Comparison of the effectiveness of interferon in chronic myeloproliferative disorders.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9385",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Renewable Energy - Technologies and Applications",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book discusses renewable energy resources and systems as well as energy efficiency. It contains twenty-three chapters over six sections that address a multitude of renewable energy types, including solar and photovoltaic, biomass, hydroelectric, and geothermal. The information presented herein is a scientific contribution to energy and environmental regulations, quality and efficiency of energy services, energy supply security, energy market-based approaches, government interventions, and the spread of technological innovation.",isbn:"978-1-83881-001-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-000-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-002-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84929",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",numberOfPages:428,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",numberOfDownloads:15462,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:46,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:65,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 4th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 24th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 23rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 11th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197240/images/system/197240.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tolga Taner is the head of the Department of Motor Vehicles and Transportation Technology at Aksaray University, Turkey. He received a BS in Mechanical Engineering in 1998; an MS in Mechanical Engineering from Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey, in 2002; and a Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the Gazi University of Engineering Faculty, Ankara, Turkey, in 2013. In 2018, he received the title of Associate Professor from the Inter-University Council (UAK). He also worked as a part-time lecturer in the Department of Technical Programs, Middle East Technical University, Turkey, from 2003 to 2006. His current research interests include exergy, renewable energy, and PEM fuel cells. He has published many scientific and conference papers and books. In addition, Dr. Taner has been a manager and researcher for many research projects.",institutionString:"Aksaray University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Aksaray University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"770",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"72357",title:"A Review of Virtual Inertia Techniques for Renewable Energy-Based Generators",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92651",slug:"a-review-of-virtual-inertia-techniques-for-renewable-energy-based-generators",totalDownloads:1425,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Over recent decades, the penetration of renewable energy sources (RES), especially photovoltaic and wind power plants, has been promoted in most countries. However, as these both alternative sources have power electronics at the grid interface (inverters), they are electrically decoupled from the grid. Subsequently, stability and reliability of power systems are compromised. Inertia in power systems has been traditionally determined by considering all the rotating masses directly connected to the grid. Thus, as the penetration of renewable units increases, the inertia of the power system decreases due to the reduction of directly connected rotating machines. As a consequence, power systems require a new set of strategies to include these renewable sources. In fact, ‘hidden inertia,’ ‘synthetic inertia’ and ‘virtual inertia’ are terms currently used to represent an artificial inertia created by inverter control strategies of such renewable sources. This chapter reviews the inertia concept and proposes a method to estimate the rotational inertia in different parts of the world. In addition, an extensive discussion on wind and photovoltaic power plants and their contribution to inertia and power system stability is presented.",signatures:"Ana Fernández-Guillamón, Emilio Gómez-Lázaro, Eduard Muljadi and Ángel Molina-Garcia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72357",authors:[{id:"153168",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilio",surname:"Gomez-Lazaro",slug:"emilio-gomez-lazaro",fullName:"Emilio Gomez-Lazaro"},{id:"154049",title:"Dr.",name:"Angel",surname:"Molina-Garcia",slug:"angel-molina-garcia",fullName:"Angel Molina-Garcia"},{id:"318862",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ana",surname:"Fernandez-Guillamon",slug:"ana-fernandez-guillamon",fullName:"Ana Fernandez-Guillamon"},{id:"320304",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduard",surname:"Muljadi",slug:"eduard-muljadi",fullName:"Eduard Muljadi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73187",title:"Use of Renewable Energy in Buildings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93571",slug:"use-of-renewable-energy-in-buildings",totalDownloads:949,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Owing to factors such as high living standards and digitalization, energy use is growing. However, the proportion of renewable energy sources is also rising in all energy consumption. Given this use of renewable energy, global warming and environmental issues are still rising. Fossil-based energy species are more polluting and resource-stricken than others. Studies on environmental pollution show that fossil-based energies are the most important pollutants. Fossil-based energy source is still the most consumed type of energy. Besides, the renewable energy sources’ consumption is very low. Therefore, it is important to increase the use of renewable energy, which creates cleaner and less emissions. Buildings should have the right clean energy use incentives. The needs such as heating, refrigeration, and lighting can be met by renewable energy. This research aims to explore and demonstrate how renewable energy can profit when fulfilling public building functions. Through using both conventional methods and creative methods together, the rate of use of renewable resources such as solar, wind, and geothermal resources in buildings can be increased. Therefore, major contributions to reducing the environmental issues caused by energy consumption can be made.",signatures:"İzzet Yüksek and İlker Karadağ",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73187",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73187",authors:[{id:"186397",title:"Dr.",name:"İzzet",surname:"Yüksek",slug:"izzet-yuksek",fullName:"İzzet Yüksek"},{id:"295400",title:"Dr.",name:"İlker",surname:"Karadağ",slug:"ilker-karadag",fullName:"İlker Karadağ"}],corrections:null},{id:"71804",title:"Feasibility Analysis of Solar Power for the Safety of Fast Reactors during beyond Design Basis Events",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89822",slug:"feasibility-analysis-of-solar-power-for-the-safety-of-fast-reactors-during-beyond-design-basis-event",totalDownloads:605,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents a new design that unites the favorable technical and ecological characteristics of the solar and nuclear power plants. The current designs of nuclear reactors promise integral configuration of the primary coolant loop, secondary coolant loop, and a number of passive safety functions and overall simplification of the reactor. The present nuclear reactor design emphasizes on the safety of the reactor core at all times, i.e., controlling the reactor, cooling the reactor core, and maintaining containment. In case of non-availability of standby emergency DGs during beyond design basis event like Fukushima incident, etc., leading to extended station blackout conditions, the passive decay heat removal system will be affected. Hence, additional DGs have been made as a mandatory requirement in nuclear power plants. In case the ADG could not be mobilized during BDBE, an additional backup power source not affected by BDBE is appreciated. Hence in addition to the diesel power sources (EDG and ADG), a new design was developed for integration of diesel power with solar power. The hybrid system was designed to improve the reliability and availability of passive heat removal system, to ensure a reliable supply without interruption, and to improve the overall system reliability (by the integration with the battery bank). This hybrid power also gives the redundant power supply to the safety critical systems. This chapter also features a detailed reliability analysis carried out for power supplies to the safety critical loads. In addition a comparison was made between PV/diesel/battery with diesel/battery. These new hybrid systems conserves diesel fuel and reduce CO2 as well as particulate emissions that are harmful to environment health. Integration of solar power to the existing battery power will increase the reliability and extended availability of the system and thereby ensures safety of the plant during crisis/calamities.",signatures:"Kudiyarasan Swamynathan, P. Sivakumar and K. Karthikeyan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71804",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71804",authors:[{id:"310733",title:"Dr.",name:"Kudiyarasan",surname:"Swamynathan",slug:"kudiyarasan-swamynathan",fullName:"Kudiyarasan Swamynathan"}],corrections:null},{id:"70545",title:"Recent Advances in Photovoltaic-Trombe Wall System: A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90618",slug:"recent-advances-in-photovoltaic-trombe-wall-system-a-review",totalDownloads:682,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Management of energy consumption for building’s air conditioning is a vital issue for resource saving and environmental protection. The use of solar energy to generate electricity by solar cells is essential nowadays. However, the disadvantage of solar panels is the elevated temperature in work, especially in the hot sunny climate that leads to efficiency decline. Also, there is a problem with heating during the night and cloudy days. For the last 20 years, there has been a rapid development in the field of integrated solar technologies. A hybrid PV/Trombe wall (PV/TW) system suggested being an efficient and durable conversion system of solar energy. The design of the PV/TW system considered one of the focusing areas of the present research to make it more economically feasible. The idea of building the photovoltaic-Trombe wall has appeared as one of the green technologies. Several published works at that time are included for integrating PV/TW system. This chapter devoted to reviewing the theoretical and practical studies conducted on this system for developing and improving electrical and thermal performance.",signatures:"Omer K. Ahmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70545",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70545",authors:[{id:"286415",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Omer",slug:"ahmed-omer",fullName:"Ahmed Omer"}],corrections:null},{id:"70691",title:"Energetics and GHG Emission Mitigation Potential Estimation of Solar Water Heating System in India",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89938",slug:"energetics-and-ghg-emission-mitigation-potential-estimation-of-solar-water-heating-system-in-india",totalDownloads:631,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is focused on “energetics” or energy analysis and evaluation of greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation potential of solar water heating system (SWHS) having 100 litre per day (lpd) capacity in 28 states of India. Different types of collectors are used in solar water heating system, which may affect on the feasibility of the system. So to analyze this factor, the present approach focused on three types of glazed flat plate collectors. In addition to this, the feasibility of the system also does depend upon the end user applications. So to incorporate more feasible analysis, three different scenarios were considered. For the analysis of environmental impact of the system, GHG emission mitigation potential has also been evaluated by assuming the replacement of the system with frequently used fuels, viz., natural gas, coal, diesel, etc. This was done for both seasonal and annual use of this renewable energy thermal device. The result of this study shows that energy payback period (EPBP) and energy yield ratio (EYR) values for selected locations are in the adoption level. In case of coal, the GHG-emission reduction was found to have a maximum value of 22.4 tCO2 for the state of Rajasthan and a minimum value of 13.4 tCO2, for Jammu & Kashmir, for 20 years of useful lifetime of the system.",signatures:"Bhupendra Singh Rawat, Pradeep Chandra Pant, Poonam Negi and Bharti Ramola",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70691",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70691",authors:[{id:"311763",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhupendra S.",surname:"Rawat",slug:"bhupendra-s.-rawat",fullName:"Bhupendra S. Rawat"},{id:"312089",title:"Dr.",name:"Poonam",surname:"Negi",slug:"poonam-negi",fullName:"Poonam Negi"},{id:"312150",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharti",surname:"Ramola",slug:"bharti-ramola",fullName:"Bharti Ramola"},{id:"312151",title:"Dr.",name:"Pradeep Chandra",surname:"Pant",slug:"pradeep-chandra-pant",fullName:"Pradeep Chandra Pant"}],corrections:null},{id:"72280",title:"Photo-Voltaic (PV) Monitoring System, Performance Analysis and Power Prediction Models in Doha, Qatar",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92632",slug:"photo-voltaic-pv-monitoring-system-performance-analysis-and-power-prediction-models-in-doha-qatar",totalDownloads:879,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This study aims developing customized novel data acquisition for photovoltaic systems under extreme climates by utilizing off-the-shelf components and enhanced with data analytics for performance evaluation and prediction. Microcontrollers and sensors are used to measure meteorological and electrical parameters. Customized signal conditioning, which can withstand high-temperature along with microcontrollers’ development boards enhanced with appropriate interfacing shields and wireless data transmission to iCloud IoT platforms, is developed. In addition, an automatically controllable in-house electronic load of the PV system was developed to measure the maximum power possible from the system. LabVIEW™ program was used to allow ubiquitous access and processing of the recorded data over the used IoT. Furthermore, machine learning algorithms are utilized to predict the PV output power by utilizing data collected over a two-year span. The result of this study is the commissioning of original hardware for PV study under extreme climates. This study also shows how the use of specific ML algorithms such as Artificial Neural Network (ANN) can successfully provide accurate predictions with low root-mean-squared error (RMSE) between the predicted and actual power. The results support reliable integration of PV systems into smart-grids for efficient energy planning and management, especially for arid and semi-arid regions.",signatures:"Farid Touati, Amith Khandakar, Muhammad E.H. Chowdhury, Antonio Jr. S.P. Gonzales, Christian Kim Sorino and Kamel Benhmed",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72280",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72280",authors:[{id:"127564",title:"Prof.",name:"Kamel",surname:"Benhmed",slug:"kamel-benhmed",fullName:"Kamel Benhmed"},{id:"244639",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad E.H.",surname:"Chowdhury",slug:"muhammad-e.h.-chowdhury",fullName:"Muhammad E.H. Chowdhury"},{id:"245398",title:"MSc.",name:"Amith M. A.",surname:"Khandakar",slug:"amith-m.-a.-khandakar",fullName:"Amith M. A. Khandakar"},{id:"311956",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Antonio Jr.",surname:"Gonzales",slug:"antonio-jr.-gonzales",fullName:"Antonio Jr. Gonzales"},{id:"312319",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",surname:"Touati",slug:"farid-touati",fullName:"Farid Touati"},{id:"312324",title:"Mr.",name:"Christian Kim",surname:"Sorino",slug:"christian-kim-sorino",fullName:"Christian Kim Sorino"}],corrections:null},{id:"70747",title:"Computing the Global Irradiation over the Plane of Photovoltaic Arrays: A Step-by-Step Methodology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90827",slug:"computing-the-global-irradiation-over-the-plane-of-photovoltaic-arrays-a-step-by-step-methodology",totalDownloads:820,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The quality of solar resource data is critical for the economic and technical assessment of solar photovoltaic (PV) installations. Understanding uncertainty and managing weather-related risk are essential for successful planning and operating of solar electricity assets. The input information available for PV designers is usually restricted to 12 monthly mean values of global horizontal irradiation (GHI) and average temperature, which characterize solar climate of locations. However, for calculating the energy production of a photovoltaic system, the global irradiation over the plane of the PV array is necessary. For this reason, this book chapter presents a methodology to appropriately determine the global irradiation over the plane of photovoltaic arrays. The methodology describes step by step the necessary equations for processing the data. Examples with numerical results are included to better show the data processing.",signatures:"Oswaldo A. Arraez-Cancelliere, Nicolás Muñoz-Galeano and Jesús M. López-Lezama",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70747",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70747",authors:[{id:"213238",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolás",surname:"Muñoz-Galeano",slug:"nicolas-munoz-galeano",fullName:"Nicolás Muñoz-Galeano"},{id:"307883",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús M",surname:"Lopez-Lezama",slug:"jesus-m-lopez-lezama",fullName:"Jesús M Lopez-Lezama"},{id:"307884",title:"MSc.",name:"Oswaldo A.",surname:"Arráez-Cancelliere",slug:"oswaldo-a.