Analysis of wind in Ensenada and Tijuana (2010)
\r\n\tWith a history of over 50 years since their introduction into therapy and formulation of medicinal products, hydrogels remain a challenge for researchers in the field.
\r\n\tVersatile, with high-water content, tunable properties, and mild processing conditions, hydrogels advanced from simple chemically or physically crosslinked networks to complex double network composites or even more sophisticated new developments as shape memory and self-healing hydrogels.
\r\n\tIncreasing knowledge in hybrid or composite hydrogel materials, controlled release of sensitive drugs, or several drugs from the same hydrogel matrix could be achieved. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed to maintain drug micro- or nanoparticle’s distinct three-dimensional structure, synergistic hybrid materials with more than one type of polymer was developed.
\r\n\tBut one of the most challenging tasks remains further and continues to improve the clinical translation of these innovative hydrogels. That is what this book intends to provide the reader: a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art, recent advances, new perspectives, and applications of the hydrogels as valuable platforms for targeted delivery. Driven by the need to ensure proper patient compliance, ease of administration, along with the possibility to modulate release and degradation profiles after administration, numerous non-topical hydrogel formulations had been reported. Smart and supramolecular hydrogels, stimuli-reactive materials, that quickly respond in mild conditions, represent today an attractive approach for minimally invasive treatments.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book will also represent an invitation to discover “new” off-the-shelf hydrogels with highly tunable properties, with low complexity of formulation (environmentally friendly processing), but with adequate features to fulfill clinical requirements and provide desired delivery platforms for therapy.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-583-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-582-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-584-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"f1653eced91a8da966139960c059516c",bookSignature:"Prof. Lacramioara Popa, Dr. Mihaela Violeta Ghica and Prof. Cristina Dinu-Pirvu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11130.jpg",keywords:"Regenerative, Tissue, Environment, Biomimetic, Formulation, Characterization, Cells, Controlled, Biomedical, Characterization, Chitosan, Collagen",numberOfDownloads:213,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 3rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in response surface methodology applied to drug systems design and optimization. Professor POPA LĂCRĂMIOARA (h-index 14) received her Ph.D. in Pharmacy (2000). She has over 28 years of experience in physical pharmacy: Quality by Design (QbD) in the development, analysis, and optimization of pharmaceutical systems; characterization of the raw materials surfaces and pharmaceutical systems; polymeric materials with biomedical applications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Taguchi's approach for the development and optimization of biomaterial-based drug delivery systems. Professor Mihaela Violeta Ghica (h-index 16) has over 19 years ‘experience in physical pharmacy: modern methods of experimental statistical design in the development of drug delivery systems and technological processes optimization; biomaterials for tissue regeneration: obtaining, physical-chemical, biopharmaceutical, structural and morphological characterization.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in nanostructures formulation in pharmaceutical sciences. Professor Cristina-Elena Dinu-Pîrvu (h-index 15) is a member of the Romanian National Council for the Attestation of University Titles, Diplomas, and Certificates–Commission Pharmacy. She has over 28 years of experience in physical pharmacy: development of smart, efficient, and safe biocompatible materials; development of bio- and nanostructures for diagnostic and therapy.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"228211",title:"Prof.",name:"Lacramioara",middleName:null,surname:"Popa",slug:"lacramioara-popa",fullName:"Lacramioara Popa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/228211/images/system/228211.jpeg",biography:"Professor POPA LĂCRĂMIOARA received her PhD in Pharmacy (2000). She is head of Physical and Colloidal Chemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy from Bucharest, Romania and President of the Ethics and Quality Assurance Commission from the same faculty. She is PhD supervisor (Habilitation thesis, 2014). Professor Popa Lăcrămioara graduated several courses in Intellectual Property (WIPO Academy, Geneva). She has over 28 years’ experience in physical pharmacy: Quality by Design (QbD) in the development, analysis, and optimization of pharmaceutical systems; characterization of the raw materials surfaces and pharmaceutical systems; polymeric materials with biomedical applications. 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She holds a Master’s degree in Physical Chemistry and Applied Radiochemistry at the Faculty of Chemistry from University of Bucharest.\nShe has over 17 years of experience in: design, development, physico-chemical and biopharmaceutical evaluation of drug delivery systems with conventional/modified/ controlled/targeted release for topical application; use of statistic experimental design techniques combined with response surface methodology and Taguchi approach for the optimization of the pharmaceutical systems formulation and some technological processes; valorisation of the biopharmacological potential of the medicinal and aromatic plants. Professor Mihaela Violeta Ghica was project director and partner responsible for some national and international projects. H-index=11.",institutionString:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"193810",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Dinu-Pirvu",slug:"cristina-dinu-pirvu",fullName:"Cristina Dinu-Pirvu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193810/images/system/193810.png",biography:"Professor DINU-PÎRVU CRISTINA-ELENA received her PhD in Pharmacy (2004).\nShe is professor at Department of Physical and Colloidal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, 'Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She holds a Master’s degree in Biotechnologies in Environmental Safety at the Faculty of Biotechnologies, from University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest. 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Santa Ana winds (SAW) are influenced by ENOS, originated in the Santa Ana Canyon in the Mojave desert (Traviña et al, 2002), which cause rapidly changes in the climate conditions in the south west of California, USA y northwest of Baja California, Mexico. SAW are developed when the desert is cold, and are presented most commonly during autumn and spring seasons. This originates fast temperature rises and relative humidity (RH) drops, causing damage in the vegetation of these zones and changes in the meteorological conditions affecting the environments in indoor of industrial plants. Due to drastic changes in temperature and humidity in indoors of companies by SAW, an effect of strong transitions of these climatic factors occur which in combination with air pollutants as sulphurs and chlorides generate deterioration of copper metals of electronic machines and equipments. Analysis of raw materials used in electronic devices and electrical failures of electronic components were carried out in 15 companies in the coast of Baja California, Mexico. This study presents an analysis of winter of 2009, early spring of 2010 and late autumn of 2010. Humidity and temperature ranges of these winds can change rapidly from dry to wet, cold to warm and reverted in some hours. These several variations influence the corrosion rate of copper electrical connectors and connections of electronic equipments near the coast, installed in industrial parks of the northwest of Mexico in marine environments. In this region are located two important cities: Tijuana in the border with San Diego, California where was evaluated this phenomenon in ten companies and in Ensenada at 100 km. near the USA-Mexico border, with five industrial plants analyzed. The amount of defective devices increased in 25% and failures in electronic machines and equipments in 28% in the period of SAW occurred, compared with other seasons. In addition, 100% of raw materials located in warehouses of industrial companies, 33% were unusable. Auger electron spectroscopy (AES) technique was applied to determine the corrosion products in electrical connections and connectors of industrial electronic devices, equipments and machines.
The electronics industry has grown over the past fifty years, contributing to the economy. Particularly in the Baja California State located in the northwest of Mexico, these companies have prospered in the industrial parks of Tijuana and Ensenada, on the Pacific Ocean considered as a marine region. In this environment, during winter and summer, the climate main factors at indoor conditions: humidity and temperature, affect electronic devices and industrial machines (Lopez et al, 2007). The change of climate in indoor of electronic plants is due to the variation of humidity, temperature, solar radiation, concentration of air pollutants such as CO, SO2, H2S, NOX, O3 and solid particles Pm2.5 and Pm10. The air pollutants and solid particles are monitored by Environmental Monitoring Stations (EMS) in Tijuana. While, SOX and Cl- were determined in Ensenada by Sulfatation Plates Technique (SPT) and Wet Candle Method (WCM), and metallic probes and in both cities were analyzed by AES. Electronic equipments installed inside the plants are fitted with copper components since they exhibit electrical and thermal conductivity. With the deterioration of copper, the equipment functionality decreases, generating failures and economic losses. This equipment is exposed to a wide range of indoor aggressive environments causing corrosion damage.
