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",isbn:"978-1-83969-491-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-490-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-492-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"49d3123cde96adbe706adadebebc5ebb",bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez and Dr. Alfonso Clemente",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10749.jpg",keywords:"Orphan Crops, Sustainable Agriculture, SNPs, Legume Breeding, Genetic Diversity, Functional Foods, Seed Compounds, Food Security, Food Allergy, Abiotic & Biotic Stresses, Crop Resilience, Fungal Pathogens",numberOfDownloads:1540,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 10th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 10th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 9th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 28th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 26th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in legume seed proteins physiological and nutraceutical functions, appointed as Ramon y Cajal research fellow and tenured scientist at CSIC; AEL board member and holder of two registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Scientist at the Spanish National Research Council, President of the Spanish Legume Association, and Author of more than 120 scientific manuscripts who has been working in legume seeds research for the last 20 years.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/33993/images/system/33993.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jose C. Jimenez-Lopez, BS. Biochemistry (1998), BS. Biological Sciences (2001), MS. Agricultural Sciences (2004), University of Granada, Spain; and Ph.D. Plant Cell Biology (2008) at CSIC. He was a Postdoctoral Research Associate at Purdue University, USA (2008-2011), and Marie Curie Research Fellow (EU - FP7) (2012-2015) at the University of Western Australia and CSIC. Currently, he is a Senior Research Fellow (Ramon y Cajal research program, 2016 - present), working in the functionality, health benefits, and molecular allergy aspects of seed proteins from crop species of agro-industrial interest (mainly legumes). He is the author of more than 65 journal articles, 29 book chapters, 2 patents, and more than 130 international congresses. He is an active member of different Scientific Societies and editor of multiple books.",institutionString:"Spanish National Research Council",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Spanish National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"149660",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Clemente",slug:"alfonso-clemente",fullName:"Alfonso Clemente",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRDEMQA4/Profile_Picture_1615291343716",biography:"Dr. Alfonso Clemente is a staff scientist at the Spanish National Research Council, working at the Estación Experimental del Zaidín (Granada, Spain). He has been working in legume seeds for the last 20 years, being involved in several national and international related projects. Alfonso Clemente joined different labs (Institute of Food Research, 1999–2000; John Innes Centre, 2000–2002; Sainsbury Laboratory, 2003–2004) in the UK to broaden his laboratory skills and scientific knowledge. Currently, he is the President of the Spanish Legume Association (Asociación Española de Leguminosas, www.leguminosas.es) having strong interaction with a relevant network of scientists and agricultural associations and agri-food companies in the field. 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By 2050, the total world bioenergy potential is predicted to meet 25–33% of the world’s energy demand [1]. One study estimates that in the U.S., by 2040, more than 1 billion tons of biomass could be available for use in the bioenergy industry; however, the water consumption necessary to support these crops is a clear concern, and recent analyses investigate scenarios with purpose grown energy crops that are assumed to be rain fed rather than irrigated [2]. Energy crops are an important strategy for the emerging bioenergy industry, but erratic environmental factors remain a risk with drought being a major factor affecting crop production, particularly for crops grown without irrigation. Widespread droughts covering 30% of the U.S. have occurred every decade since 1900, and drought frequency has increased in recent decades [3, 4]. To make matters worse, extreme weather events, like drought, are predicted to become more prevalent under future climate scenarios with corresponding decreases in gross primary productivity [5, 6, 7, 8]. The economic impacts of drought are exemplified by the $30 billion in losses from a recent U.S. nationwide drought in 2012 that primarily impacted the agricultural industry as a result of outcomes such as a 27% reduction in U.S. corn grain yields [9]. These yield losses pose considerable risk for biomass producers and biorefineries that already have substantial startup challenges to overcome [10].