-arraez-cancelliere",fullName:"Oswaldo A. Arráez-Cancelliere"}],corrections:null},{id:"72841",title:"Pulsed Electrical Discharge and Pulsed Electric Field Treatment during Sunflower Seed Processing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93273",slug:"pulsed-electrical-discharge-and-pulsed-electric-field-treatment-during-sunflower-seed-processing",totalDownloads:392,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"For the successful implementation of emerging electrical technologies in the oil pressing process, optimization of process parameters in combination with parameters from electrical process is crucial. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of the following pretreatments: pulsed electrical discharge (PED) and pulsed electric field (PEF) on rheological properties, morphological capillary-porous structure, and oil recovery of sunflower seed. FESEM analysis of the surface microstructure, pressing, and solvent extraction were used to obtain treatment efficiency after novel technologies. The results of this study show that PED and PEF treatments could be used as a pretreatment before sunflower seed processing to modify internal structure, increase the oil yield, or contribute to the mechanical destruction of oil globules and the release of free oil to the surface under gentle conditions.",signatures:"Ivan Shorstkii and Evgeny Koshevoi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72841",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72841",authors:[{id:"215312",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Shorstkii",slug:"ivan-shorstkii",fullName:"Ivan Shorstkii"}],corrections:null},{id:"72631",title:"Bioenergy Potential of Turkey’s Forest Sources, Biomass Energy Conversion Methods, Products, and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92974",slug:"bioenergy-potential-of-turkey-s-forest-sources-biomass-energy-conversion-methods-products-and-applic",totalDownloads:525,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Forests have been an important bioenergy source for mankind through the long ages, and they will continue as biomass feedstock sources in the future. This study aims to investigate Turkey’s forest source, biomass resource, fuel wood, and forest residue potential to discover the bioenergy potential of Turkey. How to convert this potential to energy was evaluated in terms of applications and products. Thus, the most common biomass conversion methods such as thermal processes, pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion, and biological processes, fermentation, anaerobic digestion, and biophotolysis processes, have been explained as biomass energy conversion methods. Besides, the products of biomass are explained by its energy application fields. Overall, the bioenergy potential of Turkey’s forest sources and biomass energy conversion methods will be overviewed by this study. Thus, this study will be attracted attention to forests’ biomass source the effects on economic, ecological, and socio-economic respects.",signatures:"Selçuk Sarıkoç",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72631",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72631",authors:[{id:"308175",title:"Dr.",name:"Selçuk",surname:"Sarıkoç",slug:"selcuk-sarikoc",fullName:"Selçuk Sarıkoç"}],corrections:null},{id:"71294",title:"Combustion Characteristics and Behaviour of Agricultural Biomass: A Short Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91398",slug:"combustion-characteristics-and-behaviour-of-agricultural-biomass-a-short-review",totalDownloads:636,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Biomass energy is one of the alternative sources of energy, which is particularly accessible in huge quantity worldwide in rural areas. Globally, solid biomass waste is the fourth as an energy resource after coil, oil and gas, which was providing approximately 14% of the world’s energy needs. The potential of biomass materials depends on feedstock quantities and their composition. The use of biomass materials as energy source provides extensive benefits as far as the environment is concerned. The agricultural biomass materials absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) during growth and emit it during combustion. Utilization of these types of wastes in various applications is in the form of a renewable and CO2-neutral fuel. The physicochemical and structural analyses of agricultural biomass differ significantly with the feedstock types. This review study provides an alternative approach and better understanding to utilize huge amount of energy stored in biomass as the substitute of fossil fuels and also it should play an important role in sustainable energy systems as a component of a renewable energy mix.",signatures:"Swapan Suman, Anand Mohan Yadav, Nomendra Tomar and Awani Bhushan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71294",authors:[{id:"223329",title:"Dr.",name:"Swapan",surname:"Suman",slug:"swapan-suman",fullName:"Swapan Suman"},{id:"316554",title:"Prof.",name:"Shalini",surname:"Gautam",slug:"shalini-gautam",fullName:"Shalini Gautam"},{id:"316555",title:"Dr.",name:"Awani",surname:"Bhushan",slug:"awani-bhushan",fullName:"Awani Bhushan"},{id:"317349",title:"Mr.",name:"Nomendra",surname:"Tomar",slug:"nomendra-tomar",fullName:"Nomendra Tomar"}],corrections:null},{id:"71530",title:"Potential of Microalgal Biodiesel: Challenges and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91651",slug:"potential-of-microalgal-biodiesel-challenges-and-applications",totalDownloads:802,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the present scenario, rapid industrialization and urbanization have led to a dramatic increase in the levels of various hazardous pollutants in the environment, and this creates a serious threat to humankind. Today, most of the energy production comes from fossil fuel combustion, which is the key source of CO2 emissions. Research studies show that the utilization of microalgae could be the best option for the production of renewable and sustainable energy and for the mitigation of CO2 emission. Production of biofuels from microalgae can be classified as solid (biochar), liquid (bioethanol, biodiesel, bio-kerosene), and gaseous (biogas, bio-syngas, biohydrogen) fuels. Among these biofuels, biodiesel garners a lot of interest and attention because of its high accumulation of lipids (20–75%), which could be a potential alternative fuel for diesel engines. Algal lipids usually have a higher viscosity than petro-diesel; therefore, the transesterification process is required to decrease the viscosity of microalgal lipids before they can be combusted in the engines. However, microalgae are considered as a potential resource in the current biofuel industries; still, it fails at the commercial level. Thus, in this book chapter, we have discussed the microalgal biofuel production and the challenges behind and the future prospects.",signatures:"Ashokkumar Veeramuthu and Chawalit Ngamcharussrivichai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71530",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71530",authors:[{id:"310835",title:"Prof.",name:"Chawalit",surname:"Ngamcharussrivichai",slug:"chawalit-ngamcharussrivichai",fullName:"Chawalit Ngamcharussrivichai"},{id:"311142",title:"Dr.",name:"Veeramuthu",surname:"Ashokkumar",slug:"veeramuthu-ashokkumar",fullName:"Veeramuthu Ashokkumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"70903",title:"Rapid Evaluation of Biomass Properties Used for Energy Purposes Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90828",slug:"rapid-evaluation-of-biomass-properties-used-for-energy-purposes-using-near-infrared-spectroscopy",totalDownloads:757,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The parameters corresponding to combustion and pyrolysis such as proximate parameter (emissions), calorific value, elemental component, pyrolysis characteristics (temperature), and thermal properties are necessary to the thermal conversion process and the trading of biomass. Traditionally, these parameters of wood chips, milled wood, and biomass pellets are determined with chemicals, time-consuming, and required technical experts, such as thermogravimetry, bomb calorimetry, dry oven, muffle furnace, and so on. The near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is a rapid, noncontact no-chemical measurement. For NIR spectroscopy, only 2–3 seconds are used for evaluation, and it could be used for online measurement. The application of NIR spectroscopy in the estimation of the biomass characteristics of wood chips, milled wood, and biomass pellets is described in this chapter.",signatures:"Jetsada Posom, Kanvisit Maraphum and Arthit Phuphaphud",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70903",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70903",authors:[{id:"311549",title:"Dr.",name:"Jetsada",surname:"Posom",slug:"jetsada-posom",fullName:"Jetsada Posom"},{id:"311800",title:"Mr.",name:"Kanvisit",surname:"Maraphum",slug:"kanvisit-maraphum",fullName:"Kanvisit Maraphum"},{id:"315895",title:"Mr.",name:"Arthit",surname:"Phuphaphud",slug:"arthit-phuphaphud",fullName:"Arthit Phuphaphud"}],corrections:null},{id:"72107",title:"Digestate: The Coproduct of Biofuel Production in a Circular Economy, and New Results for Cassava Peeling Residue Digestate",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91340",slug:"digestate-the-coproduct-of-biofuel-production-in-a-circular-economy-and-new-results-for-cassava-peel",totalDownloads:1141,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Circular economic paradigm applies residue from one process as input material for another, fostering sustainable benefits for humanity. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an attractive technology for biogas production in a circular economy. Digestate is the residual organic matter generated as coproduct of biogas. Because digestate is nutrient rich and largely stabilized, it has varied management options. Digestate is suitable for direct use as bio-fertilizer and is a good amendment material to improve soil physical properties. However, the quality, safety, and utility of digestate are dependent upon the characteristics of feedstock, digester process, pre- and post- digestion treatments. Digestates emanating from AD of animal manure, energy crops, food processing residues, and other feedstocks have been reported in published literature. On the other hand, there is dearth of reports on digestate emanating from AD process that utilized cassava peeling residue (CPR) as sole feedstock. This chapter presents relevant information on digestates including production, feedstock, quality and safety requirements, processing and treatment technologies, regulatory aspects, applications management options, cost implications, as well as challenges and opportunities. In addition, new results of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) compositions of liquid fraction of CPR digestate are reported.",signatures:"Sammy N. Aso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72107",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72107",authors:[{id:"219927",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sammy N.",surname:"Aso",slug:"sammy-n.-aso",fullName:"Sammy N. Aso"}],corrections:null},{id:"71520",title:"Formation and Transformation of Typical Pollutant from MSW by Hydrothermal Carbonization towards Biofuel Hydrochar Production",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91659",slug:"formation-and-transformation-of-typical-pollutant-from-msw-by-hydrothermal-carbonization-towards-bio",totalDownloads:555,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"An unprecedented increase in municipal solid waste (MSW) is increasingly attractive in response to waste-to-energy. MSW pretreatment is an essential step due to the inherent properties of MSW. Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) offers an efficient approach for converting MSW into carbonaceous hydrochars. In this chapter, the formation and transformation of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during HTC of MSW were determined. The results indicated that HTC can homogenize the density and size of MSW and also increase carbon content. Moreover, the concentrations of heavy metals in the leachates of the hydrochars were lower than the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) maximum limits. Compared to MSW, the concentrations of Cr, Cd, Hg, and Zn in the hydrochars were low and the concentrations of Pb, As, Ni, and Cu were high. The concentrations of PAHs in the hydrochars increased with increasing temperature in the range of 1298.71–177698.20 μg/kg, which were much higher than that in MSW, except for H-160. The dominant PAH rings in MSW and the hydrochars were four-ring PAHs and three-ring PAHs, respectively. These findings suggest that 180°C is an appropriate hydrothermal temperature to reduce heavy metals and the toxicity PAHs of MSW.",signatures:"Wentao Jiao, Nana Peng and Zhengang Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71520",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71520",authors:[{id:"260377",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhengang",surname:"Liu",slug:"zhengang-liu",fullName:"Zhengang Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71324",title:"Hydro Energy Potential for Electricity Generating on Selected Regions in Turkey",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91625",slug:"hydro-energy-potential-for-electricity-generating-on-selected-regions-in-turkey",totalDownloads:554,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to provide that hydroelectric energy production in Sakarya and Eastern Black Sea Basins which are selected as pilot region in Turkey. Hydroelectric energy has an important place in energy sector is generated from 26 main Basins in Turkey. Sakarya and Eastern Black Sea Basins are very important water resource in Turkey. In this study, hydro energy potential for electricity generating has been investigated in Turkey and hydro energy potential determined for the selected small streams in the Sakarya and Eastern Black Sea Basins by using hydro energy calculating methods.",signatures:"Ibrahim Yuksel, Omer Yuksek and Hasan Arman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71324",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71324",authors:[{id:"143271",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrahim",surname:"Yuksel",slug:"ibrahim-yuksel",fullName:"Ibrahim Yuksel"},{id:"314619",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Arman",slug:"hasan-arman",fullName:"Hasan Arman"},{id:"318376",title:"Prof.",name:"Ömer",surname:"YÜKSEK",slug:"omer-yuksek",fullName:"Ömer YÜKSEK"}],corrections:null},{id:"73874",title:"An Overview of Geothermal Energy Production in Germencik, Turkey",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94253",slug:"an-overview-of-geothermal-energy-production-in-germencik-turkey",totalDownloads:369,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As it is known, the utilization and production of renewable energy resources are very important in recent years. Due to its geological structural formations, Turkey has a serious geothermal energy potential as a renewable energy resource comparing with the other countries. West side of Turkey has also a critical role to use the geothermal energy resources. In these fields, geothermal is mostly used in electricity generation, greenhouse heating and locational requirements. The components while producing the geothermal water from wells such as heating pumps, re-injection pipes and other equipment are also significant. In this study, coefficient of performance (COP) utilizing in heat pumps has been investigated and the new approach to find out the parameter has been identified. Based on COP equation, the formula of COP has been re-coded on Dev C++ compiler by using C++ computer language in order to focus on the importance of computer aided applications in geothermal energy sector. There are no more studies showing the COP with C++ codes in literature. On the other hand, Germencik region, in the west side of Turkey, has been evaluated and the production processes by Guris Construction and Engineering Co. Inc. have been explained in the study. Moreover, the potential of Turkey has also been mentioned in this study. The aim of the study is to examine the Germencik region geothermal energy potential and to improve the coefficient of performance by using C++ in heat pumps. The result of this study shows us the Germencik region has an important potential and the computer aided technologies can also be adapted easily into the processes while producing geothermal energy.",signatures:"Kaan Yamanturk and Cihan Dogruoz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73874",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73874",authors:[{id:"268628",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cihan",surname:"Dogruoz",slug:"cihan-dogruoz",fullName:"Cihan Dogruoz"},{id:"323332",title:"MSc.",name:"Kaan",surname:"Yamanturk",slug:"kaan-yamanturk",fullName:"Kaan Yamanturk"}],corrections:null},{id:"70956",title:"Design of Three-Term Controller Using a PIC18F452 Microcontroller",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89815",slug:"design-of-three-term-controller-using-a-pic18f452-microcontroller",totalDownloads:809,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microcontrollers are used in almost any applications that come across one’s mind, from small control applications such as home appliances to aerospace. Microcontroller-based controllers are cost-effective and flexible to modify the design to meet the requirement for any control of any industrial plant. Microcontrollers do not require external hardware interface, memories, counter/timers, and ADCs, because they are all integrated inside the chip. Those controllers could be programmed online and do not require any backup memories except for big applications. This chapter presents the implementation of the three-term PID controller using a Microchip PIC18F452 microcontroller. To read data into the controller, a 10-bit integrated ADC is used; and to read data out of the machine, an external 12-bit serial DAC is used. Before programming the PIC microcontroller, the task to be tested could be off-line using a software