Theoretical d value of the theoretical angles of relevant diffraction spots.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-80356-948-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-947-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-949-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c0d1c1c93a36fd9d726445966316a373",bookSignature:"Dr. Sylvanus Gbendazhi Barnabas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11434.jpg",keywords:"Indigenous People, Natives, First People, Minorities, United Nations, UN Declaration, Indigenous People Rights, Self-Determination, States, Independence, Struggle for Rights, Contemporary Times",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 5th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 4th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 21st 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Legal practitioner, consultant and a law academic with a diversity of interest in multi and intra-disciplinary scholarship on legal issues at national regional and international levels.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"293764",title:"Dr.",name:"Sylvanus",middleName:"Gbendazhi",surname:"Barnabas",slug:"sylvanus-barnabas",fullName:"Sylvanus Barnabas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293764/images/system/293764.jpg",biography:"Sylvanus Barnabas is a Senior Lecturer in Law at the Faculty of Law, Nile University of Nigeria where he teaches various subjects in law; he obtained the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in international human rights law from Northumbria University at Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom; he has a Master of Laws degree obtained with distinction in Environmental Law and Policy from University of Kent at Canterbury, Kent, United Kingdom; he also holds a Bachelor of Laws degree from Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria; and he is also a qualified a barrister and solicitor of the Supreme Court of Nigeria.",institutionString:"Nigerian Turkish Nile University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Nigerian Turkish Nile University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"21",title:"Psychology",slug:"psychology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"440204",firstName:"Ana",lastName:"Cink",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/440204/images/20006_n.jpg",email:"ana.c@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50196",title:"BiOX (X = Cl, Br, and I) Photocatalysts",doi:"10.5772/62626",slug:"biox-x-cl-br-and-i-photocatalysts",body:'\nTwenty-first century, with the urbanization and the industrialization increasing dramatically, the contamination caused by solid waste, gases, contaminated chemicals, organic pollutants, and biological substances has become a severe problem [1–3]. At present, many organic pollutants are in very low concentration and are high toxic. Therefore, it is required an effective and “green” method to transform them into non-hazardous compounds without secondary pollution [4–6]. In the past years, physical treatment methods (adsorption, ultrafiltration, coagulation, etc.) and chemical degradation methods (include ozone/UV radiation/H2O2 oxidation, semiconductor photocatalysis technique, advanced oxidation, photo-fenton reaction, and photo-electrochemical method) were the main ways to eliminate the environmental contaminants [7, 8]. Among the above methods, semiconductor photocatalysis technique can degrade the contaminants completely, environmental friendly, rapidly, and cheaply. It has been suggested as one of the most effective and “green” ways to eliminate the environmental contaminants [9–12].
\nPhotocatalyst is the body of photocatalysis technique. Therefore, the development of high-performance photocatalysts has attracted great interest. To date, there are two main synthesis strategies that have been investigated for the preparation of high-activity photocatalysts. The first one is to extend the modification of conventional photocatalysts (simple oxides, sulfides) by doping, coupling, and sensitization. The other strategy is to develop new photocatalysts. The former has been obtained many achievements, but it still cannot satisfy the requirement for practical application. So, more and more researchers changed to explore new high-efficiency photocatalysts, such as complex oxides, AgX (X = Cl, Br, I), and polymer [13–17]. BiOX (X = Cl, Br, I) are important V–VI–VII ternary semiconductor compounds because of their optical properties. All BiOX are tetragonal matlockite structure with [Bi2O2] slabs interleaved by double halogen atom slabs (Figure 1). In the past reports, BiOX were usually applied as thermal-induced catalysts [18, 19], ferroelectric materials [20], energy storage materials [21], and pigments [22]. Recently, BiOX were reported as photocatalysts to degrade pollutants for environmental remediation and solar fuel production. And more and more workers study the photocatalytic performance of BiOX under sunlight irradiation.
\nThe 3 × 3 lattices model of BiOCl crystals (3 × 3 lattices): (a) three-dimensional projection; (b) [
Structure determines the features. For BiOX, their open crystalline structure resulted the outstanding photocatalytic activity. The open-layered structure means enough space to polarize the related atoms and orbitals and then to induce the presence of internal static electric fields which are perpendicular to {001} facets of BiOX [23–28]. On the other hand, it has reported that the excited electron should travel a certain k-space distance to be emitted to the valence band (VB) due to the indirect-transition bandgap [23–28]. Therefore, BiOX displayed low recombination probability of the excited electrons and the holes, and the outstanding photocatalytic activity was obtained. Among BiOCl, BiOBr, and BiOI, BiOCl exhibited the best UV light–induced photocatalytic activity and even displayed higher activity than TiO2 (P25, Degussa) for photocatalytic degradation (PCD) of dyes. BiOI exhibited the best photocatalytic activity for PCD of organic pollutants under the visible light irradiation attributed to its smallest bandgap. BiOBr has the appropriate bandgap (2.7–2.9 eV), which results in the best photocatalytic activity under full light spectrum irradiation.
\nIn this chapter, we summarize the recent advances on BiOX. It may give us insight into the trend in the development of BiOX for environmental protection. At present, PCD of gas-phase and liquid-phase substrates over BiOX are researched widely. But PCD of solid-phase substrates was researched very few due to the long research cycle [29–33]. For example, all organic compounds, bacteria and heavy metals can be removed by BiOX via liquid-phase photocatalysis under light irradiation. VOCs and NOx can be decomposed by BiOX via gas-phase photocatalysis. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) can be decomposed by BiOI via solid-phase photocatalysis [29]. The detailed pollutant degradation pathways and the intermediates of mainly pollutants also were shown. In addition, we also emphasize on the modification, facet effect, bismuth-rich effect, and the photocatalytic mechanisms of BiOX for efficient photocatalytic applications in this review, which can provide effective methods develop much higher photocatalytic activity BiOX photocatalysts for environment photocatalysis. At end, the unsatisfactory points and future research directions are simply discussed.
\nThe size, surface area, and morphology of photocatalysts can be changed with different synthesis method using. And the cheap and “green” methods were also necessary for the industrialized applications [34–37]. The bismuth sources include Bi(NO3)3•5H2O, NaBiO3•2H2O, Bi2O3, Bi, BiCl3, and BiI3. And CTAX (X = Cl, Br, or I) KX (X = Cl, Br, or I), NaX (X = Cl, Br, or I), HX (X = Cl, Br, or I), and ionic liquid with halogen element were usually used as halogen source [38–66]. At present, the main BiOX synthesis methods included precipitation, solvothermal, reverse microemulsions route, molecular precursor route, calcination, microwave irradiation process, ionic liquid modified, etc. Furthermore, the pH value, reaction temperature, and reaction time also can affect the synthesis of BiOX.
\nThe reported morphology indicated that BiOX were single-crystal nanosheets or 3D hierarchical structures with nanosheets. In addition, BiOI quantum dot was reported by Liu [42]. The size of BiOI quantum dot can be controlled <5 nm. As-synthesized RGO/BiOI nanocomposites showed very high photocatalytic activity under visible light irradiation. Except for BiOX quantum dot, one-dimension nanobelts also was synthesized with reaction temperature at 160–180°C and pH value at 8. But the exposed dominant facet of BiOX nanobelts also were {001} facet which is in agreement with two dimension BiOCl nanosheet [67]. It is indicated that BiOX generally exposed {001} facets, and the synthesis methods cannot change the dominant facet easily.
\nSynthesis mechanisms were the key roles to suggest us perfecting the synthesis factors. For BiOX, the main-based morphology was 2D nanosheets. In liquid reaction, the formation of 2D structure was due to the low surface energy of {001} facets and layer structure of BiOX. In solid reaction, the BiOX 2D structure can be obtained via chemical transport. For example, our group synthesized BiOI nanosheets with very high symmetry with thermal treatment of BiI3 [60]. Figure 2 showed the possible synthesis mechanisms. BiI3 reacted with O2 to produce BiOI and iodine vapor when the temperature higher than 350°C. At the same time, BiI3 also can be sublimated. The freed off iodine and BiI3 vapors spilling over from bulk BiI3, the pressure resulted the BiOI nanosheets shelling from BiI3.
