Retention times and CCS values for negative and positive MS experiments.
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10345",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Infectious Eye Diseases - Recent Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment",title:"Infectious Eye Diseases",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Infectious eye disorders represent one of the most feared, sight-threatening, and challenging clinical ocular conditions. Visual loss due to eye infection significantly impacts patients’ productivity and quality of life. The development of accurate diagnostic tests and better treatment alternatives results from intensive and innovative medical research committed to improving the standard of care of patients suffering from these blinding diseases. This book focuses on the most recent advances in diagnostic techniques for common infectious disorders, including viral, fungal, and contact lens-related keratitis, infectious uveitis, endophthalmitis, and COVID-19-related eye infection. It also describes the current therapeutic strategies that significantly reduce the rate of ocular complications and improve the visual outcome of patients suffering from such devastating disorders.",isbn:"978-1-83969-320-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-319-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-321-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91531",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"infectious-eye-diseases-recent-advances-in-diagnosis-and-treatment",numberOfPages:206,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"1d2abb832f0773c90fc9a12d1a41194c",bookSignature:"Alejandro Rodriguez-Garcia and Julio C. Hernandez-Camarena",publishedDate:"October 27th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10345.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2332,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 13th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 30th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 29th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"209514",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Garcia",slug:"alejandro-rodriguez-garcia",fullName:"Alejandro Rodriguez-Garcia",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/209514/images/system/209514.jpg",biography:"Dr. Alejandro Rodriguez-Garcia completed a Clinical and Research Fellowship in Ocular Immunology and Uveitis at the Massachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary, Harvard Medical School. He is a Distinguished Clinical and Research Professor of Ophthalmology at Tecnologico de Monterrey School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Mexico. He is Director of the Ocular Immunology and Uveitis Service at the Institute of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Academic Director of the Ophthalmology Residency Program, and member of CONACYT National System of Researchers (Level 2). He is a former President of the Center for Ocular Inflammatory Disorders affiliated with the Mexican Society of Ophthalmology. Dr. Rodriguez is the author and co-author of more than 100 peer-reviewed scientific articles and more than thirty chapters related to inflammatory and infectious eye diseases.",institutionString:"Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"216716",title:"Dr.",name:"Julio C.",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Camarena",slug:"julio-c.-hernandez-camarena",fullName:"Julio C. Hernandez-Camarena",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216716/images/system/216716.png",biography:"Dr. Julio C. Hernandez-Camarena completed a fellowship in Cornea and Refractive Surgery at the “Instituto de Oftalmologia Conde de Valenciana – UNAM,” Mexico. He obtained a Ph.D. in Clinical Sciences at Tecnologico de Monterrey, Mexico, and is a member of the CONACYT National System of Researchers (Level 1). Dr. Hernandez is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Tecnologico de Monterrey School of Medicine and Health Sciences and clinical research coordinator of the Ophthalmology Residency Program. He has a special interest in clinical (keratoconus, corneal transplant, and infectious keratitis) and basic research (biopharmaceutical molecules therapy for ocular surface disease and Tissue engineering for corneal endothelium regeneration). Dr. Hernandez-Camarena is the author and co-author of more than forty peer-reviewed scientific articles related to the cornea, refractive surgery, and ocular surface disease.",institutionString:"Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"191",title:"Ophthalmology",slug:"medicine-ophthalmology"}],chapters:[{id:"78813",title:"Contact Lens-Associated Infectious Keratitis: Update on Diagnosis and Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100261",slug:"contact-lens-associated-infectious-keratitis-update-on-diagnosis-and-therapy",totalDownloads:197,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The focus of this chapter is to review the most recent advances in the diagnosis and treatment of contact-lens-related infectious keratitis, the most sight-threatening complication of contact lens wear. In the last decades, contact lenses technology has confronted several challenges, including the need for safer and more comfortable polymer materials. The development of high coefficient oxygen permeability (Dkt) and low-water content disposable contact lens translated into a significant improvement in ocular discomfort related to dry eye and allergic reactions, decreasing biofilm build-up on the external surface of the lens. Additionally, the emergence and boom-effect of corneal refractive surgery have also driven the development of better contact lens manufacturing. Despite these substantial technological advances, contact lens users continue to be at risk for developing corneal infections. We describe recent epidemiologic data, and advances in understanding the complex pathogenesis of the disease, including the clinical characteristics of the infectious process produced by bacteria, fungi, and protozoans. Finally, the recent development of diagnostic techniques and therapeutic regimens are discussed.",signatures:"Jimena Alamillo-Velazquez, Raul E. Ruiz-Lozano, Julio C. Hernandez-Camarena and Alejandro Rodriguez-Garcia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78813",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78813",authors:[{id:"209514",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro",surname:"Rodriguez-Garcia",slug:"alejandro-rodriguez-garcia",fullName:"Alejandro Rodriguez-Garcia"}],corrections:null},{id:"75733",title:"Recent Advances in the Diagnosis and Management of Herpetic Keratitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96898",slug:"recent-advances-in-the-diagnosis-and-management-of-herpetic-keratitis",totalDownloads:476,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter is focused on one of the major cause of keratitis - Herpetic keratitis, its epidemiology, natural course, clinical forms, prognosis, diagnosis and treatment. The estimated global incidence of HSV keratitis is roughly 1,5 million, including 40,000 new cases of each year. Patients are usually affected in the early decades of live, therefore the disease has a severe impact on quality of life and quality of vision in young, productive adults. The author describes the detailed corneal characteristics, provides slit lamp photographs, optical coherence tomography scans and confocal microscopy results of different forms of the HSV keratitis: epithelial, stromal, necrotizing and endothelial. The chapter also discusses recent methods of diagnosis based on PCR testing as well as established and future methods of treatment based on the latest research results.",signatures:"Anna Nowińska",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75733",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75733",authors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",surname:"Nowińska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowińska"}],corrections:null},{id:"77167",title:"Fungal Keratitis: Recent Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98411",slug:"fungal-keratitis-recent-advances-in-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:354,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fungal keratitis or fungal corneal ulcer is potentially blinding infection of cornea, is considered one of the major cause of ocular morbidity, particularly in developing countries. It is a common cause of infectious keratitis, especially in tropical and subtropical countries. Fungal keratitis is notoriously challenging to diagnosis and difficult to treat. Delay in diagnosis may result in irreversible sequelae of corneal fungal infections, which can be preventable. Fungal keratitis often have worse treatment outcomes than bacterial keratitis, Delayed diagnosis and scarcity of effective antifungal agents are the major factors for poor outcome. In the recent years considerable advancement in the diagnosis and treatment has been occurred. In this chapter, we will discuss the recent advances in diagnosis and management of fungal keratitis with a brief discussion on pathogenesis and future therapeutic models.",signatures:"Suwarna Suman, Arushi Kumar, Indu Saxena and Manoj Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77167",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77167",authors:[{id:"343594",title:"Dr.",name:"Suwarna",surname:"Suman",slug:"suwarna-suman",fullName:"Suwarna Suman"},{id:"357336",title:"Dr.",name:"Indu",surname:"Saxena",slug:"indu-saxena",fullName:"Indu Saxena"},{id:"357338",title:"Prof.",name:"Manoj",surname:"Kumar",slug:"manoj-kumar",fullName:"Manoj Kumar"},{id:"414642",title:"Dr.",name:"Arushi",surname:"Kumar",slug:"arushi-kumar",fullName:"Arushi Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"75868",title:"Ocular Toxoplasmosis: An Update on Diagnosis, Multimodal Imaging and Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96752",slug:"ocular-toxoplasmosis-an-update-on-diagnosis-multimodal-imaging-and-therapy",totalDownloads:400,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ocular toxoplasmosis remains to be the most common cause of infectious uveitis in immunocompetent individuals with highly variable prognosis. The transmission mode can be either congenital or acquired. A precise diagnosis of the disease is necessary to opt effective and rapid treatment. While ocular toxoplasmosis usually presents in the classic form, it may as well present in variable clinical spectrum. The diagnosis can be suspected by the ocular inflammatory clinical presentation as well as multimodal imaging. However, serologic tests including intraocular fluid testing may be needed. Treatment includes combination of systemic antiparasitic and anti-inflammatory drugs with variable effectivity. More recently, intravitreally antimicrobials may be used. The chapter aims to layout the different clinical presentations and complications of ocular toxoplasmosis. Diagnostic techniques and different antimicrobial combinations for treatment will also be discussed.",signatures:"Terese Kamal Gerges",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75868",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75868",authors:[{id:"340918",title:"Prof.",name:"Terese Kamal",surname:"Gerges",slug:"terese-kamal-gerges",fullName:"Terese Kamal Gerges"}],corrections:null},{id:"76770",title:"Acute Postoperative Infectious Endophthalmitis: Advances in Diagnosis and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97545",slug:"acute-postoperative-infectious-endophthalmitis-advances-in-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:203,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Acute postoperative infectious endophthalmitis remains one of the most dreaded complications of ophthalmic surgery. One of the keys to success in treating this complication is to make an early clinical diagnosis and, if possible, an etiologic diagnosis that can guide treatment with antibiotic therapy. Different antibiotic therapy modalities have emerged over the years that have made it possible to treat even resistant strains of various microorganisms that cause endophthalmitis. Another relevant advance made in the etiological diagnosis of endophthalmitis is the advent of molecular biology techniques, such as the real-time polymerase chain reaction, which can detect minimal amounts of the genetic material of the causative microorganism present in the vitreous in a