simulator to make sure that it is working according. When that is the case, it could be then fired into the controller on-line in a mater seconds. Not only that, if the user decides to use different algorithm, he only programs the controller again online.",signatures:"Mostefa Ghassoul",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70956",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70956",authors:[{id:"146702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mostefa",surname:"Ghassoul",slug:"mostefa-ghassoul",fullName:"Mostefa Ghassoul"}],corrections:null},{id:"70864",title:"Lessons Learnt from Some Natural Energy Sources",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90863",slug:"lessons-learnt-from-some-natural-energy-sources",totalDownloads:449,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The chapter presents in a systematic manner the lessons learnt from the natural energy systems (NES) and their specific features. The conclusions are based on the evaluation of the risk impact on environment and for the improvement of the risk evaluation methodologies of such systems. A specific feature of the NES is the interdependence between them and society/mankind and the environment. Risk analyses for such systems have specific features underlined while compared with the features of the artificial (man-made) energy systems (MMES). Previous works illustrated in detail the NES versus MMES differences. This chapter presents the main aspects of such a review, when applied to a specific NES, the natural nuclear fission reactor in Oklo, Gabon (NES_Oklo). NES_Oklo operated about two billion years ago for about two hundreds millions of years. The lessons drawn from studying how this reactor was built, operated and self-decommissioned are of high importance for nuclear energy and not only. There are conclusions drawn from the study of Oklo reactor, which seem to shake some taboo issues in Physics, like for instance the light speed limit and other fundamental aspects of Quantum Mechanics, which have also important philosophical implications.",signatures:"Dan Serbanescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70864",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70864",authors:[{id:"200401",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Serbanescu",slug:"dan-serbanescu",fullName:"Dan Serbanescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"71328",title:"Research and Development of the New Progressive Construction Press Machines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91405",slug:"research-and-development-of-the-new-progressive-construction-press-machines",totalDownloads:708,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Throughout the world in the last two decades, solid noble biofuels produced on the basis of wood and agricultural biomass have been widely used. Many European Union countries have enacted legislation for solid noble biofuels oriented primarily to energy carriers manufactured from wood raw materials. The production of noble biofuels is a fitting direction for the recovery of biomass and other energy wastes. Fuel in the twenty-first century must, in addition to environmental and economic criteria, fulfil the criterion of high comfort and safety in its combustion. Modern energy carriers must have uniform size, density, moisture and shape. One of the most progressive means of waste recovery is the compaction of particulate matter into different shapes and sizes. The technologies of transforming biomass into biofuels with the required properties are compacting, briquetting and pelleting. I am working on a research of compaction technologies and the development of compacting machine design at the Institute of Production Systems, Environmental Technology and Quality Management of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering of STU in Bratislava for more than 26 years. In its scientific research activity, the definition of equations describing the dynamic process of compaction, experimental tests of the compaction process, design and testing of new press machine were undertaken. Over the stated period, we have designed and developed several machines that are today in serial production. Chief among these is the BL 55–280 briquetting press, the DZ 240 disintegrating machine, the KUDO 2009 mobile unit for treatment of wood waste, the TR 200 solid material separator, the PLG 150 round pelleting press, the ZBL-2-860 double-screw briquetting press or the RCM 650 ring compacting machine. We have submitted over 53 patents and industrial models. The aim of this chapter is to describe the new original and progressive designs of these press machines.",signatures:"Ľubomír Šooš",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71328",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71328",authors:[{id:"141212",title:"Prof.",name:"Ľubomír",surname:"Šooš",slug:"lubomir-soos",fullName:"Ľubomír Šooš"}],corrections:null},{id:"71676",title:"Performance, Gaseous and Particle Emissions from a Residential Pellet Stove",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91902",slug:"performance-gaseous-and-particle-emissions-from-a-residential-pellet-stove",totalDownloads:597,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The objectives of this chapter are to present experimental results on performance, gaseous and particle emissions obtained from a modern bottom feed pellet stove of 2.5 kW output in part load heat and 5 kW output in nominal heat. Two experiments in part load and four experiments in nominal load output were conducted in a stove manufacturing plant in the southern part of Belgium. The particle emissions measurements are mass concentrations of PM1 and PM2.5, number concentrations and their particle size distributions. Particle emission measurements were conducted continuously from a partial flow dilution tunnel using an Electrical Low Pressure Impactor Plus (ELPI+). The CO emissions were analyzed continuously from the flue gas by a Siemens Ultramat 6 gas analyzer, CO2 and O2 concentrations were measured continuously using a Horiba PG-250 gas analyzer. A performance analysis in terms of combustion efficiency together with different losses of the pellet stove is also discussed. The results show that PM1 and PM2.5 concentrations obtained from the combustion phase of the nominal load experiments varied from 43.3 to 276 mg/Nm3 and 66 to 36 mg/Nm3 respectively, while the particle number concentrations varied from 1.4 × 107 to 8.8 × 107 particles/cm3. The CO emissions obtained from the main combustion phase of the nominal load heat varied output from 50 to 145 mg/Nm3.",signatures:"Md. Obaidullah and Jacques De Ruyck",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71676",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71676",authors:[{id:"312153",title:"Dr.",name:"Md.",surname:"Obaidullah",slug:"md.-obaidullah",fullName:"Md. Obaidullah"},{id:"317825",title:"Prof.",name:"Jacques",surname:"De Ruyck",slug:"jacques-de-ruyck",fullName:"Jacques De Ruyck"}],corrections:null},{id:"73219",title:"Analysis of Optimal Steady-State Operation of Power Systems with Embedded FACTS Devices: A Matlab-Based Flexible Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93519",slug:"analysis-of-optimal-steady-state-operation-of-power-systems-with-embedded-facts-devices-a-matlab-bas",totalDownloads:412,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This book chapter presents a flexible approach to incorporate mathematical models of FACTS devices into the Power Flow (PF) and the Optimal Power Flow (OPF) analysis tools, as well as into the standard OPF Market-Clearing (OPF-MC) procedure. The proposed approach uses the Matlab Optimization Toolbox because it allows to easily: (a) implement a given optimization model, (b) include different objective functions using distinct equality and inequality constraints and (c) modify and reuse an optimization model that has been previously implemented. The conventional OPF model is the main core of the proposed approach, which is easily implemented and adapted to include the mathematical models of FACTS devices. The resulting implementation of the OPF model featuring FACTS devices can be easily modified and adjusted to obtain the implementation of both the PF and the OPF-MC models which includes such devices. It should be mentioned that with the flexible approach proposed here, the complexity as well as the implementation time of optimized models featuring embedded FACTS devices is significantly reduced, since it is not necessary to define the expressions associated with the hessian matrix and the gradient vector. The flexibility and reliability of the proposed approach are demonstrated by means of several study cases using test as well as real power systems.",signatures:"Jose Miguel García-Guzman, Néstor González-Cabrera, Luis Alberto Contreras-Aguilar, Jose Merced Lozano-García and Alejandro Pizano-Martinez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73219",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73219",authors:[{id:"236462",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Nestor",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"nestor-gonzalez",fullName:"Nestor Gonzalez"},{id:"316399",title:"MSc.",name:"Jose Miguel",surname:"Garcia-Guzman",slug:"jose-miguel-garcia-guzman",fullName:"Jose Miguel Garcia-Guzman"},{id:"329182",title:"Dr.",name:"L. Alberto",surname:"Contreras-Aguilar",slug:"l.-alberto-contreras-aguilar",fullName:"L. Alberto Contreras-Aguilar"},{id:"329183",title:"Dr.",name:"J.",surname:"Merced-Lozano-García",slug:"j.-merced-lozano-garcia",fullName:"J. Merced-Lozano-García"},{id:"329184",title:"Dr.",name:"A.",surname:"Pizano-Martine",slug:"a.-pizano-martine",fullName:"A. Pizano-Martine"}],corrections:null},{id:"74786",title:"Distributed Sources Optimal Sites and Sizes Search in Large Power Systems",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95266",slug:"distributed-sources-optimal-sites-and-sizes-search-in-large-power-systems",totalDownloads:344,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The integration of renewable sources into the power system has now become an unavoidable necessity for these technical and economic advantages and for the protection of the environment. In this chapter, a study is given for the integration of the Distributed Source (DS) in an optimal way and this by looking for the best location (sites) and the best power to be injected (size). The optimization technique used is based on genetic algorithms under technical and safety constraints, with the aim of minimizing active network losses and maximizing voltage stability. These objective functions are handled as a single and multi-objective problem. This study is applied on the standard IEEE 30 bus network under the MATLAB code.",signatures:"Mustafa Mosbah, Redha Djamel Mohammedi and Salem Arif",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74786",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74786",authors:[{id:"271686",title:"Prof.",name:"Salem",surname:"Arif",slug:"salem-arif",fullName:"Salem Arif"},{id:"319304",title:"Dr.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Mosbah",slug:"mustafa-mosbah",fullName:"Mustafa Mosbah"},{id:"319307",title:"Prof.",name:"Ridha Djamel",surname:"Mohammedi",slug:"ridha-djamel-mohammedi",fullName:"Ridha Djamel Mohammedi"}],corrections:null},{id:"73513",title:"New Generation Aero Combustor",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93916",slug:"new-generation-aero-combustor",totalDownloads:421,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this study is to identify the technology for next generation aero combustors, and to propose totally new combustor design approaches. Next generation aero combustors need very high combustion air fraction, that brings idle lean blow out (LBO) problem. The present study suggests several measures to solve this problem, including: pilot and main two concentric combustion zones with separation, aerodynamic design to have main air slipping by pilot combustion zones, etc. For high fuel air ratio (FAR) combustor, the present authors propose using angled main fuel co-axial air plain jet injection. Make use of different penetration to meet the need for low power and high power conditions. For low emissions combustor, the present authors use small scale close contact fuel-air mixing with fuel staging to have low emissions at the same time to have good idle, good high altitude ignition, etc. Brand new cooling designs are proposed for outliner and inner liner. This chapter is mainly a survey of present author’s own research. 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Their low water solubility and high lipid solubility facilitate their bioaccumulation in fatty tissues of living organisms. Many are also semi-volatile, which enable them to be transported long distances through the atmosphere. Due to its persistence behavior, POPs are today present all over the world, found in every major climatic zone and geographic sector, including deserts, the Arctic, and the Antarctic were no major local POPs sources exist [1].
There exist several different forms of POPs, natural as well as anthropogenic. Those noted for their persistence and ability to bioaccumulate include many of the first-generation organochlorine insecticides, e.g., Dieldrin and DDT, as well as industrial products or by-products such as PCBs and dioxins. Due to their persistence and ability to accumulate and biomagnifies in living tissues, they can cause harm in the environment for an extensive amount of time [1].
In May 2001, the Stockholm Convention on Persistence Organic pollutant is one of a global, legally binding instrument, aimed at protecting human health and environment across the world from the harmful impact of persistent organic pollutant. According to the Stockholm Convention, this convention perhaps best understood as having five essential aims, such as eliminating dangerous pops by starting from the 12 worst, supporting the transition to safer alternatives, targeting additional POPs for action, cleaning up old stockpiles and equipment containing pops, and working together for POPs free nature.
Regarding the convention, Ethiopia has been proclaimed the ratification of this convention on 2nd day July 2002, Proclamation No. 279/2002, which is the Stockholm Convention on Persistence Organic Pollutant. There are articles that stated in the convention for the management of persistent organic pollutant. Article 5 of the convention deals with the unintentionally produced POPs. It requires each party to take measures to reduce the total releases derived from anthropogenic sources of Annex C chemicals, i.e., HCB, PCBs, dioxins, and furans.
Developing an action plan to identify, characterize, and address the unintentional release of these chemicals is the major obligation of each party. The action plan should evaluate current and projected releases, develop source inventories, and release estimates. It should also evaluate the efficacy of laws and policies relating to the management of such releases. In addition to the action plan, each party is required to (i) promote feasible, practical measures that can expeditiously achieve a significant on reduction of these releases; (ii) promote and/or require use of substitute materials or processes to prevent the formation of these chemicals; (iii) promote and implement, in accordance with the action plan, the use of best available techniques and best environmental practices for existing and any newly identified sources of the chemicals.
The main sources of unintentionally produced POPs cover a wide range of economic activities including industrial processes, such as ferrous and nonferrous metals production, cement and other minerals production, and production and use of chemicals and consumer goods, such as manufacture of pulp and paper, chemicals, petroleum, textiles, and leather products. The other categories include waste incineration, power generation and other fuel burning, transport; uncontrolled combustion processes such as agricultural and forest fires, drying of biomass, crematoria, dry cleaning, and tobacco smoking are also considered as having the potential for formation and release of these chemicals to the environment [2].
This book chapter evaluates the sources and management practice of the unintentionally produced persistence organic pollutants such as dioxin and furan especially in the service sectors.
Potentially available literatures covering the concept of persistence organic pollutant, the birth of the Stockholm Convention, identification, and quantification of unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutant, environmental and health impact of persistent organic pollutant, and policy and regulation framework of pops management were discussed. The global experience and practices of POPs are also discussed.
This chapter was organized by reviewing of related literatures, collecting primary information, and compiling secondary from various sources. Related peer reviewed articles were compiled online from reputable journals, and secondary data were collected from relevant government offices.
A sector source-based cross-sectional study was carried out to generate quantitative information of UPOPs amount and evaluate sectoral offices management practices specific to dioxin and furan in the city. A UNEP model for POPs management was used to assess the main anthropogenic sources of dioxin and furan. The quantity of dioxin and furan released from the identified source groups was quantified by using UNEP toolkit default emission factor. Open- and close-ended questionnaires, FGD, and key informant interview were used to collect primary information.
Secondary data were collected from various organizations such as trade and industry birroue, Addis Ababa Environmental Protection authority, Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Climate Change, Addis Ababa city municipality, and other unmentioned source category organizations. The data collected from such kind offices were analyzed and presented in the form of supplementary information for the analysis. Relevant peer reviewed research articles, international and national legislations, and related literature were collected online and reviewed systematically at informative manner. The articles and standard literatures were read critically to synthesize the information.