Gaseous and solid airborne pollutants comprises small dust particles hydrogen sulfide (H2S), sulfur dioxide (SO2), chloride ions (Cl-) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) which are capable of penetrating into indoor areas of the industrial plants through inlets of air filtering systems. These pollutants generate aggressive indoor environments in combination with humidity and temperature, producing corrosion damage of metallic components of electronic equipment. In spite of the existing corrosion prevention and protection system as well as application of electronic industry standards, corrosion control is not easy in specific climatic regions, especially in arid and marine regions (Dillon, 2000). Arid zones are typical, with RH ranging from 30% to 90% in summer with temperatures higher than 40°C and winter temperatures lower than 5°C. In marine environments, the RH is around 20% to 80% and temperatures in summer arises 35°C and diminishing to 3°C in winter. These factors, promoted by anthropogenic and natural activities facilitate the corrosion of the copper components (Valdez et al, 2006). The corrosion of copper specimens was evaluated by the gravimetric method; it was correlated with the minimum, average and maximum RH and outdoor temperature values in different seasonal periods, which affect the indoor climate plants. The efficiency of the electrical behavior of copper components in electronic devices is a function of the amount of humidity and pollutants present in the indoor environment (Veleva et al, 2008).
A weather phenomenon in the region of California, USA and Baja California, Mexico, is SAW, which appears in finals of autumn and early of winter and spring (Traviña et al, 2002). This leads sometimes drastic changes in humidity and outdoor temperature affecting the indoor environments of industrial plants, originating in the manufacturing processes failures in electronic devices and equipments, causing low yielding. Moisture is the most important climatic factor that has a negative effect of this phenomenon, decreasing in certain periods of this meteorological phenomenon from values of 80% to 30%. SAW pass through the mountain and sometimes reach the hurricane force. The combination of wind, heat, and dryness generates dry vegetation and thus is an explosive fuel for fires acquaintances and often devastates the region. Though winds are often of a destructive nature, may have some positive results too. They can make the cold water rises from the ocean bottom to top, dragging many nutrients that ultimately benefit the fishery. As winds blow over the ocean, the temperatures of the sea surface fall around 4°C (7°F), indicating an upwelling of deep ocean water. The evaporation process originated by SAW generates increases of temperatures by about in 5 º C. These variations modify the physicochemical properties of metallic materials and occur in some times a partial deterioration and in a few times after the beginning of SAW originates the corrosion in metallic materials as copper. This concerned to companies for the economic losses of defective electronic products and promotes rapidly the corrosion process on connectors and electrical connections and thus causing electrical failures, malfunctioning in electronic equipment and in some cases stops the manufacturing line. This causes warm climates, causing deterioration in some metallic materials used in the electronic connectors and connections such as copper. This decrease the quality of the articles manufactured in this region and generates economic losses (Lopez et al, 2007). When variations of humidity are very drastic, occurs several variations of temperature and therefore the electronic equipments and devices suffer changes in their functionality. To measure humidity ranges, is necessary install sensors in indoor of industrial plants be in contact with environments.. This study in this region is important by the influence of pressure difference of air mass between the mountains of California, United States and marine areas of northwestern of Mexico country, where companies are located in these the cities: Ensenada (300,000 people) and Tijuana (2,000, 000 people) (CONAPO, 2010). An analysis of wind direction and speed was made in the seasons studied to correlate this climate factors with the electrical failures of electronic equipments (Table 1).
Month | Wind Direction | Wind Speed, m / s | ||
Ensenada | Tijuana | Ensenada | Tijuana | |
January | 66 | 72 | 14 | 11 |
February | 69 | 70 | 16 | 13 |
March | 67 | 69 | 14 | 12 |
April | 61 | 63 | 18 | 14 |
May | 223 | 228 | 10 | 7 |
June | 228 | 234 | 11 | 9 |
July | 192 | 198 | 14 | 10 |
August | 195 | 201 | 13 | 11 |
September | 206 | 211 | 10 | 8 |
October | 204 | 207 | 11 | 8 |
November | 63 | 69 | 8 | 6 |
December | 67 | 74 | 9 | 6 |
Analysis of wind in Ensenada and Tijuana (2010)
Wind direction from January to April and November to December was from southwest to northeast (60º to 70º), and in May to October, winds were reverted to the same direction (180º to 240º) and wind speed was at velocities less of 20 m/s. In the months that SAW is presented, RH decreased from 95% to 40% and temperature increased from 35°C to 20°C very fast in some hours in indoor of industrial plants.
Electronic equipment and machines of industrial plants consist of printed circuit boards, also called e-cards. The lifetime of these electronic components is according to the type of material, operation and exposition to environment. In some occasions, the durability decreases by the exposition to air pollutants and climatic factors, mainly drastic variations of humidity and temperature (Veleva et al, 2008, Lopez B.G. et al., 2010). Engineering design, manufacturing methods wrongs and inadequate mechanical movements generate improper installations. E-cards are constituted of a lot of electronic devices and are installed according to their operation, with sections separated with insulators to avoid electrical connections between undesirable zones (analog or digital signals), power (high and low), speed (high and low) and types of printed boards. There are a variety of electronic components, which are classified according to wave (sine, triangular, square or linear). In this study, an analysis of climate factors and electrical failures of electronic equipments installed in indoor of industrial plants of these marine zones was made (Figure 1).
Correlation of climate factors with electrical failures in industrial plants (2010).
In the absence of SAW, values of RH were in the range of 80% to 90% and temperatures variety from around 15 ºC to 30 ºC and electrical failures by an average of 20% at month. When SAW were presented, RH diminishes to around of 30% and temperatures increases by 5 ºC and occurring electrical failures that are increased around 50%.
Copper is used in electronic devices and equipments for the manufacturing of electrical connections and connectors, t for its good electrical and thermal conductivity. Nevertheless, is very susceptible to corrosion at the indoor polluted conditions.
Moisture content for interior environments modifies the physicochemical properties of metallic materials and increases strongly their micro and nano deterioration by the variation of air moist to dry, causing warm climates very quickly (Zlatev et al, 2009, Colem, 2004). Climate is composed of several parameters, where the relative humidity and temperature are the most important in the damage to these materials (ASHRAE, 1999), expressed with their measurements units and instruments (Table 2). Scientists that analyze deterioration of materials and climatic conditions in indoor of industrial plants, consider that a bad operation of industrial equipments is due to the presence of drastic changes in humidity and temperature in certain times of the year (Lopez, 2008), as is expressed in ISO 9223 (ISO9223, 1992). Experts in industrial productivity and quality manufacturing consider that in these region defective products and electrical failures in electronic equipment of industrial plants are presented and create a tense in managers in the companies because causes great economic losses.
Factors | Measuring Instrument | Unit |
Humidity | Hygrometer | % |
Temperature | Thermometer | °C |
Atmospheric pressure | Barometer | mmHg |
Solar radiation | Pyranometer | W / m2 |
Pluvial Precipitation | Rain gauge | mm |
Wind direction | Wind vane | °Grade |
Wind speed | Anemometer | m/s |
Climatic factors and their measurement
Copper specimens for corrosion testing were exposed in at indoor conditions of electronics plants for a period of two years in Mexicali and in Ensenada. The specimens corrosion was evaluated according to the ASTM standards G 1, G 4, G 31 (ASTM, 2000), and correlated with the minimum, average and maximum outdoor RH, TOW and temperature parameters (ISO 11844-1, 2006). The electronic plants in Tijuana where they are located in industrial parks while in Ensenada, plants are located at distances ranged between 1 km to 10 from the sea shore. Rectangular specimens with dimensions of 2.5 cm. x 1 cm. x 0.5 cm. were cleaned by immersion in an isopropyl alcohol ultrasound bath for 15 minutes. Immediately after cleaning the copper specimens were placed in sealed plastic bags, ready to be installed in the test indoor sites. After each exposure period the specimens were removed, cleaned and weighed to obtain the weight loss and to calculate the corrosion rates (CR) (ISO 11844, 2005). The corrosion products morphology was examined with an optical microscope. The most active gases are hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and SOX. H2S is a corrosive and toxic pollutant which originates from municipal sewage (Moncmanova, 2007; Lopez B. et al, 2010).
