\r\n\tFrom the definition of Massive MIMO, the Book covers the important aspects of channel estimation, different efficiency parameters, and various practical deployment considerations. From the beginning, a very general, yet tractable, canonical system model with spatial channel correlation is required. This model is used to realistically assess the Spectral Efficiency and Energy Efficiency and is later extended to also include the impact of hardware impairments.
\r\n\r\n\tAs an overall framework, the authors and researchers who are working in the Area of Massive MIMO and 5G are expected to submit chapters covering these areas to give insight into research about MIMO.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6e96802bc79d6b8b0bab9ad24980cbc",bookSignature:"Dr. Sudhakar Radhakrishnan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7638.jpg",keywords:"Multi Antenna Systems, Diversity, Space-time Codes, Rake Receiver, MIMO Wireless Communication, SVD, Equalising MIMO Systems, Predistortion, Beam Forming Principles, Increased Spectrum Efficiency, Interference Cancellation, Beam Former",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 5th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/26327/images/system/26327.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sudhakar Radhakrishnan is a researcher in the field of Image processing and contributed a lot to the society. He is an editorial board member for 3 International journals namely International Journal of Computer Theory and Engineering, International Journal of Computer and Electrical Engineering and International Arab Journal of Information technology. He is currently an Associate editor of IEEE-Access a multidisciplinary Journal published by IEEE. He is a reviewer of 16 international journals namely IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics: Systems by IEEE, International Arab Journal of Information Technology coming from Zarqa University, International Journal of Computer and Electrical Engineering published by International Association of Computer Science and Information Technology Press (IACSIT),International Journal of Computer Theory and Engineering published by International Association of Computer Science and Information Technology Press (IACSIT), Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering Research, Iranian Journal of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Journal of Optical Engineering, Journal of Electronic Imaging, Imaging Science Journal, International Journal of Computational Science and Engineering (IJCSE), International journal of Image mining(IJIM), Int. J. of Biomedical Engineering and Technology (IJBET) , Journal for Image Analysis & Stereology from International Society for Stereology, ETRI journal from Korea,\tAEUE- International journal of Electronics and Communications and IET Image Processing. He wrote 2 books titled 'Research issues in Image compression using Wavelet variants” .'Practicing Signals and Systems Laboratory using MATLAB” and two Book chapters titled 'Wavelet based image compression” in book titled 'Computational Intelligence Techniques in Handling Image Processing and Pattern Recognition” 'Analysis of Hand Vein image s using hybrid techniques” in Hybrid Intelligence techniques for Image Analysis and Understanding”. He edited three books titled 'Effective video coding for Multimedia applications”, 'Applications of Digital Signal Processing through practical approach” 'Recent Advances in Image and Video Coding” Wavelet theory and its applications all published by IntechOpen.He has published 100 papers in international, national journals and conference proceedings. His areas of research include Digital Image Processing, Image Analysis, Wavelet Transforms, Communication Engineering, and Digital Signal Processing",institutionString:"Dr. Mahalingam College of Engineering and Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"112",title:"Effective Video Coding for Multimedia Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"09a9826a6f8e7d58cf8516c609b4fa05",slug:"effective-video-coding-for-multimedia-applications",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/112.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5364",title:"Recent Advances in Image and Video 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by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57801",title:"Water Productivity Modeling by Remote Sensing in the Semiarid Region of Minas Gerais State, Brazil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72105",slug:"water-productivity-modeling-by-remote-sensing-in-the-semiarid-region-of-minas-gerais-state-brazil",body:'In the semiarid region of the northern Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil, the availability of water resources for irrigation is responsible for the rural economy growth. The main commercial crops are fruits and sugar cane; however, one of the main consequences of this development is that other water users are competing with those from the agricultural sectors. The Jaíba irrigation scheme has a total area of 107,600 ha, being 65,800 ha irrigable, involving Jaíba and Matias Cardoso counties. The Gorotuba irrigation scheme has a total area of 11,280 ha, from which 4886 are irrigable, involving the counties of Janaúba, Nova Porteirinha, and Riacho dos Machados [1].
The irrigation schemes make the north of Minas an important agricultural growing region, because of the rapid development of the irrigation technologies. Under the actual climate and land-use change scenarios in the Brazilian semiarid region, the use of remote sensing from satellites, for quantifying the large-scale soil moisture and water productivity components in mixed agroecosystems, is strongly relevant. These knowledges provide valuable information for the water resource conservation practices without lowering the agricultural production. To meet this goal, there is the need for large scale quantifying both actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO).
Actual evapotranspiration (ET) is critically important because of its relation with yield in all agroecosystems. On the one hand, it is the main water use for agriculture. On the other hand, increase in evapotranspiration rates results in less water availability for ecological and human uses in hydrological basins. The difficulties of acquiring large-scale water fluxes throughout field measurements in semiarid environments highlighted the use of remote sensing from satellites, together with agrometeorological stations [2, 3].
The Simple Algorithm for Evapotranspiration Retrieving (SAFER) model, for energy radiation and energy balance accounting, was developed and validated in the Brazilian semiarid region through simultaneous Landsat and field measurements, involving strong contrasting hydrological conditions and agroecosystem types during several years [4, 5].
Remote sensing from satellites is also an effective tool for large-scale biomass production estimations. The radiation use efficiency (RUE) model proposed by Monteith [6] has acceptable accuracy for this purpose, providing spatial and temporal information of vegetation locations and plant status [7].
A third model, the Surface Resistance Algorithm (SUREAL), was elaborated to calculate the surface resistance to water fluxes (rs), a soil moisture index, with field and Landsat data [4, 5], for classifying mixed agroecosystems into irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV) [8].
All the referred models are applied together with a net of agrometeorological stations in this chapter to retrieve large-scale water and vegetation indices, highlighting the combination of remote sensing algorithms as suitable tools for using together with weather data. The study aimed to apply these tools for subsidizing large-scale water productivity assessments in irrigated crops and natural vegetation under the semiarid conditions of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil.
Figure 1 shows the location of the study area with the county divisions and the agrometeorological stations used in the semiarid region of the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil.
