean aflatoxin concentration decreased from 301 to 20 μg/kg).
Though time consuming, the study of Matumba et al. [34] indicated that hand sorting of maize kernel had greater positive impact on the removal of aflatoxin (97.9%) than separation using the floatation technique (63.4%). Galvea et al. [35] also revealed that blanching of peanuts at 140 °C for 25 minutes facilitated the manual sorting process of aflatoxin-contaminated kernels (86%; discolored and broken kernels) after dehulling. Also it was reported that manual sorting of raw peanuts with baseline aflatoxin content of 300 μg/kg resulting in peanut kernels with no detectable concentration (< 15 μg/kg) [35].
Roasting, mainly as dry or oil, are the main types employ in Africa by rural households and communities. Studies have established that initial aflatoxin concentration has a correlational link to aflatoxin reduction during roasting [36]. The results of Martins et al. [37] showed that aflatoxin degradation of roasted groundnut was 81%, 64% and 55% when the baseline aflatoxin concentration was 695 μg/kg, 332 μg/kg and 35 μg/kg respectively. Arzandeh and Jinap [38] observed similar trend in groundnuts with initial aflatoxin concentration of 237 ng/g (% reduction = 78.4), 215 ng/g (% reduction = 73.9%), 68 ng/g (% reduction = 57.3%). This was also indicated for soybeans that malted and roasted aflatoxin contaminated soybeans with initial AFG1 concentrations of 56 μg/g, 45 μg/g and 38 μg/g reduced by 73%, 62% and 61% respectively [39].
Information on the effect of indigenous roasting methods on mycotoxin occurrence is limited in Africa. However, there are some studies on final food products mainly from cereal and legumes processed using indigenous roasting methods. In Sudan, traditionally prepared peanuts better was reported to have AFB1 concentrations ranging from 54.5–101 μg/kg, followed by peanut better from retail stores (14.5 μg/g) and then laboratory prepared peanut butter of 3.3 μg/g [40]. Aflatoxins in Nigerian dry-roasted peanuts sampled from markets, retail shops and street hawkers at different locations exhibited high AFB1 (5–165 μg/g), AFG2 (6–26 μg/g) and AFG1 (2–20 μg/g) [41].
More importantly, Lee et al. [36] pointed out that there is no significant effects in degrading aflatoxins in contaminated grains either by dry roasting or oil roasting as the two method produced uniform effect. Therefore, irrespective of the dominance of a roasting method in a particular locality, consumption of these contaminated food may be minimal.
Kpodo et al. [42] examined aflatoxin reduction among cooked kenkey made from aflatoxin fermented corn dough. Ga kenkey (a sourdough dumpling from Ga and Fante-inhabited regions of West Africa) degrade about 80% and AFB2 and 35% of AFG2 after 30 minutes of cooking. Mtega et al. [43] reported 68.12%, 51.48% and 85.21% reduction in cooked porridge from un-dehulled maize flour, dehulled maize flour and maize meal (
Aflatoxin expression in parboiled samples, mostly rice, have been studied under different experimental condition with resulting conflicting data. Aflatoxin level were reported to be higher in parboiled rice than in raw milled rice, with AFB1 (185 μg/kg) and AFG1 (963 μg/kg) recording higher occurrence rate. With regard to the migration of aflatoxins from the outer layer to the inner layer of rice during parboiling, it was demonstrated that AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2 may be transferred from the outer layer into the starchy endosperm of rice [44, 45]. Therefore, there is some indication that soaking time and temperature of soaking promote movement of mycotoxins from one define region to another. More importantly slow heat during parboiling process might enhance the availability of aflatoxins in foods. Table 1 present data on the influence of boiling, parboiling and bran removal on aflatoxin (μg/kg) occurrence in indigenous African foods.
Cooking condition | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Treatment | Product | Time (temp oC) | Before | After | Ref |
Un-dehulled maize flour | Stiff porridge | - (90) | 4.36 | 1.39 | [43] |
Dehulled maize flour | 1.01 | 0.49 | |||
Maize meal | 4.26 | 0.63 | |||
Rice cooker | Plain rice | -(−) | 1.49 | 1.12 | [46] |
Local method | 1 h:10 min | 1.49 | 1.23 | ||
Ordinary cooked rice | Plain rice | 20 min (160 °C) | 2.37 | 1.63 | [47] |
Pressure cooked rice | 2.37 | 0.31 | |||
Parboiled with bran | — | — | 70000 | [48] | |
Polished without bran | — | — | 39000 | ||
Raw milled with bran | — | — | 21000 | ||
Polished without bran | — | — | Trace |
Influence of boiling, parboiling and bran removal on aflatoxin (μg/kg) occurrence in indigenous African foods.
—; not reported.