A mathematical correlation was made in MatLab software (Duncan et al, 2005) to determine the corrosivity levels (CL) in indoors of electronics industry in Mexicali an Ensenada, With this analysis find out the deterioration grade (DG) of metallic probes of copper, correlating the climate factors (humidity and temperature), airs pollutants (CO, NO2, O3 and SO2), from outdoor sources that penetrate by inlets or air-conditioning systems, to indoors of industrial plants and corrosion rate (CR).
Corrosion in indoor atmospheres is influenced by external climatic conditions generating the time of wetness (TOW). TOW is an important factor in the generation of corrosion in electrical connectors and connections of electronic devices, was obtained with variations of RH and temperature, showing high rates in some periods of winter and summer by the SAW phenomena. This is an important factor to determine the type of corrosion that occurs in metals and the levels which increases the corrosion rate (CR). In this process, cells formed by corrosion process, originate galvanic corrosion, for example in the binding of platinum and zinc with 0.2 volts, which are capable of cause an electrical failure in electronic devices and equipments. The origin of corrosion in indoors of industrial plants is due to climatic factors and the concentration of air pollutants. In winter, corrosion is generated uniformly by wetting film formed on metals, and in summer in the materials analyzed appears small tarnishings, as a result of some air pollutants and drops adhered to metals surface. The TOW obtained of variations of RH and temperatures with values over of 80% and 0°C, that is characteristic of three cities evaluated, is an important factor in the origination if corrosion in metals. All regions analyzed, showed corrosivity levels (minimum and maximum), that are a cause of generation of aggressive environments, and the corrosion process. The period of copper exposure, appears small tarnishing in some areas of metallic probes, which caused pitting and uniform corrosion (Lopez, 2008).
The examination technique with the Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) was used to determine the air pollutants that reacted with the copper surface of metallic probes and the morphology with the Auger map (Yves Van, 2008). Electrons flows through the instrument to generate low energy showed the topography of metals tested. Once it determines the chemical composition of elements and compounds in the specimens, and observed the air pollutants deposited on metals and know that they affect in the generation of the corrosion process. With this technique we knew in detail, quickly and with precision, the structural form and location of corrosion, which will determine the type of corrosion and know the techniques protection for the metals analyzed (Asami et al, 1997, Briggs, 1990)). The specimens were exposed in indoor of industrial plants with values of relative humidity and temperature over 90% and 20 ºC in winter and 80% and 15 ºC in summer, and removed for one, three and six months and analyzed with EDX and AES spectroscopy to identify the corrosion products formed on the copper surface. Metallic probes were exposed in periods of 1, 3 and 6 months showed tarnish in some regions, but from the seventh month to the final period of study, in the specimens appear corrosion on the full surface of copper, and corrosion rate decreases by the formation of a copper oxide film, serving as a protective layer. The analysis obtained by EDX and Auger S2 models was made with Ranger and ESCA / SAM 560 of Perkin Elmer. The Auger spectra showed the chemical composition and use the sputtering method to clean the copper surface, bombarding with Ar+ ion beam with energy of 5keV and current density of 0.3 uA / cm3, to remove the CO2 pollution of the environment.
The rapid transitions of temperature and humidity in indoor of companies caused by SAW and generate aggressive environments in combination with air pollutants generated in indoor of industrial plants and stays longer periods of time suspended in the air and causing more damaging in electronic equipments.
Ranges of RH and temperature were higher than 70% and 35ºC during the year in Tijuana and with a minimum of 20% and 30ºC in the periods of heat winds (early winter and spring) and maximum of 80% and 10ºC in the rest of the year in Ensenada area. Levels of humidity and temperature bigger 70% and 30°C accelerated the rate of corrosion. In summer the corrosion rate was higher after one year in Tijuana and also was in Ensenada. For temperatures in the range from 25 ºC to 35 ºC, and RH level of 30% to 70%, the corrosion rate was very high. Furthermore, in winter, at temperatures around 15 ºC to 25 ºC and RH levels from 35% to 75%, water condensates on the metal surface and the copper corrosion rates increases very fast. Variations of RH in the range from 30% to 80% and temperatures from 0 ºC to 35 ºC, and concentrations of air pollutants such as sulfides and chlorides in this marine environments, exceeding the permitted levels for air quality standards, are also an important condition that favors corrosion. Corrosion processes can be accelerated in polluted atmospheres in the presence of variations of humidity and temperature. The origin of corrosion in metallic materials such as copper, used inside the electronics industry is due to the action of climatic factors and effect of air pollutants. In the autumn and winter, corrosion is generated by a film formed uniformly on metals, and in spring in these materials are pitting as a result of some small drops that adhere to certain areas of the metal surface (Lopez et al, 2010). This is partly of the variations of humidity and temperatures that is typical of this city during certain seasons of the year. Is necessary monitoring and control principally the relative humidity and hold the adequate range to permit the good functionality of the equipments and products to avoid defective products and electrical and mechanical failures of electronic equipments during the presence of SAW. The values of relative humidity and temperature were lower 40% and 20 ºC during the year. At beginning of spring season, the corrosion rate increases in the range 15 ºC to 30 ºC, with relative humidity level of 25% to 40%. Furthermore, in autumn and winter the several changes of RH and temperature, water condensates on the metal surface and the copper corrosion rates increases. At temperatures of 17 ºC to 25 ºC, with the variations drastically of RH levels, corrosion rate was high too (Table 2). The emissions of vehicles are an important factor source of air pollutants, are cars that is important in the marine zone and emissions of thermo electrical operations where the electricity is generated to this. The air pollutants affect on the metals and the corrosion rate depend on the pollutant concentration in air and their corrosion resistance in the region. The Cu2O layer can be gradually dissolved in the acidic electrolyte formed in the presence of SO2 and Cl-. A computer based model of atmospheric corrosion has been used to simulate copper exposed to room temperature to 200 ppb SO2, in combination with either NO2 or O3 at different concentrations.
Climate factors | Sulphur oxide (SO2) | Nitrogen oxides (NOX) | Ozone (O3) | |||||||||||
RHa | Tb | Cc | CRd | RHa | Tb | Cc | CRd | RHa | Tb | Cc | CRd | |||
Spring | ||||||||||||||
Max Min | 74.5 22.7 | 22.3 10.2 | 0.21 0.18 | 225 17 | 79.3 29.6 | 29.5 11.7 | 0.42 0.28 | 208 109 | 69.7 21.5 | 24.3 12.5 | 0.29 0.12 | 193 145 | ||
Autumn Max Min | 86.4 26.4 | 28.6 19.4 | 0.27 0.16 | 289 174 | 73.9 25.4 | 31.7 12.7 | 0.44 0.19 | 265 168 | 74.9 18.7 | 29.5 14.8 | 0.52 0.18 | 268 203 | ||
Winter Max Min | 69.2 19.3 | 22.6 13.3 | 0.48 0.32 | 324 152 | 85.1 28.6 | 25.7 14.8 | 0.56 0.29 | 231 188 | 79.9 26.4 | 28.9 12.8 | 0.67 0.23 | 273 165 |
Effect of RH, temperature and air pollutants on the corrosion rate of copper in Tijuana. [a] RH. Relative Humidity (%) [b] T. Temperature (ºC) [c] C. Concentration Level of Air Pollutant (ppm) [d] CR- Corrosion rate (mg/m2.year).; Source. Environmental Monitoring Stations.
Corrosivity levels (CL) represents the degradation grade (DG) of materials in according to the correlation of relative humidity, temperature and air pollutants concentration mentioned above. CR was calculated from the atmospheric pollution in indoor of electronics industry, indicating which air pollutants with major grade of damage to copper was dioxide sulphide (SO2) and the ion chlorides (Cl- ) in both cities.
In both cities, RH was correlated with the major CR was 30% to 50% with temperatures of 25˚C to 40˚C. In summer CR was different than in winter, and in both environments (Figures 2 and 3). The electronics equipment corrodes at high humidity levels. Air pollutants such as CO, NOX and sulfides penetrate through defects of the air conditioning systems. Corrosion phenomena affect connections of electronic equipment and other electronics components protected with plastic or metallic materials (Sankara et al, 2007). Atmospheric corrosion is an electrochemical phenomenon that occurs in the wet film formed on metal surfaces by climatic factors in Tijuana was presented pitting corrosion and in Ensenada was presented
CL of copper after one year of exposition in Ensenada (2010).