Location of the study area and agrometeorological stations inside the counties under the semiarid conditions of the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil.
The agrometeorological stations are Mocambinho (MC), Matias Cardoso (MC), Gameleiras (GA), Jaíba (JB), Varzelândia (VZ), Verdelândia (VD), Pai Pedro (PP), Nova Porteirinha (NP), São João da Ponte (SJP), Riacho dos Machado (RM), Bela Vista (BV), and Capitão Eneas (CE).
The predominant vegetation cover in the semiarid region of the northern Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil, is classified as “Cerrado,” “Caatinga,” and transitions [9], and the main hydrological basins are São Francisco and Jequitinhonha [10].
According to Lumbreras et al. [11], long-term rainfall is below 900 mm yr.−1, concentrated in the first and the last 3 months of the year. Thermal conditions are characterized by high air temperature (Ta), with averages of 24°C and maximums between 31 and 32°C, occurring from September to October, when the sun is around the zenith position in the region. The coldest period is from June to July, solstice period in the Southern hemisphere, when the minimums are from 14 to 17°C.
The Landsat 8 images involved the orbit 218 and the points 70 and 71, which mosaics covered different hydrological conditions along the year 2015, represented by the Days of the Year (DOY) 019 (January 19), 163 (June 12), 259 (September 16) and 307 (November 03). Figure 2 shows the steps for modeling the soil moisture indices and water productivity components throughout the Simple Algorithm for Evapotranspiration Retrieving (SAFER), Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE), and Surface Resistance Algorithm (SUREAL) models.
Flow chart for modeling soil moisture indices and water productivity components throughout application of the Simple Algorithm for Evapotranspiration Retrieving (SAFER), Radiation Use Efficiency (RUE), and Surface Resistance Algorithm (SUREAL) models to Landsat 8 images together with agrometeorological data.
According to Figure 2, from the Digital Numbers (DN), the spectral radiances for each band (Lband) are calculated:
where a and b are regression coefficients given in the metadata file [12].
The albedo at the top of the atmosphere for each band (αtband) of the satellite sensor was calculated as:
where Lband is in W m−2 sr−1 μm−1, d is the relative earth-sun distance, Rtband is the mean solar irradiance at the top of the atmosphere for each band (W m−2 μm−1), and ϕ is the solar zenith angle [3].
Following Teixeira et al. [3], the broadband albedo at the top of the atmosphere (αt) was calculated as the total sum of the different narrow-band αtband values according to the weights for each band (wb).
where the wband values were computed as the ratio of the amount of the incoming shortwave radiation from the sun at the top of the atmosphere in a particular band and the sum for all the bands.
The spectral radiances from the thermal bands 10 (L10) and 11 (L11) were used to calculate the radiometric temperatures (Tband) applying the Plank’s law:
where K1 (774.89 and 480.89) and K2 (1321.08 and 1201.14) the conversion coefficients for the bands 10 and 11, respectively.
The average Tband value from the two bands was considered as the brightness temperature (Tbright); however, conditional functions were used when one of the bands 10 or 11 presented pixel value problems to retrieve only one band Plank’s result for Tbright.
Both αt and Tbright were corrected atmospherically for acquiring the albedo (α0) and temperature (T0) surface instantaneous values, by regression equations determined from previous simultaneous Landsat and field measurements. Other regressions between the instantaneous and daily values were also applied to upscale the satellite overpass to the 24-h α0 and T0 values [3].
The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) is a measure of the vegetation amount at the surface:
where αtnir and αtred represent the albedo at the top of the atmosphere over the ranges of wavelengths in the near infrared (subscript nir) and red (subscript red) regions of the solar spectrum, which for Landsat 8 satellite are the bands 5 and 4, respectively.
The satellite overpass (subscript sat) values for the ratio of actual evapotranspiration (ET) to the reference evapotranspiration (ET0) were modeled as [5]:
where asf and bsf are regression coefficients of 1.8 and −0.008, for the Brazilian semiarid conditions.
Eq. 6 does not work for water bodies (i.e., NDVI <0). In these situations, the concept of equilibrium evapotranspiration (ETeq) is incorporated into the Simple Algorithm for Evapotranspiration Retrieving (SAFER) algorithm [13], applying conditional functions to negative NDVI values. Then, the large-scale actual evapotranspiration (ET) values are obtained as:
where s is the inclination of the curve relating the saturation vapor pressure (es) and the air temperature (Ta), Rn is the net radiation, G is the ground heat flux, and γ is the psychrometric constant.
Net radiation (Rn) can be described through the 24-h values of net shortwave radiation, with a correction term for net longwave radiation [4]:
where aL is the regression coefficient of the relationship between net long wave radiation and atmospheric transmissivity (τ) on a daily scale.
For ground heat flux (G), the equation derived by Teixeira [5] was used:
where aG and bG (3.98; −25.47) are the regression coefficients.
A soil moisture index (ETr) is considered by recalculating the ratio of the actual (ET) to reference (ET0) evapotranspiration on a daily scale:
For biomass production (BIO) calculations, the radiation use efficiency (RUE) model was used, introducing the soil moisture effects through the daily ratio of actual to reference evapotranspiration (ETr):
where εmax is the maximum radiation efficiency use, PARabs is the absorbed photosynthetically active radiation, and 0.864 is a unit conversion factor.
The absorbed photosynthetically active radiation (PARabs) was estimated as function of the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) and the incident photosynthetically active radiation (PARinc), which in turn is considered a fraction of the global solar radiation (RG):
where the coefficients afr and bfr were considered 1.257 and −0.161 [14].
As another index, the surface resistance to the water fluxes (rs) was used to picture the soil moisture conditions, but also for classifying the vegetation, into irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV), throughout the surface resistance algorithm (SUREAL) model [5]:
where ar and br are the regression coefficients of 0.04 and 2.72 for the Brazilian semiarid conditions.
Figure 3 presents the tendencies of the fortnight mean pixel values for precipitation (P) and reference evapotranspiration (ET0) resulted from the weather interpolation process in the study area, including the periods before, during, and after the satellite image acquisitions. Weather conditions during these periods will affect the image process results.