PCDD/F and PCB are considered dioxin- and furan-like compounds under Stockholm Convention. PCDDs and PCDFs are unintentional by-products of incomplete combustion process of chlorinated products and known to be widespread and persistent in the environment [3]. 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-
In recent years, increasing concern has been given to polybrominated congeners of dibenzo-p-dioxins/furan. Brominated dioxins exert their toxic effects through the same mechanism as their chlorinated congeners, of which TCDD and its brominated congener 2,3,7,8-tetrabromodibenzo-p-dioxin (TBDD) presented almost identical potencies for the immune toxic effects on mice [9]. According to the Environmental Health Criteria 205, PBDD/Fs exhibits similar health effects to the animal as their chlorinated congener PCDD/Fs. With the oral exposure of TBDD, spermatogenic activity decreases and thyroid hormones changes in the Westar rate while growing retardation and histopathological changes in liver and thymus detects in the Sprague-Dawley rats. However, data on human exposure of PBDD/F are scarce. As it was shown in Figure 1, exposure ways of dioxine and furan are diverse. Only limited studies were done on these emerging pollutants, and most of them are concentrated on occupational exposure [4].
Overview of the human exposure pathways to POPs.
The issue of POPs begun to be addressed in the 1980s; Canada has brought it onto the international agenda [10, 11, 12]. In Canada, research found out and heightened the sensitivity of concerns of its northern indigenous populations. It was in the 1983, when the international organizations like UNEP and WHO asked Canada to turn down Canada effort to seek international actions to reduce these chemical actions. During this time, the government of Canada has entered into force the convention of management of long-range transboundary air pollution [12]. Although its implementation was regional rather than global, the fact that the convention covered most of the northern hemisphere made it a feasible forum. Ultimately, the convention integrated POPs into its agenda, it created POPs agreement that covered many of the initial “dirty dozen” of these chemicals in the country.
Then, the issue once addressed at an international scale in the form of soft law by the 1992 Rio UN Conference on Environment and Development and Agenda 21. By 1995, the UNEP Governing Council initiated an assessment process regarding a list of 12 POPs subject to future regulation [13]. An Ad Hoc Working Group on POPs was established to develop a plan for assessing information on the chemistry, environmental dispersion, toxicity, sources, and socioeconomic impacts of a list of 12 chemicals called the “dirty dozen” [13]. By 1996, the working group concluded the need for global action to include the establishment of a global, legally binding instrument. Consecutive meetings that were held from 1998 to 2001 have succeeded to produce signatory document for countries. In 2001, in the conference that was held in Stockholm, Sweden, about 91 countries and the EU signed the Convention.
One of the major goals of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is the continuing minimization and, where feasible, ultimate elimination of unintentionally produced POPs. Parties are required to identify, characterize, quantify, and prioritize sources of releases of unintentionally produced POPs and develop strategies with concrete measures, timelines, and goals to minimize or eliminate these releases. Toward this end, parties must develop action plans as part of their National Implementation Plans (NIP) to identify, characterize, and address the releases of unintentional POPs Listed in Annex C of Stockholm Convention. Action plans to be developed according to Article 5 of the Convention shall include evaluations of current and projected releases that are derived through the development and maintenance of source inventories and release estimates, taking into consideration the source categories listed in Annex C of the convention tool.
According to UNEP [14], toolkit has been assembled for the purpose of assisting each country in identifying and quantifying sources of unintentional POPs that are located within the country’s borders and estimating releases from those sources. Sources of POPs releases are of four general types, three of which are active, ongoing processes and one is a legacy of historic activities:
Chemical production processes, e.g., facilities or production units that produce chlorinated phenols or in which certain other chlorinated chemicals are manufactured or that produce pulp and paper using elemental chlorine for chemical bleaching;
Thermal and combustion processes, e.g., waste incineration, combustion of solid, and liquid fuels, or production of metals in thermal processes;
Biogenic processes in which PCDD/PCDF may be formed from precursors-manufactured chemicals such as pentachlorophenol that is structurally closely related precursors of PCDD/PCDF.
Reservoir sources such as historic dumps containing PCDD/PCDF and other POPs contaminated wastes and soils and sediments in which POPs have accumulated over time.
Some additional source categories and a strategy for identifying new source categories are presented in the toolkit (Annex C). It describes a step-by-step process to estimate PCDD/PCDF releases from each source category to the following environmental media:
Air,
Water (surface and ground water, including marine and estuarine water),
Land (surface soils) and to these process outputs: products (such as chemical formulations, including pesticides or consumer goods such as paper, textiles, etc.) and residues (including certain liquid wastes, sludge, and solid residues, which are handled and disposed of as waste or may be recycled).
In recent years, the potential risks of POPs were considered seriously throughout the world. As such, regulatory control and measures were proposed to protect human health, the ecosystem, and the environment. According to report of Porta et al. [15], few countries including USA, Germany, and Arctic had established nationwide surveillance programs of human concentrations of POPs, while other countries have conducted population-wide studies on the distribution and concentrations of POPs.
The United States has taken several actions to control and reduce the emission of POPs. Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) controls and manages the release of dioxins and furans to air, water, and soil by the Clean Air Act and the Clean Water Act. According to the 1990 Clean Air Act, the US EPA identifies the major industrial sources of toxic air emission and sets regulations using a technology-based or performance-based approach to reduce toxic emissions. Industries must be scaled up to achieve the maximum control of hazardous air pollutants, including dioxins and furans [16]. In addition, the act demanded EPA to analyze the remaining risks and decide whether control measures have to be tightened. Apart dioxins management using clean air act, the Clean Water Act controls and manages the release of dioxins to water through a combination of risk-based and technology-based tools [17]. Moreover, EPA Superfund and Resource Conservation and Recovery Act Corrective Action programs were also helping to clean up the dioxin-contaminated land [18]. Several conventions and commissions were established on a regional basis to control and address regional environmental concerns.
Various activities have been performed by different sectoral offices to reduce the pollution and its effect on human health. The CDC [19] indicated that National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals (NRHEEC) in the United States has given an opportunity for ongoing assessment of the POPs exposure level of the U.S. population. This assessment program has linked POPs to the National Health Nutrition Survey (NHANES) and determined the concentration of some POPs in the blood and urine of the general population from 50 states. The program assessed POPs increased from 27 in 2001 to 148 by 2005. POPs that were assessed in the program included the pesticide POPs (aldrin, chlordane, DDD, DDE, DDT, dieldrin, endrin, heptachlor, mirex, toxaphene, etc), brominated compounds (PBDEs, polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), etc), and other additional chemicals in 2005. Furthermore, fluorinated POPs, such as PFOA, PFOS, and its salts, were also found under the candidate chemicals in priority groups [19]. Ecotoxicology database (ECOTOX) program was also setup by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) to study the human exposure. The aim of the program was to consolidate all toxicity data for aquatic and terrestrial organisms from peer-reviewed literature [20]. Currently, it is funded and being managed by the U.S. Department of Defense’s Strategic Environmental Research and Development Programme (SERDP) and the U.S. EPA’s Office of Research and Development (ORD) and the National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory’s (NHEERL’s) Mid-Continent Ecology Division [20]. The US EPA finally made the database to be publicly available by the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) program to track the emission levels and trends for toxic chemicals, including dioxins and furans, from major industries, point sources, stationary sources, and mobile sources [16].
In Germany, Environmental Survey (GerES) of POPs officially started in 1985. Serious four GerESs were conducted in the period of 1985–1986 (GerES I), 1990–1992 (GerES II), 1998 (GerES III), and 2003–2006 (GerES IV), respectively [21]. Blood and urine from the general population of ages between 25 and 69 were analyzed. In GerES II and GerES IV reports, addition subsamples were done for children aged between 6 and 14 years and another aged between 3 and 14 years [22].
In Arctic, the human monitoring on POPs was done by the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP) in 1994 and 2002 to assess the contaminant levels in the blood (AMAP, 2000; AMAP, 2002). Blood samples from human living in the Arctic regions of the eight circumpolar countries, including Canada, Denmark/Greenland, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden, and the United States, were collected and analyzed for POPs in order to evaluate the regional and spatial trends of pollution, to determine the sources and its pathways, and to determine human impact, including chronic effect, posed by POPs in this region. They have drawn spatial trends by evaluating the POPs level detected in the blood samples of human from different regions.
In Canada, pesticides-related POPs are managed under the Pest Control product Act (PCPA). For management of these pollutants, all import, used, and sold activities of pesticides must be registered at the Pest Management Regulatory Agency [23]. Under the Protocols on Persistent Organic Pollutants, the production and use of aldrin, chlordane, chlordecone, dieldrin, endrin, hexabromobiphenyl, mirex, and toxaphene are banned. Also, the use of DDT, HCH (including lindane), and PCBs is restricted. The Toxic Substances Management Policy (TSMP) of the country is a preventive and precautionary approach to virtually eliminate all POPs listed under the Stockholm Convention and to minimize the release of such chemicals to the environment [24]. Furthermore, Canada has adopted a new program called Chemicals Management Plan to evaluate the negatively impacting chemicals by risk assessment approaches for determining whether a chemical usage restriction or ban [25]. Also, the National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) of Environment Canada, in its Environmental Protection Act, 1999, necessitates all company or facility which has approximately 10 or more full-time employees and uses one or more of the listed hazardous substances to register and report the total amount of each of the hazardous substances used during the year [25].
In the European Union (EU), REACH, a new legislation which deals with Registration, Evaluation, Authorization, and Restriction of Chemical substances, entered into force on June 1, 2007 [26]. Currently, around 30,000 marketed chemicals, new or existing, required to register under REACH, in which 1500 of the chemicals are subjected to permission before their use and their introducing to the market. Chemicals which require the authorizations are those which are classified as carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic to reproduction compounds; persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic compounds. The authorization will only valid for a limited period of time. Under REACH, industries are responsible for assessing and to manage the risks posed by their chemical substances [26]. Furthermore, for chemicals that are imported or manufactured more than 1 ton per year per company, manufacturers and importers are responsible for gathering information on the properties of their chemical substances to ensure safe handling of such chemicals and to register such information in a central database run by European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). Chemicals that are imported or manufactured more than 10 tons per year per company have no chemical safety report which contains the chemical safety assessment, information on the persistent nature, bioaccumulative, and toxicity behavior of the chemicals and the human health and environmental risk assessment [27]. In addition to the chemical database, the European Community and 23 Member States will implement the publicly accessible database, European Pollutant Release, and Transfer Register (E-PRTR), succeeding the European Pollutant Emission Register (EPER). E-PRTR covers the releases of pollutants to air, water, land, and off-site transfers of waste releases from diffuse sources such as road traffic and domestic heating. Facilities which emission exceeded the limited set under the regulation are obligated to report to their member states. This report will be published annually [26].
According to NIP (2006), the management practice of persistence organic pollutant is weak after the convention ratified by the country. Even though there are some activities regarding the management of this persistence organic pollutant, there are several legislations which are applicable to POPs in one way or another. Environmental Pollution Control Proclamation No. 300/2002 and Pesticide Registration and Control Council of State Special Decree No. 20/1990 are among the most important legislations for regulating POP chemicals in Ethiopia. However, analysis of the relevant legislations and their enforcement indicates that the legal system that relates to the management and use of chemicals in general and POPs in particular in Ethiopia is far from well developed. Lack of comprehensive approach and coverage is one of the major shortcomings of the legal framework. The other major gap and limitation in the area are a lack of legislations and standards in the following areas:
Lack of rules that expressly ban the production, import and use of POPs pesticides
Lack of legislation that directly and comprehensively regulates industrial chemicals, including PCBs;
Lack of proper regulatory mechanism for the use of DDT;
Lack of enabling legislations and standards to regulate releases of unintentionally produced POPs from different source categories;
Lack of proper regulatory mechanism for the management of POPs stockpiles and wastes;
Lack of proper regulatory framework on information gathering and exchange;
Lack of regulatory framework on public awareness and participation
Contrast to natural phenomena, anthropogenic source is potential or potent for emission of persistence organic pollutant such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxin and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCDD and PCDF). Unintentional persistence organic pollutants (PCDD and PCDF) are produced from four general types of anthropogenic activities found in a given country and city ([2]).
Chemical production process, e.g., facilities or production units that produce chlorinated phenol
Thermal and combustion process, e.g., waste incineration, combustion of solid and liquid fuel, or production of metals in thermal processes:
Biogenic process in which PCDD/PCDF may be formed from precursors-manufactured chemicals such as pentachlorophenol that are structurally closely related precursor of PCDD/PCDF
Reservoir source such as historic dumps containing PCDD/PCDF and other pops contaminated waste and soil and sediments in which POPs have accumulated over time
However, it is impossible to found out these source categories in all countries, as well as cities at the same level. It has variations on the economic activities of the countries or cities. The detail source groups are discussed below.
Waste incineration is the predominant anthropogenic activity that contributes to the emissions of unintentional persistence organic pollutants such as dioxin and furan. Under waste incineration, five sub-categories are identified and listed such as municipal solid waste incineration, hazardous waste incineration, medical waste incineration, light fraction shredder incineration, sewage sled incineration, and animal carcass incineration [2].
Under this source groups eleven source categories were identified and listed. These source categories are iron ore sintering, coke production, iron and steel metal production, foundries, hot-dip galvanizing plants, copper production, aluminum production, lead production, zinc production, brass and bronze production, and magnesium production. Nonferrous metal production (e.g., Ni) like shredders and thermal wire reclamation and e-waste recycling are commonly found in Addis Ababa [2].
There are five categories that are identified under this source group of heat and power generation. These are fossil fuel power plant, Biomass power plant, landfill biogas combustion, Household heating, and Cooking–Biomass and Domestic heating–Fossil fuel [2].
Under this production of mineral product, there are six source categories activities responsible for the emission of dioxin and furan. These are cement kiln, lime production, ceramic production, brick production, glass production, asphalt mixing, and oil shale processing [2].
Transport is one of source group that releases dioxin and furan organic pollutant due to the incomplete combustion of an engine. Under this source group, 4 stroke engine, 2 stroke engine, diesel engine, and heavy oil engine vehicles categories are responsible for emission of unintentional persistence organic pollutant [2].
Due to the incomplete combustion of biomass, emission of PCDD/PCDF toward the environment Medias such as air, water, land and products will be occurred. Thus, under the group of open burning process only two categories were identified such as biomass burning (forest fire sugar cane etc.) and waste burning and accidental fires(accidental fire on vehicle and house) [2].