Majority of Africa fermented foods and beverages are obtained through spontaneous fermentation, with varied degree of aflatoxin levels. Assohoun et al. [27] screened for AFB1 (initial level; 2.52 μg/kg); AFG1 (initial level; 2.52 μg/kg); and AFG2 (initial level; 0.33 μg/kg) in raw maize and after fermenting maize for 72 hours. The authors reported aflatoxin levels below detectable limited in all the three aflatoxin variants after 24, 48 and 72 hours of fermentation. Another study conducted by Adelekan and Nnamah [49] to assess the effect of fermentation on aflatoxin content of moldy maize showed 65% reduction in total aflatoxin content after 24 hours of fermentation, subsequent fermentation (48 and 72 hours) yield levels below detectable limits. On the other hand, Kpodo et al. [42] reported 40.3% and 60.9% increase in AFB1 and AFB2 contents respectively, in maize dough after 24 hours of fermentation. Subsequent fermentation of this 24-hour fermented dough also led to increase AFB1 and AFB2.
In recent times, the use of starter cultures aimed at reducing aflatoxin concentrations in indigenous fermented foods and beverage have been investigated. Since these cultures could exclusively bind to specific toxins [39, 40],
Aflatoxin | Detoxifying microorganism | Strain origin | Place of fermentation | Reduction (%) | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
AFB1 | Indigenous microbial communities | Ogi | Ogi | 40–60.8 | [52] |
Maize meal | Maize meal | 27.5 | |||
Kutukutu | kutukutu | 63 | |||
Kutukutu | Kutukutu | 64.2 | |||
Commercial strain | Kwete | 92–100 | [52] | ||
Commercial strain | Maize meal | 75 | [50] | ||
AFB2 | Ogi | Ogi | 68–82.8 | [50] | |
Commercial strain | Kwete | 91.8–100 | [52] | ||
AFG1 | Milk | — | 33–53 | [53] | |
Food Research Institute, Canada | Milk | 33–53 | |||
AFG2 | Food Research Institute, Canada | — | 46–68 | [53] | |
Lab strain | — | 46–68 | |||
Total aflatoxin | Mawe | Mawe | >92 | [54, 55] | |
Ogi | Ogi | 80 | [51] | ||
Ogi | Maize | 37.5 | [51] | ||
Ogi | Maize | 75 | [51] | ||
Ogi | Maize | 62.5 | [51] | ||
Ogi | Maize | 56.3 | [51] | ||
Ogi | Maize | 95 | [51] |
Binding capacity of Lactobacillus spp. and yeast to aflatoxins during fermentation.
Ref; Reference.
Aflatoxin detoxification during fermentation is achieved through microbial binding and/or biotransformation of aflatoxin into less toxic substances. This binding capacity of microbial consortium to aflatoxins are influenced by acidic medium (optimum pH of 6) and temperature (30 °C) associated with noncovalent binding of aflatoxins to cell wall of bacteria and yeast [56]. Aflatoxin degradation and/or biotransformation of aflatoxin during fermentation of indigenous food and beverages have been reported and summarized in Table 3.
Treatment | Product | Aflatoxin type and levels (μg/kg) | Ref | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AFB1 | AFB2 | AFG1 | AFG2 | Total | |||
No fermentation | Raw maize kernel | 2.25 | ND | 2.25 | 0.33 | 0.77–4.59 | [27] |
24 hours fermentation | Dough | ND | ND | ND | ND | 0.5 | |
48 hours fermentation | Dough | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | |
72 hours fermentation | Dough | ND | ND | ND | ND | ND | |
No fermentation | Raw maize kernels | 69.80 | 4.5 | — | — | — | [42] |
24 hours fermentation | Steeped kernel, wet milled | 117 | 11.50 | — | — | — | |
24 hours fermentation | Fermented Dough (Lab fermentation) | 206 | 18.90 | — | — | — | |
48 hours fermentation | Fermented Dough (Lab fermentation) | 270 | 22.20 | — | — | — | |
72 hours fermentation | Fermented Dough (Lab fermentation) | 290 | 25.50 | — | — | — | |
24 hours fermentation | Fermented dough (sample from processing site) | 106.1 | 6.7 | 21.7 | 2.4 | 135.4 | |
No treatment | Raw sorghum | — | — | — | — | 1.70–3.0 | [25] |
Malted sorghum for | — | — | — | — | 6.10–54.6 | ||
— | — | — | — | 2.1–7.1 | |||
Malted sorghum for beer | — | — | — | — | 4.3–1138.8 | ||
Beer | — | — | — | — | 8.8–34.5 | ||
No spike, no starter | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | [50] | |
No spike, starter | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | ||
Spike, no starter | 2.40 | 1.10 | 2.4 | 1.1 | 7 | ||
Spike, starter, no fermentation | 2.40 | 1.20 | 2.40 | 0.90 | 6.90 | ||
Spike, starter, 12 hours fermentation | 0.20 | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.10 | 0.60 | ||
Spike, starter, 24 hours fermentation | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Summary of studies on aflatoxin levels as influenced by fermentation.
ND; not detected, --; not analyzed, Ref.; reference.
There are many indigenous approaches to reduce aflatoxins occurrence in food, feed and beverage. If prevention techniques during postharvest treatments do not fully avoid aflatoxins contamination, indigenous decontamination methods such as cleaning, milling, roasting, cooking, dehulling and fermentation can help remove significant part of aflatoxins. Microbial fermentation is the most promising technology as it enhances consumer acceptability and limit nutrients losses. This chapter has highlighted the link between diverse indigenous processing methods used by rural households and communities with aflatoxin degradation and reduction of toxicity in processed foods and beverages.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen books are published online and are accessible for free.