Climatic water balance components in the semiarid region of the northern Minas Gerais state, involving the fortnight periods from 2014 to 2015, before, during, and after the image acquisitions: precipitation (P) and reference evapotranspiration (ET0).
Because of the semiarid characteristics of the study region and the proximity of the equator, precipitation (P) was much more variable than reference evapotranspiration (ET0). Rainfall concentrations were at the start and at the end of the years, in agreement with Lumbreras et al. [11]. The driest period, with precipitation (P) fortnight values below 5 mm, was from Day of the Year (DOY) 160 to 289 in 2015, lower than 10% of the reference evapotranspiration (ET0). However, one can see other natural water scarcity events, one at the start of January and from Day of the Year (DOY) 064 to 097, even inside the normal rainy season conditions of the region.
Regarding the reference evapotranspiration (ET0) values, the largest atmospheric demands were at the end of 2015, when the fortnight values were higher than 80 mm. Under these situations, the sun was around its zenith position with the sky presenting low cloud cover. Under the conditions of high both precipitation (P) and reference evapotranspiration (ET0), during the start and at the end of year, all agroecosystems, irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV) were in favor for large actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO) rates.
Figure 4 shows the spatial distribution for the actual to reference evapotranspiration ratio (ETr) and its daily average values, involving different hydrological conditions and agroecosystems along the year 2015, in the semiarid region of the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil.
Spatial distribution of the daily values for the ratio of actual evapotranspiration – ET to the reference evapotranspiration – ET0 (ETr), involving different hydrological conditions and agroecosystems along the year 2015, in the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil. DOY is the Day of the Year, and the over bars mean averages showed together with the standard deviation (SD).
The spatial and temporal variations, the actual (ET) to reference evapotranspiration (ET0) ratio (ETr), along the year 2015 are evident, confirming the sensibility of the Simple Algorithm for Evapotranspiration Retrieving (SAFER) model to picture the soil moisture involving different hydrological conditions and agroecosystems. The spatial variations of this ratio are much strongly noticed when comparing the images representative of the rainy period (DOY 027, January 29) when some well irrigated areas presented values above 1.00, against that for the driest one of DOY 307 (November 03), when some pixels reach to 0.00 values in natural species (Figures 3 and 4). The highest values for Jaíba, Nova Porteirinha, and Riacho dos Machados counties during the climatically driest periods (Figures 1 and 4) may be attributed to largest concentrations of irrigated areas.
In well-irrigated crops, the actual to reference evapotranspiration ratio (ETr) values, called in this case the crop coefficient (Kc), may be used for estimating the water requirements at different spatial scales [15]. On the other hand, in natural vegetation, this ratio characterizes the degree of the water stress in the plant root zones [16].
In a temperate desert steppe of the Inner Mongolia, China, the seasonal actual to reference evapotranspiration ratio (ETr) ranged from mean daily values of 0.16 to maximum of 0.75 [17], similar to several situations of the current study. However, Lu et al. [16], in the same Chinese region, found this ratio higher than 1.00 for six different ecosystems, while it was inside a range from 0.47 to 0.92 in a non-irrigated pasture site in Florida, USA [18].
The most important variables for the actual to reference evapotranspiration ratio (ETr) variations in a reed marsh in the Northeast China were attributed to air temperature, air humidity, and the available energy [19]. In the Brazilian semiarid conditions, previous rainy seasons were the most significant reason for the highest values of this ratio, increasing the soil moisture in the subsequent periods. However, the values of this soil moisture index in natural ecosystems also depend on the stomatal regulation and plant adaptation to water scarcity conditions [20].
In this chapter, the surface resistance to the water fluxes (rs) is considered for both, being a candidate to picture the soil moisture conditions and to classify the agroecosystems into irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV). As lower are its values, higher is the root zone moisture [3].
Figure 5 shows the spatial distribution for the surface resistance to water fluxes (rs) and its average daily values, involving different hydrological conditions and agroecosystems along the year 2015, in semiarid region of the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil.
Spatial distribution for the surface resistance to water fluxes (rs), under different hydrological conditions and agroecosystems along the year 2015, in the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil. DOY is the Day of the Year, and the over bars means averages showed together with standard deviation (SD).
The spatial and temporal variations of the surface resistance to water fluxes (rs) are also clear along the year 2015, confirming the sensibility of the Surface Resistance Algorithm (SUREAL) model for detecting differences in soil moisture conditions among agroecosystems under semiarid conditions. As in the case of the actual to reference evapotranspiration ratio (ETr), the spatial soil moisture differences are also strongly noticed comparing the representative images for the rainy period (DOY 019–January 19) against that for the driest conditions (DOY 307–November 03). However, it is clear that the surface resistance to water fluxes (rs) detects the soil moisture differences stronger than the actual to reference evapotranspiration ratio (ETr) when analyzing the images of DOY 259 (September 19) and 307 (November 03) from Figures 4 and 5.
Then, the surface resistance to water fluxes (rs) image during the driest conditions of DOY 259 was taken for the vegetation classification. In this image, pixel values below 800 s m−1 and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) above or equal to 0.30 were considered irrigated crops (IC), while those with values between 1000 and 10,000 s m−1 and the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) below 0.30 were considered natural vegetation (NV). The high end of this last range was included to filter rocks and buildings [3]. The lowest values of the surface resistance to water fluxes (rs) in vegetation indicate good soil moisture conditions, while the highest ones are related to water stress in all agroecosystems.
Figure 6 shows the spatial distribution and the average daily values for actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO) for irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetations (NV), under different hydrological conditions along the year 2015, in the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil.
Spatial distribution and the daily average values for the water productivity parameters, under different hydrological conditions along the year 2015, in the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil. (a) Actual evapotranspiration (ET) and (b) biomass production (BIO). DOY is the Day of the Year and the over bars means averages for irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV) showed together with standard deviations (SD).