According to UNEP toolkit [2], production and use of chemical and consumer goods are one of the anthropogenic activities for emission of persistence organic pollutants which have been classified under the source group of unintentional persistence organic pollutants. This source group also classified into various categories such as pulp and paper mills, chlorinated inorganic chemicals, chlorinated aliphatic chemicals, chlorinated aromatic chemicals (per ton product), other chlorinated and nonchlorinated chemical (per ton product) petroleum refining, textile plants (per ton textile), and leather plants.
This source group has classified into five categories. The source categories listed on toolkit guide are: drying of biomass, crematoria, smokehouses, dry cleaning, and tobacco smoking.
Waste disposal is an anthropogenic activity which contributes to the emission of the unintentional persistence organic pollutant so-called polychlorinated dibenzodioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofuran (PCCD/PCDF). Under this source group, landfills, waste dumps and landfill mining, sewage/sewage treatment, open water dumping composting, and waste oil disposal are source categories which have major contribution for emission of dioxin and furan [2].
Inventory of PCDD/PCDF release has been conducted after identification of all source group and source categories. According to UNEP toolkit [2], the annual release of Dioxin and furan can be determined based on the computation of emission factor and activity data.
The default emission factors presented in the toolkit are driven from a variety of data sources from laboratory experiments, peer-reviewed, and literature dedicated experiment project to governmental or institutional report. The emission factors for each class are the best estimate based. Data on technology, process characteristics, and operating practices were taken from well-documented sources of sector offices. An expert judgment was also used.
Activity rate data are very significant data for quantification of the annual release of PCDD/PCDF in the study area, in which activity rates are value in unit per year of product manufactured (e.g., steel) or feed processed (e.g., municipal waste hazardous, coal, diesel fuel etc.), annual quantities of material released (e.g., M3 of free gas, liter of kilogram or ton of sled generated etc.) [2].
Based on the Stockholm Convention on persistence organic pollutants, countries who signed the treaty toward the management of persistent organic pollutant have to design management system like BAT and BEP (best available technology and best environmental practice) to reduce and eliminate dioxin and furan organic pollutants. This agreement is not easily applicable in a developing country like Ethiopia, where the economy is still in progress and it has a major related impact during the developmental activities.
About 50% the health care institutions in Addis Ababa have no furnace during medical waste incineration. Moreover, 100% of the currently using incinerator does not have an air pollution control system, and their medical waste incineration activity was not environmental sound and the organizations do not have disposal site to dispose the bottom ash. Therefore, the overall management practice of PCDD/PCDF from medical waste incineration is very weak.
The respondent of iron and steel factories was used the furnace for heating and melting purpose of the dirty and cleaned raw materials. During the production activities, all organizations do not have air pollution control system. The management practices of PCDD/PCDF emissions from iron and steel industries are very weak. The field visit to some factories confirmed that they produce their material by melting into furnaces without installing the air pollution control system and temperature control system.
The Dioxin and Furan is also easily emitted from household heating and cooking with biomass. The city residents commonly uses the three pit stoves, charcoal stove, and others stoves that do not have combustion control system. This emits the PCDD/PCDF from its open burning process.
Glass factories that have a furnace to produce their products do not have dust control abatement and PCDD/PCDF is easily emitted to the environmental media.
Vehicles in the city have no emission reduction catalyst. The management of the unintentional persistent organic pollutant emitted from the vehicle through the incomplete combustion does not be managed properly.
The household heating and cooking with biomass is also one of the major contributors of dioxine and furan.
Studies indicated that about 75% of the textile wastes from the industries were simply discharged to the sewerage line rather than treating and releasing into the water bodies, whereas 25% of textile wastes react to emission control [28]. This implies that majority of the industries have improper management of waste water released from their industries.
Regarding the emissions reduction management of PCDD/PCDF from leather refining industries, 7 or 99% of leather refining industry respondents revealed that their organizations have treated the wastewater via treatment plant. The rest 1% of industries do not have treatment plant but they are simply discharge into sewerage line, so that the PCDD/PCDF reduction was properly managed at leather refining industry.
The management practices of PCDD/PCDF from source category of dry cleaning have no optimum management practices for emission control. About 86.7% of respondent of dry cleaning industries revealed that their organization utilized chemical for dry cleaning and disposed the by-product through sewerage line, so that they easily generated and emit PCDD/PCDF without control.
There are no management practices of PCDD/PCDF emission from tobacco smoking activities in the city.
In the city of Addis Ababa, there is no management practices of leachate or seepage liquids disposed from solid waste. This implies that PCDD/PCDF can be easily emitted from these anthropogenic activities. Also, there is no adequate treatment of sewage that can control emission of dioxin and furan from sewage treatment.
Regarding the policies and legal framework for persistent organic pollutant, the researcher conducted an interview with higher expert working in Ministry of the environment, forest and climate in compliance and Monitoring directorate, and then some question were raised about the policy and regulatory framework of persistence organic pollutant. Expert from the FDRE Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Climate Change has explained that Ethiopian has designed various policy and regulatory frameworks to govern the environment, e.g., environmental policy approved by the minister council, and this policy has regulatory framework these are, environmental Protection Organs establishment, environmental pollution control proclamation (300/2002) environmental Impact Assessment Proclamation (299/2002) and etc. However, all regulatory frameworks directly or indirectly influence or contribute for the management of persistence organic pollutants, but it is impossible to say that this is good enough for emission reduction of POPs. Therefore, these can be put as the gap and weakness on the existing legislative system for the management of POP chemical in Ethiopia, as well as in Addis Ababa city. In addition, the respondent described that at present there is no legislation that specifically deals with POPs chemicals other than pesticides. The only particular legislations are those which control and regulate pesticides. Therefore from the point views of the interview, it is implied that the management practices of the emission reduction of the persistence organic pollutants through legislative and regulatory framework have not been formulated.
The major anthropogenic sources of emission of dioxin and furan (PCDD/PCDF) have generalized as 9 source groups, 15 source categories, and 25 classes. To quantify the release of PCDD/PCDF, an activity rate data and emission factor of each source category is required. The default model of emission factor prepared by UNEP to convert the annual activity rate data into annual release OF PCDD/PCDF in g TQE for different environment media is mostly used if there is no experimentally proved emission factor data found.
Most of the service sectors in developing countries have no control system for emission of dioxin and furan. Also, the regulatory issue of dioxin and furan is risen in various stages of the environment policy and strategies; however, there is no separate guidelines and standards prepared for it. The management practice of dioxin and furan in developing countries is not satisfactory, so that it needs consideration technology, capacity building, and regulatory empowerment options.
Constructing a standard medical waste incinerator station with all facilities at a specific station from collecting, hauling, and transporting the medical waste from all the health care institution to the incinerator station. These flows of management highly reduce the emission of PCDD/PCDF from the uncontrolled medical waste incineration which undertaking at different health care institution in the city.
Adoption of best available technology and best environmental practices in leather, textile, and minerals production processes to reduce or eliminate releases of PCDD/PCDF through detailed assessment of individual industries for BEP options for UPOPs reduction and need and introduce and effectively implement guidelines on BAT and BEP to release sources of UPOPs (existing and new industry)
Removal of barrier of introduction of technologies that minimize UPOPs through environmentally sound management practices
Conduct awareness raising and establishing network for information exchange through sensitizing the public and stakeholders on environmental and health impact of dioxin and furan
Develop education and awareness materials on health and environmental effects of UPOPs,
Establish free access Web and database on dioxin and furan.
To control and reduce the release of dioxin and furan through various environmental media, the countries need to work collaboratively in stakeholders with the regulatory formulating bodies.
There is no conflict of interest with all the content of this chapter.
Chronic myeloproliferative disorders are a group of clonal diseases of the stem cell. It is a group of several diseases with some common features. They derive from a multipotential hematopoietic stem cell. A clone of neoplastic cells in all these neoplams is characterized by a lower proliferative activity than that of acute myeloproliferative diseases. In each of these diseases, leukocytosis, thrombocythemia, and polyglobulia may appear at some stage, depending on the diagnosis [1, 2].
The research on interferon has been going on since the 1950s [3]. Then, the attention was paid to its influence on the immune system. It has been noted that it can exert an antiproliferative effect by stimulating cells of the immune system [4]. In 1987, a publication by Ludwig et al. was published, which reported the effectiveness of interferon alpha in the treatment of chronic myeloproliferative disorders [5].
More and more new studies have been showing the effectiveness of interferon alpha in reducing the number of platelets, reducing the need for phlebotomies in patients with polycythemia vera and also in reducing the number of leukocytes. Moreover, interferon reduced the symptoms of myeloproliferative disorders such as redness and itching of the skin. Additionally, it turned out to be effective in reducing the size of the spleen.
Further studies on the assessment of remission using molecular-level response assessments indicate that the interferon action in chronic myeloproliferation diseases targets cells from the mutant clone with no effect on normal bone marrow cells [6].
Over the years, interferon alpha-2a and interferon alpha-2b have been introduced into the treatment of chronic myeloproliferation, followed by their pegylated forms. The introduction of pegylated forms allowed for a reduction in the number of side effects and less frequent administration of the drug to patients. In recent years, monopegylated interferon alpha-2b has been used to further increase the interval between drug administrations while maintaining its antiproliferative efficacy.
The exact mechanism of action of interferon alpha in the treatment of chronic myeloproliferative disease is still not fully understood, but it has an impact on JAK2 (Janus Kinase) signal transducers and activates the STAT signal pathway (Janus Kinase/SignalTransducer and Activator of Transcription).
Interferon alpha binds to IFNAR1 and IFNAR2c, which are type I interferon receptors. Interferon alpha has an impact on JAK2(Janus Kinase) signal transducers and activates the STAT signal pathway. The disturbances in this signaling pathway are observed in chronic myeloproliferative disorders [7].
Interferon inhibits the JAK-STAT signaling pathway by directly inhibiting the action of thrombopoietin in this pathway [8].
So far, three driver mutations have been described in the course of chronic myeloproliferative diseases that affect the functioning of the JAK-STAT pathway.
JAK2 kinase and JAK1, JAK3, and TYK2 kinases belong to the family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases. They are involved in the intracellular signal transduction of the JAK-STAT pathway. It is a system of intracellular proteins used by growth factors and cytokines to express genes that regulate cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation. The mechanism of JAK activation is based on the autophosphorylation of tyrosine residues that occurs after ligand binds to the receptor. JAK2 kinase transmits signals from the hematopoietic cytokine receptors of the myeloid lineage (erythropoietin, granulocyte-colony stimulating factor thrombopoietin, and lymphoid lineage [9].
A somatic G/T point mutation in exon 14 of the JAK2 kinase gene converts valine to phenylalanine at position 617 (V617F) in the JAK2 pseudokinase domain, which allows constitutive, ligand-independent activation of the receptor to trigger a proliferative signal [10].
Mutation of the MPL gene, which encodes the receptor for thrombopoietin, increases the sensitivity of magekaryocytes to the action of thrombopoietin, which stimulates their proliferation [11].
Malfunction of calreticulin as a result of mutation of the CARL gene leads to the activation of the MPL-JAK/STAT signaling pathway, which is independent of the ligand, as calreticulin is responsible, for the proper formation of the MPL receptor. Consequently, there is a clonal proliferation of hematopoietic stem cells [12].
Below, we provide an overview of some clinical studies on the efficacy of interferon in chronic myeloproliferative disorders.
Polycythemia vera (PV) is characterized by an increase in the number of erythrocytes in the peripheral blood.
Polycythemia vera is caused by a clonal mutation in the multipotential hematopoietic stem cell of the bone marrow. The mutation leads to an uncontrolled proliferation of the mutated cell clone, independent of erythropoietin and other regulatory factors. As the mutation takes place at an early stage of hematopoiesis, an increase of the number of erythrocytes as well as of leukocytes and platelets is observed in the peripheral blood. The cause of proliferation in PV independent from external factors is a mutation in the Janus 2 (JAK2) tyrosine kinase gene. The V617F point mutation in the JAK2 gene is responsible for about 96% mutation, and in the remaining cases the mutation arises in exon 12. Both mutations lead to constitutive activation of the JAK-STAT signaling pathway [13].
As a result of the uncontrolled proliferation, blood viscosity increases, which generates symptoms such as headaches and dizziness, visual disturbances, or erythromelalgia. As the number of all hematopoietic cells, including the granulocytes ones, increases, the difficult to control symptoms of their hyperdegranulation may appear, among which gastric ulcer or skin itching is often observed. During the disease progression, the spleen and liver become enlarged.
The most common complication of the disease is episodes of thrombosis, especially arterial one. During the course of the disease, it can also evolve into myelofibrosis or acute myeloid leukemia.
The treatment of PV is aimed at preventing thromboembolic complications, relieving the general symptoms, the appearance of hepatosplenomegaly as well as preventing its progression.
Each patient should receive an antiplatelet drug chronically, and usually acetylsalicylic acid is the choice. Most often, the treatment is started with phlebotomy in order to rapidly lower the hematocrit level. If cytoreductive therapy is necessary, the drugs of first choice are hydroxycarbamide and interferon [2].
However, the research on the mechanism of the action of interferons is still ongoing. In vitro studies with CD34+ cells from peripheral blood of patients diagnosed with polycythemia vera showed that interferon inhibits clonal changed cells selectively. It was found that interferon alpha-2b and pegylated interferon alpha-2a reduce the percentage of cells with JAK2 V617F mutation by about 40%. Pegylated interferon alpha-2a works by activating mitogen-activated protein kinase P38. It affects CD34+ cells of patients with polycythemia vera by increasing the rate of their apoptosis [6].
A case of a patient with PV with a confirmed chromosomal translocation t(6;8) treated with interferon alpha-2b, which resulted in a reduction of the clone with translocation by 50% from the baseline value, was also described [14].
In 2019, the results of a phase II multicenter study were published, which aimed at assessing the effectiveness of recombinant pegylated interferon alpha-2a in cases of refractory to previously hydroxycarbamide therapy. The study included 65 patients with essential thrombocythemia (ET) and 50 patients with polycythemia vera. All patients had previously been treated with hydroxycarbamide and showed resistance to this drug or its intolerance.