\r\n\r\nHowever, if you are interested in ordering your hardcover copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com. All IntechOpen books are printed on demand in full-colour and delivered in signature packaging through FREE DHL Express delivery.
\r\n\r\nFor a quote or assistance please contact us directly at orders@intechopen.com The quote will be sent to you within 1-2 business days.
\r\n\r\nOur entire portfolio of over 5,500 books is also available through Amazon.
',metaTitle:"Order and delivery",metaDescription:"Our books are published online and are accessible for free. However, if you are interested in ordering your hardcover copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com. All IntechOpen books are printed on demand in full-colour and delivered in signature packaging through free DHL Express delivery. A selection of our books in soft cover is also available through Amazon.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
\\n\\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\\n\\nIntechOpen books retail price range is:
\\n\\n100 - 159 GBP ex. VAT (available in USD and EUR)
\\n\\nDiscounts available:
\\n\\nBulk discounts are granted for orders of 10 copies and more.
\\n\\nThere is no minimum or maximum threshold on the quantity of book orders.
\\n\\nOrders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
\\n\\nWe currently accept the following payment options:
\\n\\nWhen paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\nIn accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\\n\\nThe combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\\n\\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nTax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nCustoms: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\\n\\nP.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\\n\\nIntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
\\n\\nWhen ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nRestricted Ship-to Countries:
\\n\\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\\n\\nInspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPrint copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
\\n\\nOur books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\\n\\nBooks International
\\n\\nRepresentative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
\\n\\nChina Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\\n\\nRepresentative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
\\n\\nIndia - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\\n\\nRepresentative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
\\n\\nLSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
\\n\\nRepresentative for Mexico, Chile and Colombia
\\n\\nMissing Link Versandbuchhandlung eG
\\n\\nRepresentative for: Germany, Austria, Switzerland
\\n\\nKuba Libri, s.r.o.
\\n\\nRepresentative for: Czech Republic
\\n\\nFor partnership opportunities, please contact orders@intechopen.com.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
\n\nIntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\n\nIntechOpen books retail price range is:
\n\n100 - 159 GBP ex. VAT (available in USD and EUR)
\n\nDiscounts available:
\n\nBulk discounts are granted for orders of 10 copies and more.
\n\nThere is no minimum or maximum threshold on the quantity of book orders.
\n\nOrders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
\n\nWe currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nWhen paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\nIn accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\nThe combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nTax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nCustoms: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n\nP.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\n\nIntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
\n\nWhen ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nRestricted Ship-to Countries:
\n\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\n\nInspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nPrint copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
\n\nOur books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\n\nBooks International
\n\nRepresentative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
\n\nChina Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\n\nRepresentative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
\n\nIndia - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
\n\nRepresentative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
\n\nLSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
\n\nRepresentative for Mexico, Chile and Colombia
\n\nMissing Link Versandbuchhandlung eG
\n\nRepresentative for: Germany, Austria, Switzerland
\n\nKuba Libri, s.r.o.
\n\nRepresentative for: Czech Republic
\n\nFor partnership opportunities, please contact orders@intechopen.com.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:13389},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:11658},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:4168},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:22334},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:2019},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:33642}],offset:12,limit:12,total:135275},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{},books:[{type:"book",id:"9985",title:"Geostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"423cb3896195a618c4acb493ce4fd23d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jeffrey M. Yarus, Dr. Marko Maucec, Dr. Timothy C. Coburn and Associate Prof. Michael Pyrcz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9985.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"78011",title:"Prof.",name:"Jeffrey M.",surname:"Yarus",slug:"jeffrey-m.-yarus",fullName:"Jeffrey M. Yarus"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10845",title:"Marine Ecosystems - Biodiversity, Ecosystem Services and Human Impacts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"727e7eb3d4ba529ec5eb4f150e078523",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ana M.M. Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10845.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"320124",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana M.M.",surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-m.m.-goncalves",fullName:"Ana M.M. Gonçalves"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11027",title:"Basics of Hypoglycemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"98ebc1e36d02be82c204b8fd5d24f97a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alok Raghav",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11027.