CL of copper alter one year of exposition in Tijuana (2010).
the uniform corrosion. This behavior of corrosion was showed in the first month of the period of evaluation. Figure 2 shows the CL of indoors of electronics industry in Ensenada, indicating the level1, the major aggressive environment and levels 4 the high aggressiveness grade (AG) which generate high DG of this type of materials. Some sections of the graph, represents the different grades of AG, with high areas of level 1 and 2 and levels 3 and 4 exists in less percentage. This can generate failures in the electronic devices and equipments in indoor of industrial plants. RH and temperature ranges were from 30% to 75% and 20 C to 35°C with CR from 30 μg/m2.year to 100 μg/m2.year. The same was occurred in Tijuana city that is showed in figure 3. Evaluation of CL in Tijuana indicate that same range of levels presented in Ensenada, with RH and temperatures from 40% a 75% and 20°C to 35°C, with CR from 10 to 160 μg/m2.year. Microcircuits, connectors and electrical contacts used in the electronics industry, are susceptible to atmospheric corrosion, which occurs in indoor plants in the industrial plants in Tijuana and Ensenada. Corrosion rates obtained in semi-arid testing points (Tijuana) is higher than those from the marine environments (Ensenada), since in the arid zone the principal air pollutant is H2S and in the marine zones, predominate the Cl- ion as the major corrosive. A comparative analysis, after six months of exposure of copper specimens shows higher levels of deterioration by corrosion in Tijuana regarding to the Ensenada results.
AES analyses were carried out to determine the corrosion products formed in the copper surface. Figure 1a show scanning electron micrograph (SEM) images of areas selected for AES analysis covered by the principal corrosion products which are rich in chlorides and sulphides in metallic specimens evaluated in both cities. The Auger map process was performed to analyze punctual zones, indicating the presence of Cl- and S as the main corrosive ions present in the copper corrosion products. The Auger spectra of Cu specimens was generated using a 5keV electron beam (Clark et al,2006), which shows an analysis the chemical composition of the thin films formed in the Cu surface in Ensenada (Fig 2) and in Tijuana (Fig 3). The AES spectra of copper specimens installed in industrial plants in both cities show the surface analysis of three points evaluated in different zones of the metallic probes. The peaks of Cu appear between 905 and 915 eV, finding the chlorides and sulphides. In figure 2, the spectra reveals the presence of carbon and oxygen, chlorides and sulphides, with variable concentration in the chemical composition in the three regions analyzed, where the principal pollutant was Cl- ion. Figure 3 corresponds to the specimens installed in companies in Tijuana city. In the regions of copper surface analyzed were observed different concentrations of sulfur, carbon and oxygen, while the main air pollutant detected was H2S. The atomic concentration (%) of the chemical elements in each spectrum was organized in Table 4. To draw this figures a program: sigma plot was applied. The spatial resolution of this technique is around 100 nm and a 1 nm depth resolution (Swart, 2010).
The metallic samples of 1, 3 and 6 months to the metals analyzed show localized corrosion with small spots and from the seventh month to the one year the spots were observed larger, being more concentrated corroded areas and generated uniform corrosion. Auger spectra show an analysis of the chemical composition and a microphotograph on the metals surface (Figure 4) and with the sputtering was observed the corrosion and passivity process that generate the copper oxide film to reduce corrosion. Air pollutants added to copper surface form thin layers in according to the adhesion grade, in some with more chloride ions (light color) and other with less concentration of sulphur (dark color) for the marine environment in Ensenada (Figure 4a) and elements with carbon oxide of the environment by the sensibility of the Auger equipments was showed in the spectra (Figure 4b). In the analysis of Auger spectra in Tijuana that is an arid environment, the major air pollutant that reacts with copper surface was the sulphur, represented by the Auger map (Figure 5a) with more dark sections without chloride ions, compared with the evaluation in Ensenada. Auger spectra indicate the air pollutants combined with CO2 of the environment (Figure 5b). Table 4 represents the atomic concentration of metallic probes with the percentages of air pollutants and carbon and oxygen (Sankara et al, 2007, Clark, 2006).
Analysis of corrosion products of copper at one year of exposition: (a) Auger map and (b) AES in Ensenada (2010).
Analysis of corrosion products of copper at one year of exposition: (a) Auger map and (b) AES in Tijuana (2010).
Figures 6 and 7 show the Auger spectra at 1, 3 and 6 months of metallic coupons, after the cleaning process with Ar+ ions, at 5 minutes. SEM and AES analyses were carried out to determine the corrosion products formed in the copper surface. Figures 6 and 7show the scanning electron micrograph (SEM) images of areas selected for AES analysis covered by the principal corrosion products which are rich in the both air pollutants mentioned above in both cities as the test results indicate. The Auger map process was performed to analyze punctual zones, indicating the presence of Cl- and S= as the main corrosive ions present in the copper corrosion products. The Auger spectra of Cu specimens was generated using a 5keV electron beam, which shows an analysis the chemical composition of the thin films formed in the Cu surface in Ensenada (Fig 2) and in Tijuana (Fig 3). The AES spectra of copper specimens installed in industrial plants in both cities show the surface analysis of three points evaluated in different zones of the metallic probes. The peaks of Cu appear between 905 and 915 eV, finding the chlorides and sulphides. In figure 6, the spectra reveals the presence of carbon and oxygen, chlorides and sulphides, with variable concentration in the chemical composition in the three regions analyzed, where the principal pollutant was Cl- ion.
Ensenada | TIJUANA | |||||
Elements | Point 1 | Point 2 | Point 3 | Point 1 | Point 2 | Point 3 |
C | 36 | 29 | 29 | 24 | 26 | 23 |
Cl | 12 | 32 | 31 | X | X | X |
Cu | 13 | 11 | 12 | 19 | 21 | 26 |
O | 8 | 12 | 13 | 26 | 23 | 19 |
S | 31 | 16 | 15 | 31 | 30 | 32 |
Atomic concentration (%) of metallic probes.
Depth profile analysis in copper surface, Ensenada (2010).
Depth profile analysis in copper surface, Mexicali (2010).
The spectra reveal the importance of technical analysis with the Auger, which is evaluated with the formation of the films formed on copper surface thereby know the mechanism of corrosion in this metal. Auger depth profiles were collected on specimens of both cities, showed in figures 6 and 7. The depth profiling technique is defined by alternating cycles of Ar+-ion sputtering to remove a thin layer (5 to 10 Ǻ) of air pollutants that react with the copper surface and their characterization in some regions with the AES technique. In figures 6 and 7, chloride and sulfur located between carbide particles sputtered completely off during the first sputtering cycle (10 Ǻ). A small chloride and sulphide persisted deeper into the carbide particles (point 2). In figure 6, the depth profile indicates a small presence of sulfur between the carbide particles.
The air pollutants affect the deterioration of copper and its corrosion behavior and resistance. The principal anthropogenic and natural sources in indoor of industrial plants in both cities of corrosive pollutants are the gas emissions of vehicles, chloride particles from the marine environment and sulfides from the thermoelectrical power plants in Tijuana, Rosarito and Ensenada. Generation of corrosion in industrial plants has been an important factor in the last 30 years by the complexity of the electro-electronic devices and equipments that are qualified by the market demand, their operation and reliability (Lopez et al, 2007). The competition is governed by manufacture of electronic devices and equipments, increasing the necessity of develop various and great quantity of operations and decrease their size at a low cost (Valdez at al, 2006). This been has the principal effect to change the designs with smaller spaces between electronic devices and the use of new materials in electrical connectors and connections of electronic devices and equipments. Other factors are the uncontrolled climates of indoors, that promote the generation of corrosion (Lopez, 2008). In most cases companies do not know the phenomenon of corrosion or not are considered as an important factor, until it causes a failure in some electronic devices and equipments, and stop the manufacture process.