\nDrought conditions lead to increased use of water resources in irrigated areas, but in non-irrigated fields obtaining necessary crop yields is a challenge. Corn, wheat, and barley grain yields have been shown to decrease as a result of drought [11, 12, 13]. Of importance to bioenergy technology developers planning to use lignocellulosic biomass, dry biomass yields of corn stover, switchgrass, and
Drought is a major risk for producers and biorefineries relying on consistent and high crop yields; however, for the renewable energy industry the effect of drought on crops can be even more substantial and complex. The objective of this chapter is to discuss how biomass destined for renewable energy is affected by drought as it relates to overall dry biomass yields and chemistry, the latter of which heavily impacts cost of production and final product quality. The chapter proceeds with a discussion of how drought related risks impact the supply chain and strategies for risk reduction through thoughtful design of logistics systems for biorefineries. Finally, the chemical analysis of a variety of bioenergy crops grown during severe drought conditions as part of a set of long-term nationwide field trials will be discussed along with the state of knowledge regarding how these changes impact conversion to biofuels and products.
\nIn bioenergy, the risks are as diverse as the economic agents that make up the industry. From the beginning of the supply chain, the risks farmers face are different from the risks aggregators face. Aggregators, the people who harvest, collect, and transport feedstocks to the biorefinery, face different risks than owners and managers of the biorefinery. While some risks in bioenergy apply across these agents, e.g., the risk that a market for the finished product might not exist, the fact that risk is perspective dependent means that one must be precise about whose risks are under discussion. This section considers one type of risk, supply risk, which biorefinery owners and managers face because of the role that drought and weather variability play.
\nRisk is a concept to measure ‘unwanted’ events. At the biorefinery, supply risk means that management must engage in unwanted, costly activity if the chance of insufficient feedstock supply delivered to the biorefinery for conversion materializes; thus the plant cannot run at full capacity. Risk is the probability of an unwanted event occurring multiplied by the consequence [18]. For management, this means that if the feedstock supply is lower than the full capacity of the plant then at least two undesirable events are realized [19, 20]. First, the amount of product created at the plant is reduced meaning that the unit cost of production, and the price necessary to cover costs, increases. The plant must utilize the same amount of resources to run the facility at full capacity as when it runs at less than full capacity, thus driving up unit cost. The second is that, in order to overcome the first undesirable outcome, management must seek out additional sources of feedstock supply. Because the additional supply is not placed under the contract managers have with growers for the initial supply, making up the short fall, too, is costly [20].
\nDepending on the nature of the risk under analysis, different approaches for mitigation apply [21]. Supply risk is considered non-systematic or diversifiable risk because yield uncertainty is not correlated with risks in other parts of the economic system. For example, crop yield does not correlate with stock market performance but instead with climate variability. For a biorefinery manager, non-systematic risk means that diversification is a strategy to mitigate weather variability. To illustrate how diversifying the feedstock supply allows the manager to mitigate risk, this section proceeds as follows. First, a description of the biomass feedstock supply chain provides a picture of how risk enters the system through yield uncertainty. Then an example illustrates how alternative supply system design enables mitigating supply risk caused by weather events, such as drought.
\nPossible biomass supply system configurations are numerous, but are typically classified in two ways: non-distributed and distributed. The non-distributed supply systems, also termed conventional supply systems, have been the systems of choice for the pioneer, or first-built biorefineries [22]. Non-distributed supply systems tend to be vertically integrated with a specific user. This means the biorefinery manages the supply chain from the time the biomass leaves the field to the time it enters the gates of the biorefinery. The materials are delivered in a minimally processed state and the burden of controlling and mitigating feedstock variability is placed on the users at the biorefinery. Non-distributed systems are typically sited in areas with an abundance of easily accessible and low-cost resources. The location of the pioneer biorefineries, as expected, have all been developed in areas with concentrated supplies of biomass known as supply sheds. While supply chains developed using this design are relatively uncomplicated and inexpensive, the biorefineries are limited to a small draw radius, due to the expenses associated with transporting material in the available formats. The relatively small supply shed may impact the ability for the biorefinery operators to mitigate feedstock quality issues with the resources available and potentially not be able to meet resource demands if there is a catastrophic event within the supply shed [23, 24].