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"334465",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Raghav",slug:"alok-raghav",fullName:"Alok Raghav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11124",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"093f9e26bb829b8d414d13626aea1086",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses Infection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"52f8a3a1486912beae40b34ac557fed3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11433",title:"Human Migration in the Last Three Centuries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9836df9e82aa9f82e3852a60204909a8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ingrid Muenstermann",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11433.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"77112",title:"Dr.",name:"Ingrid",surname:"Muenstermann",slug:"ingrid-muenstermann",fullName:"Ingrid Muenstermann"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11438",title:"Fake News in the Era of Global Crises",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f61f975031e13ee705d8b5853f1aa58",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. David Eller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11438.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"476616",title:"Dr.",name:"Jack",surname:"Eller",slug:"jack-eller",fullName:"Jack Eller"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11447",title:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11452",title:"Cryopreservation - Applications and Challenges",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6c3fd4384ff7deeab32fc82722c60e0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marian Quain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11452.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"300385",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",surname:"Quain",slug:"marian-quain",fullName:"Marian Quain"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11453",title:"Biomimetics - Bridging the Gap",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"173e62fa4d7bf5508cec3bdd8e3cb32d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ziyad S. Haidar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11453.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"222709",title:"Prof.",name:"Ziyad S.",surname:"Haidar",slug:"ziyad-s.-haidar",fullName:"Ziyad S. Haidar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11456",title:"Autonomous Mobile Mapping Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"405e1f7c0ef62700f4d590722cf428be",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Janusz Bȩdkowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11456.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"63695",title:"Dr.",name:"Janusz",surname:"Bȩdkowski",slug:"janusz-bdkowski",fullName:"Janusz Bȩdkowski"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11459",title:"Soft Robotics - Recent Advances and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"06e947238d5d4ea1162509a5d66de887",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mahmut Reyhanoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11459.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"15068",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmut",surname:"Reyhanoglu",slug:"mahmut-reyhanoglu",fullName:"Mahmut Reyhanoglu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:42},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:68},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:494},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain",subtitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aab634c9c1f9a692c1e9881d18e9c9b7",slug:"supply-chain-recent-advances-and-new-perspectives-in-the-industry-4-0-era",bookSignature:"Tamás Bányai, Ágota Bányai and Ireneusz Kaczmar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg",editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4798},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:7107,editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1955,editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1452,editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10796",title:"Extracellular Vesicles",subtitle:"Role in Diseases, Pathogenesis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eb5407fcf93baff7bca3fae5640153a2",slug:"extracellular-vesicles-role-in-diseases-pathogenesis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Manash K. Paul",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10796.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2289,editors:[{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11263",title:"Supply Chain",subtitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives in the Industry 4.0 Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aab634c9c1f9a692c1e9881d18e9c9b7",slug:"supply-chain-recent-advances-and-new-perspectives-in-the-industry-4-0-era",bookSignature:"Tamás Bányai, Ágota Bányai and Ireneusz Kaczmar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11263.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:888,editors:[{id:"201248",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamás",middleName:null,surname:"Bányai",slug:"tamas-banyai",fullName:"Tamás Bányai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10739",title:"Global Decline of Insects",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"543783652b9092962a8fa4bed38eeb17",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",bookSignature:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10739.jpg",publishedDate:"July 20th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1566,editors:[{id:"192142",title:"Dr.",name:"Hamadttu",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel Farag El-Shafie",slug:"hamadttu-abdel-farag-el-shafie",fullName:"Hamadttu Abdel Farag El-Shafie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10911",title:"Higher Education",subtitle:"New Approaches to Accreditation, Digitalization, and Globalization in the Age of Covid",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"223a02337498e535e967174c1f648fbc",slug:"higher-education-new-approaches-to-accreditation-digitalization-and-globalization-in-the-age-of-covid",bookSignature:"Lee Waller and Sharon Waller",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10911.jpg",publishedDate:"July 13th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2054,editors:[{id:"263301",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"lee-waller",fullName:"Lee Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",numberOfDownloads:780,editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"95",title:"Applications and Experiences of Quality Control",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4bcb22b1eee68210a977a97d5a0f363a",slug:"applications-and-experiences-of-quality-control",bookSignature:"Ognyan Ivanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/95.jpg",publishedDate:"April 26th 