Characteristics of magma.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Also the aim of the book is the continuous and timely dissemination of new and innovative research and developments in microsensors.\n\nThis reference book is a collection of 13 chapters characterized in 4 parts: magnetic sensors, chemical, optical microsensors and applications. \n\nThis book provides an overview of resonant magnetic field microsensors based on MEMS, optical microsensors, the main design and fabrication problems of miniature sensors of physical, chemical and biochemical microsensors, chemical microsensors with ordered nanostructures, surface-enhanced Raman scattering microsensors based on hybrid nanoparticles, etc. \n\nSeveral interesting applications area are also discusses in the book like MEMS gyroscopes for consumer and industrial applications, microsensors for non invasive imaging in experimental biology, a heat flux microsensor for direct measurements in plasma surface interactions and so on.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-170-1",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6010-6",doi:"10.5772/688",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"microsensors",numberOfPages:308,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"3d48614c970df4eb00d2d1a4e1bb5cda",bookSignature:"Igor Minin",publishedDate:"June 9th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/162.jpg",numberOfDownloads:49205,numberOfWosCitations:55,numberOfCrossrefCitations:30,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:5,numberOfDimensionsCitations:54,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:4,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:139,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 7th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 4th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 10th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 9th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"3712",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Minin",slug:"oleg-minin",fullName:"Oleg Minin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/3712/images/1774_n.jpg",biography:"Oleg V. Minin received a B.A. in Physics from the Novosibirsk State University, a PhD in Physics from Tomsk State University in 1987 and a Doctor of science from NSTU in 2002. Currently he is a full Professor in the Department of Information Protection at Novosibirsk State Technical University (NSTU), Russia. From 1982 to 2001 he was Chief Research Scientist at the Institute of Applied Physics, Novosibirsk, Russia. Dr. Minin’s research interests are in the areas of diffractive optics and antenna experiment (including explosive plasma antenna), millimeter wave and THz photonics and nanophotonics, information security, detection of hidden weapons as well as development of antiterrorism devices, experiment technologies, explosive physics. He is a member of SPIE, COST-284 and COST-ic0603 and he is the author of several books and book chapters in technical publications. 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This fact difficults the formation of an ordered structure, leading to an amorphous structure denoted as “
Images of a typical volcanic glass (A) and volcanic glasses with inclusions (B).
According to their chemical composition, magmas can be classified into basaltic magma (SiO2 45–55%), andesitic magma (SiO2 55–65%), and rhyolitic magma (SiO2 65–75%) (Table 1). The amount of gas occurring in a magma is genetically related with its chemical composition, that is, a rhyolitic magma has a higher gas content than a basaltic one.
Magma type | Basaltic | Andesitic | Rhyolitic |
---|---|---|---|
Solidified rock | Basalt | Andesite | Rhyolite |
Silica content | 45–55% | 55–65% | 65–75% |
Gas content | Least | Intermediate | Most |
Viscosity | Least | Intermediate | Most |
Type or eruption | Effusive | Sometimes explosive | Usually explosive |
Melting temperature | 1000–1200°C | 800–1000°C | 650–800°C |
Location | Rifts, oceanic hotspots | Subduction boundaries | Continental hotspots |
Characteristics of magma.
The temperature of magmas is difficult to measure (due to the involved danger). However, the laboratory measurements coupled with the field observations have indicated that the temperature of eruption ranges from 1000 and 1200°C in a basaltic magma, from 800 and 1000°C in an andesitic magma and from 650 and 800°C in a rhyolitic magma [4, 5, 6, 7].
The viscosity mainly depends on the magmatic composition and temperature. Thus, the magmas having a higher SiO2 content have a higher viscosity than the magmas having a lower SiO2 content. Moreover, low-temperature magmas have a higher viscosity than high-temperature magmas [7, 8].
The cooling of the magma depends on the viscosity of the lava, which is directly related with its chemical composition, as was indicated previously. The lava with lower viscosity, that is, the basaltic lava, cools down quickly, obtaining thin glasses with a thick below 1 cm. However, the viscous rhyolitic lava, which erupts on dry land, cooling with a low rate leading to volcanic glass with larger dimensions [7, 9].
Generally, the rhyolitic magmas (SiO2) higher than 60% give rise to explosive eruptions, resulting in large volume of pyroclastics and related to the ex-solution of volatiles, mainly H2O, CO2 and SO2 as the pressure is reduced [7, 10, 11]. Because high viscosity inhibits crystallization, a sudden cooling and loss of volatiles, as when lava extrudes from a volcanic vent, tends to chill the material to a glass rather than to crystallize it, leading to the volcanic glass [12].
The main volcanic glass is the obsidian; however, the sudden cooling of the magma can form other glasses.
Pumice is formed when the magma erupts violently. This volcanic rock is commonly obtained from rhyolitic and andesitic magmas, although the pumice form basaltic magma is also known. Pumice presents a foaming structure due to a sudden depressurization and cooling of the magma, which causes a decrease of the solubility of various gases (CO2 and H2O) that are trapped inside the matrix. These materials are used for construction (mortars and concretes), cosmetics (exfoliant) or as abrasive [13].
Apache tears are dark volcanic glass with spherical structure, which are frequently associated with perlite. These rocks are formed from rhyolitic magmas with high H2O and alkali content, leading to pebbles after the sudden cooling [14].
Tachylite is a dark volcanic glass obtained from the rapid cooling of basaltic magma so its chemical composition differs to that shown by obsidian since rhyolitic magma displays a higher SiO2 content. These rocks appear mixed with other basaltic rocks such as feldspars or olivines, which have a stronger tendency to crystallize, because they have more freedom to arrange themselves in a crystalline order [15].
Sideromelane is an unusual glass obtained from a basaltic magma. This rock is formed at higher temperature and with more rapid chilling than tachylite. This rock is frequently formed during explosions of subglacial or submarine volcanoes. Sideromelane is usually embedded in a palagonite matrix forming hyaloclastite deposits [15].
Palagonite is also a glass obtained from basaltic magma, which is formed by the interaction between the basalt melt and water to form colored palagonite tuff cones. This tuff is composed of fragments of sideromelane and thicker basaltic rocks, which are embedded in a palagonite matrix to form hyaloclastite deposits [15].
The volcanic glasses are distributed in areas of recent volcanic activity throughout the world. These materials are not observed in zones where there was volcanic activity millions of years ago since obsidian is metastable material and is susceptible to geological and environmental effects, evolving mainly to smectites or zeolites [12].
As indicated, obsidian is distributed throughout the five continents. Thus, obsidian is found in several nations of America (Argentina, Chile, Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, United States or Canada), Europe (France, Italy, Hungary, Greece, Iceland or Russia), Africa (Kenya, Tanzania or Ethiopia), Asia (Turkey, Iran, Indonesia or Japan) and Oceania (Australia and New Zealand) (Figure 2).