\nIllustration of formation mechanism of BiOI SCNs: (a) original formation process; (b) simulation formation process [
Since Huang reported BiOCl for photocatalytic dye degradation at 2006 [23], BiOX were widely studied as photocatalysts. In general, BiOCl displayed high photocatalytic activity for dyes (RhB, MO, MB, etc.) and phenols degradation under UV, visible, or UV–Vis light irradiation via excitation of BiOCl or dye sensitization pathway [68]. BiOI can absorb more visible light (ca. 650 nm) than BiOCl (ca. 360 nm) and BiOBr (ca. 430 nm). Therefore, BiOI showed higher photocatalytic activity than BiOCl and BiOBr under visible light irradiation. For example, Zhang reported that the BiOI displayed higher photocatalytic activity than BiOBr and BiOCl for methyl orange degradation [38]. Lei synthesized BiOI flower-like hierarchical structures with higher photocatalytic activities for dyes and phenol degradation under visible light irradiation than the BiOI platelets [59]. Due to the most appropriate bandgap (2.8 eV), BiOBr showed the best photocatalytic oxidation and reduction activity under full light spectrum irradiation. So, it can be used to remove more organic pollutants, especially for bacterium and microcystin-LR [49–53, 69–71]. Until now, only BiOBr usually was reported to photo-degrade biological substances. For instances, Yu found that hierarchical BiOBr microspheres can effectively kill Micrococcus lylae, a positive bacterium, in water under fluorescent light irradiation [50]. Wong also reported the facets effect of BiOBr for
Catalytic data included many parts, and selectivity was a very important factor. In TiO2 system, selective photocatalytic degradation of alcohols and azo dyes has been paid more attention [72–76]. However, TiO2 without surface modification showed very poor photocatalytic selectivity due to the low adsorption selectivity. In order to obtaining high photocatalytic selectivity, TiO2 was usually modified by surfactant to enhance the adsorption selectivity. For BiOX system, the atoms structural (Figure 1) showed that the dominant {001} facets of BiOX covered with 100% terminal oxygen atoms. So, {001} facets of BiOX should be more negatively charged than other facets. And, BiOX nanosheets with dominant exposed {001} facets can show very high adsorption selectivity for cationic dyes and result in high photocatalytic degradation selectivity.
\nRecently, our group reported the photocatalytic selectivity of BiOI. By analyzing the UV–Vis absorption spectra during the photocatalytic degradation of RhB with BiOI, we found that the characteristic absorption peak of RhB exhibited obvious blue shift (from 554 to 500 nm). This phenomenon indicated that the mainly PCD path of the RhB was deacetylation process. On the other hand, once RhB molecules were adsorbed on the surface of BiOI, a new N1s XPS peak appeared at 401.1 eV, and the shift was about 1.8 eV compare to the pure RhB due to the interaction between the {001} facets of BiOI and the N+ group of RhB. So, it can be suggested that adsorption selectivity of BiOI for RhB and resulted in high photocatalytic degradation selectivity. Furthermore, the photocatalytic results showed that the degradation rates of MB were much faster than those of MO for BiOI TF, and the selective photocatalytic ability R (R = kMB/kMO) is 6.9 which are six times higher than TiO2 TF. It implied that BiOI displayed high selective photocatalysis.
\nExcept for photocatalytic selectivity, photocatalytic stability was another important factor for the practical application. It has been reported that the affect factors of photocatalytic stability included intrinsic structure and solubility product constant of photocatalyst, pH value, and properties of substrate. As g-C3N4, the interaction force between layers of BiOX also was van der Waals force, but covalently bonded layers also appeared in BiOX layer structure. So, BiOX are more stable than other layer photocatalysts such as g-C3N4 whose interaction force between layers is van der Waals force. It had been reported that the solubility product constant of BiOCl is very low with 1.8 × 10−31, which indicated that BiOX cannot easily dissolve or transform under normal circumstances. However, the pH value and properties of substrate can affect the stability of BiOX. For example, BiOX can dissolve under acid environment [68] and can react with S2− to transform to Bi2S3 [66].
\nFor BiOCl, Huang firstly evaluated the photocatalytic stability of BiOCl [28]. The stable XRD pattern and cycles reaction of BiOCl revealed the stability for the PCD of dyes, and this conclusion was also proved by Sarwan [68]. For BiOBr, Huo researched the photocatalytic stability by comparing the photocatalytic activity, crystallization and morphology after six photocatalytic cycles [69]. The photocatalytic stability of BiOI also was proved as stability VLD photocatalyst by our group and Zhang’ group [59]. However, the photocorrosion of BiOX was not considered. The releasing traces of Bi via photocorrosion of BiOX are critical for environment. So, in future work, the photocorrosion of BiOX should be taken into account.
\nIn reported works, the main study of BiOX photocatalysts focuses on enhancing the photocatalytic activity for environmental remediation. But the degradation pathways of pollutant were researched very few. For gas-phase substrate photocatalytic degradation, Zhang reported the degradation pathways and intermediates of NO [54]. The amount of NO3− increased with prolonged illumination, but the amount of NO2− kept almost constant at 0.08 μmol with reaction time. It implied that NO to NO3− was the major the oxidation pathway for NO over BiOBr microspheres. Furthermore, it had been reported that the NO3− and NO2− came from the reaction between NOx and O2•− and •OH, respectively. Therefore, O2•− was the major reactive oxygen species (ROS) for NO remove over BiOBr.
\nFor liquid-phase substrate photocatalytic degradation, dyes (such as MO, MB, and RhB) and phenols were the most used substrates. The degradation pathways and intermediates of dye molecules had been studied deeply. So, in this chapter, we did not discuss it. On the contrary, the degradation pathways of phenols were complex, and it is meaningful to investigate the degradation pathways and intermediates of phenols. In BiOX/UV–Vis systems, Chen [76] proved that hydroxyl adducts such as catechol and hydroquinone were the main intermediates for phenol degradation. Meng showed that the degradation of tetrabromobisphenol A started with hydroxylation and debromination. As shown in Figure 3, •OH was the major reactive oxygen species [51].
\nProposed TBBPA degradation pathway [
In addition, microcystins-LR is a very hazardous pollutant. It can cause sickness in life body, and World Health Organization has identified it as strongly hepatotoxic. Recently, Huang reported the degradation pathways and intermediates of microcystins-LR in BiOBr/vis systems [70]. Isotope labeling technique proved the decarboxylation process over BiOBr. Furthermore, •OH and hole were the active species for MC-LR remove.
\nIn general, there are three key steps (light harvesting, photo-induced carriers separation, and the photocatalytic reduction and oxidation reactions) for photocatalytic processes. At present, although BiOX had excellent photocatalytic activity for environmental contaminants degradation, the photocatalytic activity of BiOX were still very low and cannot be used for practical application under sunlight irradiation. For improving the VLD photocatalytic activity of BiOX, many modification strategies had been applied to enhance the solar light harvesting and photo-induced carriers separation. These strategies included cocatalyst using, element doping, semiconductor coupling, dye sensitization, surface plasmon resonance, defect making, bismuth-rich effect, and so on [77–150]. And the above methods successfully improved the VLD photocatalytic activity of BiOX.
\nCocatalysts of photocatalysts can act as reaction sites and active sites. It also provided photogenerated charges trapping sites to promote the photo-induced carriers separation. Then, enhanced photocatalytic activity was displayed [82, 152]. Therefore, at presently, cocatalyst wildly used to enhance the photocatalytic activity of photocatalysts for environmental pollutants degradation and solar fuels generation. Recently, cocatalysts were divided into deriving-electron types (Ag, Pt, Au) and deriving-hole-types (PbO2, MnOx) [82, 152]. Our group reported that deriving-hole types cocatalyst (MnOx) enhanced the separation efficiency of the photo-induced carriers better than that of deriving-electron types (Pt) over BiOI, and then improve the photocatalytic activity for PCD of dye (Figure 4) [78–81]. Analyzing the reason, it must be pointed out that almost all of works suggested holes as the main active species over BiOX photocatalysts for degrading pollutants. Therefore, deriving-hole-type cocatalysts showed more effective for enhancing the photocatalytic activity of BiOX.