2011",numberOfDownloads:318480,editors:[{id:"22230",title:"Prof.",name:"Ognyan",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",slug:"ognyan-ivanov",fullName:"Ognyan Ivanov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",publishedDate:"September 26th 2012",numberOfDownloads:271760,editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10808",title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology",subtitle:"From Science to Clinical Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4af8830e463f89c57515c2da2b9777b0",slug:"current-concepts-in-dental-implantology-from-science-to-clinical-research",bookSignature:"Dragana Gabrić and Marko Vuletić",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"26946",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrić",slug:"dragana-gabric",fullName:"Dragana Gabrić"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11328",title:"Botulinum Toxin",subtitle:"Recent Topics and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7dd05a316001cef143e209eda51387a7",slug:"botulinum-toxin-recent-topics-and-applications",bookSignature:"Suna Sabuncuoglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11328.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"270856",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suna",middleName:null,surname:"Sabuncuoglu",slug:"suna-sabuncuoglu",fullName:"Suna Sabuncuoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11085",title:"Polycystic Ovary Syndrome",subtitle:"Functional Investigation and Clinical Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3066dd3ff29e1fac072fd60b08d4d3e7",slug:"polycystic-ovary-syndrome-functional-investigation-and-clinical-application",bookSignature:"Zhengchao Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"204883",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhengchao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"zhengchao-wang",fullName:"Zhengchao Wang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10833",title:"Tumor Angiogenesis and Modulators",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f29b575c46128b2da061ef7f9bd1070b",slug:"tumor-angiogenesis-and-modulators",bookSignature:"Ke Xu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10833.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"59529",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"ke-xu",fullName:"Ke Xu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11356",title:"Molecular Cloning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"671c629dd86e97f0fb467b9e70e92296",slug:"molecular-cloning",bookSignature:"Sadık Dincer, Hatice Aysun Mercimek Takcı and Melis Sumengen Ozdenef",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11356.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7827",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ebf41f4d17c75010eb3294cc8cac3d47",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",bookSignature:"Martha Peaslee Levine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7827.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"186919",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"Peaslee Levine",slug:"martha-peaslee-levine",fullName:"Martha Peaslee Levine"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10908",title:"Advances in Decision Making",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"126486f7f91e18e2e3539a32c38be7b1",slug:"advances-in-decision-making",bookSignature:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10908.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"22844",title:"Prof.",name:"Fausto Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"García Márquez",slug:"fausto-pedro-garcia-marquez",fullName:"Fausto Pedro García Márquez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:"Fundamentals and Protection Mechanisms",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:"corrosion-fundamentals-and-protection-mechanisms",bookSignature:"Fahmina Zafar, Anujit Ghosal and Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",middleName:null,surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Advanced Topics of Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bf964c52f9e653fac20a7fcab58070e5",slug:"advanced-topics-of-topology",bookSignature:"Francisco Bulnes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"92918",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bulnes",slug:"francisco-bulnes",fullName:"Francisco Bulnes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11195",title:"Recent Advances in Biometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d32e33e0f499cb5241734bb75dd2a83",slug:"recent-advances-in-biometrics",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sarfraz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 27th 2022",editors:[{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"959",title:"Solid-State Physics",slug:"semiconductor-solid-state-physics",parent:{id:"159",title:"Semiconductor",slug:"semiconductor"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:73,numberOfWosCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitations:58,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"959",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6815",title:"Advanced Material and Device Applications with Germanium",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cbf335cca2531b56745bac330be2a47c",slug:"advanced-material-and-device-applications-with-germanium",bookSignature:"Sanghyun Lee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6815.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"195331",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanghyun",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"sanghyun-lee",fullName:"Sanghyun Lee"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6524",title:"Heterojunctions and Nanostructures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fefc5b353d60c5125f1783fc4208194b",slug:"heterojunctions-and-nanostructures",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Stavrou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99725",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasilios N.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavrou",slug:"vasilios-n.-stavrou",fullName:"Vasilios N. Stavrou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6100",title:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"78673eed1e24eaecb8331eb0efcae2de",slug:"nonmagnetic-and-magnetic-quantum-dots",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Stavrou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6100.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99725",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasilios N.",middleName:null,surname:"Stavrou",slug:"vasilios-n.-stavrou",fullName:"Vasilios N. Stavrou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5699",title:"Thin Film Processes",subtitle:"Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"164177fc1e3eca542ebad5fd34a79d1e",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",bookSignature:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5699.