Volcanic glass by country [
Perlite is also an amorphous volcanic glass with water retained in its structure [17]. The thermal treatment of the volcanic glass favors the removal of the structural water as well as an unusual expansion of its structure when the temperature reaches 850–900°C. The water trapped in the structure of the material vaporizes and escapes, leading to an expansion of the material to 7–20 times its original volume, acquiring a foam-like cellular structure (Figures 3 and 4) and obtaining a versatile and sustainable mineral that is mined and processed with a negligible impact on the environment. Thus, unexpanded (“raw”) perlite has a bulk density around 1.1 g cm−3, while typical expanded perlite has a bulk density of about 0.03–0.150 g cm−3 [18]. The main uses and applications of perlite are indicated below.
Morphology of perlite in its rock, crushed and expanded form.
SEM image of expanded perlite.
Raw perlite can be used as sandblasting, slag coagulant or silica source. In addition, perlite has interesting applications in the field of foundry, steel industries or metal finishing (Figure 5). However, once the perlite structure is expanded, the number of uses and applications of this material is infinitely higher. Thus, the expanded perlite can be used as insulation in a wide range of temperatures, oil well treatment, flame resistant, acoustic insulation, filtration, adsorbent, agriculture and horticulture, lightweight aggregate construction, among other applications as indicated in Figure 6.
Uses and applications of raw perlite.
Uses and applications of expanded perlite.
The wide variety of applications that exhibits the expanded perlite would lead to a monograph about this material. This chapter is only focused on some applications of the volcanic glass related with adsorption and separation processes.
The adsorption capacity of perlite is attributed to the presence of hydroxyl groups on its surface [19, 20]. Thus, silicon atoms tend to maintain their coordination at room temperature by attachment to the monovalent hydroxyl groups, forming silanol groups as follows (Figure 7):
Hydroxyl groups in silica species.
while the hydrous oxide surface groups in alumina (Figure 8) are given by:
Hydroxyl groups in aluminum species.
Heavy metals are among the most common pollutants that harm the aqueous environment and damage the health of human, animals, and plants [21]. Domestic and industrial wastewaters containing toxic metal ions are increasingly discharged into the environment, especially in developing countries. These metal ions are of significant importance as they are not biodegradable and cannot be metabolized by the environment but tend to accumulate in living organisms, causing various diseases and disorders. Also, they can only be diluted or transformed, not destroyed [22]. These heavy metal ions pose serious health implications to the vital organs of human beings and animals when consumed above certain threshold concentrations. There are various techniques for the removal of these toxic metal ions such as chemical precipitation, solvent extraction, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and nanofiltration. Among these techniques, adsorption is considered effective and economic due to its high efficiency, low-cost possibilities, easy handling, and the availability of different adsorbents. In this sense, perlite is a material with high potential due to its low cost and high availability.
Table 2 reports the adsorption capacity of perlite in various cations [19, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39]. From these data, it can be observed how the thermal treatment to expand the perlite does not improve the adsorption capacity due to the thermal treatment causes the dehydroxylation of the -OH groups so the possible cationic exchange H+ by Mn+ is disfavored [24]. On the other hand, these authors have pointed out that the adsorption follows a pseudo-second reaction and the maximum adsorption capacity takes place at pH = 5–6.5.
Material | Adsorbed (mg g−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|
Expanded perlite | 8.62 | [23] |
Expanded perlite | 0.51 | [24] |
Unexpanded perlite | 1.01 | [24] |
Unexpanded perlite | 10.87 | [25] |
Unexpanded perlite | 0.70 | [26] |
Expanded perlite | 1.95 | [27] |
Chitosan-coated perlite | 62 | [28] |
Chitosan-coated perlite | 325 | [29] |
Expanded perlite | 0.09 | [30] |
Expanded perlite | 0.06 | [30] |
Expanded perlite | 2.24 | [31] |
Unexpanded perlite | 6.23 | [25] |
Expanded perlite | 0.03 | [30] |
Expanded perlite | 1.79 | [31] |
Unexpanded perlite | 0.42 | [19] |
Chitosan-coated perlite | 178 | [32] |
Unexpanded perlite | 9.52 | [25] |
Expanded perlite | 0.13 | [30] |
Expanded perlite | 6.27 | [33] |
Unexpanded perlite | 8.91 | [34] |
Unexpanded perlite | 4.46 | [25] |
Unexpanded perlite | 0.07 | [35] |
Chitosan-coated perlite | 452 | [36] |
γ-Fe2O3-perlite | 8.64 | [37] |
α-MnO2-perlite | 7.60 | [37] |
Unexpanded perlite | 0.002 | [35] |
γ-Fe2O3-perlite | 8.64 | [38] |
α-MnO2-perlite | 7.60 | [38] |
Unexpanded perlite | 0.003 | [35] |
α-MnO2-perlite | 7.64 | [39] |
Cations adsorption onto perlite reported in the literature.
Several authors have established that the perlite can improve its adsorption capacity by a thermal treatment to expand the perlite structure, and then, this material has been coated by chitosan. This polymer has been increasingly studied as an adsorbent for the removal of Mn+ ions from aqueous solutions because the amino and hydroxyl groups on the chitosan chain act as a chelation or reaction sites for the substances to be removed [28, 29, 32, 36] (Figure 9).
Chemical interaction between chitosan and the cations in solution.
Other authors have pointed that expanded perlite can host certain oxides, which adsorb certain cations with high selectivity. Thus, it has been proposed in the literature that the incorporation of Fe2O3 or MnO2 into the macrochannels of perlite, favoring the selective adsorption of harmful cations, such as As (III), Cr(VI) or Sb(V) [37, 38, 39] (Figure 10).
Chemical adsorption of As(V) in γ-Fe2O3 species.
Perlite can also act as a barrier to isolate radioactive wastes [35, 40, 41]. Thus, Akkaya has carried out several studies where polyacrylamide or poly-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate is incorporated (Figure 11) onto the expanded perlite to favor a selective adsorption of Th4+ and UO22+ species from aqueous solutions (Table 3) [40, 41]. The adsorption data revealed that Th4+ is more susceptible to be adsorbed and that the poly-acrylamide-expanded perlite composite is more efficient adsorbent than poly-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate-expanded perlite probably due to the cations that show higher affinity by the amine groups of the acrylamide species. In the same way, Akkaya evaluated several adsorption parameters onto polyacrylamide-expanded perlite in five radio nuclides of the U- and Th- series (TI+, Ra2+, Bi3+, Ac3+, and Pb2+ in a leaching solution), obtaining the following trend: 208Tl (0.4 MBq kg−1) > 212Pb and 212Bi (0.3 MBq kg−1) > 228Ac and (0.1 MBq kg−1) > 226Ra (0.04 MBq kg−1) [42].
Interaction of polyacrylamide and poly-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate with cations.
Material | Adsorbed (mol kg−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|
Unexpanded perlite | 1.59 | [35] |
poly-acrylamide-expanded perlite | 0.66 | [40] |
poly-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate-expanded perlite | 0.29 | [41] |
Unexpanded perlite | 4.63 | [35] |
poly-acrylamide-expanded perlite | 0.74 | [40] |
poly-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate-expanded perlite | 0.44 | [41] |
Radioactive cations adsorption onto perlite reported in the literature.