The spatial and temporal variations for actual evapotranspiration (ET) (Figure 6a) and biomass production (BIO) (Figure 6b) are both strong. This is noticed mainly when comparing the wettest conditions (represented by the image of DOY 019—January 19) with the driest ones (represented by the image of DOY 259—September 16), where the pixels with the high values represent irrigated crops (IC). The largest rates for both water productivity parameters occurred during the rainy period, when the accumulated precipitation (P) favored the natural species, while besides the rainfall water supply, irrigated crops were beneficed with supplementary irrigation.
The lowest actual evapotranspiration (ET) and standard deviation (SD) values for irrigated crops (IC) were soon after the rainy period, conditions represented by the image of DOY 163 (June 12). For biomass production (BIO), they were during the climatically driest conditions, represented by the image of DOY 259 (September 16), however with the lowest spatial variations in November (DOY 307). Considering the natural vegetation ecosystem (NV), the highest both actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO) values occurred during the rainy period, represented by the image of DOY 019 (January 19), while the lowest ones were during the climatically driest period (DOY 259, September 16), because of the low soil moisture conditions promoting short vegetative development of natural species. Under these last conditions, the native plants are in dormancy stage, closing stomata what limit both transpiration and photosynthesis, and in general, crops are regularly daily irrigated, increasing the water productivity parameters.
The average pixel values for actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO), in irrigated crops (IC), ranged respectively from 2.5 ± 1.3 to 4.1 ± 1.6 mm d−1 and from 78 ± 62 to 132 ± 64 kg ha−1 d−1. The corresponding ranges for natural vegetation (NV) were 0.1 ± 0.2 to 1.9 ± 1.3 mm d−1 and de 1 ± 1 to 44 ± 42 kg ha−1 d−1. Leivas et al. [2] reported maximum actual evapotranspiration (ET) values of 3.5 ± 1.0 mm d−1 in the Jaíba irrigation scheme. In the Petrolina/Juazeiro agricultural growing region, under the semiarid conditions of the São Francisco river basin, Teixeira et al. [7] found maximum values of biomass production (BIO) of 100 and 46 kg ha−1 d−1 in irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, respectively. These differences, regarding the results in this chapter, may be related, in part, to the lower spatial resolution of the MODIS images used in the previous studies, in comparison with that for the Landsat 8 in the current research.
While along the year, the values for actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO) were progressively declining, reaching close to zero in November (DOY 307) in the natural vegetation (NV) ecosystem, in irrigated crops (IC), they were always above 2.5 mm d−1 and 78 kg ha d−1, respectively. In an annual scale, the incremental rates resulting from the replacement of natural species by irrigated crops were 2.7 mm d−1 and 83 kg ha d−1.
The largest both actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO) were for the Jaíba and Matias Cardoso counties (Figures 1 and 6), because of the irrigation water availability in the Jaíba irrigation scheme, from the São Francisco river. Highlights in the region are also for Nova Porteirinha and Janaúba counties, inside the Gorotuba irrigation scheme, but in this last case, the dam Bico da Pedra is the water source. These irrigation schemes concentrate mainly irrigated fruit cops and sugar cane. The Riacho dos Machados county also presents some areas with high actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO), being these large values probably related to cattle and family farms, with the main water sources from the Vacaria River and the Samambaia Stream.
Figure 7 shows the spatial distribution and the average daily values for the water productivity based on evapotranspiration (WP) for irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV), under different hydrological conditions along the year 2015, in the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil.
Spatial distribution of the daily values for the water productivity based on evapotranspiration (WP), under different hydrological conditions along the year 2015, in the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil. DOY is the Day of the Year and the over bars means averages in irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems, showed together with the standard deviation (SD).
In the case of the water productivity based on evapotranspiration (WP), considered as the ratio of biomass production (BIO) to actual evapotranspiration (ET), the largest values and spatial variations for irrigated crops (IC) were in June (representative image of DOY 163), period of optimum crop root-zone moisture conditions, happening soon after the rainy period. On the other hand, inside the rainy period (conditions represented by the image of DOY 019), happened the highest values for the natural vegetation (NV) ecosystem. The large spatial variations indicated different soil moisture and vegetation conditions in natural species and heterogeneity on crop stages in irrigated crops. More uniformity on the values of water productivity based on evapotranspiration (WP) was for the natural vegetation (NV) ecosystem, evidenced by the lower standard deviations when compared to the irrigated crops (IC) agroecosystem.
The seasonal values of the water productivity based on evapotranspiration (WP) for the irrigated crops (IC) agroecosystem ranged from 2.2 ± 0.8 to 3.3 ± 0.9 kg m−3. The corresponding range for the natural vegetation (NV) ecosystem was from 0.6 ± 0.3 to 1.8 ± 0.8 kg m−3. These values when multiplied by the harvest index (HI) give the crop water productivity (CWP). Reported harvest index (HI) values were around 0.60 and 0.80 for vineyards and mango orchard under the semiarid conditions of Northeast Brazil, retrieving crop water productivity (CWP) values of 2.8 and 3.4 kg m−3 [21]. The maximum values for water productivity based on evapotranspiration (WP) in the current study when multiplied by these harvest indexes (HI) are lower, being the probable reason the water allocation restriction for irrigation schemes during the drought events in the year 2015.
The coupled use of Landsat 8 images and a net of agrometeorological stations allowed the large-scale quantification of the water productivity parameters, under different hydrological conditions and agroecosystems during the year 2015 in the north of Minas Gerais state, Southeast Brazil. The analyses may subsidize a better understanding of the soil moisture, actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO) dynamics, important water policy issues under the actual climate and land-use change conditions in the Brazilian semiarid region.
Vegetated surfaces were classified into irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV), highlighting the rainy period as the one with the highest actual evapotranspiration (ET) and biomass production (BIO) rates for both irrigated crops (IC) and natural vegetation (NV) agroecosystems. However, the largest water productivity based on evapotranspiration (WP) values, considered as the ratio of biomass production (BIO) to actual evapotranspiration (ET), was during the rainy period for the natural species, while for the irrigated crops they were soon after this period.