\nThe mechanism of cocatalyst selectivity of BiOI under visible light irradiation (λ ≥ 420 nm) [
Element doping had been wildly used to enhance the photocatalytic activity in TiO2 system. The defect energy level decreased bandgap enhanced visible light harvesting and defect sites improved trapping of electrons to inhibit electron–hole recombination. Recently, it has been reported that C, I, N, and Mn-doped BiOCl with an obvious red shift compared to the pure BiOCl and resulted in excellent photocatalytic activity under visible light [84–87]. It indicated that the element doping can effectively expand the light adsorption region. In order to surface photovoltage spectroscopy (SPS) and transient photovoltage (TPV), measurements were used to prove the visible light harvesting ability and separate efficiency of photo-induced electron–hole of self-doping BiOX. The increased SPS signal intensity implied that the generation of electron–hole pairs can be enhanced on BiOI1.5due to its good visible light harvesting ability. The increased TPV signal intensity indicated that the photo-induced electron–hole pairs of BiOI1.5 were separated more easily than that of BiOI. Therefore, self-doping BiOI1.5 displayed higher VLD photocatalytic activity than pure BiOI [83]. On the other hand, the facets-dependent C-doping mechanism of BiOCl also was studied as shown in Figure 5. The impurity energy level of carbon caused the absorption edge shifting to higher wavelength and increasing the lifetime of charge carries. Thus, the photocatalytic activity of BiOCl was enhanced by both the effective usage of light source and the inhibition of recombination of photo-induced charge carriers [85].
\nSchematic illustration of homogeneous carbon doping strategy comprised of bottom-up hydrothermal processing and subsequent thermal treatment with taking carbon doped BiOCl as the example [
Semiconductor coupling photocatalysts constructed a heterojunction interface between two type semiconductor photocatalysts with matching energy bandgaps. It has been becoming the most important method to enhance the photocatalytic efficiency by improving the photo-induced carriers separation and expanding the energy range of photoexcitation for the system, thus achieving better photocatalytic activity for dye degradation. In generally, two photocatalysts coupling do not show selectivity [90–130]. In our recent work, we found that the interaction between BiOBr and g-C3N4 was facet (2D/2D) coupling between BiOBr-{001} and g-C3N4-{002}. The facets coupling resulted in photo-induced charges transfer between BiOBr and g-C3N4 and improve the VLD photocatalytic activity for environmental remediation. This research offered a possible explanation for the 2D/2D heterojunction of inorganic–organic composite photocatalysts [103].
\nBecause graphene’s superior physical and chemical properties, it has stimulated great interests for preparing many functional composite materials with outstanding applications [20]. For BiOX photocatalysts, modification with graphene also was researched strongly. Our group and Zeng’s group suggested the C–Bi chemical coupling improved photo-induced charges separation [131, 132]. Based on this advantage, graphene-BiOCl exhibited enhanced photocatalytic activity. The similar photocatalytic results of graphene-BiOBr also were reported by Li, Zhang, Ai, and Bai [133–136]. They proved that the enhanced photocatalytic activity come from the strong C–Bi chemical bonding, rather than their higher surface area and light absorption extension in the visible region between BiOBr and graphene. For graphene-BiOI, RGO/BiOI nanocomposites showed improved photocatalytic activity for dye degradation under visible light. But C–Bi chemical coupling did not found in graphene-BiOI system, and Fang suggested that the improved light absorption and efficient charge separation and transportation induced the improved photocatalytic activity under visible light irradiation [42].
\nChemisorbed or physisorbed photosensitizers (dye molecules or quantum dots) can expand the spectrum range from UV light to the full spectrum. The excited-state electrons of sensitizer can transfer to the photocatalysts, and then the photocatalysis reaction occurred at the conduction band (CB) of photocatalysts. Organometallic complex were the most using sensitizers Copper complexes, ruthenium complexes (N719, C101, C102, and [Ru(bpy)3]2+), and zinc complexes were all used as photosensitizers [153–157]. For example, simultaneous over all water splitting and RhB degradation reaction occurred on copper phthalocyanine (CuPc) sensitized BiOCl composite under simulated solar light irradiation [150]. However, we known that ruthenium complexes are difficult to synthesize and very expensive. Copper and zinc complexes displayed very low efficiencies. So, it is very important to develop some new sensitizers.
\nIn our recent work, Bin(Tu)xCl3n bismuth complexes were used as new sensitizers. Bin(Tu)xCl3n inner sensitized BiOCl displayed very high photocatalytic activity under visible light (λ > 420 nm) (Figure 6) [150]. At present, there were few reports about inner sensitized photocatalysts system. Most photosensitizers were absorbed on the surface of photocatalysts. Obviously, the inner sensitization displayed many advantages. Firstly, the stability of inner sensitized photocatalysts system was enhanced. This sensitized type avoided the sensitizer consumption during the photocatalytic process. Secondly, it expanded the applied condition of the sensitizers. For example, water soluble photosensitizers can be used in the in-aqueous solution by inner sensitization.
\nBin(Tu)xCl3n sensitized the BiOCl and resulted in unusual high visible light pholocatalytic activity [
Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) can be improved the visible light absorption dramatically and offered new way to develop new VLD photocatalysts. Among noble metals, Ag was suggested as the best SPR effects. Therefore, more interests have been paid to Ag–TiO2, Ag–ZnO, Ag/AgX (X = Cl, Br, I), Ag/AgPO4, Ag/AgBr/TiO2, Ag/AgBr/Bi2WO6, and Ag/AgBr/WO3 three composite photocatalysts to enhance the VLD photocatalytic activities [162–173]. For BiOX system, Ag/AgCl/BiOCl and Ag/AgBr/BiOBr showed much higher VLD photocatalytic activity for pollutants degradation than Ag/AgX and pure BiOX [137–144]. Furthermore, superoxide radical quantification and active species trapping experiments showed that metallic Ag played different role for Ag/AgX/BiOX VLD photocatalysts. SPR for Ag/AgCl/BiOCl, and the Z-scheme bridge for Ag/AgBr/BiOBr [144]. As shown in Figure 7, the photo-induced electrons transferred from metallic Ag to the CB of AgCl and further transferred to the CB of BiOCl. Then, the electrons reacted with O2 to produce O2•− for RhB degradation. And the photogenerated holes transfer to the VB of AgCl and BiOCl to oxidize Cl− ions with Cl· radicals producing. The Cl radical can degrade RhB, and hence, Cl·was reduced to Cl− ions again [144]. Based on the photocatalytic mechanism analysis, we deemed that metallic Ag had very important role in SPR.
\nPhotocatalytic mechanism scheme of Ag/AgCl/BiOCl under visible light irradiation (λ ≥ 400 nm) [
In previous reports, it had been proved that the oxygen vacancies occurred under UV light irradiation due to the low-bond energy and long-bond length of the Bi–O bond [47]. Furthermore, our group prepared black BiOCl with oxygen vacancies 20 times higher VLD photocatalytic activity than pure BiOCl for RhB degradation [148]. Recently, Xie found the defects change from isolated defects VBi‴ to triple vacancy associates VBi‴VO••VBi‴ with the thickness of BiOCl nanosheets reducing to 3 nm [149]. And the ultrathin BiOCl nanosheets showed five times higher VLD photocatalytic activity than bulk BiOCl nanoplates (30 nm) for RhB degradation.