Perlite has also been used as a sorbent to retain F− or NO3− from aqueous solutions since NO3− is found frequently in fertilizers, while F− species are added in a controlled way in the water supply; however, an excess of F− can cause severe damages to health. Thus, Vijaya et al. used a chitosan-coated perlite to adsorb fluoride species, obtaining the highest value of 64.4 mg g−1 [43]. This process takes place by electrostatic interactions between F− species and -NH2 species of the chitosan. In the case of the NO3− species, expanded perlite was used to support γ-Fe2O3, which interacts directly with the NO3− species, reaching an adsorption of 32.6 mg g−1 [44].
Dyes and pigments are highly used organic compounds as colorants in a wide variety of products. These processes generate wastes that are often released together with wastewater. The treatment of these wastewaters is one of the main environmental issues since these residues are very dangerous for the environment and harmful to health. Wastewater from the textile industry is processed in biological treatment plants. These processes are not very efficient so it is necessary to use complementary or alternative processes to eliminate these organic compounds from the water. Several processes such as precipitation, flocculation, coagulation, ion exchange, reverse osmosis, ozonization or adsorption have emerged as processes to remedy these emissions of dyes and pigments. Adsorption is one of the processes mostly used to remove organic compounds from wastewater. Active carbon is the adsorbent that has shown the greatest adsorption capacity; however, this adsorbent is synthesized from various physical and chemical processes, which raises the price of the process in comparison with the natural adsorbent that are inexpensive and highly available, although its adsorption capacity is lower. Among these adsorbents, perlite is a low-cost material with great potential to adsorb pigments and dyes. Thus, several studies have been carried out for the adsorption of cationic dyes as methylene blue [20], methyl violet [45, 46], C.I. basic blue 41 [47], rhodamine B [48], maxilon blue G5 [49], or rhodamine B [50] (Figure 12 and Table 4).
Cationic dyes adsorbed onto perlite.
Material | Cationic dye | Adsorbed (mmol g−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Unexpanded perlite | Methylene blue | 0.71 | [20] |
Expanded perlite | 0.08 | ||
Expanded perlite | Methyl violet | 0.02 | [45] |
Unexpanded perlite | C.I. Basic blue 41 | 1.79·10−3 | [47] |
Expanded perlite | 2.69·10−3 | ||
Unexpanded perlite | Rhodamine B | 0.14 | [48] |
Expanded perlite | Maxilon blue 5G | 0.05 | [49] |
Expanded perlite | Rhodamine B | 1.02·10−3 | [50] |
Adsorption of cationic dyes onto perlite reported in the literature.
In all cases, the adsorption process is favored under basic conditions since perlite (negatively charged) interacts with the dye (positively charged) as indicates the following reactions::
In the same way, anionic dyes have been adsorbed in expanded and unexpanded perlite as well as chitosan, orthophenanthroline or γ-Fe2O3 coated-perlite (Figure 13 and Table 5).
Anionic dyes adsorbed onto perlite.
Material | Cationic dye | Adsorbed (mmol g−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Unexpanded perlite | Congo Red | 0.05 | [51] |
γ-Fe2O3-perlite | Direct red 81 | 0.61 | [52] |
Orthophenanthroline-perlite | Eriochrome black T | 0.03 | [53] |
Chitosan-coated perlite | Ostazin black | 0.03 | [54] |
Adsorption of anionic dyes onto perlite reported in the literature.
The adsorption processes are favored under slightly acid conditions since the electrostatic interactions increase, as indicated in the following scheme.
Surfactants are among the most versatile of the products of the chemical industry, being used as detergent, in pharmaceuticals, in prospecting for petroleum. However, the application of surfactants can also produce environmental pollution and raises a series of problems for wastewater treatment plants. One of the characteristic features of surfactants is their tendency to adsorb at interfaces in an oriented fashion. Similarly to the dyes, the surfactants can be classified into cationic and anionic so the adsorbent-surfactant interactions should be similar; however, the long hydrocarbon chains give rise to a polar section and another nonpolar in the surfactant, so nonelectrostatic interactions appear.
Considering this premises, an inexpensive adsorbed as perlite has been used to adsorb a cationic surfactant such as cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), obtaining a maximum adsorption value of 0.04 mmol g−1 for unexpanded perlite and 0.11 mmol g−1 for expanded perlite [55]. As takes places in cationic dyes, the adsorption is favored in basic conditions since the negatively charged surface of the perlite interacts with the cationic surfactant. The amount of the cation is another key factor due to CTA+ which can adopt different morphologies depending on the proportions (Figure 14).
Interaction between a cationic surfactant and perlite in basic conditions.
In the same way, the adsorption capacity of the expanded perlite was evaluated in anionic surfactant using sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate (Figure 15) as target molecule [56], reaching an adsorption value of 0.08 mmol g−1. Similarly to the CTA+, the anionic surfactant must adopt different morphologies as a function of its concentration.
Chemical structure of sodium dodecylbenzenesulfonate.
The expansion that shows the structure of the perlite after a thermal treatment about 850°C (Figures 3 and 4) allows to host large molecules such as proteins and enzymes, which has great potential in the field of enzymatic catalysts and biosensors as well as the diagnosis of diseases. Thus, Rodríguez et al. have immobilized α-amylase onto expanded perlite [57], while Demirbas et al. have immobilized casein [58]. Pezzella et al. have adsorbed laccase on expanded perlite to adsorb dyes [59]. This process takes place by H-bond interactions. In addition, considering that perlite can also be used as lightweight aggregate concrete, this material has also been used to the adsorption of an antibiotic as cefixime [60] or even the immobilization of bacteria [61].
Phenolic compounds are generally considered to be one of the most important organic pollutants discharged into the environment causing serious damage to health, unpleasant taste and odor. The major sources of phenol pollution in the aquatic environment are wasterwaters from the paint, pesticide, coal conversion, polymeric resin, petroleum, and petrochemicals industries. Degradation of these substances produces phenol and its derivatives in the environment. The chlorination of natural waters for disinfection produces chlorinated phenols. A variety of techniques, such as ozonolysis, photolysis, and photocatalytic decomposition, have been implemented to purify water contaminated by phenols. Traditionally, biological treatment, activated carbon adsorption, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, and solvent extraction are the most widely used techniques for removing phenols and related organic substances. Adsorption of phenols onto solid supports such as activated carbons allows for their removal from water without the addition of chemicals [62].
Unexpanded perlite has shown to be an efficient material to adsorb 4-chlorophenol (Table 6), although its adsorption capacity is lower than bentonite [63]. In a later study, an expanded perlite was coated with chitosan to carry out a comparative study with phenol and chlorophenols [64]. The adsorption data reveal higher adsorption values than those shown for unexpanded perlite [63, 64]. The maximum adsorption capacity takes place at neutral pH through hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces. The use of basic pHs causes a decrease of the adsorption capacity due to repulsive forces between adsorbate-adsorbent. On the other hand, Rostami et al. carried out an experiment where perlite was used to filtrate phenolic compounds from cigarette smoke, obtaining the highest adsorption values for phenol and cresols [65]. The expanded perlite was treated with basic solution to adsorb benzene (Table 6) [66]. According to the authors, the basic treatment generates a surface Si-O−, which favors the interaction with the benzene. Björklund et al. evaluated the sorption of several hydrophobic organic pollutants onto perlite [67], obtaining an adsorption of 95% of alkylphenols, while the adsorbed polyaromatic hydrocarbons was about 80%.