The remote sensing model algorithms applied here demonstrated enough accuracy to be implemented in rational water resource policies in the Brazilian semiarid region experiencing climate and land use changes, once having available spatially distributed agrometeorological data. From the sensibility of the models to detect soil moisture conditions, the results revealed confidence for later applications of monitoring water and vegetation indices, quantifying the effects of water scarcity along the years.
The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) is acknowledged for the financial support to a project on large-scale water productivity analyses in Brazil.
Food safety has become an important key issue worldwide, because of the emergence of several new chemical hazards present in food [1]. In addition to that, maintaining food safety has become very challenging at the operational level, as production of food and their consumptions are currently involved in a series of events that must be adequately accomplished to ensure the safety of food [2]. Therefore, food safety has become an increasingly important public health issue all over the world and due to which governments are escalating their efforts to improve and ensure food safety. These efforts can also be recognized in response to a growing number of food safety problems and increasing consumer health safety concerns [3]. A very well-know proverb from nutritionists or dietitians is “we are what we eat”. Definitely, it does not mean that if we eat apple we become apple, but for good or for ill, the components we eat must be incorporated, transformed, and/or excreted by our bodies. Because, food is an indispensable ingredient of life, and access to food is often the limiting factor in the size of a given populace [4]. There are several incidents of food safety outbreak, which has received major attention from all parts of the world such as occurrence of benzene in carbonated drinks (UK), foods contaminated with pesticides (Japan), presence of dioxins in milk products and pork sample (Belgium), incidence of pesticides in soft drinks (India) and occurrence of melamine in dairy products (China). Such incidents have made people distressful of their food consumption worldwide [5]. In addition to that, such contemporaneous incidents are growing concerns, mainly because of mass production of agronomic products and industrialization at a very fast pace to meet the requirement of current population. Moreover, it has been considered that mainly increasing worldwide population is making farming people to force mass production of agronomic products without giving ample consideration to the safety and quality of food produce. In addition to that, changes in life style patterns of consumers have been called responsible for food safety hazards [6]. Due to fast-paced urbanization, food products such as ready-to-eat, processed food and junk foods has increased, but due to rise in application of chemicals usage, such processed food has also come under the scanner of food safety professionals [1, 7].
Moreover, the scope, relevance, and level of food safety and testing have never been in such complexity than in today’s global marketplace. In recent years, a novel technology UPLC-MS has been developed to estimate the food contaminants as well as food components with better accuracy, sensitivity, precision, and high throughput. In addition to that, this advanced novel technique provided the platform to estimate different analytes at very lower levels, with better accuracy, and more importantly in less time. Moreover, the uniqueness of UPLC-MS has marked several applications to food safety. Various food safety parameters such as residual analysis, vitamins, amino acid, metabolite identification, adulteration, forensic testing, toxicity studies, phytoconstituents analysis, pesticide in agriculture, antibiotic residue, hormones, dyes and pigment analysis can be performed by using UPLC-MS [8, 9]. In addition to that, wide range of analysis makes UPLC-MS as an integral part of food safety laboratory around the globe. Moreover, in this chapter a detailed study and exploration has been made for better understanding of principles and applicability of UPLC-MS in food safety.
Today, our food supply is more diverse and highly processed than ever before. However, to ensure the nutritive value and to improve the food safety several states have disseminated regulations that states the acceptable limit for each components likewise, food additives, food residues and contaminants in food or food products. Consequently, a better and safe food can only be ensured when we have good approach to analyze such food components, contaminants, or chemical contaminants. In past few decades, chromatography has been recognized as one of important tool to identify and quantify food contaminants to ensure food safety. This novel technique allows the separation, purification, and identification from a mixture of the components for both qualitative and quantitative analysis. In current years, a unique technology UPLC-MS has been developed to estimate the food contaminants as well as food components for improving food safety. Therefore to obtain such targets, in 2004 Waters launched a brand of liquid chromatography (LC) called UPLC having a significant advancement in column particle size and column dimension having a small and porous particle (sub 2 μm) [10, 11].
UPLC is a novel technique that offers a new pathway for LC. UPLC enhances the capability of LC in four main areas like increasing speed, sensitivity, resolution and accuracy. UPLC is also known as ultra high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC). In comparison to high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), UPLC has been upgraded with column packing materials of less than 2 μm in diameter, which increases the speed, accuracy, resolution and sensitivity. Moreover, particle size used in HPLC, UPLC column ranges from 3 to 5 μm and < 2 respectively as well as mobile phase flow rate in HPLC is usually 3.0 ml/min compared to UPLC flow rate 0.6 ml/min. The basic difference in the principle of UPLC and HPLC is the column packing material, which makes a huge difference over the sensitivity and accuracy of the novel techniques. Apart from the principle involved in the LC, there is not much change in basic principle except the pressure generated or created in the instruments make it a more efficient technology. The development of UPLC techniques has urged the scientists to improve the prevailing instrumentation capability for LC, which has the advantage of improved parting performance and constant pressure. Efficiency of this technique is equivalent to the dimension of the column and inversely proportional to the radius of the atoms. As the name suggest ultra performance or ultra-pressure, UPLC works under very high pressure up to 1000 bars, however for HPLC, pump pressure not go more than 300–400 bars. A schematic diagram of UPLC and its internal diagram are presented here in Figure 1. In recent years, UPLC has become an integral part of any food safety laboratories, as it reduces the time of run as well as cost of analysis for any analysis [9, 12, 13].
Flow diagram of ultra performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.
UPLC works on the van Deemter principle, which describes the correlation between the flow rate and height of chromatogram. The van Deemter states that, “the flow rate of smaller particles are much faster in compare with large particles as well as unfolding the correlation of flow rate and plate height”. According to van Deemter equation, when the porous particle size reduced to less than 2.5 μm, there will be increase in efficiency; however, the efficiency does not weaken at increased flow rates or linear velocities.
The following equation describes the relationship between linear velocity (flow rate) and plate height [13, 14].
where,
A, B and C = Constants.
v = Linear velocity of carrier gas flow rate.
A = It is independent of velocity and represents “eddy” mixing. This is smallest when the packed column particles are small and uniform.