\nIt has been reported that the absorption edges of BiOCl(1−x)Brx, BiOBr(1−x)Ix, and BiOCl(1−x)Ix solid solutions changed as a function of x, and they all displayed enhanced VLD photocatalytic activities than pure BiOX [145–147]. The reasons of the good VLD photocatalytic activity of BiOX solid solutions may be the enhanced internal electric field and the deeply valence band edge position [146, 147]. Alternatively, by DFT calculations, Huang considered that the trapping of photogenerated carriers in BiOX solid solutions arises the most likely from the cation vacancy VBi [145].
\nBiOX photocatalyst also has its drawbacks. The conduction band positions of BiOX are too positive, limiting its ability of activating molecular oxygen, degradation of pollutants, and other applications. For improving its photocatalytic activity, the CB position must be decreased. It has been proved that the CB of bismuth-based photocatalyst mainly included Bi 6p orbits. Therefore, the increase bismuth content may decrease the CB potential, and then, the bismuth-rich BixOyXz (X = Cl, Br, I) showed very high photocatalytic reduction activity. For example, Huang found that the increments of the content of bismuth in bismuth titanate can improve the position of CBM [178]. Since Huang’ group first reported Bi3O4Cl photocatalyst in 2006 [179], several other BixOyXz photocatalysts such as Bi3O4Cl, Bi3O4Br, Bi4O5I2, Bi4O5Br2, Bi24O31Cl10, Bi24O31Br10, Bi5O7I, Bi5O7Br, Bi7O9I3 were reported and showed higher activity than their corresponding BiOX [179–190].
\nDifferent crystal surface of nanomaterials showed different electronic and geometric structures and also exhibited different surface physical, chemical properties, and photoreactivity. Therefore, the facet-dependent photocatalytic properties have aroused much research interest [191–197]. Since Yang firstly reported {001} facet-dependent photocatalytic properties of anatase TiO2 properties [198, 199], anatase TiO2 has been intensively investigated with different facet exposure [200–217]. Except for TiO2, the facet-dependent photocatalytic properties of many other photocatalysts, such as ZnO [219–221], BiVO4 [152, 194], AgBr [195], and AgPO4 [197, 222], also were studied. For BiOX, the layer structure resulted that the mainly exposed facets were {001}, and other facets ({100} or {010} facets) of BiOX were very difficult to expose. So, until 2011, the facet-dependent photocatalytic properties of BiOX were reported by our group for the first time. Our group and Zhang’s group have detailedly researched the facets effect of BiOCl [44, 60, 223, 224]. And then, the facets effects of BiOBr and BiOI were reported [225–228]. But, the relevant studies about facet-dependent photocatalytic properties of BiOX were still very limited.
\n(a) Top view HRTEM images of BiOCl NS-3; (b) side view HRTEM images of BiOCl NS-3; and (c) simulation structure of single BiOCl NS [
\n
Recently, atomic thickness BiOCl nanosheets were reported [225, 229, 230]. And the researcher found that the high density of oxygen atoms of exposed {001} facets not only are useful for the cationic dye adsorption but also can improve the photo-induced electrons injected via dye excitation. And these photo-induced electrons were captured by O2 to create reactive oxygen species, which displayed strong photooxidative ability to remove pollutants.
\n\n
\n
(A): (a) TEM image, (b) SAED pattern, and (c, d) HRTEM images of the BOC-010 SCNSs. (e) Schematic illustration of the crystal orientation of the nanosheet. (f, g) Atomic structure of the {010} facets: (f) side view; (g) top view. (B): Comparison of the apparent reaction rate constants for photocatalytic degradation of MO over the BOC SCNSs under (left) UV (λ = 254 nm) and (right) visible-light (λ > 420 nm) irradiation [
\n
\n
\n
The basic premise of the facet effect research was the confirming the dominant exposed facet, transmission electron microscope (TEM) images and the corresponding selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern, or high resolution TEM and the corresponding fast-Fourier transform (FFT) pattern were needed. However, the facets confirmation of BiOX was very difficult due to the theoretical value of the angle between the (102) and (002) facets is very close to that of between the (200) and (110) facets. Based on the symmetries of tetragonal BiOX and the above observation, the dominant exposed facets of BiOX samples should be identified discreetly. And our group give some proposals [232].
\n\n | a = b (nm) | \n\n | 110 | \n200 | \n102 | \n002 | \n\n |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BiOCl | \n0.3883 | \n0.7347 | \nd value | \n0.275 nm | \n0.194 nm | \n0.267 nm | \n0.367 nm | \n
Angle | \n45.0° | \n43.4° | \n|||||
BiOBr | \n0.3915 | \n0.8076 | \nd value | \n0.277 nm | \n0.196 nm | \n0.281 nm | \n0.404 nm | \n
Angle | \n45.0° | \n45.9° | \n|||||
BiOI | \n0.3984 | \n0.9128 | \nd value | \n0.282 nm | \n0.199 nm | \n0.300 nm | \n0.456 nm | \n
\n | \n | \n | Angle | \n45.0° | \n48.7° | \n
Theoretical d value of the theoretical angles of relevant diffraction spots.
Table 1 shows the theoretical angles of (110)/(200) and (102)/(200) and the theoretical d value of (110), (200), (102), and (200) of BiOX. We found the theoretical angles of (110)/(200) which very close to that of (102)/(200), especially for BiOBr. But, the theoretical d values of (110), (200), (102), and (200) of BiOX were different. The d(001) of BiOX were much higher than that of (110), (200), and (102). So, if the SAED or FFT pattern had scaleplate, the d values of the diffraction spots can be indexed and the exposed facets can be confirmed.
\nThis chapter summarized the recent studies about BiOX for efficient photocatalytic degradation removal of gas, liquid, and solid pollutants. Firstly, advanced synthesis methods resulted high surface area and {001} facets exposure of BiOX with excellent photocatalytic performances. Secondly, after the modification with cocatalyst using, element doping, semiconductor coupling, dye sensitization, surface plasmon resonance, defect making, bismuth-rich effect BiOX displayed excellent photocatalytic activity for environmental remediation under visible light. At end, we give some proposals to confirm facet exposure for studying facet-dependent photocatalytic properties of BiOX. Although there are many achievements about BiOX photocatalysis, there still many fields were needed to research, such as photocatalytic H2 generation, photocatalytic CO2 reduction, photocatalytic N2 fixation, good synthesis methods for active facets exposure, and more deeply photocatalytic mechanism studies. The corporate efforts of experimental studies and theory computations should be used to resolve the above questions. The unsatisfactory points and future research directions include the following:
\n(1) In general, BiOX were 2D nanosheets with {001} facets exposing. Other morphologies, such as 1D nanorods and 3D nanocube, and other high index facets exposing were reported few. New synthesis ways should be employed to expose the high index facet of BiOX. In addation, BiOX immobilization should be studied to perfect the practical application.
\n(2) To date, most reports about BiOX photocatalysts were focused on the PCD of liquid organic pollutants. BiOX photocatalysis in atmospheric and solid-phase contaminants should be enhanced. Furthermore, except for our group, BiOX were rarely used in energy photocatalysis field, such as water splitting and CO2 photoreduction. It should be expanded the energy photocatalysis field for BiOX.
\n(3) As the layered crystal structure of BiOX interlacing of [Bi2O2] slabs with double halogen slabs, the strong ionic feature could result in ion exchange reactions between BiOX and incoming species. For instances, Bi2S3 disk-like networks [233], and Bi2WO6 hollow microspheres [234] were prepared by this strategy. It indicated that BiOX had wide applications, not only can be used as photocatalysts but also can be used as hard template to synthesize other photocatalysts with different nanostructures.
\nThis work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51502146, U1404506), Natural Science Foundation of Henan Department of Science & Technology (No. 142102210477), Natural Science Foundation of Henan Department of Education (No. 14A150021), Natural Science Foundation of Nanyang Normal University (No. ZX2014039).