Material | Organic compound | Adsorbed (mmol g−1) | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Unexpanded perlite | 4-chlorophenol | 0.04 | [63] |
Chitosan-coated perlite | Phenol | 2.04 | [64] |
2-chlorophenol | 2.04 | ||
4-chlorophenol | 2.50 | ||
Expanded perlite/NaOH | Benzene | 0.25 | [66] |
Ionic liquid-immobilized expanded perlite | Bisphenol A | 0.01 | [68] |
Perlite/diatomite | Methyl | 1.51 | [69] |
Adsorption of aromatic compounds and hydrocarbons onto perlite reported in the literature.
Bisphenol A (BPA) is an aromatic monomer used in the industrial production for polycarbonate polymers and epoxy resins. This compound is used as linings for food and beverage packaging, as dental sealants, and as an additive to other consumer products. BPA can mimic estrogen and leads to negative health effects on animals and human beings so it is considered a potential toxic food contaminant because it could migrate from the containers into a variety of foods and beverage. Thus, expanded perlite immobilized ionic liquids to retain BPA (Table 6), where the adsorption takes place between the л-electrons of the BPA with the л-electrons of the imidazolic ring of the ionic liquid and H-bonds between the -OH groups of the ionic-liquid/expanded perlite and BPA [68].
Methyl
As indicated above, volcanic glass has an amorphous structure, so these aluminosilicates could be considered as zeolites without a clear hierarchy. Thus, it has been proposed the use of the volcanic glass as molecular sieve to separate hydrocarbons with similar physicochemical properties. Fernández-Hechevarría et al. have adsorbed and separated similar compounds as propane and propylene due to specific interactions of the double bond of the propylene (Figure 16A) [70]. The same authors have separated olefins C5-C9 using these materials by inverse chromatography, demonstrating that these materials are excellent molecular sieves (Figure 16B) [71].
Chromatogram of propane (C3)-propylene (C3=) mixture (A) and C5-C9 mixture (B).
In summary, volcanic glass is an igneous rock obtained by the rapid cooling of magma giving rise to an aluminosilicate without a defined order. The cooling of the rhyolitic magma forms a volcanic glass with excellent properties since the heating of these volcanic glass generates a macroporous structure with a wide range of applications as insulation in a wide range of temperatures, oil well treatment, flame resistant, acoustic insulation, filtration, adsorbent, agriculture and horticulture, lightweight aggregate construction, among other applications.
Focusing on its use as an adsorbent, perlite can be used to adsorb both cations and anions. The adsorption capacity can be improved by the incorporation of several organic or inorganic structures onto the expanded perlite to favor a specific adsorption. In addition, the expanded perlite can be used to retain bulkier molecules such as aromatic compounds, dyes or biomolecules so these materials can play an important role in the water purification. Recently, volcanic glass has been used as molecular sieve to adsorb and separate short hydrocarbons such as propane/propylene or the separation of short olefins (C5–C9). Considering these premises, the volcanic glass is a material with high potential to the selective adsorption of different biomolecules. In addition, as expanded perlite has the ability to host molecules with variable behavior and dimensions.
Tooth avulsion is a very serious traumatic dental injury (TDI) as tooth loss may remarkably compromise the patient in both functional and psychological aspects [1, 2].
Among all dental traumas, avulsion of the permanent tooth accounts for up to 16% of all dental injuries and constitutes the most serious one. It is considered as one of the few emergency situations in dentistry [3]. By definition, tooth avulsion refers to the total displacement of the tooth out of its alveolar socket (Figure 1) [4]. Presence of the tooth outside the socket leads to deterioration of the pulp and periodontal ligaments (PDLs) due to the lack of blood and nerve supply to their cells in addition to the unfavorable external environment such as dryness and possible contamination [5]. This may end up with periodontal attachment damage, pulp necrosis, and eventually tooth loss [6]. The maxillary central incisors are the most frequently involved teeth; boys and the age group of 7–11 years old are more susceptible to this type of trauma [7].
Tooth avulsion refers to the total displacement of the tooth out of its alveolar socket.
The prevalence and incidence of reported traumatic dental injuries (TDIs) have significantly been affected during COVID-19 pandemic. In a retrospective analysis conducted at King’s College Hospital Dental Institute in London, UK, there was around 46% reduction in presented cases with TDIs during the COVID-19 compared to the year before for the same period of time [8]. With respect to avulsion injuries, the study revealed a remarkable decline in cases by around 93%. It also showed an increase in the mean delay in presentation following TDIs from 2.4 days the year before to 5.3 days during COVID-19 [8]. The reasons behind these changes were mostly related to the lockdown and forcible closure of dental practices during the pandemic. Although the urgent dental cares services in hospitals were mostly available worldwide, patients were hesitant to reach out to such centers due to the perceived fear of acquiring viral infections. Other studies also showed the same steep reduction in reported TDIs and traumatic injuries generally during COVID-19 [8, 9, 10].
According to previous studies, demographic data of reported cases has not differed between COVID-19 and years before except having less admitted cases in group age older than 70-year-old [8].
The etiology of tooth avulsion varies according to the type of dentition. Avulsion in primary dentition is typically a result of hard objects hitting the teeth, whereas avulsion in permanent dentition is generally a result of falls, fights, sport injuries, automobile or bicycle accidents, and domestic abuse. In permanent and primary dentition, avulsion generally occurs in the maxilla, and the most affected teeth are the maxillary central incisors (Figure 2). Increased overjet and incompetent lips were identified as potential etiological factors in such avulsion cases [11, 12, 13]. In rare cases, iatrogenic teeth avulsion during other procedures might happen and were reported in the literature [14, 15, 16, 17].
Maxillary central incisors are the most frequently involved teeth in avulsions.
Several factors should be considered [18], when treating a patient with an avulsed permenant tooth (Figure 3):
Patient’s age
Medical status
Root development
Development of the dentition and of the face
Extra-oral time
Storage medium
Damage associated with the avulsed tooth
Factors should be considered in the treatment of tooth avulsion.
Multidisciplinary approach in avulsion injuries is essential and considered a cornerstone during the management process. Though the management of avulsions is highly dependent on the early actions taken following the trauma and the time spent till reaching out healthcare services, this is furthermore affected during COVID-19 pandemic due to international lockdowns and restricted accessibility to hospitals. Such times clearly signify the importance of public awareness of first-aid measures in TDIs, especially avulsion.
International guidelines have been proposed to address TDIs and avulsions injuries. According to the International Association of Dental Traumatology (IADT) guidelines [19, 20, 21] and the European Society of Endodontology position statement [22], certain systematic approach has to be adopted to treat teeth avulsions. Obviously, tooth avulsion leads to necrosis of disrupted pulp which requires endodontic treatment.