Miniaturization and the requirement for high component density of small electronic devices need closer spacing and thinner metallic paths affected by corrosion and electrical failures. Copper exposed to air pollutants reveal that an increase on their concentrations at outdoor conditions has a critical impact on the indoor corrosion process in arid and marine environments. RH values higher than 75 % and concentration of air pollutants, promotes corrosion. The composition of the copper surface was obtained by the Auger spectra, showing localized corrosion from the first month to six months of exposure in both cities, and uniform corrosion. Particulate and gaseous pollutants, deposited on metal surfaces of micro-electronic components, are generated at residential and industrial zones with high motor traffic and operations in warehouses and offices, which promote corrosion. Electronic equipment installed in industrial plants are exposed to environmental factors in indoor and outdoor conditions. The corrosion of copper in indoor environments may be viewed as a variation of outdoor atmospheric corrosion. In contrast to outdoor exposure, in an indoor environment the wet film on the metal surface is thinner and it is often governed by relatively constant controlled humidity conditions. Sometimes the indoor environment temperature and RH are controlled and as a consequence, the amount of adsorbed water on surfaces is minimal and is constrained within reasonably tight limits. Currently measuring equipment such surface analysis techniques as AES was used in most of the industrial processes are very used to detect particles added to the metallic surfaces. In this study, Auger spectroscopy was made to detect the principal components added to surface of electrical connections and connectors. With this techniques, can obtain results of the chemical reaction the atmospheric agents that forms the thin films in metals of copper. Miniaturization and the requirement for high component density of small electronic devices need closer spacing and thinner metallic paths that originates the corrosion phenomena and electrical failures in the connections. Uniform and localized corrosion mechanisms are detected in electronic systems. Particulate and gaseous pollutants deposited on metal surfaces of micro-electronic components generated by traffic vehicles and operations of thermo electrical located at 50 kms of each city and provide electricity to this region in warehouses and offices, and promote corrosion. Electronic equipments installed in industrial plants are exposed to environmental factors, indoor and outdoor.
The authors express their gratitude for the financial support, of a Postdoctoral Scholarship to Gustavo Lopez by the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologia, trough Centro de Investigacion y de Educacion Superior de Ensenada and Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico in Ensenada.
Nowadays technologies and innovations actively have effect on all spheres of human life triggering digital transformation in business and society. For the last two decades, digital technologies have rapidly developed and scaled. Wide spread of the Internet, the availability of various types of devices, the development of digital platforms, launching of social media and applications caused the emergence of generation of millennials, that is, those who were born at the turn of the century and have been growing within this period. These young people do not almost represent their lives without digital technologies, actively use them in their everyday lives and are mastering new functionalities and adjusting to new realities of a society. Unlike the senior generation, the youth aged from 18 to 25 can freely orient in the digital space and have a little different rational, emotional and behavioral responses when interacting with a society and environment. Millennials have become the main driving force of digital transformation in business and society due to their skills of mixing online and offline communication, rapid gaining digital skills, dexterity of working with databases and a desire to integrate technologies, products and systems in all spheres of life.
This young generation represents new requirements for goods, services or ideas and wishes more and more innovative products. By monitoring and analyzing customer needs and expectations, global technological corporations significantly contribute to the research and development of new products and digital solutions, which are gradually filling all spheres of life. Adjustment to society digital transformation factors and replacement of existing business models by more innovative ones have a significant impact on the development of digital skills of the senior generation and stimulate their use at work and everyday life for communication or doing certain actions.
Results of studying the status of digital marketing technologies in the world within the last 10 years witness that a number of only marketing technology solutions are growing in average at 995 items per year and at the end of 2020, there were 8000 items. However, for the development of successful business in digital transformation of society, it is not enough whether a company has only innovative technologies and products. A company has to focus on real human values and better understand its customers, employees, business partners, etc. In this connection, managerial staff has to modify traditional approaches to company management taking into account new trends and find innovative solutions to improve lives of people and society as a whole. An innovative approach to company administration in the new realities is implementation of a complex marketing management system containing a dual strategic goal—simultaneous achievement of maximum economic efficiency and a social effect.
Marketing management development depends on available digital technologies affecting people’s lifestyle and transforms a whole society. Among innovative technologies used in the administration of company business processes by managerial staff, it is possible to distinguish the most experimental ones, such as artificial intelligence, neuromarketing, augmented or virtual reality and marketing technology MarTech. These four technologies grounding on the knowledge of different sciences combine variable methods and tools and actively develop integrating one to another and acquiring new functionality.
The problem to be solved in this chapter is to define factors of digital transformation impact on business and society to modify the existing approaches in management in accordance with the modern trends. To solve this comprehensive problem, the research was carried out in five stages: At the first stage, the main factors of digital transformation in business and society were defined; at the second stage, the basic hypotheses of marketing management in modern conditions were formulated; at the third stage, the up-to-date marketing management model in digital transformation of business and society was developed; at the fourth stage, the use of digital technologies by millennials in their everyday lives was studied; and at the fifth stage, the main directions of marketing management innovation development were defined.
The COVID-19 pandemic has become a real challenge for business and society all over the world. The development trends of the period 2019–2021 have demonstrated that for survival at the market and for successful realization of its activity, the company needs the following: flexibility of managerial staff’s thinking, adaptation to digital transformation of society and replacement of the existing business models by more innovative.
Since the beginning of pandemic technologies have developed rapidly and for many countries (especially for the countries of Europe and Northern America) have become the main way of connection between people (Human-to-Human, H2H), business partners (Business-to-Business, B2B), companies and consumers (Business-to-Consumer, B2C). Let us analyze the main factors of digital transformation in business and society, which are structured on Figure 1.
Main factors of digital transformation in business and society.
The up-to-date realities of society digitalization have determined the spiral development of companies as a result of effects of the following external factors: customer requirements and needs in communication and innovative products; business interests of global technological corporations; significant investments in scientific research and development and creation of innovative technologies and products.
Customer needs and requirements in communication and innovative products trigger the spiral of society digital transformation development. However, the locomotive of the up-to-date stage of development is global technological corporations in big batches producing personal computers, laptops, netbooks, tablets, smartphones and other devices having features to connect to global networks and systems. Marketing tools of global technological corporations are aimed, on the one side, to popularize new innovative products and involve partners in rising functionality of equipment and devices, and, on the other side, to increase a number of potential and existing customers and provide maximum product sales volumes.
The main factors of digital transformation in business and society are as follows: competition at the market and mixing of online and offline formats, up-to-date digital skills of humans, the availability of huge databases containing data on different aspects of society and business development, the use of digital technologies by people in various life spheres, integration processes of mixing technologies and devices, access to databases.
Competition at the market stimulates companies to active development of their online business [1]. At the same time, traditional offline business is transformed remaining the basis of digital superstructure. The companies, which have been working at the market for a long period, are afraid to lose their positions under the pressure of new ambitious players. Analyzing significant benefits from the use of digital technologies and products, these companies suppose that investment into this field is a precondition of their success and an opportunity of strengthening their own positions at the market [2, 3, 4]. It was what determined the popularity of creating new technological platforms, especially those providing automation of company’s business processes, the efficient use of databases for making optimal management decisions, monitoring needs of individual consumers and a whole society.
Accumulation of vast data scopes by companies has determined the necessity of developed technologies for collecting, using and protection of information. Big Data help managerial staff to make balanced administrative decisions and develop effective innovative strategies mixing business interests, needs and wishes of a society. Besides, operational decisions of company employees often require approval at different levels that increase time for their acceptance and implementation. Integration of digital technologies, devices and systems of a company allows its employees to get the needed information quickly, increase overall performance and response to changes fast.
Digital technologies in business and society are actively developing (Figure 2). For example, total digital ad spend in Europe for the last 10 years (2011–2020) has been rising in average over €5 billion annually. The data have been received grounding on the analysis of 28 European countries: Austria, Belarus, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Russia, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, UK and Ukraine [5]. At these growing rates in 2022, digital ad spend will exceed €79 billion. The results of studying development of digital marketing technologies all over the world within the analogous period witnessed that a number of marketing technological solutions have been rising in average over 995 items each year [6]. At these growing rates in 2022, a number of MarTech solutions will exceed 9900 items.