\nSjögren’s syndrome (SS) is a chronic, autoimmune, systemic, inflammatory disease that develops as a result of lymphocytic infiltration, destruction and dysfunction of the exocrine glands, and the lacrimal and salivary glands in particular. In 1933, Swedish ophthalmologist Henrik Sjögren described the clinical and histological findings associated with SS in 19 patients with rheumatoid arthritis, 13 of whom had dry mouth and dry eye symptoms [1]. SS predominantly affects middle-aged women who are within the fourth to sixth decade of their lives. The male/female ratio in patients with SS is approximately 6:1 to 9:1. SS is usually diagnosed in the fifth decade of life, but the first symptoms may appear years before diagnosis [2]. The incidence and prevalence rates of SS were estimated approximately as 6.92 cases per 100.000 persons/year and as 60.82 cases per 100.000 persons, respectively [3]. Geographical location and ethnicity have a strong influence on the biological and clinical phenotype of the disease. The onset of diagnosis of Sjogren syndrome and the gender preference may be affected by racial variation: the diagnosis can be accomplished up to 7 years earlier in patients of black/African American origins compared to Caucasians. Furthermore, the female to male ratio might reach 27:1 in patients of Asian descent [4]. There are two types of SS; first type, that is the primary SS, is the type without any concomitant connective tissue disorder, whereas the second type, that is the secondary SS, is the type observed together with other autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), rheumatoid arthritis (RA) or systemic sclerosis (SSc). SS is characterized by a wide spectrum of signs and symptoms, ranging from glandular involvement, structural symptoms, extraglandular manifestations and systemic autoimmune features. SS can be seen in association with both joint and muscle manifestations, including arthralgia and arthritis, as well as myopathy, which is usually asymptomatic. SS mostly involves the bone, the synovium and the cartilage tissue [5].
The etiology and pathogenesis of SS has not been clarified, as is the case with other autoimmune diseases [6]. Until now, it has been widely accepted that environmental factors play a role in the pathogenesis of SS [7]. Nevertheless, a thorough review of the recently published studies available in the literature revealed that the complex interaction between epithelial cells and targets of the autoimmune response and genetic and epigenetic changes also play a role in the pathogenesis of SS, in addition to the activated innate and adaptive immune system [8, 9].
The genetic component of SS are yet to shed light on. However, recent studies have begun to elucidate the familial links of the disease, identify specific risk alleles, and even classify patients according to their global gene expression levels. In these studies, many risk alleles for SS have been highlighted. Identification of these risk alleles helps in early diagnosis and choice of treatment options. Patients with extra-glandular manifestations (EGM) were found to have higher expression of genes involved in innate (apoptosis, TLR and interferon signaling) and adaptive (T and B cell activation) immune responses that play a key role in SS. On the other hand, patients with glandular features (GF) and diffuse pain (WP) were found to have the highest differential gene expression related to sensory perception and pain [10]. In complex diseases such as SS, the on and off signals of gene expression related to inflammatory pathways are managed by epigenetic mechanisms. Several epigenetic mechanisms, i.e., DNA methylation, miRNAs, and lncRNAs, contribute to turning on and off the expression of genes involved in inflammatory pathways and may target amelioration of SS therapy [11].
Considerable efforts have been made to elucidate the role of the innate immune system in the pathogenesis of SS. Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are the predominant type I interferon (IFN) producing cells. The transcriptional profile of SS plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) has been investigated and interestingly, it was found to be associated with enhanced cytokine production of pDCs. TLR7 dominant innate immunity may be associated with the development of sialadenitis in SS. Additionally, the few evidence supporting the role of TLR7-dominant innate immunity in the development of sialadenitis in SS [12].
The role of B and T cell subsets, particularly, of T follicular helper cells (Tfh) and of their regular counterparts, that is the T follicular regulatory cells (Tfr) cells, has been extensively investigated. The recent data on the subject revealed an increase in the proportion of Tfr and Tfh cells in SS patients as compared to the healthy control subjects, and an imbalance between proinflammatory and immune regulatory pathways in SS. Tertiary or ectopic lymphoid structures (TLS) are lymphoid clusters of T and B cells that form in non-lymphoid organs in response to chronic inflammation. TLS form in the target organ of autoimmune diseases, including SS, and is generally associated with worse disease progression. New insights into TLS formation and care are paving the way for new therapeutic approaches to SS [13].
Most SS patients exhibit musculoskeletal symptoms such as arthralgia, myalgia, and morning stiffness. SS directly affects the peripheral joints, causing arthralgia in approximately 90% of the patients. Up to 17% arthritis incidence has been reported in SS patients. [14, 15]. Arthritis is often symmetrical, intermittent, non-erosive and does not leave deformity. SS mainly affects the metacarpophalangeal joints located in the upper extremity, particularly the metacarpophalangeal joints with non-erosive synovitis, but also affects the wrists, knees, shoulders, and metatarsophalangeal joints [16]. Clinical symptoms of SS are similar to those of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), with the exception of bone erosion, which is very rare in SS [17]. Joint symptoms associated with primary Sjögren’s syndrome (pSS) were reported as synovitis, which can mimic rheumatoid arthritis but were distinguished based on the absence of structural damage [18]. Joint involvement may precede the onset of SS in 10–20% of patients, but in a large amount of SS patients (40–50% of the cases) its onset is concurrent with the onset of sicca symptoms [19]. Ultrasonographic US imaging has proven to be of great value in identification of inflammatory synovitis and detection of erosions. Patients with SS were evaluated by ultrasonography(US), the prevalences of synovitis and erosion were found as 21.7% and 34.8%, respectively [20]. The incidence of synovitis in the metacarpophalangeal joints was found as 41.6% [21]. Additionally, a significant correlation was found between the ESSDAI scores of the SS patients whose disease activities were determined according to European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) Sjogren’s Syndrome Disease Activity Index (ESSDAI) and the frequency of synovitis and tenosynovitis detected by US. Based on these findings, it has been suggested that US is a useful method in the evaluation of joint involvement in SS [22]. SS is a complex and heterogeneous disease and has pleomorphic symptoms that can manifest in many different ways [23]. Joint involvement was present in 31.4% of the diagnosed patients, and was manifested as the first symptom in 17% of the patients [24]. Joint involvement is also associated with the presence of many serological markers such as cryoglobulins characterized by extraglandular manifestations, hypergammaglobulinemia, rheumatoid factor (RF) and anti-Sjögren’s-syndrome-related antigen A (anti-SSA/Ro) or anti-Sjögren’s-syndrome-related antigen B (anti-SSB/La) antibodies [25]. Apart from RA, the highest percetange of RF positivity is seen in SS patients. Approximately 40% of the SS patients, and even a higher percentage if only the SS patients with joint involvement were considered, were found to have RF positivity [25]. Another serological marker associated with arthritic manifestations is anti-citrullinated protein antibodies (ACPAs). ACPAs were found in 5–10% of the SS patients. SS patients with ACPAs were found to have a higher incidence of arthritis than those without ACPAs (43.7% vs. 12.2%). In addition, during a follow-up period of 5–10 years, 43.8% of the SS patients with ACPAs were found to have developed RA [26]. SS patients with ACPAs had a higher tendency to have arthritis and were at a higher risk of developing RA [27]. Joint involvement such as arthralgia and arthritis negatively affects the quality of life in patients with SS [28], creating the need for pharmacological treatment or surgical intervention [29]. It has been emphasized that SS causes higher disease activity scores, which are expressed using scoring systems such as ESSDAI, due to joint involvement, and that joint involvements an important clinical feature in predicting long-term disease outcome in SS [30]. Arthritic manifestations of the SS are mild, but course of SS in association with other diseases varies greatly. However, it is still unclear whether this variation is due to any change directly associated with SS or the combined effect of the disorders accompanying SS. Findings that prove the association of SS with other autoimmune diseases have been demonstrated by epidemiological and genetic studies. SS was accompanied by RA and SLE in 19.5% and 13.6% of the patients, respectively [31]. There are also studies that revealed an epigenetic relationship linking such diseases. In one of these studies, a gene-expression meta-analysis study in respect of RA, SLE and SS, a common gene-expression was identified for these diseases [32]. It is a common concern that such disease combinations will worsen joint problems and adversely affect the course of the disease. The frequency of RA and SS association and the effects of this association on the course of the disease and comorbid conditions, it was found that 31.2% of the RA patients were also diagnosed with SS, and that the coexistence of these two diseases led to higher disease burden, higher disease activity, higher number og comorbidities (hypertension, cardiovascular diseases, malignancy and infections) and a higher degree of erosive changes [33]. Therefore, type of SS, whether it is primary or secondary SS, should be carefully considered and it should be kept in mind that other autoimmune diseases, including RA, can accompany SS during the course of the disease. Thus, the attending clinician should be able to also characterize these other patient populations.