short period of time, thus improving treatment outcomes with better-guided therapy with intravitreal antibiotics. Aside from advances in postoperative diagnosis methods, the surgical treatment of endophthalmitis has had significant improvements in vitrectomy techniques, and in many cases, it has been proposed as the first-line treatment concomitantly with intravitreal antibiotic therapy. Moreover, there is increasing evidence that prophylaxis with intracameral antibiotic therapy further decreases postoperative endophthalmitis incidence.",signatures:"Sergio E. Hernandez-Da Mota, Jose Luis Guerrero-Naranjo, Jose Dalma-Weiszhausz, Raul Velez-Montoya and Jesus H. Gonzalez-Cortes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76770",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76770",authors:[{id:"271421",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Hernan",surname:"Gonzalez-Cortes",slug:"jesus-hernan-gonzalez-cortes",fullName:"Jesus Hernan Gonzalez-Cortes"},{id:"341004",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Eustolio",surname:"Hernandez-Da Mota",slug:"sergio-eustolio-hernandez-da-mota",fullName:"Sergio Eustolio Hernandez-Da Mota"},{id:"350905",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Dalma-Weiszhausz",slug:"jose-dalma-weiszhausz",fullName:"Jose Dalma-Weiszhausz"},{id:"350906",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",surname:"Guerrero Naranjo",slug:"jose-luis-guerrero-naranjo",fullName:"Jose Luis Guerrero Naranjo"},{id:"350907",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul",surname:"Velez-Montoya",slug:"raul-velez-montoya",fullName:"Raul Velez-Montoya"}],corrections:null},{id:"76038",title:"Endogenous Endophthalmitis: Etiology and Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96766",slug:"endogenous-endophthalmitis-etiology-and-treatment",totalDownloads:246,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter comprehensively covers all aspects of endogenous endophthalmitis from systemic infectious agents, with an emphasis on reported and newer etiologies to broaden the diagnostic and investigative acumen of treating ophthalmic providers. The discussion includes the etiology of metastatic endophthalmitis and diagnostic investigations, including polymerase chain reaction (PCR), for identification of bacterial and viral infections involving the eye in both immunosuppressed in non-immunosuppressed patients. Additionally, we present clinical and diagnostic findings of fungal infections, protozoal infections, and helminthic infections. Pediatric cases are also reported and etiologies described. We discuss both etiology and diagnostic challenges. Current therapeutic modalities and outcomes are reviewed. While no two cases of metastatic endophthalmitis are the same, some similarities may exist that allow us to generalize how to approach and treat this potentially sight- and life-threatening spectrum of diseases and find the underlying systemic cause.",signatures:"Sami Kabbara, Neil Kelkar, Mandi D. Conway and Gholam A. Peyman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76038",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76038",authors:[{id:"274007",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandi D.",surname:"Conway",slug:"mandi-d.-conway",fullName:"Mandi D. Conway"},{id:"342117",title:"Prof.",name:"Gholam A.",surname:"Peyman",slug:"gholam-a.-peyman",fullName:"Gholam A. Peyman"},{id:"344256",title:"Dr.",name:"Sami",surname:"Kabbara",slug:"sami-kabbara",fullName:"Sami Kabbara"},{id:"344257",title:"BSc.",name:"Neil",surname:"Kelkar",slug:"neil-kelkar",fullName:"Neil Kelkar"}],corrections:null},{id:"76171",title:"Potency of SARS-CoV-2 on Ocular Tissues",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97055",slug:"potency-of-sars-cov-2-on-ocular-tissues",totalDownloads:271,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The current COVID-19 pandemic has affected more than 100 million people and resulted in morbidity and mortality around the world. Even though the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 is characterized by respiratory tract involvement, previous and recent data also indicates ocular manifestation. Not surprisingly, cell entry point of the virus, ACE2 receptor, is widely expressed in ocular tissues ranging from conjunctiva to retina. Despite the sensibility of ocular tissues, the sophisticated defense mechanism of the eye might eliminate viral transmission. Nevertheless, the potential of systemic transmission through the nasolacrimal duct may not be eliminated. In the case of ocular involvement, the disease outcomes might be as treatable as conjunctivitis or as serious as retinal degeneration and the treatment regimen vary accordingly. Within these contingencies, our aim with this chapter is to shed light on molecular bases of SARS-CoV-2 infection, systemic invasiveness following ocular transmission, manifestation and permanent effects on ocular tissues.",signatures:"Saliha Durak, Hande Eda Sutova, Abuzer Alp Yetisgin, Ozlem Kutlu and Sibel Cetinel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76171",authors:[{id:"341355",title:"Ms.",name:"Saliha",surname:"Durak",slug:"saliha-durak",fullName:"Saliha Durak"},{id:"344048",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sibel Çetinel Çetinel",surname:"Çetinel",slug:"sibel-cetinel-cetinel-cetinel",fullName:"Sibel Çetinel Çetinel Çetinel"},{id:"344052",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozlem",surname:"Kutlu",slug:"ozlem-kutlu",fullName:"Ozlem Kutlu"},{id:"347787",title:"MSc.",name:"Hande Eda",surname:"Sutova",slug:"hande-eda-sutova",fullName:"Hande Eda Sutova"},{id:"347789",title:"MSc.",name:"Abuzer Alp",surname:"Yetisgin",slug:"abuzer-alp-yetisgin",fullName:"Abuzer Alp Yetisgin"}],corrections:null},{id:"76916",title:"COVID-19 Conjunctivitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97135",slug:"covid-19-conjunctivitis",totalDownloads:185,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The outbreak of new Cov-2 epidemic was detected in December 2019 in the city of Wuhan, China, caused by Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus −2 and started its rapid spread througth the world. The World Health Organisation (WHO) declared a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) on the 30th of January 2020. -2 infection can present with spectrum of clinical manifestations, primary of upper respiratory tract and in some cases, especially in immunocompromised patients can cause changes in lower respiratory tract such as pneumonia and bronchitis. Conjunctivitis is not a common manifestation of SARS-Cov-2 infection. It should however be kept in mind that patients with ocular manifestations and symptoms can represent the COVID-19 cases. CoVs can produce several ocular manifestations from conjunctivitis, uveitis – anterior and posterior, retinitis and optic neuritis.",signatures:"Suzana Konjevoda, Samir Čanović and Ana Didović Pavičić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76916",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76916",authors:[{id:"273907",title:"Dr.",name:"Suzana",surname:"Konjevoda",slug:"suzana-konjevoda",fullName:"Suzana Konjevoda"},{id:"273914",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Didović Pavičić",slug:"ana-didovic-pavicic",fullName:"Ana Didović Pavičić"},{id:"273932",title:"Dr.",name:"Samir",surname:"Čanović",slug:"samir-canovic",fullName:"Samir Čanović"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7094",title:"Advances in the Diagnosis and Management of Uveitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a81511ced9080932669447918c9b5f72",slug:"advances-in-the-diagnosis-and-management-of-uveitis",bookSignature:"Alejandro Rodriguez-Garcia and C. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54640",title:"An Overview of the Effects of Heat Treatments on the Quality of Organic Wastes as a Nitrogen Fertilizer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68163",slug:"an-overview-of-the-effects-of-heat-treatments-on-the-quality-of-organic-wastes-as-a-nitrogen-fertili",body:'The treatment of raw organic wastes increases their potential range of beneficial uses. The most conventional treatment is composting, which is typically conducted at ambient temperatures. It is generally recognized that composted organic matter is a good soil amendment that releases inorganic nitrogen (N) relatively slowly. Besides composting, heating has become a popular method to enhance the quality of organic wastes.
To eliminate water and pathogens, sewage sludge is heat-dried by various methods such as convective drying, conductive drying, and solar drying [1]. Several researchers have also reported that heat-drying of sewage sludge can change the form of N [2]. For example, Smith and Durham [3] evaluated the content of N in five sewage sludges in paired treatments, both anaerobically digested and one additionally heat-dried for pelleting or granulation. During heat-drying, more than 75% of inorganic ammonium was lost by volatilization. However, during the aerobic incubation at 25°C for 56 days, the production of nitrate in soil amended with heat-dried sludge was similar to, or even larger than, that from the corresponding sludge without heat-drying. These results suggest that heat-drying of sewage sludge greatly increased the content of mineralizable organic N.
The occurrence of such heat-induced N transformations is not surprising, because a similar phenomenon has been seen for a variety of soils. In 1901, Daikuhara [4] reported that heating of soil samples in a pan for 20 minutes increased the content of N that could be extracted by dilute acid solutions. His forgotten research is summarized briefly in our recent paper [5].
In contrast with soils, little information is available for organic wastes. In particular, limited attention has been paid to the relationship between the heating temperature and the resulting changes in the form of N. Case et al. [6] recently reported that heat-drying of sewage sludge at temperatures ranging from 130 to 250°C significantly decreased the rate of N mineralization. Their findings differ from previous results including ours [7], which showed increased N mineralization by heat-drying.
In this chapter, we briefly review what is known about this topic by examining data from previous papers in which the heating temperature was specified. The focus is on the effect of heating on the quality of organic wastes as a source of N for crops. The content is not limited to sewage sludge but covers other organic wastes and soils. For a more comprehensive review of sewage sludge, please refer to Rigby et al. [2]. Since Daikuhara’s pioneering work, there have been many relevant publications from Japan. We introduce some of these papers to make them available to the international research community and our own unpublished results.
Around 1940, the early findings of Daikuhara [4] were re-evaluated by Mitsui [8]. A series of his experiments were carried out before and during the Pacific War (World War II), when supplies of inorganic fertilizer ran short [5]. By heat-treating two soils at several temperatures (from 65 to 400°C, for 4 hours), Mitsui found that the content of mineralized N (initial inorganic N plus mineralizable N) reached a maximum with heating around 200°C. To generalize this result, he collected 44 types of soils from paddy and upland fields throughout Japan and treated them at 130 or 200°C for 4 hours. He then evaluated the contents of inorganic N and mineralizable N by means of aerobic incubation at 26°C for 31 days.
Both forms of N were increased by the heat treatments (Figure 1). The average content of inorganic N was 39.8 mg kg−1 (130°C) and 199.3 mg kg−1 (200°C) as compared to 25.2 mg kg−1 (original). The average content of mineralizable N was 89.4 mg kg−1 (130°C) and 111.1 mg kg−1 (200°C) as compared to 28.0 mg kg−1 (original). The amount of N mineralized by heating at 200°C and subsequent incubation was positively correlated with the content of total N in the original soil (
Frequency distributions of inorganic and mineralizable N in Japanese agricultural soils (
The findings of Mitsui [8] were extended by Sakamoto et al. [9]. They tried to reveal the origin of the N mineralized by heating and measuring the amount of N mineralized from two soils fumigated with chloroform or heated at different temperatures. Chloroform fumigation can kill most of soil microbes, so it has been used to extract the elements such as carbon (C), nitrogen (N), and phosphorus (P) in soil microbial biomass.