Development of digital technologies in business and society [
However, for structuring successful business under the conditions of digital transformation of society it is not enough if a company only has innovative technologies and products. A company has to understand its customers, employees, business partners better to know what is important for them, helping to create new products, services, tools and solutions, which will really improve the life of people and a whole society. A company has to focus on real human values and provide that its promises were matched with its competences and capabilities. Therefore, managerial staff must modify the available approaches to administration taking into account society digitalization trends.
Marketing management is an innovative approach to company administration in conditions of changeable environment for achieving key objectives. At the same time, key objectives have to be harmonized with strategic goals and ethical codes acceptable in a society and must help to receive maximum economic and social effects.
Basic hypotheses of marketing management are as follows:
A company functions within the environment having limited resources that stimulates its permanent struggle for survival. (According to survival theory, a company continuously adjusts and changes its fighting methods, but the essence is left unchangeable [7]).
Marketing management contains a large number of elements bounded to each other and creating a definite integrity. (According to system theory, it characterizes patterns of creation, functioning and development [8]).
A company functions within a society where people try to get a definite benefit from their lives. (According to Adam Smith’s theory, private interests of people stimulate the level of their performance and individual development and also define the overall well-being [9]).
Marketing management contains a complex of dynamic objectives, and to achieve strategic goals, optimal distribution of resources by each of them is required. (According to Pareto optimality theory, this is the achievement of such a condition when it is impossible to improve one business process without worsening of another one [10]).
Marketing management best achieves established goals by arrangement of free and competitive exchange between all participants based on individual freedom principle. (According to individual choice theory, people are responsible for their own actions and are able to find the best way of interaction that can be reached if there are benefits for both parties [11]).
Strategic decisions in marketing management are made by subjects entrusted with governing authorities after a collective discussion. (According to Arrow’s impossibility theorem, it is impossible to participate in making a collective decision based on the common priorities without taking into account individual priorities [12]).
Consequently, the mathematical function of possibility to implement marketing management within a company is complex, dynamic, pluralistic and tolerant to the diversity of economic and social regulations.
Any business activity is realized to achieve a result. In marketing management, the main results are the achievement of commercial effectiveness and receiving a social effect. Implementation of the first goal allows a company to maintain balanced development, to provide an optimal level of profitability and income from its business activity, and to increase the volumes of selling goods, services or ideas at a definite level. At the same time, implementation of the second goal helps a company to achieve a certain social effect, namely to create a definite need or destroy it, to teach customers how to use products in all possible cases and in optimal volumes, to assign a definite status or fashion to products [13]. The mentioned company marketing management goals need a significant adjustment to specific requirements of main process participants that form five levels of approval (Table 1).
Levels of approval | Major company marketing management goals | ||
---|---|---|---|
Commercial effectiveness | Social effect | ||
1 | Goals of company owners or managerial staff |
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2 | Partner goals |
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3 | Consumer goals |
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4 | Employee goals |
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5 | Society goals |
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Major company marketing management goals by levels of approval.
Therefore, major company marketing management goals have a certain hierarchy and structure. Economic goals more refer to company’s commodity, distribution and price policies. Social goals are focused on achieving a definite effect by psychological impact of marketing events on consumer mentality and behavior, a general impression from a product. When implementing marketing management within a company, all goals approved at the mentioned five levels shall be optimally bounded to each other.
Digital transformation had an impact on companies’ business processes. Transparent, clear and consequent communication allowed flexible interacting with a wide circle of customers and partners attracting the new and maintaining the current ones. To a certain extent, the modern marketing cannot exist without innovative technologies and products. This area is actively developing, and by now, there have been hundreds of digital tools for reducing the risks of making inefficient managerial decisions and increasing performance of employees. Technologies are becoming a much more significant component of marketing management, and there appear new digital tools to control the task fulfillment, employee motivation, arrangement and coordination of business processes. Correspondingly, managerial staff have to create such a marketing management model in digital transformation, which will become a competitive advantage of a company and enable to respond the market needs rapidly and flexibly. Nowadays, it is not enough to choose any innovative tool and test it. It is necessary to comprehensively implement a carefully chosen technology into a company’s activity and integrate technologies, products and systems at all levels. The up-to-date marketing management model in digital transformation of business and society is schematically presented on Figure 3.
The marketing management model in digital transformation of business and society.
The first block “Mission, vision, strategy of a company” is a key component of justifying the marketing management model. The strategy has to cover all business processes of a company, to set up internal and external communication channels and help to receive maximum economic and social effects. Strategic level of marketing management characterizes the process of long-term planning (for 1 year or more) and is focused on the development of strategies or scenarios for provision of company competitiveness and performance in the future. Tactic level of marketing management defines the process of short-term planning (for the period from a month to 1 year). At this stage, a strategy is detailed in compliance with modern realities, the current marketing conditions and business processes are analyzed, the planned indicators are established to provide the certain level of income and the order of actions is regulated to achieve company’s strategic goals. Operational level of marketing management is realized by making a plenty of administrative decisions in all business areas in the real time.
The second block “Participants” covers the subjects of marketing management. For successful realization of a company’s strategy, it is necessary to have a team of professionals who help to implement new digital tools into activities of all employees. Having received required skills, managerial staff and employees develop an innovative management system and stimulate digital communication with partners, customers and a society. This block is closely connected with the major marketing management goals at a company by levels of approval (Table 1). The first level is characterized by a dilemma of company owners and managerial staff regarding the effectiveness. At the next levels, marketing management goals are harmonized with partner agreements, customer requirements and wishes, company employee goals, society requirements and expectations [14, 15, 16]. Therefore, major marketing management goals have a definite hierarchy and structure.
The third block “Company goals” contains the following major marketing management goals: market expansion, profitability, financial stability, social goals, prestige and position at the market. They can be conditionally divided into two components—economic and social goals. Economic goals more refer to commodity, distributive and price policies of a company. The key market expansion indicators are a market share, a turnover, a role and significance of goods or services, new market volumes. To evaluate the profitability level, managerial staff analyzes profitability, reverse profitability, return on equity and return on total capital. To the key, financial stability indicators belong the following ones: creditworthiness, liquidity, self-financing structure, capital structure. Social goals are focused on gaining a certain effect through a psychological impact of marketing events on customer mentality and behavior, a general impression from a product. When defining a social effect, managers analyze employees’ satisfaction with their work, wages, carrier development, social protection and social integration. At the same time, key indicators used to evaluate the prestige and position at the market are independence, image, political climate and social recognition. When marketing management is implemented within a company, all goals shall be optimally harmonized with each other.
The fourth block “Business-processes” contains the following main components: research and development, production, sales and finances. On the one hand, these are processes of planning, implementation, realization, correction and cancelation of fulfillment of managerial staff’s decisions by company employees. On the other hand, these are the processes of interaction between technologies and systems, which provide digital optimization, operation of different devices, equipment operation speed, usability of interfaces, etc.
The mentioned four blocks of marketing management lie in the digital contour: digital devices ⇔ digital platforms ⇔ digital media ⇔ digital technologies. Nowadays, it is really difficult to separate decisions in business made by a human from technological solutions. Most decisions made by managerial staff are grounded on the analysis of databases and preventive digital models with the use of certain platforms and devices. Realization of business processes by company employees is impossible without digital media and technologies. The company’s capability to propose a more personalized approach to each participant is a unique key to the use of innovative technologies and products. Accumulation of databases helps a company to better understand requirements and wishes of employees, partners, customers and a society in different regions. Quality analysis of available data performed by managerial staff allows to form a clearer mission, vision, strategy and goals. Effective realization of goals and tasks by employees creates more personalized suggestions of new technologies and products.
Unlike the senior consumers, millennials—the youth aged from 18 to 25 years old, who were born at the turn of the century (from 1997 up to 2003)—have different rational, emotional and behavioral responses to buying goods or services. Spread of the Internet, availability of devices, development of digital platforms, launching social media and applications were favorable for emergence of the audience with specific expectations for products according to their lifestyle. As a result of society digitalization, millennials are interested in the basic function of goods and services; however, they have specific emotional expectations for similar products.