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"61702",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77997",title:"Germanium: Current and Novel Recovery Processes",slug:"germanium-current-and-novel-recovery-processes",totalDownloads:1574,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"Germanium (Ge) is considered a critical element due to its many industrial applications; Ge is a metalloid used in solar cells, fiber optics, metallurgy, chemotherapy, and polymerization catalysis. The main sources of Ge are sulfides ores of Zn, Pb, and Cu, coal deposits, as well as by-products and residues from the processing of these ores and coals (e.g., smelting flue dust and coal fly ashes). Indeed, over 30% of global Ge consumed come from recycling processes. The recovery of Ge from sulfide ores is mostly based on hydrometallurgical processes followed by a number of mass transfer techniques to concentrate Ge (e.g., solvent extraction). However, environmental-friendly extraction methods of Ge from coal fly ashes and copper smelting flue dust have recently been proposed in order to reduce environmental impacts. In addition, novel processes based on absorption of Ge with ribbon grass have become an interesting option not only to produce Ge but also to boost soil decontamination and biogas production. This chapter presents a general description of Ge occurrence, associations, and chemistry as well as a review of the current and novel recovery processes of Ge. The main sources of Ge and its main industrial applications are also discussed.",book:{id:"6815",slug:"advanced-material-and-device-applications-with-germanium",title:"Advanced Material and Device Applications with Germanium",fullTitle:"Advanced Material and Device Applications with Germanium"},signatures:"Aixa González Ruiz, Patricia Córdoba Sola and Natalia Moreno\nPalmerola",authors:[{id:"242086",title:"Dr.",name:"Aixa",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"aixa-gonzalez",fullName:"Aixa Gonzalez"},{id:"242282",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Moreno",slug:"natalia-moreno",fullName:"Natalia Moreno"},{id:"253351",title:"Dr.",name:"Patricia",middleName:null,surname:"Cordoba Sola",slug:"patricia-cordoba-sola",fullName:"Patricia Cordoba Sola"}]},{id:"53949",doi:"10.5772/67215",title:"Layer-by-Layer Thin Films and Coatings Containing Metal Nanoparticles in Catalysis",slug:"layer-by-layer-thin-films-and-coatings-containing-metal-nanoparticles-in-catalysis",totalDownloads:2156,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"The layer-by-layer (LbL) technique is one of the most promising ways of fabricating multilayer thin films and coatings with precisely controlled composition, thickness, and architecture on a nanometer scale. This chapter considers the multilayer thin films and coatings containing metal nanoparticles. The main attention was paid to LbL films containing metal nanoparticles assembled by convenient methods based on the different intermolecular interactions, such as hydrogen bonding, charge transfer interaction, molecular recognition, coordination interactions, as driving force for the multilayer buildup. Much attention has paid to the LbL films containing metal nanocomposites for multifunctional catalytic applications, in particular, photocatalysis, thermal catalysis, and electrocatalysis. The preparation protocol of LbL-assembled multilayer thin films containing metal nanoparticles (such as Au, Ag, Pd, Pt), metal oxides (Fe3O4), and sulfides (CdS) that are supported on the various surfaces of nanotubes of TiO2, Al2O3 membranes, graphene nanosheets, graphene oxide and further applications as catalysts with respect to photocatalytic, electrocatalytic performances is discussed. The systematization and analysis of literature data on synthesis, characterization, and application of multilayer thin films and coatings containing metal nanoparticles on the diverse supports may open new directions and perspectives in this unique and exciting subject.",book:{id:"5699",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",title:"Thin Film Processes",fullTitle:"Thin Film Processes - Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets"},signatures:"Sarkyt Kudaibergenov, Gulnur Tatykhanova, Nurlan Bakranov and\nRosa Tursunova",authors:[{id:"193462",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarkyt",middleName:null,surname:"Kudaibergenov",slug:"sarkyt-kudaibergenov",fullName:"Sarkyt Kudaibergenov"}]},{id:"56882",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70669",title:"Mn-Doped ZnSe Quantum Dots as Fluorimetric Mercury Sensor",slug:"mn-doped-znse-quantum-dots-as-fluorimetric-mercury-sensor",totalDownloads:1236,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Quantum dots (QDs), because of their exciting optical properties, have been explored as alternative fluorescent sensors to conventional organic fluorophores which are routinely employed for the detection of various analytes via fluorometry. QD probes can detect toxic metal ions, anions, organic molecules with good selectivity and sensitivity. This chapter investigates the synthesis of Mn-doped ZnSe QDs using nucleation-doping strategy. The as-synthesized QDs were characterized by various analytical tools such as ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) absorption, photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It was found that Mn doping of QDs significantly increases the PL intensity. The PL of the resulting QDs was examined in the presence of different metal ions to check its selective response. Among the various metal ions, Hg2+ exhibits a drastic quenching of the QD’s emission intensity. A Stern-Volmer plot of [Hg2+] sensing using the as-synthesized QDs showed linearity in the range of 0–30 × 10−6 ML−1 with the regression coefficient R2 = 0.99. The detection limit was found to be 6.63 × 10−7 ML−1. Thus, the present Mn-doped ZnSe QDs represent a simple, non-toxic fluorescent probe for the qualitative and quantitative detection of mercury ions in aqueous samples.",book:{id:"6100",slug:"nonmagnetic-and-magnetic-quantum-dots",title:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots",fullTitle:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots"},signatures:"Sundararajan Parani, Ncediwe Tsolekile, Bambesiwe M.M. May,\nKannaiyan Pandian and Oluwatobi S. Oluwafemi",authors:[{id:"99092",title:"Prof.",name:"Samuel Oluwatobi",middleName:null,surname:"Oluwafemi",slug:"samuel-oluwatobi-oluwafemi",fullName:"Samuel Oluwatobi Oluwafemi"},{id:"188914",title:"Dr.",name:"K",middleName:null,surname:"Pandian",slug:"k-pandian",fullName:"K Pandian"},{id:"208652",title:"Dr.",name:"Sundararajan",middleName:null,surname:"Parani",slug:"sundararajan-parani",fullName:"Sundararajan