The amount of N mineralized from the fumigated soil was similar to that from the soil heated at 50 and 100°C, but it was much less than that from the soil heated at 150 and 200°C (Figure 2). Sakamoto et al. also counted the number of microbes after the treatments by the dilution agar plate method. They found that the decrease in the number of bacteria caused by the fumigation was comparable to that by heating at 50°C, and the decrease in the number of actinomycetes and fungi by the fumigation was comparable to that caused by heating at 100°C. From these results, they concluded that the N mineralized by heating at 50 and 100°C derived mainly from the microbial biomass fraction, whereas the N mineralized at temperatures above 100°C derived mainly from the nonbiomass fraction.
Amount of mineralized N in fumigated or heat-treated soils during incubation (adapted from Ref. [
In addition to soils, organic wastes have been heat-treated before recycling for use as fertilizer. In 1932, Yoshimura et al. [10] reported why the rate of N mineralization from rapeseed oil cake (the residue that remains after oil extraction) imported from China was lower than that from oil cake produced in Japan. At that time, rapeseed oil cake was produced by roasting, crushing, steam-heating, and squeezing. Because the Chinese rapeseed oil cakes were darker, they hypothesized that the rapeseed was roasted for a longer period and thus at a higher temperature and evaluated the relationship between the roasting conditions and the rate of N mineralization.
Yoshimura et al. found that the rate of N mineralization decreased with increasing roasting period and temperature. Figure 3 clearly shows that the rate of extraction of N with 50 mM NaOH and the growth of tobacco decreased as the roasting temperature increased from 150 to 170°C [11]. The growth of tobacco supplied with rapeseed oil cakes imported from China was smaller than that with the domestic cakes. These results contrast with those of soils. Probably because of the uniqueness, we found no evidence that their paper had been cited until we rediscovered it recently [12].
Effects of the application of rapeseed oil cake (ROC) on the growth of tobacco (reprinted from Ref. [
Yoshida [13] confirmed and extended those findings in 1970s. We are not sure if he was aware of Yoshimura’s results, as he did not cite them. But whether by chance or not the materials that he selected were rapeseed oil cake and food sludge. Food sludge was dewatered by centrifugation, and both materials were dried at 90–95°C and crushed. They were then heat-treated at 150°C for 2 hours, 165°C for 1 hour, 175°C for 1 hour, or 200°C for 0.5 hour. These materials were subjected to the aerobic incubation at 30°C for 50 days, and the content of mineralized N produced during the incubation was evaluated.
When rapeseed oil cake was heat-dried at 175°C for 1 hour or at 200°C for 0.5 hour, the rate of N mineralization became much lower than that of the control (Figure 4). The results were similar for food sludge, indicating that the decrease of N mineralization caused by high temperatures was not limited to rapeseed oil cake. The influence of heating at 175°C was quite different from that of heating at 165°C for both materials. This difference suggests that there is a threshold temperature between 165 and 175°C after which the rate of N mineralization decreases with increasing temperature.
Patterns of N mineralization from a sandy loam soil to which rapeseed oil cake and food sludge treated at different temperatures were applied at a rate of 0.2 gN kg−1 soil (created by the authors from the data in Ref. [
In the same year, Kurihara and Watanabe [14] reported that heat-drying of sewage sludge at 130°C for 1 hour could increase the rate of N mineralization by around 30%. In their experiment, mineralizable N was evaluated by the aerobic incubation at 29°C for 35 days. Their result is similar to the findings of Smith and Durham [3]. In addition to heat-drying, Kurihara and Watanabe reported that freeze-drying of sewage sludge decreased the rate of N mineralization by around 30%.
We have also examined the effect of heating of sewage sludge on the rate of N mineralization [7] and the growth of komatsuna (
Reactor used in the pilot-scale conductive dryer system in our previous research [
Dewatered sewage sludge collected from a wastewater treatment plant in Shimane Prefecture, Japan, was used in the experiment. We compared two heat treatments such as dry-heating of air-dried sludge (AD) and heat-drying of moist sludge without a preliminary air-drying step (HD). Using these treatments, we prepared four types of materials: AD dry-heated at 120°C (AD-120), AD dry-heated at 180°C (AD-180), moist sludge heat-dried at 120°C (HD-120), and moist sludge heat-dried at 180°C (HD-180). Dry-heating requires an air-drying pretreatment and is not practical in terms of time and cost. We nonetheless used it to evaluate the effect of heating on the sludge properties more directly by comparing AD-120 and AD-180 with AD. The heating period was fixed at 16 hours.
These materials were mixed with three soils (an Andosol, a Fluvisol and an Arenosol) at a rate of 1% w/w, and the soils were aerobically incubated at 30°C for 84 days. Regardless of the soil type, the rate of N mineralization was increased significantly by heating of the air-dried sludge at 120°C and it was decreased significantly by heating of the air-dried sludge at 180°C (Figure 6). The conventional treatment based on heat-drying of moist sludge at 120 or 180°C exerted similar but less pronounced effects. These heat-induced changes were attributed to the transformation of sludge organic N, because volatilization of N during the heating treatments was negligible [7].
Patterns of N mineralization from three soil types amended with heat-treated sewage sludge (adapted from Ref. [
Using the same combination of sludges and soils, we carried out two successive pot experiments. Komatsuna, a popular test vegetable in Japan, was grown after a basal application of sludges at a rate of 20 Mg ha−1 (dry matter base). Sludge application was carried out only once before the start of the first experiment.
In the first experiment, the amount of N uptake by the plants increased significantly by heating air-dried sludge at 120°C and decreased significantly by heating at 180°C, when the sludge was applied to the Fluvisol or Arenosol (Figure 7). Heat-drying of the sludge at 120 or 180°C also increased N uptake significantly. In the Andosol, on the other hand, N uptake was not so much influenced by the rate of N mineralization from sewage sludge as that observed in the other two soils (Figure 6). Because both Andosol and sewage sludge (which contained ferrous polysulfate as a coagulant) adsorbed P in soil solution (data not shown), we considered that the beneficial effect of N supply from sewage sludge on plant growth was offset by the limited supply of P [15].
Effect of the application of heat-treated sewage sludge on the growth of a leafy vegetable (komatsuna) grown in three types of soils (adapted from Ref. [
The second pot experiment was carried out without an additional sludge application after complete removal of the plants from the first experiment. The plant growth in the second experiment became smaller than that in the first one, and the difference among the treatments decreased (Figure 8). The supply of N from the sludge did not last long. Thus, at least for the komatsuna plants used in our experiment, frequent application of sludge is required to sustain plant growth. However, it will also lead to the accumulation of sludge-derived N and P in soil, because less than 40 and 15% of the sludge N and P, respectively, were apparently recovered by two harvests of the plants [15]. From these results, we concluded that heated sludges can act as an effective organic N fertilizer, provided that they are applied to a suitable type of soil and that the short-term effects on soil productivity are balanced with the long-term effects on environmental quality.
Sustainability of the effects of an initial application of sewage sludge on the growth of a leafy vegetable (komatsuna) grown in an Arenosol (adapted from Ref. [
Case et al. [6] re-evaluated previous results, including ours. On the hypothesis that the effect of heat-drying on N mineralization from sewage sludge would differ among heating temperatures, they heat-dried anaerobically digested sewage sludge at different temperatures (70, 130, 190, or 250°C) until the water content reached less than 5%. Heat-drying treatment was carried out with a laboratory oven (laboratory-drying), and the product was abbreviated as LD. The sludge materials were applied to a sandy loam soil (Luvisol) and incubated aerobically at 15°C for 160 days. During the incubation, the production of exchangeable ammonium, nitrate, and carbon dioxide (CO2) was monitored.
The production of nitrate during the whole incubation period was largest for the original sewage sludge (Original), followed by LD-70, LD-130 > LD-190 > LD-250 (Figure 9). Thus, nitrate production decreased with increasing temperature from 130 to 250°C. Because the content of exchangeable ammonium was almost zero at 80 days after the incubation (data not shown), the amount of nitrate produced after day 80 can be regarded as the amount of mineralized N (initial inorganic N plus mineralizable N).
Patterns of nitrate production from a sandy loam soil (a Luvisol) amended with heat-treated sewage sludge at 2% (w/w). Aerobic (pF 2) incubation was carried out at 15°C for 160 days. Anaerobically digested sewage sludge (Original) was heated in a laboratory oven at 70, 130, 190, or 250°C until the water content was less than 5% (LD-70, LD-130, LD-190, and LD-250, respectively). Reproduced with permission from Case et al. [
The overall production of CO2 was also largest in Original, LD-70, and LD-130, followed by LD-190 and LD-250 (data not shown). But the initial rate of CO2 emission from Original was lower than that from LD-70 and LD-130, indicating that microbial decomposition of LD-70 and LD-130 occurred more rapidly. From these results, Case et al. concluded that heat-drying temperature significantly influenced the rate of N mineralization from sewage sludge but that heat-drying did not improve the rate of N mineralization at any temperatures they examined. They also emphasized that the heat-drying treatment in the laboratory produced different results from the treatment in a large-scale wastewater treatment plant (Figure 9) and the heat-drying temperature is one of the several factors that potentially affect the rate of N mineralization.
In addition to Case et al. [6], the positive ([17]; 60°C for 13 hours) or negative ([18]; 250°C until reaching constant weight) effects of heat-drying on the amount of mineralized N in sewage sludge have been reported by comparing dewatered sludge with sewage sludge heat-dried at a single temperature. Maki et al. [19] also found that the content of chemically extractable organic N in cow dung manure was decreased by heating at temperatures from 80 to 180°C for 2 hours in a laboratory oven. As summarized by Rigby et al. [2] and Case et al. [6], several researchers have reported N mineralization from heat-dried sludge without specifying the heating conditions. According to the literature review by Rigby et al. [2], the percentage of mineralizable N to total organic N in heat-dried sewage sludge ranged from 26 to 71% (40% in average). This value was similar to aerobically digested sewage sludge whose value ranged from 32 to 58% (47% in average).
By compiling the abovementioned reports, we plotted the heat-induced changes of mineralized N (initial inorganic N plus mineralizable N) in organic wastes as a function of the heating temperature (Figure 10). It should be noted that only a rough comparison of these results among the studies is possible, because the materials used as a control, the heating conditions and the incubation conditions differed.