B = It stands for axial diffusion or the natural diffusion tendency of molecules. This effect is diminished at high flow rates and so this term is divided by v.
C = It represent kinetic resistance to equilibrium in the separation process.
According to van Deemter equation, resistance of kinetics is the time lag involved in traveling from the gas phase to the packing stationary phase and back again. Moreover, higher the gas flow, greater will be a molecule to lag behind in the mobile phase on packed stationary phase. Therefore, the term is proportional to v. Moreover, there will be a chance to surge throughput, and thus the rapidity of analysis without affecting the chromatographic performance [15]. However, UPLC performance is not much efficient until unless it is coupled with tandem mass spectrometry or other spectrometry techniques as it helps in molecular analysis by using mass-by-charge ratio [16, 17].
Spectrometry method for the molecular analysis of any compound requires mass spectrometry (MS). The principle of MS was first proposed by Dr. Wien, which suggests that, refraction of charged particle in electric or magnetic field can analyzed by using MS. Mass spectrometer is an important tool to for the molecular mass analysis [18]. MS methods identifies the ionized molecules in gaseous phase in different ways
Qualitative analysis of unknown compounds or mixture
Quantitative estimation of any mixture or solution
Structure characterization
Molecular weight determination
MS works on the principle of fragmentation of molecule and separation or filtration of ions on the basis of their mass-to-charge (m/z) ratio. The molecular mass resulting from mass spectrum and produced ions are a function of mass by charge ratio [19]. Consequently, fragmentation of molecular mass in MS make it principally a very important technique over any other traditional chromatographic techniques. Notwithstanding that, on account of the capacity of MS to create m/z proportion, it considered as an exceptionally novel, straightforward, sensitive, accurate, and particular for the quantitative investigation of any mixture or blend [20, 21].
There are mainly five techniques for analyzing mass of any compound by using MS like, quadrupole mass filter (single and triple), time of flight, quadrupole ion trap and Fourier transform ion-cyclotron resonance instruments. Furthermore, MS gave a thought of molecular mass, however on the other hand it does not give authentication of molecular structure. In this way, to conquer the restriction of past mass spectrometry, improvement of couple mass spectroscopy (MS/MS) rises. This MS/MS system work into two stages, first to choose parent ions generated from parent ion cells and to disintegrate into daughter ions after the collision of parent ion into at least one daughter ions. In mass spectrometry parent ions and daughter ions gets isolated, divided, and distinguished into single ion cell. In addition to that, fast collisions of compounds performed in argon cell, where translational energy gets transformed into ion internal energy to make ions in excited state and unimolecular decay progresses [22]. The breaking of compound in ion cell of MS/MS spectrum is selected based upon parent and daughter ions. Collision of compound can be performed in in single ionization cell or triple quadrupole system (TQS). TQS is the most frequently used now a day MS/MS techniques as compared to other mass analyzer [23].
Small-size particles not only enhance proficiency, nonetheless it also increases the flexibility to enhance linear velocity without losing efficiency of the column. Moreover, efficiency is the essential separation factor in UPLC, as it depends on the selectivity and retention activity as in HPLC. Below equation shows that: (Rs) resolution is directly proportional to the square root of N.
However, N is inversely proportional to particle size (dp): as the particle size is lowered by a factor of three, from, for example, 5 μm (HPLC scale) to 1.7 μm (UPLC-scale), N is increased by three and resolution by the square root of three or 1.7. N is also inversely proportional to the square of the peak width:
This demonstrates that the narrower the peaks are, the easier would be to separate from each other. Moreover, peak width height is inversely proportional to the peak height:
Therefore, decrease in particle size increases N and subsequently Rs, and by virtue of which sensitivity increased, taller peak as well as narrower peak mean more peak capacity per unit time in gradient separations, as per the requirement in several food safety application notes. Moreover, another equation comes into play when migrating toward smaller particles:
Van Deemter equation revealed that, as particle size decreases, the optimum flow F opt to reach maximum N increases. However, flow rate is directly proportional to back pressure as smaller particle sizes needed much higher operating pressures. Efficiency is inversely proportional to the particle size however proportional to column length.
Moreover, the column can be shortened by the same factor as the particle size without loss of resolution. Although non-porous, high-efficiency 1.5-μ particles are easily available in market, but these non-porous particles suffer poor loading capacity as well as poor retention because of low surface area. However, silica-based column have good mechanical strength nonetheless, it can undergo to a number of disadvantages, such as limited pH range and tailing of basic analytes. In addition to that, polymeric columns can overcome pH limitations. Moreover, packed column bed and their uniformity are also important, mainly if shorter columns have to uphold resolution while achieving the objective of faster separations [9, 13, 15].
In recent years, the demand of UPLC-MS/MS in food analysis has increased, because of the novel characteristics of UPLC with good resolution, better accuracy and sensitivity and reproducibility. Since its inception, it has reduces the time of food scientists as well as cost of the analysis because of its capability of producing more valuable, reliable, and reproducible data. The UPLC sensitivity has reached to ppb and ppt levels by virtue of which a food analyst would be more confident in ensuring safe food for consumption. Analysis of several food components as well as food contaminants has been performed using UPLC-MS/MS technique. By using this technique, below-mentioned food matrices can be tested for ensuring better food safety and we can also get more accurate qualitative and quantitative data of samples with high standards [11].
Determination of antibiotic residue in food matrices
Multi-drug residue quantitation in food matrix [28]
Metabolomics study in food safety [9]
Analysis of food contaminants in food matrices
Determination of phytoconstituents
Analysis of natural medicine and herbal medicine [9]
Determination of acrylamide in food matrix [29]
Determination of bromate in drinking water [32]
Pesticide in fruit and vegetables [33]
Determination of food-borne carcinogens heterocyclic amines [34]
Capsaicinoids analysis in capsicum species [35]
Analysis of vitamin in food
Determination of alkaloids in cocoa
Lactose content determination in milk
Phenolic content determination in fruits and vegetables
Analysis of food based coloring agent [36]
Several antibiotic residues such as streptomycin (Figure 2), chloramphenicol, tetracycline etc. has been identified and quantified in honey by using UPLC-MS coupled along with electron spray ionization [37, 38].