Parani"},{id:"208653",title:"Dr.",name:"Ncediwe",middleName:null,surname:"Tsolekile",slug:"ncediwe-tsolekile",fullName:"Ncediwe Tsolekile"},{id:"208654",title:"Ms.",name:"Bambesiwe",middleName:null,surname:"May",slug:"bambesiwe-may",fullName:"Bambesiwe May"}]},{id:"59569",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74032",title:"Enhancement of Photosynthetic Productivity by Quantum Dots Application",slug:"enhancement-of-photosynthetic-productivity-by-quantum-dots-application",totalDownloads:1425,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The challenge of climate change promotes use of carbon neutral fuels. Biofuels are made via fixing carbon dioxide via photosynthesis which is inefficient. Light trapping pigments use restricted light wavelengths. A study using the microalga Botryococcus braunii (which produces bio-oil), the bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides (which produces hydrogen), and the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis (for bulk biomass) showed that photosynthetic productivity was increased by up to 2.5-fold by upconverting unused wavelengths of sunlight via using quantum dots. For large scale commercial energy processes, a 100-fold cost reduction was calculated as the break-even point for adoption of classical QD technology into large scale photobioreactors (PBRs). As a potential alternative, zinc sulfide nanoparticles (NPs) were made using waste H2S derived from another process that precipitates metals from mine wastewaters. Biogenic ZnS NPs behaved identically to ZnS quantum dots with absorbance and emission maxima of 290 nm (UVB, which is mostly absorbed by the atmosphere) and 410 nm, respectively; the optimal wavelength for chlorophyll a is 430 nm. By using a low concentration of citrate (10 mM) during ZnS synthesis, the excitation wavelength was redshifted to 315 nm (into the UVA, 85% of which reaches the earth’s surface) with an emission peak of 425 nm, i.e., appropriate for photosynthesis. The potential for use in large scale photobioreactors is discussed in the light of current PBR designs, with respect to the need for durable UV-transmitting materials in appropriate QD delivery systems.",book:{id:"6100",slug:"nonmagnetic-and-magnetic-quantum-dots",title:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots",fullTitle:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots"},signatures:"Angela Janet Murray, John Love, Mark D. Redwood, Rafael L.\nOrozco, Richard K. Tennant, Frankie Woodhall, Alex Goodridge and\nLynne Elaine Macaskie",authors:[{id:"68809",title:"Ms.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Murray",slug:"angela-murray",fullName:"Angela Murray"},{id:"228059",title:"Prof.",name:"Lynne",middleName:null,surname:"Macaskie",slug:"lynne-macaskie",fullName:"Lynne Macaskie"},{id:"240796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Love",slug:"john-love",fullName:"John Love"},{id:"240797",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Redwood",slug:"mark-redwood",fullName:"Mark Redwood"},{id:"240798",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Orozco",slug:"rafael-orozco",fullName:"Rafael Orozco"},{id:"240799",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Tennant",slug:"richard-tennant",fullName:"Richard Tennant"},{id:"240800",title:"Mr.",name:"Frankie",middleName:null,surname:"Woodhall",slug:"frankie-woodhall",fullName:"Frankie Woodhall"},{id:"240801",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Goodridge",slug:"alex-goodridge",fullName:"Alex Goodridge"}]},{id:"53983",doi:"10.5772/67315",title:"Efficient Optimization of the Optoelectronic Performance in Chemically Deposited Thin Films",slug:"efficient-optimization-of-the-optoelectronic-performance-in-chemically-deposited-thin-films",totalDownloads:1271,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Chemical deposition methodology is a well-understood and highly documented category of deposition techniques. In recent years, chemical bath deposition (CBD) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) have garnered considerable attention as an effective alternative to other deposition methods. The applicability of CVD and CBD for industrial-sized operations is perhaps the most attractive aspect, in that thin-film deposition costs inversely scale with the processing batch size without loss of desirable optoelectronic properties in the materials. A downside of the method is that the optoelectronic characteristics of these films are highly susceptible to spurious deposition growth mechanisms. For example, increasing the temperature of the chemical deposition bath can shift the deposition mechanisms from ion-by-ion (two dimensional) precipitation to bulk solution cluster-by-cluster (three dimensional) formation which then deposit. This drastically changes the structural, optical, and electrical characteristics of CBD-deposited thin films. A similar phenomenon is observed in CVD deposited materials. Thus, it is of great interest to study the coupling between the deposition parameters and subsequent effects on film performance. Such studies have been conducted to elucidate the correlation between growth mechanisms and film performance. Here, we present a review of the current literature demonstrating that simple changes can be made in processing conditions to optimize the characteristics of these films for optoelectronic applications.",book:{id:"5699",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",title:"Thin Film Processes",fullTitle:"Thin Film Processes - Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets"},signatures:"Andre Slonopas, Nibir K. Dhar, Herbert Ryan, Jerome P. Ferrance,\nPamela Norris and Ashok K. Sood",authors:[{id:"192507",title:"Dr.",name:"Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Slonopas",slug:"andre-slonopas",fullName:"Andre Slonopas"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"59569",title:"Enhancement of Photosynthetic Productivity by Quantum Dots Application",slug:"enhancement-of-photosynthetic-productivity-by-quantum-dots-application",totalDownloads:1426,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"The challenge of climate change promotes use of carbon neutral fuels. Biofuels are made via fixing carbon dioxide via photosynthesis which is inefficient. Light trapping pigments use restricted light wavelengths. A study using the microalga Botryococcus braunii (which produces bio-oil), the bacterium Rhodobacter sphaeroides (which produces hydrogen), and the cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis (for bulk biomass) showed that photosynthetic productivity was increased by up to 2.5-fold by upconverting unused wavelengths of sunlight via using quantum dots. For large scale commercial energy processes, a 100-fold cost reduction was calculated as the break-even point for adoption of classical QD technology into large scale photobioreactors (PBRs). As a