Relationship between temperature at which organic wastes were heated and heat-induced changes in mineralized N (initial inorganic N plus mineralizable N). The data from Mitsui [
Nevertheless, the figure suggests certain trends. First, the response to the heating temperature differed between soils and organic wastes. As the heating temperature increased from around 120 to 200°C, N mineralization increased in soil but decreased in organic wastes. The reason for the difference remains to be elucidated. Second, the content of mineralized N in organic wastes decreased sharply by heating at 150–200°C except for Case et al. [6] who reported a more gradual decrease. The reason for this difference is also uncertain. The release of CO2 from the sludge of Case et al. during the incubation decreased slightly with heating at 130°C, but decreased sharply with heating at 190°C [6], which indicates that the threshold temperature for the stabilization of sludge C did exist between 130 and 190°C. On the other hand, we could not estimate the suitable temperature to increase N mineralization from organic wastes due to the insufficient number of available data. Lastly, the heating effect on N mineralization was influenced by both the heating temperature and by the initial water content of the sewage sludge. A typical example can be found in the difference between our samples at 180°C (AD-180 and HD-180).
We will have a closer look at the last point. Figure 11 shows the temporal changes in the water content and the temperature of sewage sludge during the production of AD-180 and HD-180. Samples were heated for 16 hours with the reactor temperature set at 180°C. For both materials, the heat-drying process can be divided into two periods: the drying period (sludge < 100°C), in which most of the heat is consumed to dry the sludge, and the denaturing period (sludge > 100°C). Because of the difference in the initial water content, it took about 5 hours for AD-180 to reach 180°C, and about 14 hours for HD-180. As a result, HD-180 stayed at 180°C for only 2–3 hours. This clearly indicates that the temperature of sewage sludge during the heat-drying treatment rather than the temperature of the reactor is a most important factor that affects the availability of N in the heat-dried products. In the case of heat-drying of sewage sludge at temperatures higher than 150°C, it is plausible that the presence and the length of the denaturing period are key factors that determine whether the rate of N mineralization decreases or not.
Changes in the water content and the temperature of sewage sludge during heating at 180°C with (AD-180) or without (HD-180) air-drying as a pretreatment (adapted from Ref. [
Different from our samples treated beyond the drying period, the water content of the heat-dried sewage sludge produced at wastewater treatment plants varies from less than 10% [3, 6, 20] to more than 60% [21]. If sewage sludge was heat-dried homogeneously and the content of water in the end-product was relatively high, we can assume that the sludge temperature during the heat-drying treatment did not exceed 100°C.
We carried out additional experiments to better understand why N mineralization was decreased significantly by dry-heating at 180°C (Figure 6). Since N mineralization is a part of the biological decomposition of organic C, we focused on the chemical form of the C. The heat-induced denaturation of C in sewage sludge (stabilization in the case of AD-180) was evaluated by using biological and chemical methods as follows; aerobic incubation, chemical extraction, and 13C-NMR.
To extend the stabilization period, sewage sludge was heated at 180°C for a much longer period than in our previous experiment. Dewatered sewage sludge made from human waste was sampled from a wastewater treatment plant in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. The sludge was air-dried at room temperature or heat-dried at 180°C by the conductive dryer in Figure 5. The air-dried sludge without heating (AD) contained C and N at 36 and 5.6%, respectively. The sludge was heated for 14 hours until its temperature reached 180°C, or it was continued for an additional 24 hours (a total of 38 hours) or 120 hours (a total of 134 hours). The heat-dried materials treated at 180°C for the additional 0, 24, or 120 hours are referred to as HD-180 (0 hour), HD-180 (24 hours), or HD-180 (120 hours), respectively.
The difference between HD-180 (0 hour) and other two HD-180 materials is originated solely from the dry-heating process at 180°C. The total C content was about 37% in all HD-180 materials. However, the rate of C mineralization decreased significantly with increasing dry-heating period (Figure 12). The percentage of total C that was mineralized during the 35-days incubation was 12.5% in HD-180 (0 hour), which was slightly lower than AD (13.1%). It decreased to 5.8% in HD-180 (24 hours) and to 4.1% for HD-180 (120 hours). These results indicate that the stabilization of C occurred mainly during the initial 24 hours of the dry-heating period and proceeded slowly thereafter.
Average percentage of sludge C mineralized during aerobic incubation at 30°C for 35 days. The sludge materials were applied to an Acrisol from Shimane University at Honjo at 1% (v/v), and the soil was incubated at a moisture content of 60% of maximum water holding capacity. Each treatment was triplicated.
The color of the heat-dried sewage sludge was also quite different from that of the air-dried sludge. For example, HD-180 (30 hours) was darker than AD (Figure 13). This suggests that the stabilization of C and N in sewage sludge was concomitant with the Maillard reaction, which is a series of nonenzymatic browning reactions occurring when virtually all foods are heated [22]. This reaction starts from the condensation of the carbonyl group of a reducing sugar with a free amino group of an amino acid [22]. The color of powdered materials can be measured easily and precisely with a color sensor [23]. Thus, the color of the end-products can be a useful proxy for the temperature of the sludge throughout the heat-drying treatment.
Color differences between two samples of finely ground sewage sludge. AD: air-drying, HD-180 (30h): heat-drying at 180°C with a stabilization period of 30 hours.
Based on these preliminary observations, we analyzed the composition of organic matter in three samples, i.e., AD, HD-180 (0 hour), and HD-180 (120 hours). The samples were crushed with an agate mortar to pass a 70-mesh sieve with an opening of 0.212 mm for the following analyses. Analyses were performed without replicates.
We used an extraction method known as Nagoya method [24], which is based on the different solubilities of organic matter fractions in alkaline and acid solutions. This method was originally designed to classify humic substances in soils, and we applied it to sewage sludge. Figure 14 shows the procedures for separating humic substances into fulvic acid, humic acid, and humin fractions.
Procedures for the fractionation of soil organic matter into fulvic acid, humic acid, and humin according to the Nagoya method [
Figure 15 shows the relative contents of the fractions in our samples. The results of Collard et al. [20] were added to the figure, which were obtained from heat-drying of sewage sludge at 85 and 120°C. However, only a rough comparison between two datasets is possible, because Collard et al. used a slightly different extraction method (the IHSS method) and also removed lipids with a mixture of dichloromethane and methanol before extracting humic substances. In contrast, we did not remove nonhumic substances beforehand (the original method), so our extractable fractions (fulvic and humic acids) may have been overestimated as a result of contamination of nonhumic substances such as lipids and carbohydrates. Here we pay attention to the percentage of humin as an index of the stability of sludge C, since the humin fraction was considered to be least affected by such contamination.
Relative percentages of fulvic acid, humic acid, and humin in sewage sludge samples. The percentage of lipid is also presented for the results of Collard et al. [
The percentage of humin in the original sludge without heating suggested that our sample was less stabilized than that of Collard et al. In our samples, the heat-drying at 180°C greatly increased the percentage of humin; 12% in AD, 37% in HD-180 (0 hour), and 50% in HD-180 (120 hours). In the samples of Collard et al. [20], on the other hand, heat-drying at 120°C decreased the percentage of humin; 59% in Original, 59% in HD-85, and 30% in HD-120. These results indicate that the stability of sludge C was unaffected by heat-drying at 85°C, decreased at 120°C and increased at 180°C. The effects of heating on the stability of C differed between 120 and 180°C, which agreed with our results of N mineralization [7].
Comparing among our samples, however, the rate of C mineralization from AD and HD-180 (0 hour) was not so much different as the percentage of humin (Figures 12 and 15). This indicates that the increase of the percentage of humin was not proportional to the decrease of C mineralization during the incubation. In our previous study [7], the chemical forms of organic N in heat-treated materials were also evaluated by sequential extraction. Although organic N in AD-180 was most recalcitrant to chemical extractions, the results could not quantitatively explain the very low rate of N mineralization. These results suggest that mineralization of sludge C and N was determined not only by its chemical solubility but also by other physical factors such as microbial accessibility.
We also analyzed the C forms in AD, HD-180 (0 hour), and HD-180 (120 hours) by the solid-state 13C nuclear magnetic resonance (13C-NMR) spectroscopy. The 13C-NMR method provides estimates of the relative percentages of the main functional groups of C. The analytical procedures and machine conditions were the same as those described by Hiradate et al. [25]. When our samples were analyzed without any pretreatment, the 13C-NMR spectra were divided into the four regions. According to Hiradate et al. [25], these regions were assigned to the functional groups as follows (Figure 16); alkyl C (0–45 ppm), O-alkyl C (45–110 ppm), aromatic C (110–165 ppm), and carbonyl C (165–210 ppm).
Solid-state 13C-NMR (CP/MAS-TOSS, 75.45 MHz) spectra of sewage sludge samples. The 13C-NMR spectrum was divided into the four chemical shift regions: 0–45 ppm (alkyl C), 45–110 ppm (O-alkyl C), 110–165 ppm (aromatic C), and 165–210 ppm (carbonyl C). The values in the spectra indicate the relative percentage of each type of C calculated by integrating the signal intensity.
In AD, the percentage of alkyl C plus O-alkyl C exceeded 60%. Fernández et al. [26] also reported the predominance of these functional groups (75%) in sewage sludge heat-dried at 70–80°C. During the drying period from AD to HD-180 (0 hour), the percentage of alkyl C increased from 31 to 38%, whereas that of O-alkyl C decreased from 35 to 29%. During the stabilization period caused by dry-heating for 120 hours, the percentage of aromatic C increased from 14 to 24%, whereas that of O-alkyl C decreased from 29 to 20%. The proportion of carbonyl C was relatively constant throughout the treatments.
The transformation of C during the treatments at 180°C could be detected by applying the 13C-NMR method to our crude samples. The transformation occurred not only during the stabilization period but also during the initial drying period, but the functional groups affected by the transformation differed between the periods. These results indicate that the reactions in the drying period differed from those in the stabilization period. A slight decrease of carbonyl C from 19 to 17% during the stabilization period implied the occurrence of the Maillard reaction. However, it is uncertain to what extent the changes observed in the 13C-NMR spectra were responsible for the different rates of mineralization of C between HD-180 (0 hour) and HD-180 (120 hours). The higher proportion of aromatic C in HD-180 (120 hours) may have contributed to the lower rate of C mineralization, because the aromatic polymers in plant residues and microbial products are regarded as more recalcitrant to biological decomposition [27].