We will be talking about the management for teeth avulsion and treatment choices during COVID-19. Best approach to treat an avulsed permanent tooth is immediate replantation. Whether the case is admitted to emergency clinic or people at trauma site are instructed on phone, the following steps are to be considered:
Take self-precautions while treating others at the emergency cite including wearing masks and personal protective equipment (PPE) if possible, to avoid viral infections. However, gold standard treatment always should be provided, even if dental aerosol-generating procedures (AGPs) are likely to be involved [23].
Calm the patient down.
Always aim for immediate replantation. If replantation cannot be done at the trauma site by surrounding peoples/parents/others, the tooth has to be stored as soon as possible in a storage media; milk, Hanks’ Balanced Salt Solution (HBSS), saliva, saline, or water. This is to avoid root surface dehydration. Then tooth can be replanted immediately at the emergency clinic.
Before replantation, tooth could be rinsed under running milk or saline to clean any dirt. It must be hold by the crown without touching root. Replanting primary teeth is contraindicated.
After tooth replantation, patient is asked to bite on gauze.
History: Review patient history in case of any other injury (potentially more serious) is involved, simultaneously. If any vomiting, headache, unconsciousness, or drowsiness are reported, this should be further investigated at the hospital, and also, if there is a previous injury to the teeth or the alveolar bone or if the occlusion has further changed.
How, when, and where the trauma/accident happened are all questions that should be answered. This will further help in evaluating the trauma for legal and insurance purposes. Any suspected abuse should be reported to local authority.
Anesthesia: administering local anesthesia is always recommended, preferably without vasoconstrictor [20].
Recent guidelines have detailed the plan on replanting tooth according to two main factors:
Extra-oral dry time: being less or more than 60 min.
Root maturation: closed or open apex.
For extra-oral dry time, it is used to assess periodontal ligament (PDL) cells’ viability. The soonest the tooth is replanted, within 15 min, the most likely PDL cells are viable. When the extra-oral dry time exceeds 60 min, it is more likely that PDL cells are nonviable. In all situations, it is recommended to replant the tooth acknowledging that prognosis is best when replantation is within 15 min and poorest when it is after 60 min [20]. Ankylosis-related (replacement) root resorption is an expected outcome in cases of late tooth replantation [18, 20, 24].
These factors are the patient’s general health, the maturity of the root, the time the tooth is out of its socket, storage medium [11, 25, 26, 27], extra-alveolar permanence period, means of preservation, contamination, manipulation, and conditions of the avulsed tooth [28], and also relevant factors such as type of splint used and time of permanence (Figures 4 and 5).
.
Factors might influence the success of tooth replantation.
Potential complications following tooth replantation.
Successful healing after replantation may occur only if the damage to the PDL cells was minimal. Immediate replantation of the avulsed tooth into the socket at the site of the trauma has been suggested to prevent further damage to the PDL cells left on the root surface from desiccation. As this is not always attainable since the lay person at the trauma site may lack the skill and the willingness to try this procedure. In such situations, it is recommended to put the avulsed tooth temporarily in a storage medium capable of preserving PDL cells viability. Thus, the extra-alveolar dry time and the type of storage medium are the most critical factors. Prolonging the duration of dry storage causes necrosis of the PDL cells after 30–60 min and decreases greatly the chances of healing after replantation [29].
No or minimal microbial contamination.
Readily available or accessible.
Physiologically compatible pH and osmolality to maintaining PDL cell viability.
The pH of the environment should be around 6.6–7.8 to maintain cell growth.
Optimal osmolality is 230–400 mOsmol/kg.21 as it affects water absorption of the cells.
In their quest for an ideal storage media, a wide variety of materials have been tested by a lot of researchers for their role as potential storage media. The recent guidelines of IADT recommend in descending order of preference, milk, HBSS (Hanks’ Balanced Salt Solution), saliva, or saline as suitable and convenient storage mediums. Water is considered a poor medium but is better than dry storage. Other materials, some with promising results, include ViaSpan, propolis, and egg white [20, 30].
Many authorities recognized milk as the most recommended storage medium for avulsed teeth. The ease of obtaining it at accident sites makes it a practical choice. The physiological properties of milk are significantly better than other solutions, and pH (6.5–7.2) and osmolality (270 mOsm/kg) are compatible with PDL cells. Milk contains a combination of nutritional substances such as amino acids, carbohydrates, and vitamins capable of maintaining PDL cell viability. In addition, the presence of epithelial growth factor stimulates the proliferation and regeneration of epithelial cell rests of Malassez and activates the alveolar bone resorption. Hence, the bone tissue may be isolated from the tooth and decreases the chances of ankylosis [30, 31]. However, it should be noted that few reports argued that replanted teeth stored in milk were subject to ankylosis [32, 33, 34].
The HBSS is a sterile, isotonic, and physiologically balanced standard saline solution which is used in biomedical research to support the growth of many cell types. It is a nontoxic solution, biocompatible with PDL cells; its pH (7.2) and osmolality (320 mOsm/kg) are balanced and considered almost ideal. It is composed of glucose, sodium, calcium, potassium, and magnesium ions.
HBSS is highly recommended for its ability to provide long-term preservation of PDL cells viability and proliferation capacity. Its ingredients may further help to reconstitute the depleted cellular components of the PDL. HBSS is commercially available as “Save-A-Tooth.” However, it is not found at most of the accident sites; this makes it an impractical storage medium [20, 29, 31, 32, 34].
The only advantage of saliva as a storage media is its ease of availability immediately on almost all accident sites. However, it presents a possible source of bacterial contamination for PDL cells. Its osmolality (60–70 mOsm/kg) is considerably lower than the physiological osmolality; thus, cells stored in saliva show swelling and membrane damage. Saliva is better than tap water or dry storage, but it can be used only for very short storage time [29, 30, 31].
Normal saline, a 0.90% NaCl solution, has a physiological osmolality of 280 mOsm/kg which is compatible with the PDL cells. However, it is deficient in the essential nutrients, such as glucose, magnesium, and calcium which are needed to the normal metabolic functions of the cells of the PDL. Moreover, the hypotonic properties of saline induce rapid cellular lysis. Therefore, saline is not a good storage media unless for short periods only [29, 31].
Viaspan is a cell culture media widely used for storing and transporting organs to be transplanted. It has 320 mOsm/kg osmolality and 7.4 pH which favors cell growth and viability of the PDL cells. It is nearly an ideal material for storage of avulsed teeth for long periods. However, its high cost, short vitality expiration, and the limited access to it especially at the accident sites make it difficult to find and use this storage medium [31, 35].
Egg white is considered a good storage media because of its high protein content, vitamins, and water. It is easily accessible and lacks microbial contamination with a pH of 8.6–9.3 and osmolality of 258 mOsmol/kg. Thus, it favors PDL cells viability and healing and presents a suitable choice for extended storage time [29, 31].