The assessment of the response was performed after 12 months of treatment. Overall response rate to interferon was higher in patients diagnosed with ET than in patients with polycythemia vera. In essential thrombocythemia, the percentage of achieved complete remissions was 43 and 26% of partial remissions. The remission rate in ET patients was higher if calreticulin CALR gene mutation was present. Patients with polycythemia vera achieved complete remission in 22% of cases and partial remission in 38% of cases.
Treatment-related side effects that follow to discontinuation of treatment were reported in almost 14% of patients [15].
The duration of response to treatment with pegylated interferon alpha-2a and the assessment of its safety in long-term use in patients with chronic myeloproliferative disorders was the goal of a phase II of the single-center study. Forty-three adult patients with polycythemia vera and 40 patients with essential thrombocythemia were enrolled in the study. The complete hematological response was defined as a decrease in hemoglobin concentration below 15.0 g/l, without phlebotomies, a resolution of splenomegaly, and no thrombotic episodes in the case of PV, and for essential thrombocythemia—a decrease platelet count below 440,000/μl and two other conditions as above. The assessment of the hematological response was performed every 3–6 months. The median follow-up was 83 months.
The hematological response was obtained in 80% of cases for the entire group. In patients with polycythemia vera, 77% of patients achieved a complete response (CR) while 7% a partial response (PR). The duration of response averaged 65 months for CR and 35 months for PR. In the group of patients diagnosed with essential thrombocythemia, CR was achieved in 73% and PR in 3%. The durance of CR was 58 months and PR was 25 months.
The molecular response for the entire group was achieved in 63% of cases.
The overall analysis showed that the duration of hematological remission and its achievement with pegylated interferon alpha-2a treatment is not affected neither by baseline disease characteristics nor JAK2 allele burden and disease molecular status. There was also no effect on age, sex, or the presence of splenomegaly.
During the course of the study, 22% of patients discontinued the treatment, because of toxicity. Toxicity was the greatest at the beginning of treatment. The starting dose was 450 μg per week and was gradually tapered off.
Thus, on the basis of the above observations, the researchers established that pegylated interferon alpha-2a may give long-term hematological and molecular remissions [16].
The assessment of pegylated interferon alpha-2a in group of patients diagnosed with polycythemia vera only was performed. The evaluation was carried out on a group of 27 patients. Interferon decreased the JAK2 V617F allele burden in 89% of cases. In three patients who were JAK2 homozygous at baseline, after the interferon alpha-2a treatment wild-type of JAK2 reappeared. The reduction of the JAK2 allele burden was estimated from 49% to an average 27%, and additional in one patient the mutant JAK2 allele was not detectable after treatment. It can therefore be postulated that the action of pegylated interferon alpha-2a is directed to cells of the polycythemia vera clone [17].
In 2005, the results of treatment by pegylated interferon alpha-2b of 21 patients diagnosed with polycythemia vera and 21 patients diagnosed with essential thrombocythemia were published. In the case of polycythemia vera in 14 patients, PRV-1 gene mutation was initially detected. In 36% of cases, PRV-1 expression normalized after treatment with pegylated interferon alpha-2b. For the entire group of 42 patients, the remission assessment showed that complete remission was achieved in 69% cases after 6 months of treatment. However, only in 19 patients remission was still maintained 2 years after the start of the study. Pegylated interferon alpha-2b was equally effective in patients with PV and ET. The use and the type of prior therapy did not affect the achievement of remission [18].
Another study with enrolled only PV patients included 136 patients. They were divided into two arms. One group received interferon alpha-2b and the other group received hydroxycarbamide. Interferon dosage was administered in 3 million units three times a week for 2 years and then 5 million units two times a week. Hydroxycarbamide was administered at a dose between 15 and 20 mg/kg/day.
In the group of patients treated with interferon, a significantly lower percentage of patients developed erythromelalgia (9.4%) and distal parasthesia (14%) compared with the group treated with hydroxycarbamide, for whom these percentages were respectively: 29 and 37.5%. Interferon alpha-2b was found to be more effective in inducing a molecular response, which was achieved in 54.7% of cases, in comparison with hydroxycarbamide—19.4% of cases, despite the fact that the percentage of achieved general hematological responses did not differ between the groups and amounted about 70%. The 5-year progression free period in the interferon group was achieved in a higher percentage (66%) than in the hydroxycarbamide group (46.7%) [19].
The most recent form of interferon approved by the
Thanks to these changes to the structure of the molecule, it was possible to achieve a significant increase in its half-life. Ropeginterferon can be administered subcutaneously to patients every 14 days. The clinical trials conducted so far have assessed the ropeginterferon dose from 50 micrograms to a maximum dose of 500 microgams administered as standard every 2 weeks. The possible dose change in case of side effects includes not only the reduction of the drug dose itself, but also the extension of the interval between doses. The extension of the dosing interval up to 4 weeks was assessed.
Ropeginterforn was approved in 2019 by the EMA for the use in patients diagnosed with polycythemia vera without splenomegaly, as monotherapy.
Ropeginterferon, like the previous forms of interferons used in treatment, is contraindicated in patients with severe mental disorders, such as severe depression. It is also a contraindication in patients with noncompensatory standard treatment of disorders of the thyroid gland as well as severe forms of autoimmune diseases. The safety profile of ropeginterferon is similar to that of other forms of alpha interferons. The most common side effects are flu-like symptoms [20].
Ropeginterferon has been shown to exhibit in vitro activity against JAK2-mutant cells. The activity of ropeginterferon against JAK2-positive cells is similar to that of other forms of interferons used actually for standard therapy. Ropeginterferon has an inhibitory effect on erythroid progenitor cells with a mutant JAK2 gene. At the same time, it has almost no effect on progenitor cells without the mutated allele (JAK2-wile-type) and normal CD34+ cells. A gradual decrease of JAK2-positive cells was observed in patients with PV during ropeginterferon treatment. The examination was performed after 6 and 12 months of treatment. In comparison, the reduction in the percentage of JAK2 positive cells in patients treated with hydroxycarbamide was significantly lower.
These results may suggest that ropeginterferon may cause elimination of the mutant clone, but further prospective clinical trials are needed to confirm this theory. The evaluation was performed on a group of patients enrolled in the PROUD-PV study who were treated in France [21].
In 2017, a multicenter study was opened in Italy. The study was of the second phase. In total, 127 patients with polycythemia vera were included in the study. All patients enrolled on the study had low-risk PV. The clinical trial consisted of two arms. Patients received phlebotomies and low-dose aspirin in one arm and ropeginterferon in the other arm. The aim of the study was to achieve a hematocrit of 45% or lower without any evidence of disease progression. Ropeginterferon was administered every 2 weeks at a constant dose of 100 μg.
The response to the treatment was assessed after 12 months. The reduction of hematocrit to the assumed level was achieved in significantly higher percentage of patients in the ropeginterferon group than of patients who received only phlebotomies and aspirin. In addition, none of the patients treated with ropeginterferon experienced disease progression during the course of the study, while among those treated with phlebotomies, 8% of patients progressed.
Grade 4 or 5 adverse events were not observed in patients treated with ropeginterferon, and the incidence of remaining adverse event (AE) was small and comparable in both arms. The most common side effects in the ropeginterferon group were flu-like symptoms and neutropenia; however, the third-grade neutropenia was the most common (8% of cases) [22].
One of the most important clinical studies on the use of ropeginterferon was the PROUD-PV study and its continuation: the CONTINUATION-PV study. These were three-phase, multicenter studies. The aim of the study was to compare the effectiveness of ropeginterferon in relation to hydroxycarbamide. The study included adult patients diagnosed with polycythemia vera treated with hydroxycarbamide for less than 3 years and no cytoreductive treatment at all. In total, 257 patients received this treatment. The patients were divided into two groups: those receiving ropeginterferon or the other being given hydroxycarbamide.
During the PROUD-study, drug doses were increased until the hematocrit was achieved below 45% without the use of phlebotomies, and the normalization of the number of leukocytes and platelets was reached.
The PROUD-PV study lasted 12 months. After this time, the patients continued the treatment under the CONTINUATION-PV study for further 36 months. After the final analysis performed in the 12th month at the end of PROUD study, it was found that the hematological response rates did not differ between the ropeginterferon and hydroxycarbamide treatment groups. These were consecutively 43% in the ropeginterferon arm and 46% in the control arm.
However, after analyzing the CONTINUATION- PV study, it turned out that after 36 months of treatment, the rates of hematological responses begin to prevail in the group of patients receiving ropeginterferon, 53% versus 38% in the control group. Thus, from the above data, it can be seen that the response rate to ropeginterferon increases with the duration of treatment [23].
Another analysis of patients participating in the PROUD and CONTINUATION studies was based on the assessment of treatment results after 24 months, dividing patients into two groups according to age (under and over 60 years).
The initial comparison of both groups of patients showed that older patients had a more aggressive course of the disease. Patients over 60 years of age had a higher percentage of cells with a mutant JAK2 allele. They experienced both general symptoms and some complications, such as thrombosis, more frequently. Both patients under 60 years of age and over 60 years of age in the ropeginterferon arm had a higher rate of molecular response, namely 77.1 and 58.7% compared with the HU remission: 33.3 and 36.1%, respectively. Significantly higher reductions in the JAK2 allele were observed in both groups of patients after ropeginterferon treatment: it was 54.8% for younger patients and 35.1% for elderly patients. For comparison, this difference in the group of patients treated with HU was 4.5 and 18.4%, respectively.
What is more, the age did not affect the frequency of ropeginterferon side effects. In addition, the incidence of adverse ropeginterferon disorders was similar to that observed in the hydroxycarbamide group [24].
Essential thrombocythemia is a clonal growth of multipotential stem cells in the bone marrow. The consequence of this is increased proliferation of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow and an increase in the number of platelets in the peripheral blood. The level of platelets above 450,000/μl is considered a diagnostic criterion.
Essential thrombocythemia may progress over time to a more aggressive form of myeloproliferation, i.e., myelofibrosis. The disease can also evolve into acute myeloid leukemia or myelodysplastic syndrome, both with very poor prognosis. Thromboembolic complications are serious, and they concern over 20% of patients. Thrombosis occurs in the artery and venous area. Moreover, in patients with a very high platelet count, above 1,000,000/μl, bleeding may occur as a result of secondary von Willebrand syndrome [1, 2].
The treatment of ET is primarily aimed to prevent thrombotic complications.
In low-risk patients, only acetylsalicylic acid is used. In cases of high-risk patients, hydroxycarbamide is the first-line drug for most patients. Anagrelide and interferon are commonly used as second-line drugs.
Due to the possible effects of hydroxycarbamide of cytogenetic changes in the bone marrow cells after long-lasting usage, some experts recommend the use of interferon in younger patients in the first line. Interferon is also used as the drug of choice in patients planning a pregnancy [25].
The efficacy of pegylated interferon alpha-2a was assessed on the basis of the group of 39 patients with essential thrombocythemia and 40 patients with polycythemia vera.
Of the overall group, 81% of patients were previously treated prior to the study entry. The patients received pegylated interferon alpha-2a in a dose of 90 μg once a week. The dose of 450 μg was associated with a high percentage of intolerance.
In patients with essential thrombocythemia, the complete remission was achieved in 76%, while the overall hematological response rate brought 81%. Moreover, the molecular remission was achieved in 38%, in 14% of cases, JAK2 transcript became not detectable.
Patients diagnosed with polycythemia vera achieved 70% complete hematological remission and 80% general hematological response to treatment. JAK2 transcript was undetectable in 6% of patients. Molecular remission was achieved in 54% of cases.
Pegylated interferon alpha-2a at the dose of 90 μg per week was very well tolerated. In total, 20% of patients experienced a grade of 3 or 4 of adverse reaction, which was neutropenia. In addition, an increase in liver function tests was observed. Grade 4 of AE was not observed among patients who started the treatment with 90 μg/week while grade 3 neutropenia was an adverse event in only 7% of cases [26].
The effect of interferon alpha-2b treatment in patients with ET and PV was investigated. The study was prospective. Some of the results concerning the group of patients with polycythemia vera are presented in the subsection on polycythemia vera. In total, 123 patients with diagnosed essential thrombocythemia participated in the study. All of them received interferon alpha-2b. The patients were divided into two groups depending on the presence of the JAK2 V617F mutation. The enrolled patients were between 18 and 65 years of age. The treatment they received was, sequentially, interferon alpha-2b in the dose of 3 million units three times a week for the first 2 years, after which time the dose was changed into a maintenance dose, which amounted to 5 million units two times a week.
The analysis showed that the patients with the JAK2 V617F mutation present in a higher percentage achieved an overall hematological response as well as a complete hematological response. The overall hematological response was achieved in 83% of patients with JAK2 mutation, and the complete hematological remission was achieved in 23 cases. In the group of ET patients without the JAK2 V617F mutation, overall hematological response was achieved in 61.4%, while the complete hematological remission was achieved in 12 patients. The 5-year progression-free survival was obtained in 75.9% in the JAKV617F group and only in 47.6% without the mutation.
A significant proportion of patients experienced mild side effects. Grade 3 and 4 of adverse events were severe, most of them being a fever. The isolated cases of elevated liver tests and nausea have also been reported [19].
Pegylated interferon alpha-2b in patients with essential thrombocythemia who were previously treated with hydroxycarbamide, anagrelide, and other forms of interferon alpha, however, due to the lack of efficacy or toxicity, the patients required a change of treatment, was assessed. Pegylated interferon alpha-2b turned out to be effective in these cases. It led to the complete hematological remission in 91% of patients after 2 months of therapy, and in 100% of patients after 4 months. However, merely 11 patients participated in the study. Also only two patients required treatment discontinuation due to the side effects such as depression and general fatigue grade 3 [27].
In case of pregnant patients, interferon is currently considered the only safe cytoreductive drug. Over the years, several analyses of the results of interferon treatment during pregnancy have been carried out.
The assessment of 34 pregnancies in 23 women diagnosed with ET was performed retrospectively. All the pregnancies included in the analysis were of high risk. This high risk was associated with a high platelet count above 1,500,000/μl, a history of thrombotic episode, severe microcirculation disorders, or a history of major hemorrhage.