Similar to our results, the heating of Susuki (
As for sewage sludge, Fernández et al. [29] compared the properties of heat-dried sewage sludge with those of composted sludge. Sewage sludge that was heat-dried at the maximum sludge temperature of 75°C contained more fulvic acid than sewage sludge composted in windrows for 3 months. The solid-state 13C-NMR spectroscopy indicated that the humic acid fraction of the heat-dried sludge contained more alkyl C and less aromatic C than that of the composted sludge. These results indicated that heat-drying of sewage sludge at 75°C (sludge temperature) did not increase the stability of C as much as did windrow composting. In their study, the heat-drying was carried out by indirect convection with air heated between 380 and 450°C. The temperature of the sludge during the treatment (<75°C) was therefore much lower than the hot air supplied for drying. This reemphasizes the importance of the temperature of sewage sludge during the drying period as a factor that affects the quality of the end-product.
By reviewing literature, we suggested that the heat-induced changes in N mineralization differ between soils and organic wastes. As the heating temperature increased to 200°C, the rate of N mineralization increased in soils but decreased in organic wastes. The rate of N mineralization from organic wastes tended to decrease sharply when heating temperatures increased to 150–200°C. Since the materials examined, heating conditions and analytical methods differed among the researchers, our findings may have been biased by these artifacts. More comparative studies are required to confirm these findings and reveal the processes involved. Furthermore, the results obtained from heat-dried sewage sludge indicated that the solid-state 13C-NMR spectroscopy can be a powerful tool to characterize the heat-induced stabilization of sludge C in addition to the incubation and extraction methods that have been used by soil scientists.
We thank Dr. Noriko Iwashima (Shimane University) for the analysis of mineralization of C by the incubation method and Dr. Syuntaro Hiradate (Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, NARO) for the analysis of C forms by the solid-state 13C-NMR spectroscopy. We also thank Dr. Toshiyuki Wakatsuki, Dr. Tsugiyuki Masunaga, Dr. Shingo Matsumoto, and Dr. Hisao Nakano; the faculty members of Shimane University who gave us valuable comments and technical supports during our research activities at Shimane University. This work was supported by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP15K00634.
This chapter will explain the basic principles around ion mobility along with some different forms of ion mobility and how they function. Advantages and disadvantages of each technique will be offered. Case studies will demonstrate the effectiveness of using ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) paired with ion mobility and mass spectrometry. The drift time or the time required to traverse the ion mobility cell can be used to align and differentiate the mass spectra of isobaric species in complex matrices. This differentiation may allow for better quantitation and/or sensitivity enhancement of those features. In addition, assignment of descriptive data such as collision cross sections can be used to form databases for targeted and untargeted analysis.
One of the most common applications of ion mobility in everyday life is swabbing luggage and hands at airports for nitrate-based explosives [1]. It is portable and fast with high volume and highly reproducible results. The fundamental concept of ion mobility is ionic separation in a gas with an applied electric field. As the ions are propelled down a drift tube by an electrical field, the ions hit the gas molecules, and their velocity slows down based on the number of gas molecules that interact with the ions [2]. Figure 1 shows the basic concept behind the ability of different sized ions moving at different rates through a drift tube. Drift time or the time it takes ions to travel the entire length of the drift tube would be the observed measurement from the ion mobility spectrometer. The drift time and other parameters can be used to calculate the collision cross section (CCS) of each compound to be used as compound-specific descriptive data. The larger the cross-sectional area, the more interaction there are with the gas molecules (lower mobility) and the slower the ion moves through the drift tube. When the cross-sectional area of the ion is smaller, there is less interaction with the gas molecules (higher mobility), and the ion can move faster compared with the larger ions [2, 3]. The next sections will describe different types of ion mobility spectrometers along with reported advantages and disadvantages of each technique. The details of each technique allow for a more informed decision when purchasing a system with a specific ion mobility separation technique. Important facts to think about would be isomer separation, ion mobility aligned spectra, and CCS fingerprinting for databases [2].
Ion mobility chamber separating ions based on mobility.
Drift tube ion mobility spectrometry (DTIMS) is potentially the simplest of the ion mobility techniques based on a simplified structural and parameter interplay [2, 4]. The drift tube is filled with a defined volume of buffer gas with no directional flow, which acts as a velocity regulator to moving ions [4]. The ions are propelled through the drift tube by a uniformly applied, static electric field with a decreasing voltage as the ions traverse the drift tube [2, 4]. As seen in Figure 1, the drift tube is made up of stacked electrodes that allow for the electric field to be applied over the length of the tube. The static electric field, defined drift tube length, and time it takes to traverse the entire length of the drift tube allow for ionic separation and CCS calculations [4]. One of the disadvantages of the DTIMS system is the voltage drop across the length of the tube. In order to create a good separation, the tube length can be increased, but that would require a higher electric field at the beginning of the drift tube to propel the ions a greater distance [2, 5].
There are many advantages to DTIMS. Unlike traveling wave ion mobility spectrometry (TWIMS), DTIMS does not require calibration with a complex mixture of compounds with well-defined CCS values in order to reproducibly measure CCS values [6]. The well-defined CCS values for TWIMS calibration were first acquired on a DTIMS instrument. In some instances, CCS calibration is required, but no complex mixture is needed to increase CCS reproducibility in DTIMS. Even without calibration, a comprehensive drift time library of many analytes can be collected in one experiment [2].
This comprehensive drift time library is limited by the duty cycle of the DTIMS systems. The duty cycle or the time in between ion trapping, ion separation, ion detection, and another cycle is shorter compared with ion mobility techniques that do not trap [6]. This trapping and analysis of ion groups limit how many ions that can be separated at any one time versus a continuous stream of ions entering the ion mobility system [7]. Instead of waiting for the duty cycle to finish, some vendors have been sending packets of ions into the drift tube one after the other before the end of the duty cycle in order to measure overlapping drift time experiments [8].
The traveling wave ion mobility spectrometry (TWIMS) drift tube is structurally similar to the DTIMS tube with stack electrodes propelling an ion with an electric field through a fixed volume of buffer gas [2, 6]. The electrical field oscillates continuously with no voltage drop versus a static electrical field with decreasing voltage over the length of the tube. This oscillation creates oscillating voltage waves that push the ion through the drift tube in a manner similar to surfers on the top of waves in the ocean [6]. The top of the wave carries the ion for a period until the mobility of the ion slows its velocity and allows the wave to pass it. The ion continues to be propelled by subsequent waves until it reaches the detector. An ion with a small collision cross section will ride the wave farther than ions with larger collision cross sections. This also means that ions with larger collision cross sections will require more waves to push it through the drift tube due to the slower velocity [6].
Unlike the DTIMS, the TWIMS needs to be calibrated with a complex mixture of ions that have known drift times. This allows for a continuous measurement of the ions with predetermined parameters based on the calibrated standards. Most likely the standards would include compounds with a wide range of CCS values along with a wide mass range [6, 9]. The ion mobility pressure chamber is locked before calibration, and if pressure changes occur after calibration, then the calibration will have to be repeated to account for the slight pressure change [9]. If there are slight differences in CCS values between instruments, the fundamental parameters of ion mobility should be compared.
Some important advantages of TWIMS are low-voltage requirements due to a constant wave height in an oscillating electrical field and voltage modulation over long drift tube lengths to maintain ion flow [2, 10]. Both of these qualities allow for the movement of ions across longer distances, which increase the interactions with the buffer gas and increase peak resolution. Longer path lengths would not be possible without the low-voltage requirements. Remember that the DTIMS has a static electric field with a linearly decreasing voltage over the length of the tube. If a DTIMS tube length was increased, the voltage would also increase in order provide enough momentum to push the ions through the drift tube into the detector [11].
Cyclic ion mobility systems are an extension of the TWIMS system except the length of the drift tube has the potential to vary based on how many circular passes it takes in the cyclic mobility tube. The hardware has ion guides directing ions to the circular ion mobility cell perpendicular to the main body of the system. It is similar to a trap and allows the user to choose how many circular revolutions it will take. This ability to customize the drift tube length allows for better separation/customization and has the potential to create ion mobility separation far surpassing previous instrument resolution [12].
Trapped ion mobility spectrometry (TIMS) is a relatively new commercialized product. It uses a nonuniform electrical field unlike DTIMS to trap ions. Both DTIMS and TWIMS have constant gas volumes with no flow with the only movement caused by the electric field and voltage changes. TIMS uses both buffer gas flow toward the detector and electric field changes over the length of the ion mobility cell to propel the ions to the MS detector [13, 14]. The electric field can be tuned to guide the ions to the detector.
TIMS is composed of three regions: entrance funnel, ion mobility tube, and the exit funnel. The entrance funnel focuses and compacts the ions using an ion funnel into the ion mobility cell [15]. When the ions enter the mobility cell after focusing, the DC electric field at the exit is set higher than the potential in the mobility cell and at a 180-degree angle. This creates a field, which repeals the ions near the exit. The ions are trapped because the air flow pushes them toward the exit, and the DC field pushes them away from the exit [15]. In addition, a low-intensity electric field starts to gradually increase over the length of the mobility cell. The ions are trapped and separated based on their size-to-charge ratio [13, 15]. The ions with the lowest mobility or the largest size-to-charge ratio will congregate toward the exit with the highest electric field. This is caused by the gas molecules interacting more with the largest compounds, thus pushing them closer to the exit. The compounds with the highest mobility or the smallest size-to-charge ratio will be farther from the exit because of the opposing field at the exit pushing it away [13]. The smaller ions interact less with the gas molecules causing them to move less downstream and more away from the exit. The ions can exit the mobility cell by lowering the electric field intensity gradually at the exit. This will cause the lowest mobility ions to exit first due to the gas flow and the highest-mobility compounds last. The gradual decrease in the electric field intensity allows for a segmented elution of compounds based on the parameters of the experiment. Having the lower-mobility compounds come out first is opposite to the behavior of DTIMS and TWIMS [15].