To analyze emotional, rational and behavioral responses of the youth when buying goods or services, a pilot research was carried out among 350 respondents who gave answers to 100 questions divided into five blocks: (1) the use of digital technologies in everyday life; (2) areas of using augmented and virtual reality technologies; (3) buying goods and services online; (4) advantages and disadvantages of using devices, software and platforms and (5) responses to the use of digital technologies in everyday life. Summarized data on millennial responses to the use of digital technologies in different spheres of life are represented on Figure 4.
Millennial responses to the use of digital technologies in different spheres of life (pilot research data).
The answers of each respondent were summarized by each question and ranked in descending order. It enabled to distinguish three groups of millennials depending on a level of using digital technologies in different spheres of life: the first group (25%, 88 people)—the youth actively using digital technologies in all spheres of life; the second group (50%, 174 people)—the respondents using digital technologies for work, communication and buying certain goods and services; and the third group (25%, 88 people)—the millennials using digital technologies in certain spheres of their lives only if applicable.
The research results have demonstrated that young people (93%) understand the idea of augmented and virtual reality technologies. For the respondents who did not know these technologies, the researches clarified the idea and demonstrated the variants of their application on definite examples. As for possible sphere of application of AR/VR technologies, it was established that most of respondents associate augmented and virtual reality with the game industry (84%), film industry (53%), clothing brands (49%) and social media (42%). Simultaneously, millennials less perceive the above-mentioned technologies in the food industry (23%), sport industry (27.5%), education (28%), medicine (29%) and construction business (30%). Only 9% of respondents could not define the place of AR/VR technologies in their everyday lives.
During the research, the respondents also evaluated statements characterizing their perception according to the scale: 0 points—strongly disagree with the statement; 2.5 points—rather disagree; 5 points—difficult to define (neutral position); 7.5 points—rather agree with the statement; 10 points—strongly agree. It helped to find out that most millennials (85%) wish to have an opportunity to check goods and services using digital technologies (QR code) on compliance with quality standards, origin, environmental friendliness, naturality, safety, etc. Most respondents (over 70%) have a special software for the payment of goods and services in their smartphones and wish to install an application for ordering and payment of regular goods and services. A half of young people (54%) use a special software for delivery of goods and only 45% of respondents use special applications for tracking healthy way of life.
According to the results of the survey, it was found out that all respondents visited online marketplaces, and 95% of them bought goods or services online. One-third of millennials (34%) buy goods on marketplaces monthly. An additional research allowed to reveal that 95% of young people agree to buy a product if it has a confirmation of authenticity from a brand manufacturer. Therefore, a negative stereotype about sales of fake products on marketplaces can be corrected by placement of detailed product characteristics and establishment of trustful open relationships with customers and partners.
Marketing management innovation depends on the development of digital technologies, as they form a new lifestyle and change a view of a society creating competitive benefits for companies. Globalization and technologies have become two main factors, which define relations inside a society nowadays [17]. Correspondingly, the up-to-date marketing management strategy is grounded on multivariate choice of solutions regarding the use of definite innovative developments. That is, for realization of successful activity in digital transformation of business and society, a company permanently has to monitor the market and new tools, analyze customer needs and wishes, and maintain efficient communication with its partners.
Among the main marketing management innovation technologies can be distinguished: (1) artificial intelligence; (2) augmented and virtual reality; (3) neuromarketing and (4) MarTech. Further, we will consider them in detail.
The first innovative technology is the formation of artificial intelligence that is favorable for a company’s uninterrupted interaction with customers, partners, employees and a society as a whole and helps to foresee peoples’ intentions in different spheres of their lives and in different conditions. Artificial intelligence analyzes data and profiles, forms algorithms for better interaction and communication, systematizes required data providing maximum effectiveness and speed of making managerial solutions. In their activities, companies can use different variants, such as:
voice processing technologies (e.g., virtual assistants for employees, partners and customers, which accompany the fulfillment of established tasks, handle orders, invite to joint events, recommend certain goods or services, evaluate effectiveness and loyalty);
text processing technologies (e.g., virtual assistants, which reveal conflict situations and form algorithms of their solutions, develop marketing campaigns or different modifications of products basing on analysis of texts in social media, develop, analyze and reply to requests of customers, employees or partners);
image recognition and processing technologies (e.g., recognition of faces to run certain business processes, definition of a health status grounding on mixing analysis of personal data with environment status data, analysis of images for a search and proposals of analogous goods, services or ideas);
solutions making technologies (e.g., comparison of different alternatives for choosing a more efficient managerial decision, drawing up of an individual plan for personal development, career development, achievement of certain goals, motivation or rest).
The second innovative technology is augmented and virtual reality. Virtual reality is based on computer modeling of a three-dimensional image or environment where a human can interact with it if put on a special equipment (glasses, liens or helmet with a screen, a costume equipped with sensors). Augmented reality is a technology applying a computer reflection of imaginary additional product, idea or environment on a real image of a user, object or locality. Companies apply augmented and virtual reality technologies to design a customized product packaging (story living), and demonstrate test products under the real conditions of use (try before buy, location-based integration) [18, 19, 20]. To evaluate the effectiveness of implementing AR/VR technologies in marketing management, the following indicators are used: time of use, a number of actions, interaction with a content, a heat map, behavioral style, data of surveillance cameras, motility, quality of actions, voice timbre and modulation, tracking of eyes and body movements, understanding of further actions (preventions).
The third innovative technology is neuromarketing, which grounding on neurophysiological human behavior correlates and allows measuring human physiological and neuron signals to receive more clear representations about their motivation, wishes, decisions, etc. [21]. A neuromarketing technology combines a set of ways and methods of neuroscience and psychophysiology, namely, study of a brain, psychophysical reactions and behavioral features of a human. The mentioned researches are used in marketing management to analyze behavior of employees, partners, customers in different situations and conditions. The main neuromarketing tools can be conditionally divided into three groups [22, 23, 24, 25, 26]: (1) study of metabolic activities in brain (positron emission tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging); (2) study of electrical activities in brain (transcranial magnetic stimulation, electroencephalography, magnetoencephalography, steady-state topography) and (3) study of physiological reactions (fixing of galvanic skin response, cardiovascular system, eye movement, contractions of facial muscles). Characteristics, advantages and disadvantages are given in Table 2.
Neuromarketing tools | Characteristics | Advantages and disadvantages |
---|---|---|
(1) Study of metabolic activities in brain | ||
Positron emission tomography | A method of medical radioisotope diagnostics grounding on application of radiopharmaceuticals being isotope-labeled and positron radiating. Using special equipment, decay of radionuclides is traced and metabolic activities in human brain are studied. | Advantages: a wide research spectrum; significant detailing of results, high-resolution anatomical images Disadvantages: high cost, a need in highly qualified specialists, psychological stress for an object of research, insignificant radiation effect |
Functional magnetic resonance imaging | A method of medical diagnostics grounding on measuring hemodynamic responses caused by neuron activities in human brain. Using special equipment, correlation of cerebral blood flow and neuronal activity is traced | |
(2) Study of electrical activities in brain | ||
Electroencephalography | A method of medical diagnostics grounding on graphical registration of biopotentials of human brain that permits to analyze physical maturity and state, general cerebral activity and its character. Using special equipment summarized, bioelectrical activity in human brain is fixed and analyzed | Advantages: a wide research spectrum; significant detailing of results, equipment mobility Disadvantages: limited resolution images, a need in highly qualified specialists, psychological stress for an object of research |
Magnetoencephalography | A method of medical diagnostics grounding on measurement and visualization of magnet fields emerging as a result of electrical activity in human brain. Using special equipment helps to localize neuronal activity sources in time and space | |
(3) Study of physiological reactions | ||
Fixing galvanic skin response | A method of diagnostics grounding on a human peculiarity to sweat while anxiety or experiencing other strong emotions. Using special equipment, the data on electrical conductivity of skin are fixed and interpreted into a conclusion about an emotional state of a human | Advantages: equipment mobility, low cost, significant detailing of results, a possibility of mixing with other tools Disadvantages: limited resolution research, a need in highly qualified specialists, psychological stress for an object of research |
Fixing cardiovascular system response | A method of diagnostics grounding on monitoring of changes in heart rate, blood pressure and vascular tone. Using special equipment, the data on cardiovascular system are fixed and interpreted into a conclusion about a change of attention and emotional state of a human. | |
Fixing eye movement response | A method of diagnostics grounding on video fixation of gaze direction, size of a pupil, duration of gaze delay. Using special equipment, the data on eye movement are fixed and interpreted into a conclusion about concentration of attention on the object, the order of data revision. | |
Fixing contractions of facial muscles | A method of diagnostics grounding on monitoring of contractions of facial muscles. Using special equipment, the data on individual movements of facial mimic are fixed and interpreted into a conclusion about certain emotions or feelings of a human. |
The fourth innovative technology is MarTech combining marketing and technologies for gathering data on internal and external environment of a company. The choice of MarTech tools is an important component of development and realization of a company’s successful strategy that permits to provide the optimal use of resources and harmonization of business processes. However, a tool must not substitute a strategy and implementation of digital technologies must not be just to pursuit technologies. The main MarTech tools can be conditionally divided into four groups [6]:
the management of data and digital assets of a company—the technologies, which store, control and maximally use digital data of a company to trace effectiveness of all business processes of marketing management and key performance indicators (КРІ);
the management of relationships with customers—the technologies, which allow to control required structured data to maintain relationships with customers and partners;
the management of company’s resources in separate spheres (marketing, financial, industrial, logistic, etc.)—the technologies, which are used for digital planning, administration, coordination and control of certain resources and combine data, procedures, tools and employees;
the management of social media and content—the technologies, which accumulate and analyze data of social media platforms to improve communication processes and increase recognizability of a company, a brand, a product, a service or an idea in a society.