\nThe alternative, distributed supply system, sometimes called an advanced supply system, is a series of processing depots or terminals that are used to concentrate material from a small geographic region, near the point of production, and prepare it for use at a single or multiple facilities. This model is similar to how grain elevators work, the grain from local fields is aggregated and sold into a larger market. And, similar to logistics in grain supply systems, the processing depots may be owned by parties other than biorefinery owners. However, instead of simply holding the material for sale, the depots produce a stable, tradable intermediate product, which can be sold in a variety of markets. For a biorefinery, the largest benefit of the distributed supply system is having access to a larger supply shed for material. Biomass quality (e.g., ash and moisture content) is highly variable both spatially and temporally [23]. Through sourcing the material from a series of depots, biorefinery operators are able to specify the desired quality attributes of the material, and the burden of delivering material within the specifications is borne by the owners and operators of the depot. Although the cost of distributed supply systems seems high compared to a non-distributed system, given the requirements for additional infrastructure and increased transportation, system-wide benefits may offset costs [19]. The next section illustrates this point with an example of risk mitigation.
\nFigure 1 illustrates both the distributed and non-distributed, stylized supply chain configurations situated on a map of the Midwest United States. The panel on the left shows the location of a biorefinery and 10 potential sites for biomass depots. Multiple processing depots represent the advanced (distributed) case. The black lines illustrate the supply shed radius, which is the geographic area from which biorefinery management collects feedstock. In the conventional (non-distributed) case, the supply radius is 50 miles and the supply shed consists of fields near to the biorefinery. The dotted, black line next to the biorefinery shows the 50 miles radius. Economically constrained by transportation costs, in the conventional case management must contract with growers in near proximity to the biorefinery. On the other hand, the wider, solid black line encompasses the network of depots in the advanced supply case. Because of preprocessing, the economic constraint pushes the supply radius out to 400 miles, thus significantly expanding the supply shed. This enables management to contract with growers at much greater distance. The heat-map shading shows differing levels of drought intensity; red and orange illustrate greater drought intensity and blue a lesser amount.
\nComparing two supply chain options under two weather scenarios based on historical data. Year A (left) has no adverse weather events, while year B (right) has moderate to severe drought covering much of the supply shed for both supply chain options [
The Year-A, Year-B designation in the left and right panels, respectively, shows two possible weather outcomes, generated with historical data. In Year-A the map does not show adverse weather events for either supply shed but in Year-B it shows adverse weather in much of the supply shed for both cases. While in Year-A none of the growers in the 50 miles supply shed experience detrimental impacts to crop yield from weather, in Year-B the growers next to the biorefinery collectively face the same adverse weather. By contrast, and looking at the 400 mile supply shed, growers in the northeast of the supply shed do not experience the adverse weather of much of the rest of the supply shed. A simulation model is a useful, analytic tool to understand how weather variability under these two supply chain configurations affect supply risk at the biorefinery.
\nSuppose management of the biorefinery in Figure 1 contracts with growers for residual corn stover to procure feedstock to run a biorefinery with nameplate capacity of 800 thousand tons per year. In the conventional case and in the advanced case, management contracts with the same number of growers. In the conventional case farmers face the same distribution of yield uncertainty. In the advanced case the 10 distributions of uncertainty represent 10 separate regions of the supply shed.
\nFigure 2 shows the histogram of potential outcomes that result from a Monte Carlo simulation of the manager’s contract options. The simulation utilizes parameters for yield, ash content, and dry matter loss that are representative of corn stover in the Midwest. The conventional case shows that on average, the manager will receive 751 thousand tons of biomass at the plant, but the range of possibilities extends from as little as 400 thousand tons to just over 1 million tons. In the advanced case, the histogram shows that the manager could expect on average 955 tons of biomass with a range of 800 thousand tons up to 1 million tons.
\nHistogram of simulated feedstock outcomes under two supply chain configurations [
The results in the histogram illustrate the potential for risk reduction available to the manager by diversifying the supply portfolio. Much like one diversifies a financial retirement portfolio to mitigate risk, advanced supply configurations enable the same strategy. Managers at the biorefinery can mitigate drought-induced supply risk by diversifying the biorefinery’s supply portfolio across a larger supply shed.