It turned out that the use of interferon allowed the birth of an alive child in 73.5% of cases. There was no difference in efficacy between the basic and pegylated forms of interferon alpha. In pregnancies without interferon treatment, the percentage of live births was only 60%. Moreover, it was not found if the presence of the JAK2 V617F mutation had any influence on the course of pregnancy [28].
An analysis of the course of pregnancy in patients with ET was assessed in Italy. Data from 17 centers were taken into account. Data from 122 pregnancies were collected from 92 women. In patients diagnosed with essential thrombocythemia, the risk of the spontaneous loss of pregnancy is about 2.5 times higher than among the general population. In the contrary to the study quoted above, it was found that the presence of the JAK2 mutation increases the risk of pregnancy loss. The proportion of live births in patients exposed to interferon during pregnancy was 95%, compared with 71.6% in the group of patients not treated with interferon.
The multivariate analysis also showed that the use of acetylsalicylic acid during pregnancy had no effect on the live birth rate of patients with ET [29].
Whatever its form, interferon is the drug of first choice in pregnancy. Hydroxycarbamide and anagrelide should be withdrawn for about 6 months, and at least for 3 months, before the planned conception. Experts recommend the use of interferon in high-risk pregnancies [30]. A Japanese analysis of 10 consecutive pregnancies in ET patients showed 100% live births in patients who received interferon [31].
In myelofibrosis (MF), monoclonal megakaryocytes produce cytokines that stimulate the proliferation of normal, non-neoplastic fibroblasts and stimulate angiogenesis. The consequence of this is the gradual fibrosis of the bone marrow, impaired hematopoiesis in the bone marrow, and the formation of extramedullary location mainly in the sites of fetal hematopoiesis, i.e., in the spleen and the liver.
The production of various cytokines by neoplastic megakaryocytes leads to the proliferation of normal, noncancerous fibroblasts as well as to increased angiogenesis.
Progressive bone marrow fibrosis leads to worsening anemia and thrombocytopenia. On the other hand, the production of proinflammatory cytokines by megakaryoblasts leads to the general symptoms such as weight loss, fever, joint pain, night sweats, and consequently, progressive worsening of general condition.
The prognosis for myelofibrosis is poor. In about 20% of patients, myelofibrosis evolves into acute myeloid leukemia with poor prognosis.
Currently, the only effective method of treatment that gives a chance to prolong the life is allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. However, this method is only available to younger patients.
The goal of treatment of patients who have not been qualified for allotranspalntation is to reduce the symptoms and to improve the patient’s quality of life. In case of leukocytosis cytoreducing drugs, such as hydroxycarbamide, melphalan, or cladribine can be used. They cause a reduction in the number of leukocytes and may, to some extent, inhibit splenomegaly. Interferon alpha has been used successfully for the treatment of myelofibrosis for many years. The results of its effectiveness will be presented below [2].
Currently, the JAK2 inhibitor ruxolitinib is approved for the treatment of myelofibrosis with enlarged spleen in intermediate and high-risk patients. Ruxolitinib reduces the size of the spleen, reduces general symptoms, and improves the quality of life; however, it does not prolong the overall survival of patients [32].
In 2015, the results of a retrospective study were published to compare the histological parameters of the bone marrow before and after interferon treatment. Twelve patients diagnosed with primary myelofibrosis as well as post-PV MF and post-ET MF were enrolled in the study. Patients were treated with pegylated recombinant interferon alpha-2a or recombinant interferon alpha-2b in standard doses. The time of treatment was from 1 to 10 years. Some patients had previously been treated with hydroxycarbamide or anagrelide. In all cases, karyotype was normal. The prognostic factor of Dynamic International Prognostic Scoring System (DIPSS) was assessed at the beginning as well as during the treatment.
Bone marrow cellularity decreased in cases with increased bone marrow cellularity before the treatment. After the interferon treatment, a reduction in the degree of bone marrow fibrosis was found. The parameters, such as the density of naked nuclei and the density of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow, also improved.
It proves that if the JAK2 V617F mutation had been present, DIPSS was decreased after interferon treatment. This relationship was not observed in patients without the JAK2 V617F mutation. The improvement in peripheral blood morphological parameters and the overall clinical improvement correlated with the improvement in the assessed histological parameters of the bone marrow.
Before the initiation of interferon, seven patients had splenomegaly. During the treatment with interferon, the complete resolution of splenomegaly was achieved in 17% of patients (two cases), and its size decreased in 25% (three cases). A good clinical response was achieved in 83% during interferon therapy. There was no significant difference in response between the two types of interferon used [33].
A prospective study was also conducted in patients with low and intermediate-1 risk group myelofibrosis. Seventeen patients were enrolled. Patients received interferon alpha-2b (0.5–3 milion units/three times a week) or pegylated interferon alpha-2a (45–90 μg/week). The duration of therapy was on average 3.3 years.
Most of the patients responded to the treatment. Partial remission was found in seven patients and complete remission in two patients. Moreover, in four cases, the disease was stabilized and in one case the clinical improvement was achieved. Three patients did not respond to treatment at all and progressed to myelofibrosis. Additionally, the assessment in reducing spleen size was performed. At baseline, 15 patients have splenomegaly, nine of them achieved the compete regression of spleen size [34].
However, the efficacy of interferon in the treatment of myelofibrosis appears to be limited only to a less advanced form, when the bone marrow still has an adequate percentage of normal hemopoiesis and the marrow stroma is not significantly fibrotic. In more advanced stages, interferon was not shown to have any significant effect on the regression of the fibrosis process [35].
In 2020, the results of the COMBI study were published. That was a two-phase, multicenter, single-arm study that investigated the efficacy and safety of the combination of ruxolitinib and pegylated interferon alpha. Thirty-two patients with PV and 18 patients with primary and secondary myelofibrosis participated in the study. The patients were at age 18 and older. Remission was achieved in 44% of myelofibrosis cases, including 28% (5 patients) of complete remission. In patients with PV, the results were slightly worse: 31% of remissions, including 9% of complete remissions. Patients received pegylated interferon alpha-2a (45 μg/week) or pegylated interferon alpha-2b (35 μg/week) in low doses and ruxolitinib in doses of 5–20 mg twice a day.
For the entire group of patients (with PV and MF), the initial JAK2 allele burden was 47% at baseline, and after 2 years of treatment with interferon and ruxolitinib, it decreased to 12%.
The treatment toxicity was low. The highest incidence of side effects occurred at initiation of therapy. It was mostly anemia and thrombocytopenia.
The observations from the COMBI study show that, for the combination of interferon in lower doses with ruxolitinib, it may be effective and well tolerated even in the group of patients who had intolerance to interferon used as the only drug in higher doses. The combined treatment improved the bone marrow in terms of fibrosis and its cellularity. It also allowed to improve the value of peripheral blood counts [36].
It is currently known that some of the additional mutations are associated with a worse prognosis in patients with myelorpoliferation, including patients with myelofibrosis. Some of these mutations have been identified as high-risk molecular mutations. These are ASXL1, EZH2, IDH1/2, or SRSF2. Earlier studies have shown their association with a more aggressive course of the disease, worse prognosis, and shorter survival of patients, as well as a poorer response to treatment. Due to their importance, they have been included in the diagnostic criteria of myelofibrosis [37].
It is also known that the presence of driver mutations, i.e., JAK2, CALR, and MPL or triple negativity, may affect the course of myeloproliferation, including the incidence of thromboembolic complications.
The assessment of the influence of driver mutations and a panel of selected additional mutations on the effectiveness of interferon treatment in patients with myelofibrosis was performed on a group of 30 patients. Only the patients with low- and intermediate-1-risk were enrolled in the study. The treatment with pegylated interferon alpha-2a or interferon alpha-2b resulted in a complete remission in two patients and partial remission in nine patients. The disease progressed in three cases. One patient relapsed and four died. The remaining patients achieved a clinical improvement or disease stabilization. In the studied group, it was not found if the effectiveness of interferon treatment was influenced by the lack of driver mutations. Among the group of four patients with additional mutations, two died and one had disease progression. It was a mutation of ASXL1 and SRSF2. The treatment with interferon in patients without additional molecular mutations in the early stages of the disease may prevent further progression of the disease [38].
The side effects of interferon in the group of patients with myelofibrosis are similar to those occurring after the treatment of other chronic myeloproliferative diseases. The most frequently described are hematological toxicity- anemia and thrombocytopenia, less often is the appearance of leukopenia. Hematological toxicity usually resolves with dose reduction or extension of the dose interval. The most frequently nonhematological toxicity was fatigue, muscle pain, weakness, and depression symptoms. All symptoms are usually mild and do not exceed grade 2 [38].
However, the use of interferon in the treatment of myelofibrosis has not been recommended as a standard therapy. Interferon is still being evaluated in clinical trials, or it is used in selected patients as a nonstandard therapy in this diagnosis.
Mastocytosis is characterized by an excessive proliferation of abnormal mast cells and their accumulation in various organs.
The basis for the development of mastocytosis is ligand-independent activation of the KIT receptor, resulting from mutations in the KIT proto-oncogene. The KIT receptor is a trans membrane receptor with tyrosine kinase’s activity. Its activation stimulates the proliferation of mast cells. That excessive numbers of mast cells infiltrate tissues and organs and release mediators such as histamine, interleukine-6, tryptase, heparin, and others, which are responsible for the appearance of symptoms typical of mastocytosis. In addition, the infiltration of tissues for mast cells itself causes damage to the affected organs.
The prognosis of mastocytosis depends on the type of the disease. In the case of cutaneous mastocytosis (CM), in the majority of cases prognosis is good and the disease does not shorten the patient’s life, but in aggressive systemic mastocytosis (ASM), the average follow-up is about 40 months. Mast cell leukemia has a poor prognosis with a median follow-up of approximately 1 year.
Systemic mastocytosis usually requires the implementation of cytoreductive therapy. The first line of therapy is interferon alone or its combination with corticosteroids. In aggressive systemic mastocytosis, the first line in addition to interferon 2-CdA can be used. An effective drug turned out to be midostaurin in the case of the present KIT mutation. In patients without the KIT D816V mutation, treatment with imatinib may be effective. In the case of mast cell leukemia, multidrug chemotherapy is most often required, as in acute leukemias, followed by bone marrow transplantation [39].
Systemic mastocytosis requiring treatment is a rare disease, this is why the studies available in the literature evaluating various therapies concern mostly small groups of patients.
In 2002, the French authors presented their experiences on the use of interferon in patients with systemic mastocytosis. They included 20 patients. The patients received interferon alpha-2b in gradually increased doses.
The patients were assessed after 6 months. In cases in which bone marrow was infiltrated for mast cells at baseline, it still remained infiltrated after 6 months of treatment.
However, the responses were obtained in terms of symptoms related to mast cell degranulation. Partial remission was achieved in 35% of patients and minor remission in 30%. It concerns mainly skin lesions and vascular congestion. Moreover, the assessment of the histamine level in the plasma revealed a decrease of it in patients who previously presented symptoms related to the degranulation of mast cells, such as gastrointestinal disorders and flushing.
A high percentage of side effects were found during treatment. They concerned 35% of patients. Depression and cytopenia were most frequent ones [40].
Another analysis was a report of five patients with systemic mastocytosis treated with interferon and prednisolone. All patients received interferon alpha-2b in a dose of 3 million units three times a week and four patients additionally received prednisolone. Four patients responded to interferon treatment at varying degrees. One patient, who at baseline had bone marrow involvement by mast cells in above 10%, progressed to mast cell leukemia. In two patients, the symptoms C resolved completely and in one of them they partially disappeared. In one case, stabilizing disease was achieved [41].
In 2009, a retrospective analysis of patients treated with cytoreductive therapy due to mastocytosis was published. The authors collected data from 108 patients treated at the Mayo Clinic. This analysis allowed for the comparison of the efficacy of four drugs used in systemic mastocytosis. There were interferon alpha alone or in the combination with prednisone—among 40 patients, hydroxycarbamide—among 26 ones, imatinib—among 22 persons, and 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine (2-CdA)—among 22 patients.
After dividing the patients into three additional groups on the basis of the type of mastocytosis—indolent systemic mastocytosis, aggressive systemic mastocytosis, and systemic mastocytosis associated with another clonal hematological nonmast cell lineage disease (SM-AHNMD)—the effectiveness of each of type of therapy was assessed.
The highest response rates in indolent and aggressive mastocytosis were achieved with interferon treatment. They were 60% of the responses in both groups, and in the SM-AHNMD group of patients, the percentage was also one of the highest and amounted to 45%. The second most effective drug was 2-CdA. The response rates were 56% for indolent MS, 50% for aggressive MS, and 55% for SM-AHNMD. The patients treated with imatinib achieved response in 14, 50, and 9% by following groups, respectively. In contrast, patients with indolent and aggressive systemic mastocytosis did not respond to hydroxycarbamide treatment at all. The response rate in both groups was 0%. However, patients with MS associated with another clonal hematological nonmast cell lineage disease achieved 21% response to hydroxycarbamide. Additionally, it was found that only interferon relieved symptoms caused by the release of inflammatory mediators by mast cells.
The additional analysis showed no influence of the TET 2 mutation on the response to treatment [42].
In the literature, there are also single cases of mastocytosis presenting trials of nonstandard treatment. That is description of a patient with systemic mastocytosis with mast cell bone marrow involvement. Mutation of c-kit Asp816Val was present. Patient progressed despite treatment with dasatinib and 2-chlorodeoxyadenosine. The patient developed symptoms related to the degranulation of mast cells and increased ascites.
The patient was treated with pranlukast, which is an anti-leukotriene receptor antagonist due to an asthma episode. The rate of ascites growth decreased significantly after one administration. The patient required paracentesis every 10 days and not every 3 days, as before starting to take the drug. After 15 days of treatment with pranlukast, the patient received interferon alpha, which resulted in complete regression of ascites, resolution of pancytopenia, and complete disappearance of the c-kit mutation clone. The infiltration of mast cells in the bone marrow significantly decreased [43].
Interferon alpha was also effective in a patient with systemic mastocytosis associated with myelodysplastic syndrome with the c-kit D816V mutation, which was refractory to imatinib treatment [44].