Tap water has an approximate osmolality of 30 mOsm/kg and a pH of 7.4–7.79. It is not considered a suitable storage medium for avulsed teeth. It has bacterial contamination; its hypotonicity and nonphysiologically pH and osmolality favor the PDL cell lysis. Cells stored in water did not maintain their viability. However, it is better than dry storage and should be used only when there are no other alternatives (Table 1 and Figure 6) [29, 31].
Storage media | Osmolality (mOsmo/kg) | pH | Efficacy | Accessibility |
---|---|---|---|---|
Milk | 270 | 6.5–7.2 | ✓ | ✓ |
HBSS | 270–290 | 7.2–7.3 | ✓ | |
Saliva | 60–70 | 6.3 | ✓ | |
Saline | 280 | 7 | ✓ | |
Viaspan | 320 | 7.4 | ✓ | |
Egg white | 258 | 8.6–9.3 | ✓ | ✓ |
Tap water | 30 | 7.4 7.79 | ✓ |
Characteristics of storage media.
Milk as storage media.
After replantation, the treatment of choice is splinting [2]. By definition, splinting is an assembly to protect, stabilize, and immobilize loosened, fractured, replanted, and traumatized teeth [3]. Also splinting is defined by American Association of Endodontists as “a rigid or flexible device or compound used to support, protect, or immobilize teeth that have been loosened, replanted, fractured, or subjected to certain endodontic procedures” [36].
To allow immobilization of the teeth during the initial period, it is mandatory using the so-called splint which is essential for the repair of periodontal ligament [37]. The use of semirigid splint is more indicated than the rigid one, considering that the long period of splinting is not recommended due to its expected complications namely substitutive resorption or ankylosis [38, 39]. One of the adverse healing outcomes of splinting is that forceful placement of the splint may cause additional trauma to the already affected pulp of the avulsed tooth [40].
Many different splinting techniques have been described [41]:
Wire-composite splint, orthodontic splint, titanium trauma splint (TTS) splint, resin splint, Kevlar/fiberglass splint (fiberglass), self-etching and bonding material, and suture splint.
Kahler et al. also described splint types [42]:
Composite and wire splints.
Composite and fishing line splints.
Orthodontic wire and bracket splint 0.3–0.4 mm in diameter.
Fiber splints (polyethylene or Kevlar fiber mesh).
Titanium trauma splint (TTS).
Arch bar splints.
Wire ligature splints.
Composite splints.
Orthodontic brackets and arches.
Wire and composite splints.
Fiber splints.
Titanium trauma splints (TTS).
In cases of associated alveolar or jawbone fracture, a more rigid splint is indicated and should be left in place for about 4 weeks.
Cap splints and orthodontic bands were associated with a greater frequency of pulp necrosis and pulp canal obliteration when compared with acid etch resin splints and no splinting [44].
These splinting techniques were used prior to the development of a passively
applied acid etch resin technique and are no longer recommended [20]
according to the recent guidline, 2020 [20].
Stabilize the tooth for 2 weeks using a passive flexible splint such as wire of a diameter up to 0.016″ or 0.4 mm bonded to the tooth and adjacent teeth. Keep the composite and bonding agents away from the gingival tissues and proximal areas. Second option is nylon fishing line (0.13–0.25 mm) which can be used to create a flexible splint, using composite to bond it to the teeth. Nylon (fishing line) splints are not recommended for children with mixed dentition, since the status of the other teeth may result in instability or loss of such splint.
Tooth-supporting tissue injuries and lip injuries may be associated with avulsion [45].
Soft tissue tearing of the socket gingiva associated with avulsed tooth should be noted [46].
There are three benefits may be gained from the tight stitching of such tearing [47]:
Stop of the bleeding.
Avoid the penetration of microorganism into periodontium.
Allow the primary healing of the wound.
In addition to the soft tissue, the socket itself needs to be manipulated before replantation of the root, if the alveolar bone has collapsed, attempts should be made to reconstruct its wall [48].
It is mandatory to initiate root canal treatment within 2 weeks of tooth replantation [20, 22]. Root canal treatment should start with intracanal medication; calcium hydroxide or antibiotic-corticosteroid paste dressing for 2 weeks up to 1 month or 6 weeks [49, 50] is followed by root canal filling.
No root canal treatment is performed at first, but a close follow-up is needed to detect any clinical or radiographic signs of pulp necrosis. The aim is to re-establish blood supply of open apices and maintain root development which could happen spontaneously after replantation.
Radiographic and clinical examination is indicted after 2 weeks, 4 weeks, 6–8 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and yearly thereafter for at least 5 years. If there is any sign of external infection-related root resorption, endodontics intervention is advised whether it is apexification, root canal treatment, or regenerative endodontic procedures (REPs) [20, 22, 48].
REPs have been proposed based on translational studies. In 2016, American Association of Endodontists and European Society of Endodontology have proposed clinical considerations and position statement; respectively, discussing REPs [51]. In avulsion injuries, REPs are only indicated in cases of immature root with open apex and signs of pulp necrosis. The clinical protocol is the same that have been proposed previously in the mentioned guidelines. A recent report implemented this approach to treat avulsed tooth and showed successful outcome with a 30-month follow-up [52]. The key is using biocompatible materials that would recruit stem cells to build hard tissue barriers and allow physiological growth of roots. Biocompatible materials could be MTA or tricalcium silicate cements, e.g. bioceramicsm that revealed successful outcomes in several reports [53].
Antibiotics given at the time of replantation to prevent the infection may occur due to tooth contamination or may be present in the storage media. Also, it can be prescribed prior to endodontic treatment. It is theoretically effective in preventing bacterial invasion of the necrotic pulp and; further, it may prevent the inflammatory resorption (Figure 7) [54].
Adjunctive therapies in the treatment of avulsed tooth.
In all cases, appropriate dosage for the patient’s age and weight should be calculated.
Amoxicillin or penicillin remains the first choice due to their effectiveness on oral flora and low incidence of side effects. Alternative antibiotics should be considered for patients with an allergy to penicillin [55].
The effectiveness of tetracycline administered immediately after avulsion and replantation has been demonstrated in animal study [56, 57]. Specifically, doxycycline is an appropriate antibiotic to use because of its antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-resorptive effects. But still doxycycline exerted no effect on the occurrence of complete pulp revascularization in replanted teeth [58]. Tetracycline or doxycycline is generally not recommended for patients under 12 years of age to avoid the risk of discoloration of permanent teeth [20, 56, 57].
By searching the literature so far, there are some indications of antibiotic prescribed for the patient with avulsed tooth (Figure 8).
Replanted tooth with possibly contaminated root and/or storage media [20, 54] for medically compromised patient.
Avulsed tooth with other related trauma [20].
Prevention of sequalae of avulsion-related bacteremia in the susceptible patients [59].
Prevention of inflammatory resorption in cases with necrotic pulp (tetracycline with its antimicrobial and anti-resorptive effect) [58].
Indication of antibiotics in patient with avulsed tooth.
Prescription of analgesic is case-dependent; accordingly, it should be assessed individually. The use of stronger pain killer is unlikely [20, 48].
Chlorhexidine (CHX) is a commonly used antiseptic mouthwash and is available over the counter (OTC); the use of adjunctive short-term of CHX can enhance oral hygiene by managing dental plaque [60].