Muscle pain has been reported in approximately 45–50% of the patients with SS [34]. A thorough literature review reveals that a mild inflammatory myopathy with subclinical or insidious onset has been observed in SS. Generally, this condition manifests itself as muscle pain and proximal muscle weakness. Histopathological examination was performed in SS patients with muscle pain, inflammation was found in 72% of the patients, and signs of degeneration/regeneration (i.e., histological findings of myositis) were found in 47% of the patients along with inflammation [35]. In that regard, it has been shown that although rare, inflammatory muscle diseases (particularly, inclusion body myositis and polymyositis) may be associated with SS. Accordingly, patients with more insidious onset muscle weakness and low muscle enzyme elevations in particular should be suspected of inflammatory muscle diseases. There are case reports, which argued that inflammatory muscle diseases and SS can progress together in patients with SS, and that the possible cause of the co-existence of these diseases is a common autoimmune pathway [36, 37]. Additionally, it was reported that cytosolic 5′-nucleotidase 1A, which is a specific marker for inclusion body myositis, can be detected in approximately 30% of the patients with SS [38]. Given this finding, SS patients with muscle weakness should also be screened for inflammatory muscle diseases.
Fibromyalgia (FM) is a common disease characterized by widespread chronic body pain, sleep disturbance, weakness, and mood disorders. One of the hypotheses put forward in respect of the formation of FM disease is chronic inflammation. It was reported in many studies that pro-inflammatory cytokines and mediators are higher in patients with FM than in general population [39]. Frequency of FM is high in rheumatic diseases such as ankylosing spondylitis and rheumatoid arthritis. One-third of FM patients (about 33%) with sicca syndrome and/or xerostomia tested positive for Sjögren’s syndrome biomarkers [40]. In parallel, association of FM with these autoimmune diseases is common. To give an example, in a recent study, in which the frequency of FM was investigated in patients with inflammatory arthritis (IA), it was found that frequency of FM in IA patients was found to be 15–20% more than the frequency of FM in general population [41]. When it comes to FM and SS, it is seen that these two diseases share common symptoms such as muscle aches, fatigue, and dry mouth and eyes, and there are many studies available in the literature that investigated the relationship between the two. In one of these studies, in which SS-related auto-antibodies in FM patients presented with dry mouth and/or dry eye complaints were investigated, SS biomarkers were found to be positive in 32% of the FM patients. It was suggested by the authors of the study that SS may play a role in the pathophysiology of FM [40]. The comorbidities and clinical symptoms of the two diseases largely overlap. To give a few examples; in a cross-sectional study conducted by Choi et al., which investigated the frequency and clinical effect of FM onpatients with SS, as well as FM frequency, disease activity scales such as Eular Sjogren’s Syndrome Patient Reported Index (ESSPRI) and Eular Sjogren Syndrome Disease Activity Index (ESSDAI), and depression in patients with pSS, FM was detected in 31% of the SS patients, and both ESSPRI and ESSDAI scores and depression scores were found to be higher in patients who have both SS with FM, as compared to patients without FM [42]; and in a very recent population-based retrospective-cohort study conducted with 149.706 participants, in which the future risk of developing SS in patients with FM was investigated, patients with FM were found to have a higher risk of developing SS as compared to the control subjects without FM [43]. Given the results of these studies, which suggest that the relationship between SS and FM affects the disease activity and diagnosis, clinicians should consider the two-way relationship between SS and FM in the management of SS or FM. Fatigue is one of the most common symptoms of both SS and FM. The pathophysiology in SS is not fully understood. Patients with SS suffer from sleep disorders as they feel the urge to drink excess water due to dry mouth resulting in sleep disruptions. Fatigue in patients with SS has been associated with the coexistence of sleep disorders and FM. The pathophysiology in SS is not fully understood. Patients with SS suffer from sleep disorders, since they feel the urge to drink excess water due to dry mouth. Fatigue in patients with SS has been associated in the literature with the coexistence of sleep disorders and FM. To give an example; ina large cohort study conducted with 437 patients with pSS, it was found that patients with both FM and pSS manifested significantly more structural, fatigue, and arthralgia symptoms than patients with only pSS [44]. The presence of such symptoms substantially impairs the quality of life in patients with SS. As a matter of fact, it was concluded as a result of a cross-sectional study conducted using questionnaires to measure quality of life of patients with SS that the main determinants of the poor quality of life in patients with SS were pain and fatigue, and that disease activity scores were higher in patients with a high incidence of the said symptoms [45]. For this reason, sleep quality of SS patients should be improved against the symptom of fatigue, which is very common in patients with SS. In addition, in the event that SS accompanied by FM, disease management should be adjusted accordingly.
SS impairs the bone metabolism not just because it is a systemic autoimmune disease, but also because of some other factors associated with SS such as interstitial nephritis, renal tubular acidosis, steroid use, coexistence with other autoimmune diseases, and low vitamin D levels. As is the case with other autoimmune diseases, SS also causes osteoporosis (OP) and osteomalacia (OM). SS plays a role in metabolic bone diseasesby causing variations in the signaling pathways of the Wingless-type (Wnt) and Nf-κB receptor activating factor (RANK), its ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) [46]. It has been reported in the pathophysiological studies conducted on the aforementioned signaling pathways that autoimmune diseases such as SS inhibits bone formation, since it reduces the levels of DKK1 (Dickkopf-related protein 1), a protein which is involved in the Wnt pathway and plays a role in bone formation. In addition, it has been shown that the RANKL/RANK/OPG signaling pathway, which features the main osteogenic factors and plays an important role in bone homeostasis, is activated in many autoimmune diseases, and it has been suggested that this leads to bone destruction [47, 48]. Furthermore, the Wnt/b-catenin signaling pathway plays a key role also in the development and regulation of the immune system, in addition to organogenesis and morphogenesis of the exocrine gland. In that regard, it was found in a study by Fernandez-Torres et al. on the genetic polymorphisms of the Wnt/b-catenin signaling pathway in SS patients that some genes associated with the Wnt/b-catenin signaling pathway, such as LRP5 (low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 5), FRZB (frizzled related protein), and ADIPOQ (adiponectin), significantly increase the risk of developing SS [49]. In another study, in which impaired bone metabolism in SS was investigated, osteoporosis/osteopenia was detected in ⅔ (two-thirds) of the SS patients. In the same study, it has been shown that DKK1, one of the Wnt signal mediators, was low in SS patients and that this low level is associated with a decrease in bone mineral density, suggesting that Wnt signaling mediators are potentially involved in the pathogenesis of SS [50]. In a case-control study conducted by Pasoto et al. with 71 SS patients and 71 healthy control subjects of matching age, sex, and race, study participants were screened for bone mineral density (BMD), vertebral fracture (VF), and bone microarchitecture (by means of high-resolution peripheral quantitative computer tomography (HR-pQCT)). Consequentially, as compared to the healthy control subjects, it was found that patients with SS had lower mean BMD values in both hip and lumbar vertebrae, and less cortical bone thickness, and that a higher frequency of SS patients (approximately 20% of the SS patients) had VF and significantly impaired bone microarchitecture [51]. Additionally, in the same study, HR-pQCT revealed significant cortical deterioration in SS patients. However, the final assessment on the primary causative factor for osteoporosis (OP) could not be made, due to the fact that all SS patients were on corticosteroid therapy at the time of the study. There is a significant relationship between corticosteroid use and the development of OP. In a recent large-scale cross-sectional study, in which the frequency of OP, risk factors and fragility fractures were investigated in relation to SS, a significant correlation was found between the development of OP and factors such as age, duration of disease, corticosteroid use, presence of anti-La antibodies and ESSDAI scores in patients with SS. Up to 8.5% of the patients with SS were found to have fragility fractures, and a significant correlation was observed between the SS disease duration and age, ESSDAI scores and fragility fracture [52]. Osteomalacia (OM) is a disease characterized by impaired bone mineralization. The development of OM in SS patients has been associated with tubulointerstitial nephritis (TIN) or distal renal tubular acidosis (dRTA). There areseveral studies available in the literature to that effect thathighlight the effect of TIN and dRTA in patients with SS and its contribution to the development of osteomalacia [53, 54]. Patients with OM are susceptible to pseudo-fractures. Therefore, diagnosis of OM in patients with SS is very important. It is not yet known whether these findings can be directly attributed to the relationship between SS, OP and OM, pathophysiologically. Nevertheless, the direct clinical relevance between these conditions should not be overlooked. The exact mechanism of the effect of SS on bone metabolism has not been determined, but it is obvious that there is a relationship, albeit an indirect one. The part which is not yet clear is whether it is the SS itself or the drugs used for the treatment of SS or the target organs affected in relation thereto are the main factors creating the said effect.