\nThe biomass supply risks related to drought are substantial and unfortunately extend to biomass quality as well as overall yields as discussed above. Crop yields are often reduced during drought conditions as plants do not have the water needed for basic functions like maintaining cell turgor pressure and performing photosynthesis [26]. The impact of drought conditions on yield as well as plant biochemical functions is complex and different plant types, species, and genotypes may vary in their tolerance and responses to drought [27, 28]. Species like
Complicating reductions in crop yields, plants experience compositional changes during drought; increased extractive components, including soluble sugars, and decreased structural sugars were reported for important potential bioenergy crops like switchgrass,
To demonstrate the effect of large-scale drought on plant composition, data collected through the Regional Feedstock Partnership (RFP) was analyzed [36]. The RFP completed long-term field trials beginning in 2008 for potential bioenergy crops grown across the U.S. unintentionally providing a unique snapshot of how drought could impact the bioenergy industry when nationwide drought covered 65% of the continental U.S. in 2012 during the field trials [36, 37, 38]. Four RFP crops—
U.S. Drought Monitor maps displaying continental U.S. drought conditions prior to the time of harvest in October 2010, a year with minimal drought, and 2012, a year with drought conditions covering much of the U.S. The inset displays Georgia drought conditions for October 2009 and 2011. Blue shapes indicate the approximate location of each biomass crop: triangles (
Across four crop types, multiple energycane genotypes, and a variety of nitrogen fertilizer treatments, it is clear that biomass from drought years had lower lignocellulosic components than non-drought years, depicted by the differences in glucan, xylan, and lignin greater than zero (Figure 4a–c). Glucan was as much as 10% lower for biomass produced during a drought year (Figure 4a), while lignin was up to 5.5% lower (Figure 4c) and xylan up to 3.5% lower (Figure 4b). These differences are hypothesized to result from less lignification during reduced plant growth and increased synthesis of soluble components that support osmoregulation, in favor of synthesis of lignocellulosic components as hypothesized in previous studies [17, 33, 39]. It should be noted that not all research plots included in the analysis had greater lignocellulosic components in a non-drought year (differences less than zero shown by dotted lines in Figure 4), which is probably a result of the complex agronomic and environmental factors that can simultaneously impact plant yield and composition. Previously reported results on similar RFP samples indicated that along with the year-to-year variability, including drought and non-drought years, agronomic factors of nitrogen treatment and genotype also significantly impacted biomass yields and sustainability measurements [36]. Future studies are necessary to examine the complexity of the combination of these factors using multivariate analysis techniques that include, but are not limited to, drought. In addition, compositional changes in response to drought in the literature are mixed. A number of studies report hemicellulose and lignin contents decreasing after drought treatments [33, 34, 35, 40], and in contrast other studies report hemicellulose and lignin contents remaining unchanged or increasing under drought conditions [33, 39, 41]. These differences are not completely understood; however, studies have suggested they arise from differences in drought severity and timing [33, 34, 39], genetics [35], and species specific differences [31, 42]. In addition, other environmental parameters like soil nutrient content and texture, timing of precipitation, growing degree days, and optimal growing temperatures also likely play a role.