The recent recommendation is to use a chlorhexidine (0.12%) mouth rinse twice a day for 2 weeks (during the entire period of splinting).
In cases of severe replacement resorption (RR) and ankylosis, decoronation can be considered as an alternative treatment with good clinical outcomes for children and adolescents to the age when an appropriate implant is possible. If carried out at the right time; it helps to preserve the bucco-palatal dimensions of the alveolar bone and at the same time allows for vertical bone growth. This enables for future implant insertion without the need for the costly and invasive procedure of alveolar ridge augmentation. However, this approach still needs solid studies to verify it [61, 62].
Timing of the decoronation is crucial and should be planned for each individual case with regard to the patient’s age, growth intensity, and growth pattern. In young patients, it is advantageous to retain an ankylosed tooth, if possible, to act as a space maintainer. However, it is very necessary to intervene before the effect of infraposition causes significant arrested alveolar bone growth that makes a final prosthetic solution difficult. When ankylosis is diagnosed before the age of 10 years, there is a high risk of severe infraposition, and the tooth should be carefully monitored every 6 months. There is also a risk of severe infraposition during the pubertal growth spurt which varies in time from one person to another and thus needs also careful monitoring [63].
Clinically, the procedure is simple. Under local anesthesia and a full-thickness flap, the crown of the ankylosed tooth is sectioned earlier the cementoenamel junction. The root is cleaned with a K-file and washed with saline, and the canal is allowed to fill with blood and then the flap is repositioned. Subsequently, esthetics is maintained using an adhesive bridge [62].
Autotransplantation of an immature maxillary premolar to replace an ankylosed tooth is considered a highly successful alternative technique and is particularly indicated when crowding requires extraction of a premolar. To achieve pulpal revascularization and successful periodontal healing of the donor tooth, the ideal root should develop to three-fourths of the complete root length. In such cases, the whole root of the ankylosed tooth must be extracted, and a premolar will be transplanted in its place. The transplant tooth with its sound periodontal ligament will induce new bone formation, have continued root development, and even maintain its vitality. An esthetic restoration and orthodontic treatment will follow the transplant [64, 65].
The long-term prognosis of replanted avulsed teeth shows great variability; the observed outcomes are greatly heterogeneous ranging from healing without symptoms to inflammation and rapid tooth loss. Many studies had shown a relatively low survival rate of replanted avulsed teeth, compared to other types of traumata, ranging from 50% to 83.3% [66]. Under favorable conditions, replanted teeth may be retained for 5 or 10 years and even few of them for a lifetime. However, some may fail very soon after replantation.
Delayed replantation
Unphysiological storage
Teeth with open apices
After replantation of the tooth, the prognosis commonly remains uncertain. Replacement resorption and inflammatory resorption are probable adverse outcomes in comparison with the more favorable functional healing (FH): [66]
The damaged tissues including the cementum and dentin are being resorbed by multinuclear giant cells. In regions with minor damage, the ruptured periodontal fibers are being rebuilt (regeneration). In case of small resorption cavities, the denuded root surface is being recolonized by neighboring cementoblasts and these deposit the cementum in which the new periodontal fibers are anchored. This process represents healing with physiologic function (functional healing, FH) [66, 67].
Root surfaces affected by the trauma are quickly colonized by multinuclear giant cells. If these cells are continuously stimulated by microbial products from an infected root canal, not adequately treated, infection-related resorption (IRR, formerly named inflammatory resorption) will result. Provided the tooth is still restorable, adequate endodontic treatment might stop the progression of IRR.
Replacement root resorption (ankylosis).
Replacement resorption is a special form of root resorption, and it follows serious luxation or avulsion injury. It is a common sequela of delayed replantation and/or dry storage. Due to excessive drying before replantation, the damaged periodontal ligament cells will start an inflammatory response over extended areas on the root surface. The resulting large resorption cavities may not be entirely covered by the cementoblasts in time. Regenerating alveolar bone will be attached directly onto the root surface. In time, through physiologic bone remodeling, the root cementum and dentin will be replaced by bone; a process termed replacement resorption (RR) or ankylosis-related root resorption [65, 66, 67].
If revascularization does not occur or appropriate endodontic therapy is not performed after tooth replantation, pulpal necrosis will occur. The combination of microbes in the root canal and the external surface of the root results in aggressive resorption and can lead to rapid tooth loss [20, 65].
In a growing patient and/or tooth with open apices, the ankylosed tooth shows severe and progressive infraocclusion. The alveolar bone will stop advancing in a coronal direction with the rest of the jaw leaving a big bone defect when the tooth is eventually lost causing major esthetic and functional challenges when it is time for the final replacement [48, 67].
Mature replanted teeth need clinical and radiographic monitoring at 2 weeks (with splint removal), 4 weeks, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and hence yearly for at least 5 years. For teeth with open apices where spontaneous pulp revascularization might occur, clinical and radiographic monitoring should be more frequent due to the high risk of infection-related (inflammatory) and/or ankylosis-related (replacement) root resorption. Therefore, replanted teeth with open apices should have clinical and radiographic monitoring at 2 weeks (with splint removal), 1 month, 2 months, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and hence yearly for at least 5 years [20].
Evaluation may include the following outcomes:
The replanted tooth is
Asymptomatic, functional,
normal mobility,
no sensitivity to percussion,
normal percussion sound,
no radiolucencies and no radiographic evidence of root resorption. The lamina dura appears normal.
In addition, for teeth with open apices, radiographic evidence of continued root formation and tooth eruption.
Pulp canal obliteration is expected and can be recognized radiographically sometime during the first year after the trauma.
Patient may or may not have symptoms.
Presence of swelling or sinus tract.
The tooth may have excessive mobility or no mobility (ankylosis) with high-pitched (metallic) percussion sound.
In case of open apex, if there is ankylosis, the tooth may gradually become infrapositioned.
Presence of radiolucencies.
Radiographic evidence of infection-related (inflammatory) resorption, ankylosis-related (replacement) resorption, or both.
Or absence of continued root formation (in case of open apex).
When ankylosis occurs in a growing patient, infraposition of the tooth is highly likely to create disturbances in alveolar and facial growth over the short, medium, and long term.
A relatively recent meta-analysis showed trauma of primary dentition to be as common as 22.7% [68] with variable prevalence of avulsion from 7 to 13% [69]. In general, avulsed primary teeth should not be replanted (according to the recommendations of the IADT) [19]. Nevertheless, there are case reports with varying degrees of success after replantation of primary teeth, whereas others reported negative results to the replanted primary tooth and its permanent successor. One systematic review concluded that here is a lack of high-quality studies to support this approach [69].
Such a severe injury to the primary tooth may have negative impact on the development and/or eruption of its permanent successor. Premature loss of avulsed primary teeth might sometimes lead to space loss, masticatory, speech, and esthetic problems; this may also cause negative impact on their behavior, pschological, and social well-being. Removable or fixed appliances present valid treatment options to minimize space loss and improve esthetics when necessary. Furthermore, movement of the tooth during avulsion and the proximity between the primary tooth and the germ of its developing successor may interfere with its further growth and maturation leading to the occurrence of enamel defects and tooth malformations. The risk of sequelae in the permanent successor after avulsion of primary teeth is higher when the injury occurs in young children (<2 years), when the trauma is of greater magnitude such as when more teeth are involved and lower jaw is affected [70, 71].