Unlike DTIMS and TWIMS, which allow for scanning to see multiple ion mobilities with the same experimental conditions, TIMS requires sequential experimental parameter changes to see multiple ions injected into the mobility chamber. As stated above, there is a gradual decrease in the electric field at the exit, which causes a segmented release of the ions [13]. This change in voltage only allows certain mobilities to exit at a time without allowing higher-mobility ions to exit at the same voltage. TIMS is a highly selective technique relating to separation efficiency, but the ability to scan is lost or needs extra parameter changes. The trapping ability allows the TIMS to maintain peak separation despite short path lengths and short lab instrument footprints [15].
Field asymmetric ion mobility spectrometry (FAIMS) is an atmospheric pressure ion mobility technique. This technique uses both high and low electric fields to separate ions in the gas-phase mobility cell. The FAIMS device is small, and it can potentially be placed in between the ion source and the vacuum inlet of the mass spectrometer [2, 16]. The integration onto MS systems without ion mobility is achieved by small accessories to maintain the required negative pressure in the mass spectrometer. Like TIMS, gas flow is used for ion movement in addition to the electric field. In FAIMS, the electric field alternates both in strength and polarity to separate ion according to field strength changes and not drift time mobilities over the length of the mobility cell [16].
FAIMS cannot provide CCS values due to a lack of mobility measurement and change in ion structure due to the changes in electric field strength and polarity. This technique cannot scan for ions with multiple electric field strength changes but rather specific electric field changes. This can allow a continuous monitoring of ions with the same electric field change response. For compounds belonging to similar chemical classes, this would be beneficial because the signal-to-noise ratio would increase [2, 17].
The Yassin et al. [18]study pairs ion mobility, UPLC and mass spectrometry together allowing for the characterization of many polyphenolic compounds in tea. The reversed-phase UPLC separation yielded chromatographic peaks, but when coupled with IMS separation, additional peaks were revealed. This section will summarize how ion mobility, liquid chromatography, and MS fragmentation can be used to characterize structural features of unknowns.
The data were acquired in negative mode using MSe mode to collect low- and high-collision energy spectra during the same acquisition. The traveling wave ion mobility was used to collect drift times and calculate collision cross sections. The drift time, pseudomolecular ion m/z, and mass spectral fragments were then aligned to the LC elution time. This is very useful in complex mixtures because mass fragments of two isobaric species may overlap with no indication to which pseuodmolecular ion the fragments belong.
Theasinensin C (TS) and proanthocyanidin B (PA) were used as examples of polyphenolic isomeric species in this study (Figure 2). Assam and Sri Lanka teas were analyzed for the presence of TS isomers. The levels of PA were compared in extracts of
Structural differences in isomers Theasinensin C and Proanthocyanidin.
The Assam tea extract benefited from having UPLC and ion mobility together. Ion mobility was able to show that a 609 Da feature seen at 1.28 min contained two compounds with distinct drift times of 5.18 ms and 5.56 ms and two distinct fragmentation patterns characteristic of the TS family. In this case, the ion mobility was able to separate the features the UPLC could not. In addition, the UPLC separation showed additional 609 Da features at 10.09 min and 10.22 min with the same drift time of 5.67 min. Without the UPLC separation, these two compounds would have been classified as one isomer and not two. The same features were found in the Sri Lanka tea.
According to this investigation, drift times close in value and at the same LC retention time were investigated further. Under normal conditions, the gas is heated in the ion mobility tube, and this elevated temperature may cause structural changes between two isomeric forms. There would be an equilibrium between both diasterioisomers each with its own similar but distinct collision cross section, which would cause two peaks to appear in the ion mobility plot. The investigators looked at the MSe fragmentation of the TS isomers at both 5.18 ms and 5.56 ms. The isomer at 5.56 ms had a loss of 18 Da characteristic of water, whereas the TS isomer at 5.18 ms did not lose water. PAs, which are similar in structure to TSs, have been shown to lose water from epicatechin moieties, whereas PAs with catechin moieties do not loose water. To test whether this was also true with the TS family, the investigators employed molecular modeling. A correlation was established between the isomer drift times and their calculated collisional cross sections. The data showed that the isomer with 5.18 ms drift time had a collisional cross section of 154 Å2 and a trans stereochemistry from a catechin building block. The isomer at 5.56 ms had a calculated collisional cross section of 157 Å2 with a cis stereochemistry from an epicatechin moiety. The confirmed epimerization was a drawback of ion mobility in this study because the TS could not definitively be assigned a cis or trans designation at retention time of 1.28 min.
The proanthocyanidins (PAs) in both the
Connectivity of proanthocyanidin isomers and different CCS values.
The combination of ion mobility, UPLC chromatography, and mass spectral fragmentation allowed the separation of isomers that may not have been separated in any single technique. Excess heat in the ion mobility drift tube was shown to be one drawback to the technique because it caused epimerization. In addition, descriptive data provided by each technique helped guide structural confirmation.
A further look into pairing liquid chromatography, ion mobility, and mass spectrometry together for chemical profiling is described below in a work by McCullagh et al. [19]. Analytical approaches that provide the maximum amount of descriptive are needed for complex herbal extracts for product authentication, extract profiling, stability/degradation, and purity analysis. This study investigated the genus
The
This study incorporated targeted profiling of flavanoid derivatives in the genus
Structure differentiation between C6 and C8 pairs isoorientin/orientin and isovitexin/vitexin.
The customized database created in this study aligned accurate mass of the pseudomoleulcar ions and fragment ions to retention time and drift time. This drift time alignment helped assign fragments to the correct pseudomolecular ion. Collision cross section values were created to use with a delta TWCCSN2 metric to help to differentiate flavanoids despite co-elution. Based on this study, this delta TWCCSN2 metric can be used even on trace components when fragmentation data would be hard to attain.
The CCS values and retention time of each isomeric pair orientin/isoorientin and vitexin/isovitexin are displayed in Table 1. Notice that the retention times of the isomers within each pair are very close, and without drift time alignment, the mass spectral fragmentation would be blended without specific assignment to either isomer. These values were then used to calculate delta TWCCSN2 taking the difference between the CCS values of each isomer within each pair. The compounds with glycosides attached at carbon-8 had smaller CCS values compared with the compounds with glycosides attached at carbon-6 (Table 1). These values are determined by their 3D structure either being more compact or spread out to change the interaction with the gas molecules as they travel through the drift tube. The CCS values for the negative mode were more different than those in the positive mode (Table 1). In the positive mode, the close chromatographic retention times and close CCS values would cause little to no baseline resolution in both dimensions. In this case, the negative mode data would allow for better differentiation of the isomers despite possible co-elution. In addition, the drift time aligned data would allow the correct quantitation of each isomer. The delta TWCCSN2 method was tested with
Flavanoid | Orientin | Isoorientin | Vitexin | Isovitexin |
---|---|---|---|---|
Retention Time (min) | 7.88 | 7.83 | 8.52 | 8.40 |
Negative Polarity CCS (A2) | 187.7 | 198.1 | 188.8 | 195.5 |
10.4 | 6.7 | |||
Positive Polarity CCS (A2) | 200.7 | 203.4 | 198.2 | 199.3 |
TWCCSN2 (A2) | 2.7 | 1.1 |
Retention times and CCS values for negative and positive MS experiments.
In the
The retention times of orientin and isoorientin were within 0.05 min; therefore, there was no chromatographic baseline resolution. Again, the ion mobility aided in differentiating the isomers along with the elevated collision energy ramp of 30 eV–75 eV. The fragmentation patterns of both isomers were overlapping with no distinction between orientin and isoorientin. The accurate masses of the parent and fragment ions were drift time aligned allowing the fragmentation patterns to be established for each of the isomers. The distinctive parts of the fragmentation were the ratios of 284/285 and m/z 297/298/299 to distinguish between orientin and isoorientin. For orientin, the characteristic ion ratios were m/z 284 > 285, m/z 297 > 298, m/z 298 > 299. For isoorientin, the ion ratios were m/z 284 < 285, m/z 297 < 298, m/z 298 < 299. The fragments could be used as another metric to differentiate between orientin and isoorientin with retention time and drift time alignment. The increased specificity from CCS libraries may create better future characterization protocols for herbal extracts in consumer products.
Combining accurate mass, fragmentation data, IMS separation, and CCS measurements created what the authors of this study called “known-unknown” fingerprinting. The normal protocol for herbal extract characterization is to test for a small number of pure active compounds, but often these standards are in limited supply or are cost prohibitive. Using this “known-unknown” fingerprinting technique, features can be cataloged. As more descriptive data are assigned to unknown features, putative identifications may be assigned. The unknowns can also be cataloged into the “known-unknown” database to be tracked from sample to sample even if there is no confirmed identification. This technique was used in the
The “known-unknown” workflow was applied to compounds with the masses of 431.09 Da and 447.09 Da or compounds similar to the orientin/isoorietin and vitexin/isovitexin isomer pairs. Nineteen different candidates in
Other than the “known-unknown” characterization, a system with ultra-performance liquid chromatography, ion mobility, and mass spectrometry (UPLC-IM-MS) can be used to better quantify convoluted peaks. When isobaric species are present, the peak areas overlap with no demarcation of either peak, but when ions are drift time aligned, isomeric quantitation can occur. The drift time alignment separated the peak areas of each isomer, allowing for the quantitation of each isomer even in the presence of a complicated matrix. Using this concept, the authors quantitated isoorientin, orientin, isovitexin, and vitexin in
In this study, the authors demonstrated the effectiveness of using UPLC paired with ion mobility and mass spectrometry. The drift time alignments allowed for differentiation of mass spectra of isobaric species. This differentiation also allowed for better quantitation of isobaric species. The calculated CCS values aided in the formation of a database of “known-unknowns” that could be tracked between herbal extracts despite the unconfirmed identities of some compounds.
Adams et al. [20] created an liquid chromatography trapped ion mobility spectrometry with mass spectrometry (LC-TIMS-MS) technique to provide a high-throughput orthogonal separation technique for isomeric opioids in the complex matrix of urine. Three groups of isomeric opiods and deuterated analogs were monitored at trace levels in human urine despite the possible matrix interferences from the urine. As with previous studies, retention time, CCS, and accurate mass were descriptive data used to identify and monitor the compounds of interest in the analyses. The high selectivity of the TIMS when paired with the LC and MS allowed for low detection levels comparable to liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) and even with potentially less false-positives based on shared multiple reaction monitoring transitions between the isomers.