\nDifference between percent glucan (a), xylan (b), and lignin (c) content for four crops grown in a year with minimal to no drought and a year with drought conditions shown in
Drought-induced alterations to plant composition can significantly impact the yield of conversion products. Changes in biomass composition were exhibited by RFP crops in response to drought stress, where the combined reduction of both structural carbohydrates and biomass yield led to an average 10–15% decrease in theoretical ethanol yield per Mg of dry biomass for
It must also be considered how drought impacts the formation of certain degradation products that decrease conversion efficiencies though inhibition of enzymes during enzymatic hydrolysis and microorganisms during the fermentation step in a biochemical conversion process. For
Drought is a risk for the bioenergy industry that is likely to increase in future years. Current knowledge and resources regarding drought impacts on crop yields, quality of biomass, and conversion performance can be used for determining research and development directions and mitigation strategies. Weather patterns and water resources are important considerations early in the process of site and feedstock selection for a facility where matching genotypes to conditions can support optimization of yields. Irrigation may be an option in certain cases, but there are implementation costs and water resources may not be an available or sustainable option given that a vast amount of water resources are currently consumed for agriculture. The scenarios in this chapter examine an alternative approach demonstrating that supply system design can reduce supply chain risk related to drought; these advanced supply systems hold promise for future biorefineries. Supply risk associated with drought needs to consider crop yield losses, in addition to biomass chemical changes. Data from a RFP field study of four energy crops, representing a variety of nitrogen application treatments and genotypes, showed how biomass lignocellulosic components—glucan, xylan, and lignin—were lower for a drought year compared to a non-drought year. Current literature was used to describe how drought related chemical changes propagate from the field through the conversion process, and planning and mitigation can be implemented throughout the system to reduce risk to the biomass producer and biorefinery. Drought induced chemical changes can create inhibitors during pretreatment, a step in biochemical conversion processes, that decrease the efficiency of the conversion process, which reinforces the need for careful selection of pretreatment methodology and severity based on location and biomass used. In addition, research and development is necessary for enzyme and microorganism development as well as to fully understand species’ specific response to drought and support breeding programs to produce bioenergy cultivars with traits like increased water use efficiency. Finally, an advanced supply system can supply a refinery with more consistent biomass amounts year to year reducing operating risk, but a refinery may still receive feedstock with varying quality, even in a given year. Therefore, in-line techniques to monitor biomass chemistry entering a facility could be used to blend biomass or intermediates to specifications or adjust pretreatment severity to minimize degradation of soluble components generated during drought stress.
\nThe authors would like to thank the Regional Feedstock Partnership (RFP) members, particularly those from South Dakota State University, Kansas State University, University of Georgia, and University of Nebraska, where the RFP experiments were executed and crops produced that were used in the analysis in this chapter. Drought maps in Figure 3 were courtesy of the National Drought Mitigation Center at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Authors of the continental U.S. maps are: Eric Luebehusen, USDA (2010); Anthony Artusa, NOAA/ NWS/NCEP/CPC (2012). Authors of the Georgia maps are: Matthew Rosencrans, CPC/NCEP/NWS/NOAA (2009); David Miskus, NOAA/NWS/NCEP/CPC (2011). Finally, the authors would like to thank the National Renewable Energy Laboratory for biomass characterization and the following Idaho National Laboratory colleagues: Garold Gresham, Leilani Beard, Mary Bingham, Karen Delezene-Briggs, Matthew Bryant, Sergio Hernandez, Sabrina Morgan, and Brad Thomas.
\nThis research was supported by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (EERE), Bioenergy Technologies Office (BETO), under DOE Idaho Operations Office Contract DE-AC07-05ID14517. The views expressed in the article do not necessarily represent the views of the U.S. Department of Energy or the United States Government. The US Government retains and the publisher, by accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the US Government retains a nonexclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, worldwide license to publish or reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for US Government purposes. The authors have no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed. No writing assistance was utilized in the production of this manuscript.
\nChemical composition data presented in this book chapter are available in the Bioenergy Feedstock Library (bioenergylibrary.inl.gov).
\nTechnological innovations in the information society have a profoundly transformative impact and significantly change the way people and companies carry out their activities.
According to [1], among the leading technological trends for 2020 is extended reality (XR). This new term encompasses several popular technologies-virtual, augmented and mixed reality-that guarantee immersive experiences. They blur the boundaries between the digital and physical world. The digital world is not just a reflection of the physical environment where people live and work, but it complements the real world with new, more personalized and sensitive sensations. The connection between real and virtual is becoming increasingly narrow and inextricable.
Virtual reality completely immerses users in the digital world, detaching them from the surrounding reality. Augmented reality mixes the real-world physical environments and computer-generated virtual objects and enhances users’ perceptions of reality. Mixed reality offers a new environment where physical and virtual objects exist and interact in real time [2].
Augmented reality directly engages and provokes user interaction with both the real-world objects around them and the generated and provided virtual content. Users can use different devices such as smartphones, tablets and wearable devices to view the content that augments physical world.