Sequelae to the permanent successor include (Figure 10) [70]:
Malformations
crown dilaceration,
root dilaceration,
root angulation,
root duplication,
odontoma-like malformation,
arrest of root formation,
sequestration of the permanent tooth germ.
Enamel defects
white/cream or yellow/brown demarcated opacities,
diffuse patchy opacities.,
hypoplasia,
combinations of these.
Delayed eruption
Combinations
Sequelae of primary tooth avulsion.
Teledentistry can be used to monitor those traumatic injuries cases remotely. Teledentistry combines dentistry and telecommunications simultaneously with clinical information and images over remote distances for dental consultation and treatment planning [72].
In cases of traumatic injuries and avulsions specifically, initial emergency instructions could be delivered on phones till obtaining emergency healthcare services is possible. This helps in calming patients or patients’ guardians and maintains the first actions of replanting teeth or storing it in proper storage medium according to the recommendations. Teledentistry is also used at times of follow-up to report symptoms or other complications. It is mainly essential when specialty dentist is not available, yet their consultation, supervision, and valuable support could be used by the dental team in managing such cases [73]. A report showed that around 60% of patients contacted the telemedical center during the so-called “out of office hours” for dental trauma injuries. This percentage signifies the importance of having proper teledental channels addressing these incidents.
Tooth avulsion is the complete displacement of the tooth from its socket in the dental arch.
In this chapter, we tried to gather the scattered information about tooth avulsion. Despite the rich published literature, but still a lot of researches are needed to reach evidence-based conclusions.
Although the tooth avulsion is the topic of concern in general dentistry, we tried to write this perceived paper in the specialist’s manner to reflect more light on many related details.
Causes of tooth avulsion are divided into those for deciduous dentition and other for permanent dentition which are differ from each in their pattern and severity of the trauma [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Epidemiology has shown a reduction of cases during COVID-19 era. This was explained by patients’ perceived fear of acquiring viral infections and thus hesitancy to reach out to emergency centers [8, 9, 10].
Avulsion treatment outcomes are very dependent on the first-aid measure as well as the agility to seek dental treatment.
For the management, put it as two phases may let the whole picture organized and well determined by specific time (at the time of trauma) the first phase and the other which are at the clinic.
The storage media (milk, HBSS, saliva, or saline) are discussed in detail regarding the characteristic of each. Nevertheless, researches are still looking for an ideal medium; some materials such as propolis and egg white are very promising. However, the quality of evidence is considered low [74]; on the other hand, teeth splinting is discussed generally as well as specifically for the avulsed teeth (with and without alveolar bone fracture) [20].
The literature regarding the adjunctive therapies for the teeth avulsion showed the role of these therapies; in this chapter, we considered them concisely with stress upon the indications for each [19, 20, 48, 60].
Criteria of successful treatment is widely discussed which is depending on both clinical and radiographic features.
Alternative treatments for the avulsed tooth in cases of the failure of aforementioned treatment are decoronation, autotransplantation, partial prosthesis, and dental implant [61, 62, 63, 64, 65].
The key of optimum outcomes in avulsions cases rely on both radiographical and clinical follow-ups. This signifies the importance of teledentistry and its role in addressing such incidents [72].
The main adverse outcome of tooth replantation is replacement root resorption (ankylosis). It implies possible risks of infraocclusion, impairment of alveolar bone growth, and tooth loss. The risk increases dramatically with delayed replantation [20].
Tooth avulsion is one of few emergencies in dentistry; prevalence differs from area to area according to the cause and gender. Replantation, immediate or delayed is the treatment of choice for the avulsed permanent tooth still immediate and proper replantation is important for long term good prognosis. Many factors may determine the outcome and use of antibiotic; although it is questionable, it is indicated in certain conditions. Although there is no strong evidence for their effect on healing, storage media is one of the factors for the preservation of the vitality of the tooth. It is used according to its availability at the trauma site. There are two stages in the treatment: emergency treatment and definitive treatment; even so, there is no grantee for the success of the treatment. Any avulsed tooth may be followed by complications, either immediately or lately. Despite the recommendation for the manager of the avulsed teeth, still not all recommendation can be applied for every avulsed tooth. Accordingly, any tooth has got special related factors which would determine the treatment plan after studying them carefully.
As a result, immediate and proper replantation is important for long-term good prognosis.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IADT | International Association of Dental Traumatology |
FH | functional healing |
IRR | inflammatory root resorption |
RR | replacement resorption |
PPE | personal protective equipment |
HBSS | Hanks’ Balanced Salt Solution |
PDL | periodontal ligament |
AGPs | aerosol-generating procedures |
SAT | systemic antibiotic therapy |
CHX | chlorohexidine |
OTC | over counterpart |
TTS | titanium trauma splints |
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Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. Her research interests include microalgal biotechnology with an emphasis on microalgae-based products.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7953",title:"Bioluminescence",subtitle:"Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7953.jpg",slug:"bioluminescence-analytical-applications-and-basic-biology",publishedDate:"September 25th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hirobumi Suzuki",hash:"3a8efa00b71abea11bf01973dc589979",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Bioluminescence - Analytical Applications and Basic Biology",editors:[{id:"185746",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirobumi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"hirobumi-suzuki",fullName:"Hirobumi Suzuki",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185746/images/system/185746.png",biography:"Dr. Hirobumi Suzuki received his Ph.D. in 1997 from Tokyo Metropolitan University, Japan, where he studied firefly phylogeny and the evolution of mating systems. He is especially interested in the genetic differentiation pattern and speciation process that correlate to the flashing pattern and mating behavior of some fireflies in Japan. He then worked for Olympus Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of optics and imaging products, where he was involved in the development of luminescence technology and produced a bioluminescence microscope that is currently being used for gene expression analysis in chronobiology, neurobiology, and developmental biology. Dr. Suzuki currently serves as a visiting researcher at Kogakuin University, Japan, and also a vice president of the Japan Firefly Society.",institutionString:"Kogakuin University",institution:null}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"12141",title:"Leadership - Advancing Great Leadership Practices and Good Leaders",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 1st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"12139",title:"Global Market and Trade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12139.jpg",hash:"fa34af07c3a9657fa670404202f8cba5",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"July 21st 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"243649",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Ireneusz",surname:"Miciuła",slug:"ireneusz-miciula",fullName:"Ireneusz Miciuła"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82804",title:"Psychiatric Problems in HIV Care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106077",signatures:"Seggane Musisi and Noeline Nakasujja",slug:"psychiatric-problems-in-hiv-care",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Future Opportunities and Tools for Emerging Challenges for HIV/AIDS Control",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82817",title:"Perspective Chapter: Microfluidic Technologies for On-Site Detection and Quantification of Infectious Diseases - 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She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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