The opioids used in this study were as follows: 6-acetylmorphine (6-AM), naloxone, codeine, hydrocodone, morphine, hydromorphone, norcodeine, norhydrocodone, and the deuterated versions of each of these opioids (Figure 5). Calibration curves of the standard mixes and internal standard mixes were diluted with urine to create matrix match standards. This calibration curve in urine was created using liquid chromatography trapped ion mobility spectrometry with mass spectrometry (LC-TIMS-MS). LC separation was performed used a reversed-phase monolithic C18 column. Positive-mode electrospray ionization was used to ionize the opioids. The TIMS unit required specific parameters for gas flow and voltages at the entrance and exit funnels along with the mobility cell. An important parameter for the TIMS was the voltage at the exit funnel. As the voltage is decreased gradually at the exit funnel, the ions would exit based on the lowest mobility (largest CCS) first and the highest mobility (smallest CCS) last. Calibration standards for the instrument were used to calibrate voltage to CCS values. The theoretical CCS values of the opioids were calculated to predict the appropriate voltages needed to eject the ions from the mobility chamber.
Structures of opiod and opiod derivatives.
The ion mobility of each compound was measured based on the calibration standards. 6-AM and naloxone had the highest CCS values of 176.7 and 171.1 Å2. The orientation of the acetyl group on the 6-AM increased the CCS compared with the carbonyl group on the naloxone. The aliphatic group on the naloxone also extended out from the opioid body allowing the CCS to be larger compared with the rest of the opioids. In addition, computational modeling showed the tertiary amine having different orientations between 6-AM and naloxone. Even with this small difference in CCS values, the TIMS was able to separate these ions. Based on computational modeling, codeine and hydrocodone had CCS values of 168.2 and 167.8 Å2. The hydroxyl versus carbonyl on carbon 6 was the only structural difference between these compounds, which led to small differences in CCS values and no separation in TIMS. There was no separation in the TIMS for morphine and hydromorphone due to the small difference in CCS values (162.9 and 163.3 Å2) caused by small structural differences in the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups. Norcodeine and norhydrocodone were not separated in the TIMS due to the small difference in CCS values (167.9 and 167.4 Å2) caused again by small structural differences in the hydroxyl and carbonyl groups. The opioid pairs of morphine/norcodeine and hydromorphone/norhydrocodone can be separated on TIMS due to a 5 Å2 difference caused by a difference in secondary and tertiary amine orientation. The specificity in TIMS allowed for good peak resolution. The baseline mobility separations between 6-AM and naloxone, hydromorphone and norhydrocodone, and morphine and norcodeine were achieved with fast and slow scan TIMS. Despite the baseline separations of some opioid pairs, not all opioids were separated from each other in the calibration mix.
The study added liquid chromatography to the separation to obtain separation of the opioids with similar CCS values. Matrix interferences with water and urine in the TIMS with and without the LC were evaluated. Some matrix interferences could not be resolved with TIMS alone. Spiking the standards and internal standards into the urine and water showed increased limits of detection caused by interfering compounds. The liquid chromatography was successfully implemented to separate most matrix interferences with the standards and internal standards when run with TIMS. There were still slight LOD increases in urine using LC-TIMS-MS, but those increases were also seen while using LC–MS.
The LC runtime allowed for separation of the opioids. The internal standards of each opioid were deuterated and thus had a higher m/z when separated in the mass spectrometer despite having the same retention time and CCS values of their non-deuterated analytes. The internal standards were used as quality control checks of the retention times with the deuterated standards of each analyte containing different quantities of deuterium. Naloxone and 6-AM were successfully separated with LC and TIMS with retention times of 6.85 and 7.00 minutes. Hydrocodone and codeine were not successfully separated using TIMS, but the LC produced near-baseline separation with retention times of 6.8 and 7.0 minutes. Norhydrocodone and norcodeine had near-baseline resolution on the LC with retention times of 6.9 and 7.0 minutes despite having no separation in the TIMS. The retention times for morphine and hydromorphone were not mentioned in the LC-TIMS-MS analysis. Compounds with the same retention times can be separated in the TIMS based on previously mentioned CCS values. There was good reproducibility of CCS, LC retention times, and m/z values in between experiments and among different calibration levels of the calibration curve. The relative percent deviation (RPD) was <0.5% for CCS values with and without urine. Since the CCS values did not change based on concentration, this helped emphasize that CCS values can be used effectively for qualitative analysis in addition to retention time and accurate mass. Both additional data points showed low variability between water and urine, low and high concentrations, and inter-day performance. The LC-TIMS-MS protocol showed successful separation and quantitation for low ng/mL concentrations.
Combining LC with TIMS-MS improved peak resolution for instances when TIMS was not enough to separate the opioids based on very similar CCS values. In addition, the CCS values were very consistent with the drift tube ion mobility measurements and were consistent between experiments. This high reproducibility and specificity of the TIMS were very important when the opiods co-eluted in the LC dimension. Both the LC and TIMS techniques were crucial in order to separate compounds in this study.
This chapter has introduced the reader to basic ion mobility along with benefits and disadvantages of some ion mobility techniques. In addition, three studies were evaluated to show the benefits of coupling UPLC to ion mobility-MS techniques. This coupling allowed the separation of isobaric isomers that required an orthogonal separation. Descriptive data such as CCS and mass spectral fragmentation with drift time alignment helped guide structural confirmation and the formation of databases for tracking even if the compound identity was not confirmed. The drift time alignment also allowed for better quantitation of isobaric species. Ion mobility is not a perfect technique as seen in some of the above studies, but when paired with LC chromatography, the analytical strength of a method significantly increases.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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In today’s world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society. The subject has been discussed generally in the world, especially in the case of Turkey. According to this, all over the world, particularly in developing countries, research and extension (R&E) is very important and should be considered at least as much as research and development (R&D). However, it will be ensured that societies meet with the technology produced. For this, the development of human resources should be emphasized and a suitable atmosphere should be prepared for this widespread prosperity.",book:{id:"5819",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Orhan Özçatalbaş",authors:[{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş"}]},{id:"68007",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85036",title:"Overview of the Process of Enzymatic Transformation of Biomass",slug:"overview-of-the-process-of-enzymatic-transformation-of-biomass",totalDownloads:1411,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Cellulase is an enzyme which depolymerizes the cellulose into glucose. Cellulases are produced by a diverse array of microbes including fungi, bacteria, yeast and actinomycetes. Considerable research for understanding the mechanism of cellulases began in early 1950s because of the significant use of these enzymes in various industries. This review provides a general account structure and availability of lignocellulosic biomass, pretreatment strategies for effective digestion, cellulase producing organisms, cellulase activity assay, and enzymology of cellulose degradation. Cellulase production, optimization, purification and characterization studies in addition to the industrial application of cellulase have also been discussed. At last a brief account of present market scenario of cellulases and future prospects of the study are also taken into account.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Namita Singh, Anita Devi, Manju Bala Bishnoi, Rajneesh Jaryal, Avni Dahiya, Oleksandr Tashyrev and Vira Hovorukha",authors:[{id:"278205",title:"Prof.",name:"Namita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"namita-singh",fullName:"Namita Singh"},{id:"282352",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"anita-devi",fullName:"Anita Devi"},{id:"282353",title:"MSc.",name:"Avni",middleName:null,surname:"Dahiya",slug:"avni-dahiya",fullName:"Avni Dahiya"},{id:"282354",title:"MSc.",name:"Manju Bala",middleName:null,surname:"Bishnoi",slug:"manju-bala-bishnoi",fullName:"Manju Bala Bishnoi"},{id:"282355",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Tashyrev",slug:"oleksandr-tashyrev",fullName:"Oleksandr Tashyrev"},{id:"282356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jaryal",slug:"rajneesh-jaryal",fullName:"Rajneesh Jaryal"},{id:"282939",title:"Dr.",name:"Vira",middleName:null,surname:"Hovorukha",slug:"vira-hovorukha",fullName:"Vira Hovorukha"}]},{id:"66110",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84770",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:2034,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bioadsorbents were prepared in a simple manner only by treating in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid from various biomass materials such as various polysaccharides, persimmon tannin, cotton, paper and biomass wastes such as orange juice residue and microalgae residue after extracting biofuel. These bioadsorbents exhibited high selectivity only to gold over other metals and extraordinary high loading capacity for gold(III), which were elucidated to be attributable to the selective reduction of gold(III) ion to elemental gold due to its highest oxidation-reduction potential of gold(III) of metal ions, catalyzed by the surface of bioadsorbents prepared in boiling sulfuric acid. By using these biosorbents, recovery of gold from actual samples of printed circuit boards of spent mobile phones and Mongolian gold ore was investigated. Recovery of trace concentration of gold(I) from simulated spent alkaline cyanide solution was also investigated using the bioadsorbent. Application of bioadsorbents to some recovery processes of gold from cyanide solutions was proposed.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"66428",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84833",title:"Review of Biofuel Technologies in WtL and WtE",slug:"review-of-biofuel-technologies-in-wtl-and-wte",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Processing of biomass feedstocks to produce energy, fuels, and chemicals via a combination of different applied technologies is considered a promising pathway to achieve sustainable waste management, with many environmental and economic benefits. In this chapter, we review the current state of the main processes associated with energy recovery and biofuel production under the concept of waste biorefineries. The reviewed technologies are classified into thermochemical, biological, and chemical, including combustion, gasification, steam explosion, pyrolysis, hydrothermal liquefaction, and torrefaction; anaerobic digestion, fermentation, enzymatic treatment, and microbial electrolysis; and hydrolysis, solvent extraction, transesterification, and supercritical conversion. Their brief history, current status, and future developments are discussed within a perspective of valorization and managing of current waste streams with no solution.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Bruno B. Garcia, Gonçalo Lourinho, Paulo Brito and Pedro Romano",authors:[{id:"261653",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Brito",slug:"paulo-brito",fullName:"Paulo Brito"},{id:"261654",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Romano",slug:"pedro-romano",fullName:"Pedro Romano"},{id:"291751",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Bruno B.",middleName:"B",surname:"Garcia",slug:"bruno-b.