Chromatogram showing blank honey sample (A) vs. spiked honey sample (B).
Pesticides are chemicals widely used against plant pests in agriculture and farming to increase crop production, either against plant diseases or prophylactic usage. Currently, more than 350 pesticides are known, which are used to protect plants or plant products; however these pesticide are not allowed more than the permitted level. In addition to that, these chemicals could be dangerous to human health. The function of full scan UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS/UPLC-MS is adequate enough to enable detection and accurate analysis of mass measurement of a broad range pesticides residue at very lowest concentration in complex sample matrices [24, 25, 26].
Amino acid profiling is one of the important proximate analyses parameter in food safety, as it contributes major portion of protein and an essential component of human diet. However, among the several protein food resources mammalian milk is purest food available over the globe. However, free amino acids are calculated from total nitrogen present in milk. UPLC coupled to electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) system has been estimated for free amino acid analysis in milks of human, rat, and cow as presented in Figure 3. Moreover, UPLC-ESI-MS/MS allowed the quantitation of 21 free amino acids in 10-minute run time using labeled amino acids as internal standard in mammalian milk [27].
Free amino acid ion chromatogram obtained in human milk (cumulative).
In recent years, the performance of UPLC has set the stage for a myriad of metabolomics analysis in plants and plant products. UPLC along with qTOF (quadrupole time of flight) system has been applied for semi-polar metabolite analysis in tomato fruit model. Moreover, UPLC coupled with qTOF mass spectrometer produces high-resolution and mass accuracy, good dynamic range, and a fast spectral acquisition capacity, which makes UPLC one of the most appropriate techniques for extensive profiling of many plant metabolites. In addition to that UPLC-MS along with multivariate data analysis has been used for metabolomics profiling of Trignella seed. Metabolomic study of all the three Trigonella species T. caerulea, T. corniculata, and T. foenum-graecum identified 93 metabolites including 26 saponins, 5 peptides, 22 C/O-flavonoid conjugates, and 9 fatty acids as determined in Figure 4. Out of which, various novel compounds such as dipeptides, flavonoids were reported for first time [39, 40, 41].
Metabolomic analysis of T. caerulea, T. corniculata, and T. foenum-graecum using UPLC-qTOF-MS.
In recent year, poultry industries have become million dollar industries due to higher consumption among the world population. However, multi-drug residue is very common in poultry muscles as poultry husbandry people illegally feed several drugs such as quinolones, amantadine, sulfonamides, tetracycline, amoxicillin, lincomycin, and so on. UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS has been used to analyses such veterinary drug residues in poultry muscle ranging from very polar to nonpolar compounds. UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS operating in positive multiple reactions monitoring (MRM) has been operated to quantify most of the multi-drug residue in sample [28].
Method development plays a great role in concluding for any analytical method. In quantitative evaluation, development of method can roughly divided into three parts
Optimization of chromatography conditions
Mass spectrometry parameters
Preparation of sample
Depending upon physical or chemical characteristics of analyzing components method development could be easily performed considering the following factors like selection of column, mobile phase, pH, and particle size and flow rate in any chromatographic setting.
The benefits of using UPLC-MS method over others were better recovery, good repeatability, and amount of extraction solvent volume. The selection of ionization techniques is depending on analytical results with pretreated samples. UPLC-MS/MS tuning parameters and scan modes are decided by uninterrupted infusion of standard solution, depending on the sensitivity and specificity needed. Few key elements for method development are sample pre-treatment, chromatography, internal standard, choice between electrospray ionization (ESI) and APCI, and mass spectrometry [42]. On the other hand, method validation results support for new analytical procedures or new drug development such as Carnosol, Carnosic acid, and Rosmarinic acid in food matrices. Validation required defining performance of developed method and reliability of obtained results. The analytical developed method could be utilized for quantitation application then it would be better to be validated to ensure minimum requirement of validation experiments along with satisfactory results [43].
Acrylamide as a risk factor come to scientists attention recently, as its discovery in food was accidental. Formation of acrylamide in different types of cooked food or processed food at high temperatures reported recently. Several researchers have validated an analytical method for the analysis of acrylamide in food by UPLC-MS/MS as determined in Figure 5. Various reports suggests that processed food such as potato, coffee, bakery and other human dietary products contain acrylamide. One of the study carried out in Cyprus found that potato crisp had highest amount of acrylamide (642 ppb), followed by French fries and biscuits. Concurrently, regular consumption of such food products may lead to carcinogenicity [29].
UPLC-MS chromatogram for acrylamide standard solution at 500 ng ml−1.
Determination of phytoconstituents analysis involves usage of several analytical techniques for the isolation and characterization of phytoconstituents. Primitive techniques basically involved usage of UPLC-MS for the isolation and determination of phytoconstituents. Analysis and identification of chemical constituents of fenugreek by UPLC-MS and UPLC-Q-TOF-MS revealed that, 57 saponins and 19 flavonoid components. In addition to that, characterizations and quantitation of phytoconstituents has been reported in Piper betle. Moreover, quantitative data revealed significant variances in the contents of the major bioactive components in Piper betle species [44, 45].
In current years, various food such as legumes, cereals, potatoes, eggs, aquatic foods, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, and beverages reported to have several mycotoxins such as beauvericin, enniatin A, enniatin B, alternariol, tentoxin, and tenuazonic acid (Figure 6). These mycotoxins have been considered as a major food contaminates. In recent years, UPLC-MS has emerged as one of the most suitable method for the determination of these food contaminants. UPLC-MS has advantages over other instruments because of having better detection level, fast and accurate. UPLC-MS has emerged as a powerful tool for monitoring and measuring dietary exposure assessment of such mycotoxins [30].
Chromatogram (100 ng/mL) showing complete separation of a mixture of 10 mycotoxin standards at (100 ng/mL) using UPLC-MS method.