Lately, the tools for the management of social media and content have been developing most actively. At the market, there are a large number of social platforms having a great many users, especially among millennials. Some of media platforms are universal and are spread all over the world, such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, TikTok, Pinterest, LinkedIn. But most of them have a certain specific and are popular among different target audiences or in definite regions and countries.
Among the most spread MarTech tools for the management of social media and content can be distinguished as follows:
Google Analytics, which enables to verify the effectiveness of a marketing strategy at different levels of interaction with customers, partners and different audiences to accumulate and analyze databases;
Sprinklr and Kontentino, which make it easier to work with social media and help a company to minimize staff loading in this sphere;
Buffer, which permits to manage posts in different social networks to keep several online profiles from one information panel, to plan posts in advance and trace statistical databases;
ManageFlitter, which administrates the management of Twitter subscribers and finds influencers, allows to cover more followers and plan posts, defines frequency of posts and analyzes statistical databases;
Buzzsumo, which helps to monitor new tendencies, demonstrates most popular materials and trends, searches for influencers, recommends up-to-date social media platforms and materials for a target audience, defines an average number of posts by certain topics and forms detailed analysis;
Canva, which permits to create a visual content for social networks and graphical design based on professionally developed templates and availability of various convenient tools;
Bitly, which generates URL addresses with a limited number of signs and measures links and URL clicking indicators;
Brandmaker, which helps to develop marketing campaigns of a company, calculate budgets, measure results;
Contentpepper, which uses automated processes to generate company content by means of Content Management System (CMS), and send materials to a target audience to different websites and communication platforms.
When planning implementation of any digital technology, managerial staff’s first steps are queries in search engines, comparison of sets of functions and prices, discussing advantages and disadvantages of a certain technology with professionals, testing a free demo version for checking the compliance with goals and specific of a company [27].
Different packages of software and platforms can be compared by their features, but a real value of software for marketing management lies in a strategy and approach to the achievement of key goals of a company or desirable end results. Before implementing a definite digital technology in company’s activity, it must be harmonized with a mission, vision and strategy. Tools, equipment and systems cannot be in conflict with each other or double certain spheres and business functions. Managerial staff has to carefully study all details, evaluate advantages and disadvantages of implementing a new technology, define opportunities and threats and only after that they must make an optimal managerial decision, which will concern company’s business processes, employees, partners, customers and even a society.
Considering a rapid progress of digital technologies, needs and wishes of a society are permanently changing. It determines the importance of implementing innovative marketing management tools in company’s business processes to solve a wide spectrum of tasks connected with a necessity of maintaining successful activity at the market. For complex evaluation of a company development status, now it is not enough for managerial staff to have the key economic quantitative indicators enabling to calculate expenses, revenues, incomes by separate operations, products, business units or processes. They have to be completed by qualitative indicators, which will help to define consumer priorities, staff loyalty, partner reliability, product positioning, uniqueness of goods or services, social recognition, etc. Consequently, the main goals of innovative marketing management conquering positions at the markets, which have not been developed yet, and increase of presence at already existing ones based on intellectual property, investments in research and development, innovative management methods, digital technologies in the care of employees, consumers, partners and a society as a whole.
Nowadays, the main marketing management innovations are connected with implementation of artificial intelligence, neuromarketing, augmented and virtual reality, marketing technologies MarTech in business processes of functionality. These technologies can be combined and applied in different spectrums of company’s activity or various spheres of human life. Particularly, it can refer to millennials. The use of digital tools allows to analyze huge databases, detail results, develop preventive actions, predict future trends, test products, equipment or software, foresee consequences of decisions, find optimal variants of problem solutions, etc. Besides, innovative technologies help to study real requirements and wishes of people, reveal deep-seated needs and motives, balance different life spheres, test new ones, change habits, gain knowledge and skills, etc.
Therefore, marketing management and technologies are a certain symbiosis of people’s decisions and digital data. That is why correct choice of digital tools in marketing management is impossible without clear understanding of a vision, mission, strategy and corporate values by managerial staff and employees. All these determine a choice of technologies and successful implementation due to consequent passing through five main stages. At the first stage, managerial staff accumulates the available actual information on different technological tools and solutions, analyzes their compliance with a mission, vision and strategies of a company, studies parameters of integration with other systems. At the second stage, an optimal technology is chosen that best meets business goals and tools start being implemented at strategic level. Implementation of new technologies at this level allows a company to evaluate an innovation focus, if it is necessary to correct, and define skills and competences required for staff’s work. At the third stage, gradual implementation of innovative technologies in business processes of a company and active cooperation with ІТ specialists at each operation takes place. The main goal of technological marketing management at this stage is reduction of staff’s time spends on training or advanced training due to creation of intuitively understood interfaces for users and digital materials to help in solving standard task algorithms. At the fourth stage equipment, devices, platforms and tools are integrated into one system. A new system has to cover all actual business processes and contains required functionality for perspective directions. At the fifth stage, managerial staff monitors and evaluates effectiveness of business processes, analyzes advantages and disadvantages, develops improvements and recommends new solutions to increase marketing management effectiveness. Thus, implementation of digital technologies in business processes of a company significantly depends on a team’s motivation and belief in success of innovations.
Establishment of factors of digital transformation impact on business and society to form innovative approaches in management in accordance with the modern realities is a complex comprehensive problem. To solve this problem, we carried out a research, which can conditionally be divided into five stages: At the first stage, the main factors of digital transformation in business and society were established; at the second stage, the basic hypotheses of innovative marketing management were formulated; at the third stage, up-to-date marketing management concept in digital transformation of business and society was developed; at the fourth stage, the use of digital technologies by millennials in their everyday lives was analyzed; at the last fifth stage, the main four directions of marketing management innovation development were defined. The conducted research enabled to reveal that fast and active implementation of innovative tools by certain companies can lead to the occurrence of covert and open conflicts between millennials and the older generation that will have a negative impact on corporate culture and psychological climate in company staff. Therefore, innovation technologies and management model in digital transformation of business and society have to be implemented gradually in compliance with strategic priorities defined by a company.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
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\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
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\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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Kasenga",hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Malaria",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/86725/images/system/86725.jpg",institutionString:"Malawi Adventist University",institution:{name:"Malawi Adventist University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malawi"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",hash:"61c627da05b2ace83056d11357bdf361",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",editors:[{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7064",title:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7064.jpg",slug:"current-perspectives-in-human-papillomavirus",publishedDate:"May 2nd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"d92a4085627bab25ddc7942fbf44cf05",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Perspectives in Human Papillomavirus",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:301,paginationItems:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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