Interferon alpha also proved to be effective in the treatment of osteoporotic lesions appearing in the course of mastocytosis.
The series of 10 cases with resolved mastocytosis and osteoporosis-related fractures was presented in 2011. The patients received interferon alpha in a dose of 1.5 million units three times a week as well as pamindronic acid. The patients were treated for an average of 60 months. For the first 2 years, pamindronate was given at a dose of 1 mg/kg every month, and then every 3 months.
During the course of the study, no patient had a new-bone fracture. The level of alkaline phosphatase decreased by 25% in relation to the value before treatment and tryptase by 34%. Bone density increased during treated with interferon and pamindronate. The increase was on average 12% in the spine bones and 1.9% in the hip bones. At the same time, there was no increase in the density of the hip bone and a minimal increase in the density of the spine in patients treated with pamindronate alone.
The results of this observation suggest that it is beneficial to add low doses of interferon alpha to pamindronate treatment in terms of bone density increase [45].
That experiences show that interferon used in systemic mastocytosis significantly improves the quality of life of patients by inhibiting the symptoms caused by degranulation of mast cells. They prevent bone fractures and, in some patients, they cause remission of bone marrow infiltration by mast cells.
Chronic neutrophilic leukemia (CNL) is a very rare disease. It is characterized by the clonal proliferation of mature neutrophils.
The diagnostic criteria proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) comprise leukocyte counts above 25,000/μl (including more than 80% of rod and segmented
Physical examination often shows enlargement of the liver and spleen, moreover, patients complain on weight loss and weakness [1].
The prognosis varies. The average survival time for patients with CNL is less than 2 years.
Only few descriptions of chronic neutrophilic leukemia are available in the literature, and these are mostly single case reports.
Because it is an extremely rare disease, there are no established and generally accepted treatment standards. In most cases, patients are given hydroxycarbamide or interferon. Patients who are eligible for a bone marrow transplant may benefit from this treatment. Bone marrow allotransplantation remains the only method that gives a chance for a significant extension of life.
The German authors presented a series of 14 cases of chronic neutrophilic leukemia. The group of patients consisted of eight women and six men. The average age was 64.7 years. From the entire group of patients, longer survival was achieved only in three cases. One of these patients was treated with interferon alpha and achieved hematological remission, the other underwent bone marrow allotransplantation from a family donor, and the third one was treated with hydroxycarbamide and transfusions as needed. The follow-up period of the patient after allogeneic matched related donor transplantation (allo-MRD) was 73 months, and for the patient after interferon treatment it was 41 months.
The remaining patients died within 2 years of diagnosis. Six patients, the largest group, died due to intracranial bleeding, three patients died because of leukemia cell tissue infiltration, one patient because of the disease transformation into leukemia, and one patient because of pneumonia [46].
It can be seen from these experiences that treatment with interferon alpha can significantly extend the survival time of patients.
The case of a 40-year-old woman diagnosed with chronic neutrophilic leukemia is presented by Yassin and coauthors. Initially, the patient had almost 41,000 leukocytes in the peripheral blood. In a physical examination, splenomegaly and hepatomegaly were not present. Patient received pegylated interferon alpha-2a. The initially dose was 50 μg once a week for the first 2 weeks, then the dose was increased to 135 μg weekly for 6 weeks, and then the dose interval was extended to another 2 weeks. As a result of the treatment, the general condition of the patient improved and the parameters of peripheral blood counts were normalized [47].
Another case report presented in the literature describes a 41-year-old woman diagnosed with CNL accompanied by focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (FSGS). The patient had increasing leukocytosis for several months. On the admission to the hospital, leukocytosis was 94,000/μl. Moreover, the number of platelets in the morphology exceeded 1,000,000/μl. More than a year earlier, the patient had splenectomy due to splenomegaly and spleen infraction.
Additionally, JAK2 V617F mutation was found. Some authors suggest that the presence of JAK2 mutation may be associated with longer survival in CNL.
The patient received hydroxycarbamide for 3 months and reduction in the number of leukocytes was achieved. After this time, interferon alpha-2b was added to hydroxycarbamide. As a result, focal segmental glomerulosclerosis disappeared and the renal tests improved [48].
Another case of chronic neutrophilic leukemia with a JAK2 gene mutation concerns a 53-year-old man. The patient’s baseline leukocytosis was 33,500/μl, including the neutrophil count of 29,700/μl. The patient also had splenomegaly.
The treatment with interferon alpha-2b at a dose of 3 million units every other day was started. After a month of treatment, the number of leukocytes was reduced to less than 10,000/μl. Then the patient was treated chronically with interferon alpha-2b in doses of 3 million units every 2 weeks. As a result of the therapy, the number of leukocytes remains between 8 and 10,000/μl. The patient remains in general good condition [49].
A series of two CNL cases are also shown. The first patient was a 70-year-old woman with stable leukocytosis of about 35,000/μl and the remaining morphology parameters in normal range. The patient was only observed for 5 years until hepasplenomegaly progressed rapidly. Then, interferon alpha-2b was included. Due to the treatment, the rapid regression of hepatosplenomegaly was achieved.
The second case is a 68-year-old woman with baseline leukocytosis of almost 14,000/μl. In this case, the treatment with hydroxycarbamide was started immediately. However, no improvement was achieved. After 6 weeks of HU treatment, interferon alpha-2b 3 million units 3 times a week was implemented and leukocytosis decreased. Due to the interferon treatment, the disease stabilized for a long time. Because the patient experienced an adverse reaction, a severe flu-like syndrome, interferon was discontinued. After interferon withdrawal, the disease progressed gradually and the treatment attempts by busulfan and 6-mercaptopurine were unsuccessful. Therefore, interferon was readministered and the disease went into remission. Interferon treatment was continued at a reduced dose. The disease regression was achieved again.
Additionally, the patient showed an improvement in the function of granulocytes in terms of phagocytosis and an improvement in neutral killer (NK) cell function after treatment with interferon [50].
The above examples show that interferon alpha is effective in the treatment of chronic neutrophilic leukemia. The side effects are rare and can be managed with dose reductions. Moreover, in these cases, interferon is also effective in a reduced dose. Disease remission or regression can be achieved without typical of CNL complications, such as intracranial bleeding.
Interferon has been used in the past to treat chronic myeloid leukemia. The treatment with tyrosine kinase inhibitors is now a standard practice. However, in a small number of patients, they are ineffective or exhibit unmanageable toxicity. Therefore, the attempts are underway to use interferon in combination with TKI in lower doses, which is to ensure the enhancement of the antiproliferative effect while reducing the toxicity.
There are ongoing attempts to use ropeginterferon in patients diagnosed with chronic myeloid leukemia, in whom treatment with imatinib alone has not led to deep molecular response (DMR). The first phase study was conducted in a small group of patients with chronic myeloid leukemia. The patients in first chronic phase treated with imatinib who did not achieve DMR, but in complete hematologic remission and complete cytogenetic remission, were included in the study. Patients have been treated with imatinib for at least 18 months. Twelve patients were enrolled in the study, and they completed the study according to the protocol. These patients received additional ropeginterferon to imatinib and four achieved DMR. Low toxicity was observed during the treatment. Among the hematological toxicities, neutropenia was the most common. There was no nonhematological toxicity with a degree higher than 1/2 during the treatment. Moreover, it has been found that better effects and fewer side effects are obtained when ropeginterferon is administered for a longer time, but in lower doses. The comparison of the effectiveness of interferon in chronic myeloproliferative disorders based on selected articles is presented in Table 1 [51].
Source | Type of trial | Interferon | Diagnosis | No. | Prior treatment status | Response rate |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yacoubet al. [15] | Phase II, multicenter | Pegylated IFN alfa-2a | PV | 50 | Resistance to HU or HU intolerance | CR:22% PR:38% |
ET | 65 | CR:43% PR:26% | ||||
Masarova et al. [16] | Phase II, single-center | Pegylated IFN alfa-2a | PV | 43 | Untreated or previously treated with cytoreductive therapy | CR:77% PR:7% |
ET | 40 | CR:73% PR:3% | ||||
Samuelsson et al. [18] | Phase II | Pegylated IFN alfa-2b | PV | 21 | Untreated or previously treated with cytoreductive therapy | CR: 69% for the entire group |
ET | 21 | |||||
Huang BT et al. [19] | Open label, multicenter | IFN alfa-2b | PV | 136 | Untreated or previously treated with cytoreductive therapy | OHR:70% Molecular response:54.7% |
ET | 123 | OHR (JAK2+ patients):83% CHR:23 cases OHR (JAK2-patients): 61.4% CHR:12 cases | ||||
Gisslinger et al. [23] | phase III, multicenter | Ropeginterferon | PV | 257 | Previously treated | OHR:53% |
Quintás-Cardama et al. [26] | phase II | Pegylated IFN alfa-2a | PV | 40 | Untreated or previously treated with cytoreductive therapy | OHR:80% CR:70% Molecular remission:54% |
ET | 39 | OHR:81% CR:76% Molecular remission:38% | ||||
Sørensen et al. [36] | Phase III, multicenter, COMBI | Pegylated IFN alfa-2a with ruxolitinib or Pegylated IFN alfa-2b with ruxolitinib | PV | 32 | Untreated or previously treated with cytoreductive therapy | OHR:44% CR:28% |
MF | 18 | OHR:31% CR:9% | ||||
Casassus et al. [40] | Open label, multicenter | IFN alpha-2b | Mastocytosis | 20 | Untreated and previously treated | PR:35% Minor remission: 30% |
Comparison of the effectiveness of interferon in chronic myeloproliferative disorders.
PV: polycythemia vera; ET: essential thrombocythemia; MF: myelofibrosis; HU: hydroxycarbamide/hydroxyurea; CR: complete remission; PR: partial remission; and OHR: overall hematological response.
Interferon alpha appears to be an effective and safe drug in the most type of chronic myeloproliferative disorders. Nowadays, all forms of its using have similar effectiveness. Interferon alpha can be effective even in cases of resistance for first-line treatment. Trial research is currently underway to combine it with some new drugs, such as ruxolitinib, and to add it to the already well-established therapy, it is a promising option for patients with refractory disease.
From time to time, new forms of interferon, such as ropeginterferon, are introduced, which gives hope for better effectiveness, better safety profile, and greater comfort in its use for patients who have to be treated for many years. In the case of the use of interferons alpha in the treatment of chronic myeloproliferative diseases, there are still opportunities to extend its use and to study its combination with newly introduced drugs.
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Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. 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Community service is among the three pillars of the university’s business along with teaching and research tasks. Employing a qualitative case study design, this research inspects the practices of community services against the ascribed principles and identifes the pitfalls of community service in Debre Markos University. Both primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data were collected through key informants interviews, semistructured interviews, and non-participant observation. Thirteen participants, five through key informant interview and eight through a semistructured interview were addressed. Participants were purposively selected from both the university and the nearby community. Lecturers, vice-presidents, and directors have participated in the interview. Articles, books, different reports, newspapers, and magazines were reviewed and used as sources of secondary data. Thematic data analysis technique was employed to analyze the primary data, and document analysis was used to analyze the data gained from secondary sources. The results show that, though community service is rendered since 2006 at Debre Markos University, there are still limitations in adhering to the principles of community service. These include shortage of budget, low level of University-Industry Linkage (UIL), less commitment of the staff, and the low level of monitoring and evaluation.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Adane Mengist"},{id:"82845",title:"Revisiting Crisis Governance: Toward Collaborative Crisis Management",slug:"revisiting-crisis-governance-toward-collaborative-crisis-management",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106129",abstract:"This chapter attends to three main modes of crisis governance: centralization, decentralization, and collaborative crisis management (CCM). While the first two modes focus almost exclusively on government actors, CCM goes beyond them by involving private sectors and civil society. CCM is a more robust form of crisis governance since it combines knowledge and resources from multiple actors, which is a key to managing the more complex nature of modern crises. This chapter uses the case of Indonesia in dealing with the COVID-19 pandemic to show the dynamics of crisis governance. Indonesia moved from a centralized mode of crisis governance toward a more decentralized one. Simultaneously, there were several collaborative initiatives involving multiple stakeholders to deal with the crisis, such as in the case of SONJO. The case illustrates that while CCM provides a more effective response, it has some limitations as it has a smaller scale, may create internal conflict, lacks sustainability, and has a nonbinding character. The experience of Indonesia lends the lesson that for CCM to be robust crisis governance, and there needs to be a clear arrangement to boost its scale, manage internal conflict, improve sustainability, and induce a more permanent and binding framework.",book:{id:"11439",title:"Crisis Management - Principles, Roles and Application",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11439.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriel Lele"},{id:"82858",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility a Case of the Provision of Recreational Facilities",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-a-case-of-the-provision-of-recreational-facilities",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105608",abstract:"Corporate social responsibility (CSR) connotes Government agencies and private enterprises services for effective change and in this regards the recreational provision. The inadequate provision of the recreational services thwarted recreation, resulting to unsuitable funding of recreational facilities and unsuccessful synergy between government and the private enterprises embarking on CSR. This paper examines the roles of government and the private enterprises in the services of CSR with the view to enhance their performances in the provision of recreational facilities. The paper applied the qualitative method using atlas ti.8 for the data analysis. The findings reveal inadequate facilities provision for recreation resulting from lack of funding, lacklustre attitude and poor synergy of the stakeholders. The paper recommends that government should be positive in implementing policies that promote recreational activities and improving the efforts of the private enterprises for CSR. With the effectiveness and efficiency of the provision of recreation facilities, CSR will be acknowledged as a case of Greater Jos. Plateau State, Nigeria.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Peter Musa Wash, Shida Irwana Omar, Badaruddin Mohamed and Mohd Ismail Isa"},{id:"82786",title:"Discussion of Purchasing Virtual Digital Nature and Tourism",slug:"discussion-of-purchasing-virtual-digital-nature-and-tourism",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105869",abstract:"This chapter discusses the potential and prospects of consumers purchasing virtual digital nature and smart tourism. During the lockdown period, people experienced a trend toward increased subjective well-being as a result of their familiarity with the digital nature. In order to academically validate these experiences, this study examines how interaction with nature in the digital environment stimulates new consumer behavior in post-pandemic life. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. 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