It’s been well-know that antioxidant has ability to fight against free radicals since free radicals are considered as a causative agent for several diseases. However, use of antioxidant has increased in food industry due to its antimicrobial property. Nowadays, natural as well as synthetic antioxidant such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene has been extensively used in food industry. However, the safety and toxicity of synthetic antioxidant is still a matter of concern for human health. On the other hand, several phenolic compounds have been well known for human nutrition. Moreover, these components are used for retarding microbial growth, increasing shelf life, reducing undesirable fragrances, enhancing nutritional value as well as delaying the formation of toxic oxidation. Phenolic profiling as well as antioxidant activities can be analyzed UPLC-ESI-MS/MS in Salvia species in some of the medicinal plants from South West Anatolia, Turkey. Moreover, it is assumed that, it was first reported for the analysis of individual phenolic profiles of S. potentillifolia, S. albimaculata, and S. nydeggeri [46].
Most of the drinking water contains bromide, as the primary source of bromide is soils containing bromide or sea water containing excess amount of bromide. During the ozonation process bromide gets converted into carcinogenic bromate [47]. International Cancer research agency has found that, bromate has carcinogenic property in human beings. UPLC-MS techniques have been reported to quantify bromate at very low detection levels, that is, 0.01 ng/mL as found in Figure 7. UPLC-MS method is found to be rapid, selective, and sensitive for routine analysis of bromate at very low level in drinking water as well as sea water [32].
Chromatograms showing a UPLC-MS/MS peak of bromate in drinking water.
Capsaicinoids are the pungent metabolites of the fruit capsicum. Capsaicinoids are a group of more than 13 alkaloids having structure of vanillylamide with branched fatty acid in the 9–11 carbons. Moreover, the most predominant capsaicinoids are capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin. These two major capsaicinoids are responsible for the spiciness of capsicum (Figure 8). UPLC-MS is used to analyze capsaicinoids in various capsicum species. Analysis is carried out to measure the amount of all the capsaicinoids such as capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin in different species of capsicum. Based upon the UPLC-MS analysis limit of detection is calculated 0.05, 0.06, 0.15, 0.2, and 0.1 g/g for capsaicin, dihydrocapsaicin, nordihydrocapsaicin, homocapsaicin, and homodihydrocapsaicin, respectively [35].
UPLC-MS chromatogram showing different capsaicinoids extracted from red chili.
Foodborne carcinogens are a metabolic product of food after food processing (e.g., heating, curing, smoking) and during food preparation (e.g., baking, frying, grilling). Sometimes, fungi and plant-derived products also tend to produce foodborne carcinogens. Dietary carcinogens produced by chemical and physical food processing are N-nitroso compounds, heterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and acrylamide. However, infected grains and peanuts have been reported to contain mold Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, which is considered for producing secondary metabolite such as aflatoxins (carcinogenic potential) [48]. Researchers have developed an analytical method for biomonitoring of cooked meat carcinogens and their metabolites in human urine [34].
Vitamins can be defined as biologically active organic compounds that have a relatively low molecular weight. Vitamins are present in minute quantity; however it is very important for human health and overall growth. Vitamin can be fulfilled only from regular diet or nutrition supplement, because these nutrients help in the metabolism of carbohydrates, fat, and proteins. In addition to that, it is also reported that, it reduces damage from free radicals. On the other hand deficiency in vitamin may lead to various diseases. UPLC-MS is very well known for the analysis of vitamins. Several UPLC-MS methods have been reported for the analysis of vitamin B complex (thiamin, riboflavin, biotin, nicotinic acid, pyridoxine, pyridoxamine, pyridoxal, pantothenic acid, FAD, and nicotinamide) analysis in human milk. UPLC-MS coupled with ESI techniques is used to analyze vitamin B from milk sample [49].
Ortega et al. [50] reported identification and quantification of alkaloids, theobromine, and caffeine in cocoa sample using UPLC-MS/MS. UPLC instrumentations are the most common techniques for routine analysis of such components in field of trace analysis. On the other hand, UPLC-MS has also been reported for alkaloid profiling of medicinal plants having cytotoxic properties. It is used for analysis of various alkaloids such as sanguinarine, berberine, protopine, and chelidonine [50].
Sugars are found in a variety of food matrices as either naturally or artificially added. Fructose, glucose, and sucrose are important constituents of various fruit juices. Maltose is found in products derived from corn and grain products. Lactose, also known as milk sugar, exists in dairy products. This set of sugars is known as the five food sugars. Analysis of these sugars is important for quality control purposes, or to determine authenticity or adulteration of food products (Figure 9). In addition to that, lactose is most important source of sugar for infant, kids as well as adult. UPLC-MS/MS can be easily used for determination of lactose in cow’s or human milk as well as other food products [51].
Chromatogram showing standard lactose (A) vs. milk sample (B).
Fruit and vegetables are important crops of horticulture, as they are an integral part of the human diet. Fruit and vegetables provide carbohydrate, protein, vitamins, minerals, fiber and help in the maintenance of a healthy life style. However, in current years demand of fruit and vegetables has increased tremendously, because of high consumption and population demand. Therefore to boost the production, farmers are using so many chemicals in terms insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, acaricides, and rodenticides for prophylactic use or in diseased condition. However, it has been reported that, these chemical has very harmful effect on human health [52]. Savini et al. [33] reported a quick and sensitive UPLC method coupled with Orbitrap for determining highly polar pesticides and contaminants in processed fruits and vegetables.
Synthetic oil-soluble mono-azo coloring agents such as Sudan dyes and Para Red are very common in food industries. Due to minimal expense and high intensity color it is very commonly used as food additives particularly in chili. However, International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC 1975) categorized these dyes a potential cancer-causing agent. Moreover, illegal use of these dye such as Sudan Red 7B, Sudan I–IV and Para Red have been still found in food impacting consumer health. UPLC-MS has been reported as one of best choice of instrument analysis of such dyes due to their highest sensitivity.
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\\n\\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
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\\n\\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\\n\\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
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\\n\\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\\n\\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\\n\\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
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\\n\\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\\n\\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\\n\\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
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\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
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