There is no curative treatment for SS, thus the aim in the treatment of SS is to alleviate the symptoms of exocrinopathy and also to get the extraglandular manifestations of the disease under control. Management of SS patients requires a multidisciplinary approach involving collaboration with specialist doctors from different specializations, such as clinical immunologists, rheumatologists, ophthalmologists, otolaryngologists and/or dentists. Centers such as The Sjögren’s Foundation, The British Society for Rheumatology, and EULAR publish guidelines for the management of SS [55, 56, 57]. Nevertheless, no specific therapeutic goal other than symptomatic relief has been put forward in these guidelines. Fatigue, one of the major symptoms targeted to be relieved by the treatment modalities used for the treatment of SS, is a symptom that significantly impairs quality of life in patients with SS. However, the effectiveness of the current medical treatments used to contain this symptom is still not up to the level. Available guidelines suggest regular physical activity as the best approach to improve fatigue [56, 57]. Hydroxychloroquine (HCQ) is usually recommended as the first-line treatment for musculoskeletal pain relief. On the other hand, methotrexate (MTX) is recommended to be used as a stand-alone medication or in combination with HCQ in patients who do not respond to HCQ, and particularly in those with severe inflammatory arthritis [56]. In cases where the combination of HCQ and MTX has proven ineffective in the treatment of inflammatory musculoskeletal symptoms, alternative options such as use of corticosteroids, leflunomide, sulfasalazine, azathioprine, cyclosporine, or biologic drugs may be considered [55, 57].
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The results show that the boxplot scheme can be used as a valuable reference to predict the short-term rainfall at SMS due to TCs landfalling along the Southeast China coast.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Qinglan Li, Hongping Lan, Johnny C.L. Chan, Chunyan Cao, Cheng Li\nand Xingbao Wang",authors:[{id:"179370",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinglan",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"qinglan-li",fullName:"Qinglan Li"},{id:"185562",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongping",middleName:null,surname:"Lan",slug:"hongping-lan",fullName:"Hongping Lan"},{id:"185563",title:"Prof.",name:"Johnny C.L.",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"johnny-c.l.-chan",fullName:"Johnny C.L. Chan"},{id:"185564",title:"Ms.",name:"Chunyan",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"chunyan-cao",fullName:"Chunyan Cao"},{id:"185565",title:"Mr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"cheng-li",fullName:"Cheng Li"},{id:"185566",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingbao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xingbao-wang",fullName:"Xingbao Wang"}]},{id:"50973",doi:"10.5772/64009",title:"Influence of Tropical Cyclones in the Western North Pacific",slug:"influence-of-tropical-cyclones-in-the-western-north-pacific",totalDownloads:2291,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Western North Pacific (WNP) is the most favorable area in the world for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). As the most intense weather system, TCs play an important role in the change of ocean environment in the WNP. Based on many investigations published in the literature, we obtained a collective and systematic understanding of the influence of TCs on ocean components in the WNP, including sea temperature, ocean currents, mesoscale eddies, storm surges, phytoplankton (indicated by chlorophyll a). Some ocean responses to TCs are unique in the WNP because of the existence of the Kuroshio and special geographical configurations such as the South China Sea.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Wen-Zhou Zhang, Sheng Lin and Xue-Min Jiang",authors:[{id:"179513",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"wen-zhou-zhang",fullName:"Wen-Zhou Zhang"},{id:"180488",title:"BSc.",name:"Sheng",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"sheng-lin",fullName:"Sheng Lin"},{id:"180491",title:"BSc.",name:"Xue-Min",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"xue-min-jiang",fullName:"Xue-Min Jiang"}]},{id:"51916",doi:"10.5772/64114",title:"Satellite Remote Sensing of Tropical Cyclones",slug:"satellite-remote-sensing-of-tropical-cyclones",totalDownloads:2547,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter provides a review on satellite remote sensing of tropical cyclones (TCs). Applications of satellite remote sensing from geostationary (GEO) and low earth orbital (LEO) platforms, especially from passive microwave (PMW) sensors, are focused on TC detection, structure, and intensity analysis as well as precipitation patterns. The impacts of satellite remote sensing on TC forecasts are discussed with respect to helping reduce the TC's track and intensity forecast errors. Finally, the multi‐satellite‐sensor data fusion technique is explained as the best way to automatically monitor and track the global TC's position, structure, and intensity.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Song Yang and Joshua Cossuth",authors:[{id:"178744",title:"Dr.",name:"Song",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"song-yang",fullName:"Song Yang"},{id:"179320",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Cossuth",slug:"joshua-cossuth",fullName:"Joshua Cossuth"}]},{id:"51689",doi:"10.5772/64029",title:"Climate Risk Early Warning System for Island Nations: Tropical Cyclones",slug:"climate-risk-early-warning-system-for-island-nations-tropical-cyclones",totalDownloads:1653,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Tropical cyclones (TCs) frequently affect coastal areas of Australia and islands in the tropical Indian and Pacific oceans. Multi-hazards associated with TCs (destructive winds, storm surges and torrential rain) have dramatic impact on population and infrastructure. Accurate forecasting of TC seasonal activity is an important part of a Climate Risk Early Warning System (CREWS) for improving resilience of the society to potentially destructive impacts of TCs. Currently, a statistical model-based prediction of TC activity in the coming season is used for operational seasonal forecasting in the Australian region and the South Pacific Ocean. In this chapter, a possibility of improving the accuracy of seasonal TC prediction using advanced statistical model-based approaches is demonstrated. It is also demonstrated that an alternative approach—dynamical (physics-based) climate modelling—is promising for skilful seasonal TC forecasting. Using improved statistical and dynamical model-based methodologies for TC seasonal prediction as an integral part of the CREWS will provide valuable information about TC seasonal variability and will assist with decision making, responses and adaptation in island countries.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Yuriy Kuleshov",authors:[{id:"102903",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuriy",middleName:null,surname:"Kuleshov",slug:"yuriy-kuleshov",fullName:"Yuriy Kuleshov"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"51652",title:"Satellite Climatology of Tropical Cyclone with Concentric Eyewalls",slug:"satellite-climatology-of-tropical-cyclone-with-concentric-eyewalls",totalDownloads:1502,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"An objective method is developed to identify concentric eyewalls (CEs) for tropical cyclones (TCs) using passive microwave satellite imagery from 1997 to 2014 in the western North Pacific (WNP) and Atlantic (ATL) basin. There are 91 (33) TCs and 113 (50) cases with CE identified in the WNP (ATL). Three CE structural change types are classified as follows: a CE with the inner eyewall dissipated in an eyewall replacement cycle (ERC, 51 and 56% in the WNP and ATL), a CE with the outer eyewall dissipated first and the no eyewall replacement cycle (NRC, 27 and 29% in the WNP and ATL), and a CE structure that is maintained for an extended period (CEM, 23 and 15% in the WNP and ATL). The moat size and outer eyewall width in the WNP (ATL) basin are approximately 20–50% (15–25%) larger in the CEM cases than that in the ERC and NRC cases. Our analysis suggests that the ERC cases are more likely dominated by the internal dynamics, whereas the NRC cases are heavily influenced by the environment condition, and both the internal and environmental conditions are important in the CEM cases. A good correlation of the annual CE TC number and the Oceanic Niño index is found (0.77) in WNP basin, with most of the CE TCs occurring in the warm episodes. In contrast, the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO) may not influence on the CE formation in the ATL basin. After the CE formation, however, the unfavorable environment that is created by ENSO may reduce the TC intensity quickly during warm episode. The variabilities of structural changes in the WNP basin are larger than that in the ATL basin.