potential alternative, zinc sulfide nanoparticles (NPs) were made using waste H2S derived from another process that precipitates metals from mine wastewaters. Biogenic ZnS NPs behaved identically to ZnS quantum dots with absorbance and emission maxima of 290 nm (UVB, which is mostly absorbed by the atmosphere) and 410 nm, respectively; the optimal wavelength for chlorophyll a is 430 nm. By using a low concentration of citrate (10 mM) during ZnS synthesis, the excitation wavelength was redshifted to 315 nm (into the UVA, 85% of which reaches the earth’s surface) with an emission peak of 425 nm, i.e., appropriate for photosynthesis. The potential for use in large scale photobioreactors is discussed in the light of current PBR designs, with respect to the need for durable UV-transmitting materials in appropriate QD delivery systems.",book:{id:"6100",slug:"nonmagnetic-and-magnetic-quantum-dots",title:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots",fullTitle:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots"},signatures:"Angela Janet Murray, John Love, Mark D. Redwood, Rafael L.\nOrozco, Richard K. Tennant, Frankie Woodhall, Alex Goodridge and\nLynne Elaine Macaskie",authors:[{id:"68809",title:"Ms.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Murray",slug:"angela-murray",fullName:"Angela Murray"},{id:"228059",title:"Prof.",name:"Lynne",middleName:null,surname:"Macaskie",slug:"lynne-macaskie",fullName:"Lynne Macaskie"},{id:"240796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Love",slug:"john-love",fullName:"John Love"},{id:"240797",title:"Dr.",name:"Mark",middleName:null,surname:"Redwood",slug:"mark-redwood",fullName:"Mark Redwood"},{id:"240798",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Orozco",slug:"rafael-orozco",fullName:"Rafael Orozco"},{id:"240799",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Tennant",slug:"richard-tennant",fullName:"Richard Tennant"},{id:"240800",title:"Mr.",name:"Frankie",middleName:null,surname:"Woodhall",slug:"frankie-woodhall",fullName:"Frankie Woodhall"},{id:"240801",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Goodridge",slug:"alex-goodridge",fullName:"Alex Goodridge"}]},{id:"54361",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Prominence of Thin Film Science in Technological Scale",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-prominence-of-thin-film-science-in-technological-scale",totalDownloads:2702,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"5699",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",title:"Thin Film Processes",fullTitle:"Thin Film Processes - Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets"},signatures:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",authors:[{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai"}]},{id:"56933",title:"Quantum Dots and Fluorescent and Magnetic Nanocomposites: Recent Investigations and Applications in Biology and Medicine",slug:"quantum-dots-and-fluorescent-and-magnetic-nanocomposites-recent-investigations-and-applications-in-b",totalDownloads:1068,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"This chapter presents a comprehensive and updated review on the ongoing research area of nanostructures with a focus on quantum dots (QDs), fluorescent and magnetic nanocomposites, and their applications in biological and medical field. The study includes the essential characteristics of QDs and fluorescent and magnetic nanocomposites, their structure, properties, and methods that are utilized for their characterization. Some interesting qualities of CdSe/ZnS QDs with reference to the research of the microorganism are emphasized. The bioimaging applications of QDs and fluorescent and magnetic nanocomposites and their role as nanoprobes and as contrast enhancing agents are discussed. So, in this work, an overview is exhibited including the case of the most commonly studied QD-based hybrid NPs, which are called MQDs, such as a dual “two-in-one” fluorescent-magnetic nanocomposite materials, that blend both fluorescent and magnetic properties in a unique concept and show the feasibility for clinical diagnostics, drug delivery, and therapy.",book:{id:"6100",slug:"nonmagnetic-and-magnetic-quantum-dots",title:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots",fullTitle:"Nonmagnetic and Magnetic Quantum Dots"},signatures:"Anca Armăşelu",authors:[{id:"189080",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Armăşelu",slug:"anca-armaselu",fullName:"Anca Armăşelu"}]},{id:"63503",title:"Introductory Chapter: Advanced Material and Device Applications with Germanium",slug:"introductory-chapter-advanced-material-and-device-applications-with-germanium",totalDownloads:885,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"6815",slug:"advanced-material-and-device-applications-with-germanium",title:"Advanced Material and Device Applications with Germanium",fullTitle:"Advanced Material and Device Applications with Germanium"},signatures:"Sanghyun Lee",authors:[{id:"195331",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanghyun",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"sanghyun-lee",fullName:"Sanghyun Lee"}]},{id:"53585",title:"Modified Spin Coating Method for Coating and Fabricating Ferroelectric Thin Films as Sensors and Solar Cells",slug:"modified-spin-coating-method-for-coating-and-fabricating-ferroelectric-thin-films-as-sensors-and-sol",totalDownloads:1749,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Spin coating process with a modified spin coater is performed well, especially the second generation of modified spin coater, which has a maximum value of 18,000 rpm, is able for manufacturing/coating photonic crystal‐based ferroelectric thin films that require a high angular velocity (rpm). Ferroelectric thin films that use both 3000 and 6000 rpm have given good results in energy gap, electrical conductivity, etc. In addition, the modified spin coater has also produced several applications such as sensors in the device of blood sugar level noninvasively, sensors in the automatic drying system, sensors in the robotic system, and photovoltaic cells in the system of solar cells/panels which are being developed at present. These applications used ferroelectric material such as barium strontium titanate (BST), lithium niobate (LiNbO3), cuprous oxide (CuO), and lithium tantalate (LiTaO3).",book:{id:"5699",slug:"thin-film-processes-artifacts-on-surface-phenomena-and-technological-facets",title:"Thin Film Processes",fullTitle:"Thin Film Processes - Artifacts on Surface Phenomena and Technological Facets"},signatures:"Irzaman, Heriyanto Syafutra, Ridwan Siskandar, Aminullah and\nHusin Alatas",authors:[{id:"193016",title:"Dr.",name:"Husein",middleName:null,surname:"Irzaman",slug:"husein-irzaman",fullName:"Husein Irzaman"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"959",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.