-garcia",fullName:"Bruno B. 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The aim of the URBANREC project is to implement an eco-innovative, integrated system of bulky waste management and demonstrate its effectiveness in various regions of Europe. The project has received funding from the European Union. In this chapter, the LCA environmental analysis was performed for the technology of grinding bulky waste using a water jet by the Ecofrag company. The calculations were carried out using SimaPro 8.5.2.0. The LCA analysis shows that the reuse of foams and mattresses contributes to the avoidance of their targeted production, which is related with the reduction of greenhouse gas emission and consumption of fossil raw materials.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Izabela Samson-Bręk, Marta Gabryszewska, Justyna Wrzosek and Barbara Gworek",authors:[{id:"281239",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",middleName:null,surname:"Samson-Brek",slug:"izabela-samson-brek",fullName:"Izabela Samson-Brek"},{id:"290299",title:"Mrs.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Gabryszewska",slug:"marta-gabryszewska",fullName:"Marta Gabryszewska"},{id:"290300",title:"Dr.",name:"Justyna",middleName:null,surname:"Wrzosek",slug:"justyna-wrzosek",fullName:"Justyna Wrzosek"},{id:"290301",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Gworek",slug:"barbara-gworek",fullName:"Barbara Gworek"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66110",title:"Gold Recovery Process from Primary and Secondary Resources Using Bioadsorbents",slug:"gold-recovery-process-from-primary-and-secondary-resources-using-bioadsorbents",totalDownloads:2038,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Bioadsorbents were prepared in a simple manner only by treating in boiling concentrated sulfuric acid from various biomass materials such as various polysaccharides, persimmon tannin, cotton, paper and biomass wastes such as orange juice residue and microalgae residue after extracting biofuel. These bioadsorbents exhibited high selectivity only to gold over other metals and extraordinary high loading capacity for gold(III), which were elucidated to be attributable to the selective reduction of gold(III) ion to elemental gold due to its highest oxidation-reduction potential of gold(III) of metal ions, catalyzed by the surface of bioadsorbents prepared in boiling sulfuric acid. By using these biosorbents, recovery of gold from actual samples of printed circuit boards of spent mobile phones and Mongolian gold ore was investigated. Recovery of trace concentration of gold(I) from simulated spent alkaline cyanide solution was also investigated using the bioadsorbent. Application of bioadsorbents to some recovery processes of gold from cyanide solutions was proposed.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Katsutoshi Inoue, Durga Parajuli, Manju Gurung, Bimala Pangeni, Kanjana Khunathai, Keisuke Ohto and Hidetaka Kawakita",authors:[{id:"198951",title:"Prof.",name:"Keisuke",middleName:null,surname:"Ohto",slug:"keisuke-ohto",fullName:"Keisuke Ohto"},{id:"259238",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidetaka",middleName:null,surname:"Kawakita",slug:"hidetaka-kawakita",fullName:"Hidetaka Kawakita"},{id:"289372",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsutoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Inoue",slug:"katsutoshi-inoue",fullName:"Katsutoshi Inoue"},{id:"298633",title:"Dr.",name:"Bimala",middleName:null,surname:"Pangeni",slug:"bimala-pangeni",fullName:"Bimala Pangeni"},{id:"298634",title:"Dr.",name:"Manju",middleName:null,surname:"Gurung",slug:"manju-gurung",fullName:"Manju Gurung"},{id:"298635",title:"Dr.",name:"Kanjana",middleName:null,surname:"Khunathai",slug:"kanjana-khunathai",fullName:"Kanjana Khunathai"},{id:"298636",title:"Dr.",name:"Durga",middleName:null,surname:"Parajuli",slug:"durga-parajuli",fullName:"Durga Parajuli"}]},{id:"56708",title:"Human Development and Research-Development-Extension Relationships",slug:"human-development-and-research-development-extension-relationships",totalDownloads:1775,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Human capital is the most important strategic factor for development; as new technologies emerge, the market demand for better and healthier products and consumer demand in terms of quality and delivery time are changing. In today’s world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society. The subject has been discussed generally in the world, especially in the case of Turkey. According to this, all over the world, particularly in developing countries, research and extension (R&E) is very important and should be considered at least as much as research and development (R&D). However, it will be ensured that societies meet with the technology produced. For this, the development of human resources should be emphasized and a suitable atmosphere should be prepared for this widespread prosperity.",book:{id:"5819",slug:"research-and-development-evolving-trends-and-practices-towards-human-institutional-and-economic-sectors-growth",title:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices",fullTitle:"Research and Development Evolving Trends and Practices - Towards Human, Institutional and Economic Sectors Growth"},signatures:"Orhan Özçatalbaş",authors:[{id:"170206",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Orhan",middleName:null,surname:"Özçatalbaş",slug:"dr.-orhan-ozcatalbas",fullName:"Dr. Orhan Özçatalbaş"}]},{id:"68851",title:"Introductory Chapter: Objectives and Scope of Bioeconomy",slug:"introductory-chapter-objectives-and-scope-of-bioeconomy",totalDownloads:996,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Krzysztof Biernat",authors:[{id:"155009",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Biernat",slug:"krzysztof-biernat",fullName:"Krzysztof Biernat"}]},{id:"68007",title:"Overview of the Process of Enzymatic Transformation of Biomass",slug:"overview-of-the-process-of-enzymatic-transformation-of-biomass",totalDownloads:1412,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Cellulase is an enzyme which depolymerizes the cellulose into glucose. Cellulases are produced by a diverse array of microbes including fungi, bacteria, yeast and actinomycetes. Considerable research for understanding the mechanism of cellulases began in early 1950s because of the significant use of these enzymes in various industries. This review provides a general account structure and availability of lignocellulosic biomass, pretreatment strategies for effective digestion, cellulase producing organisms, cellulase activity assay, and enzymology of cellulose degradation. Cellulase production, optimization, purification and characterization studies in addition to the industrial application of cellulase have also been discussed. At last a brief account of present market scenario of cellulases and future prospects of the study are also taken into account.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Namita Singh, Anita Devi, Manju Bala Bishnoi, Rajneesh Jaryal, Avni Dahiya, Oleksandr Tashyrev and Vira Hovorukha",authors:[{id:"278205",title:"Prof.",name:"Namita",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"namita-singh",fullName:"Namita Singh"},{id:"282352",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Devi",slug:"anita-devi",fullName:"Anita Devi"},{id:"282353",title:"MSc.",name:"Avni",middleName:null,surname:"Dahiya",slug:"avni-dahiya",fullName:"Avni Dahiya"},{id:"282354",title:"MSc.",name:"Manju Bala",middleName:null,surname:"Bishnoi",slug:"manju-bala-bishnoi",fullName:"Manju Bala Bishnoi"},{id:"282355",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Tashyrev",slug:"oleksandr-tashyrev",fullName:"Oleksandr Tashyrev"},{id:"282356",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajneesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jaryal",slug:"rajneesh-jaryal",fullName:"Rajneesh Jaryal"},{id:"282939",title:"Dr.",name:"Vira",middleName:null,surname:"Hovorukha",slug:"vira-hovorukha",fullName:"Vira Hovorukha"}]},{id:"67691",title:"The Use of Waste Management Techniques to Enhance Household Income and Reduce Urban Water Pollution",slug:"the-use-of-waste-management-techniques-to-enhance-household-income-and-reduce-urban-water-pollution",totalDownloads:1044,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Appropriate waste management options are major concerns in the developing world. Current methods include incineration in the open and accumulation of wastes in designated places where they constitute nuisance to the environment. Apart from air pollution from the incinerators, leachates from decomposed wastes are either washed off where they serve as source of pollutants to the adjourning streams and rivers or contaminate groundwater through deep percolation. We present viable options for managing agricultural wastes in this chapter. The options presented are so simple and sustainable such that it can be managed by individuals. Hence, they are independent of the government bureaucratic bottlenecks that have been the bane of the previous government interventions. If embraced, it will also serve as sources of income for the concerned household, hence enhance their livelihood.",book:{id:"8150",slug:"elements-of-bioeconomy",title:"Elements of Bioeconomy",fullTitle:"Elements of Bioeconomy"},signatures:"Olayiwola A. Akintola, Olufunmilayo O. Idowu, Suraju A. 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Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. 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She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. Mothupi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"337613",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tshakane",middleName:null,surname:"R.M.D. Ralephenya",slug:"tshakane-r.m.d.-ralephenya",fullName:"Tshakane R.M.D. Ralephenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"28",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",keywords:"Animal Reproduction, Artificial Insemination, Embryos, Cryopreservation, Conservation, Breeding, Epigenetics",scope:"The advances of knowledge on animal reproductive biology and technologies revolutionized livestock production. Artificial insemination, for example, was the first technology applied on a large scale, initially in dairy cattle and afterward applied to other species. Nowadays, embryo production and transfer are used commercially along with other technologies to modulate epigenetic regulation. Gene editing is also emerging as an innovative tool. This topic will discuss the potential use of these techniques, novel strategies, and lines of research in progress in the fields mentioned above.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11417,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). She is the head of the Reproduction and Embryology Laboratories and was lecturer of Reproduction and Reproductive Biotechnologies at Veterinary Medicine Faculty. She has over 25 years of experience working in reproductive biology and biotechnology areas with a special emphasis on embryo and gamete cryopreservation, for research and animal genetic resources conservation, leading research projects with several peer-reviewed papers. Rosa Pereira is member of the ERFP-FAO Ex situ Working Group and of the Management Commission of the Portuguese Animal Germplasm Bank.",institutionString:"The National Institute for Agricultural and Veterinary Research. Portugal",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"90066",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:"Rodrigues",surname:"Silva",slug:"alexandre-silva",fullName:"Alexandre Silva",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRt8pQAC/Profile_Picture_1622531020756",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"176987",title:"Ph.D.",name:"María-José",middleName:"Carrascosa",surname:"Argente",slug:"maria-jose-argente",fullName:"María-José Argente",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9vOQAS/Profile_Picture_1630330499537",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"321396",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad Subhan",middleName:null,surname:"Qureshi",slug:"muhammad-subhan-qureshi",fullName:"Muhammad Subhan Qureshi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/321396/images/system/321396.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"183723",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaojun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"xiaojun-liu",fullName:"Xiaojun Liu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/183723/images/system/183723.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. 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