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Yi-Ting Yang, Hung-Chi Kuo, Eric A. Hendricks and Melinda S. Peng",authors:[{id:"24152",title:"Dr.",name:"Melinda",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",slug:"melinda-peng",fullName:"Melinda Peng"},{id:"24153",title:"Prof.",name:"Hung-Chi",middleName:null,surname:"Kuo",slug:"hung-chi-kuo",fullName:"Hung-Chi Kuo"},{id:"179607",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"yi-ting-yang",fullName:"Yi-Ting Yang"},{id:"180632",title:"Prof.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Hendricks",slug:"eric-hendricks",fullName:"Eric Hendricks"}]},{id:"51981",title:"An Operational Statistical Scheme for Tropical Cyclone-Induced Rainfall Forecast",slug:"an-operational-statistical-scheme-for-tropical-cyclone-induced-rainfall-forecast",totalDownloads:1691,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Nonparametric methods are used in this study to analyze and predict short-term rainfall due to tropical cyclones (TCs) in a coastal meteorological station. All 427 TCs during 1953–2011, which made landfall along the Southeast China coast with a distance less than 700 km to a certain meteorological station, Shenzhen, are analyzed and grouped according to their landfalling direction, distance, and intensity. The corresponding daily rainfall records at Shenzhen Meteorological Station (SMS) during TCs landfalling period (a couple of days before and after TC landfall) are collected. The maximum daily rainfall (R24) and maximum 3-day accumulative rainfall (R72) records at SMS for each TC category are analyzed by a nonparametric statistical method, percentile estimation. The results are plotted by statistical boxplot, expressing in the probability of precipitation. The performance of the statistical boxplots was evaluated to forecast the short-term rainfall at SMS during the TC seasons in 2012 and 2013. The results show that the boxplot scheme can be used as a valuable reference to predict the short-term rainfall at SMS due to TCs landfalling along the Southeast China coast.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Qinglan Li, Hongping Lan, Johnny C.L. Chan, Chunyan Cao, Cheng Li\nand Xingbao Wang",authors:[{id:"179370",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinglan",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"qinglan-li",fullName:"Qinglan Li"},{id:"185562",title:"Prof.",name:"Hongping",middleName:null,surname:"Lan",slug:"hongping-lan",fullName:"Hongping Lan"},{id:"185563",title:"Prof.",name:"Johnny C.L.",middleName:null,surname:"Chan",slug:"johnny-c.l.-chan",fullName:"Johnny C.L. Chan"},{id:"185564",title:"Ms.",name:"Chunyan",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"chunyan-cao",fullName:"Chunyan Cao"},{id:"185565",title:"Mr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"cheng-li",fullName:"Cheng Li"},{id:"185566",title:"Dr.",name:"Xingbao",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xingbao-wang",fullName:"Xingbao Wang"}]},{id:"51916",title:"Satellite Remote Sensing of Tropical Cyclones",slug:"satellite-remote-sensing-of-tropical-cyclones",totalDownloads:2547,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter provides a review on satellite remote sensing of tropical cyclones (TCs). Applications of satellite remote sensing from geostationary (GEO) and low earth orbital (LEO) platforms, especially from passive microwave (PMW) sensors, are focused on TC detection, structure, and intensity analysis as well as precipitation patterns. The impacts of satellite remote sensing on TC forecasts are discussed with respect to helping reduce the TC's track and intensity forecast errors. Finally, the multi‐satellite‐sensor data fusion technique is explained as the best way to automatically monitor and track the global TC's position, structure, and intensity.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Song Yang and Joshua Cossuth",authors:[{id:"178744",title:"Dr.",name:"Song",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"song-yang",fullName:"Song Yang"},{id:"179320",title:"Dr.",name:"Joshua",middleName:null,surname:"Cossuth",slug:"joshua-cossuth",fullName:"Joshua Cossuth"}]},{id:"51496",title:"Progress in Tropical Cyclone Predictability and Present Status in the North Indian Ocean Region",slug:"progress-in-tropical-cyclone-predictability-and-present-status-in-the-north-indian-ocean-region",totalDownloads:3326,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Tropical cyclone (TC) is an important research area since it has a significant impact on human life, properties and environment. The researchers all over the world have been studying fundamental and advanced processes to better understand and thereby predict the genesis and evolution of TCs. This review chapter provides a brief overview on TC climatology, their basic characteristics, movement and intensification, research on structure analysis and prediction of these fascinating storms, with primary emphasis to North Indian Ocean (NIO). The role of ocean and atmosphere in determining the genesis and intensification of TCs is discussed. This chapter reviews the past and current research activities including inter-annual and intra-seasonal changes in TCs, current status of TC research using numerical weather prediction, gaps identified and relevant measures taken by the meteorological and government agencies in this direction, along with future directions in order to improve the understanding and predictability over the NIO region.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Kasturi Singh, Jagabandhu Panda, Krishna K. Osuri and Naresh\nKrishna Vissa",authors:[{id:"178828",title:"Dr.",name:"Naresh",middleName:null,surname:"Vissa",slug:"naresh-vissa",fullName:"Naresh Vissa"},{id:"178872",title:"Dr.",name:"Jagabandhu",middleName:null,surname:"Panda",slug:"jagabandhu-panda",fullName:"Jagabandhu Panda"},{id:"180613",title:"Ms.",name:"Kasturi",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"kasturi-singh",fullName:"Kasturi Singh"},{id:"180614",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishna K.",middleName:null,surname:"Osuri",slug:"krishna-k.-osuri",fullName:"Krishna K. Osuri"}]},{id:"50973",title:"Influence of Tropical Cyclones in the Western North Pacific",slug:"influence-of-tropical-cyclones-in-the-western-north-pacific",totalDownloads:2291,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The Western North Pacific (WNP) is the most favorable area in the world for the generation of tropical cyclones (TCs). As the most intense weather system, TCs play an important role in the change of ocean environment in the WNP. Based on many investigations published in the literature, we obtained a collective and systematic understanding of the influence of TCs on ocean components in the WNP, including sea temperature, ocean currents, mesoscale eddies, storm surges, phytoplankton (indicated by chlorophyll a). Some ocean responses to TCs are unique in the WNP because of the existence of the Kuroshio and special geographical configurations such as the South China Sea.",book:{id:"5180",slug:"recent-developments-in-tropical-cyclone-dynamics-prediction-and-detection",title:"Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection",fullTitle:"Recent Developments in Tropical Cyclone Dynamics, Prediction, and Detection"},signatures:"Wen-Zhou Zhang, Sheng Lin and Xue-Min Jiang",authors:[{id:"179513",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Zhou",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"wen-zhou-zhang",fullName:"Wen-Zhou Zhang"},{id:"180488",title:"BSc.",name:"Sheng",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",slug:"sheng-lin",fullName:"Sheng Lin"},{id:"180491",title:"BSc.",name:"Xue-Min",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"xue-min-jiang",fullName:"Xue-Min Jiang"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"629",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11397,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11398,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. 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Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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