The world is keenly interested in augmented reality and the technology is expanding into different areas. More and more people, working in the field of education, are setting the question whether it is possible to use augmented reality as an effective tool to realize the ideas of new pedagogical paradigms and engage the learners’ attention. This question is provoked by the effect and success of the game Pokemon Go, which is the most striking example of the application of augmented reality. It was the game that made the technology popular and put it in the public spotlight.
Education is constantly changing to keep up with the trends in society. The main reason for changes is not emerging or improved technologies, but the new learners with their specific needs and requirements. Technologies are just tools to create the necessary learning environment where the training can be carried out in the most efficient way.
Augmented and virtual realities create conditions for the realization of the ideas of the immersive learning. Immersive learning supposes that learners acquire new knowledge and skills in an environment rich in sensations, perceptions and emotions. The major benefits of augmented reality are connection and interaction between all participants in the learning process, physical objects and virtual content.
Increasingly, augmented reality-based educational applications are being offered on the educational application market. Their goal is to engage learners’ attention, enhance their participation in training and help the perception of abstract scientific concepts by specifying and connecting them to the real world.
Augmented reality plays the role of the bridge that connects the digital and real world. It does not replace the physical world, as virtual reality does, but complements, expands and enriches the real physical environment with layers of computer-generated content. The technology provides interactive, accessible and digitally manipulative information about real objects. It transforms the way people interact with virtual content and creates the preconditions for engaging all human senses in perceiving the physical world.
Ref. [3] defines augmented reality as a system that:
combines real and virtual objects. In augmented reality systems, virtual and real objects coexist at the same time, in the same place.
offers real-time interactivity. Users can interact with virtual content, which responds to their actions.
allows registration of virtual objects in the physical 3D world. There is a geometric alignment of virtual objects with real ones in the physical world.
Augmented reality enhances users’ perception of and interaction with the real world. With technology, any real object can be enriched with additional information, which sometimes cannot be detected and perceived directly through the users’ senses.
The term augmented reality was introduced in 1990 by Tom Caudell. The technology has already had a long history. In 1968, Ivan Sutherland invented the first head-mounted display model, which, despite its weight, is a step toward the use of augmented reality in the real world. In 1992, Luis Rosenberg created the first functioning augmented reality system Virtual Fixtures, designed to train pilots in the US Air Force. The commercial application of the technology dates back to 1998 with the introduction of yellow first down line. In 1999, Hirokazu Kato created ARToolKit-a library for developing augmented reality applications. In 2014, the launch of Google Glass set the era of the wearable devices, which gave a strong impetus to the development and spread of augmented reality technology.
The reality-virtuality continuum, proposed by Paul Milgram, is a continuous scale, varying between reality (a physical space with no virtual elements) and virtuality (a virtual space with no physical elements). The area between the two endpoints is mixed reality-a space where real and virtual objects are combined in different ratio. It is clear from the scale (Figure 1) that augmented reality is closer to the reality than to virtuality, since it is a physical space with integrated virtual elements.
Reality-virtuality continuum (adapted from [
When discussing augmented reality technology, analogies are invariably made with virtual reality. The two technologies have a common purpose-to immerse users and give them a complete and real sense of the world around them, but they achieve the goal in different ways.
Virtual reality replaces physical world with a digitally created one. Users are completely immersed in the artificial environment and cannot see, feel or interact with the physical world around them. Virtual reality is one of the technologies ensuring that people are completely focused on situations in the digital world. But the technology detaches them from the physical world and is not possible to make a connection between what is happening in the digital world and the surrounding reality.
Unlike virtual reality, augmented reality creates virtual objects that overlay the physical world and provide additional details for real objects. It allows users to be in touch with the real world and interact with real objects and people as well as with computer-generated content. The basic idea behind augmented reality is to immerse users in the physical world and give them more information about what they see, but are not able to perceive through their own senses.
There are different classifications of augmented reality according to various criteria.
Depending on the hardware devices that users use, there are the following (based on [5]):
Depending on how the objects or scenes from the real world are identified, the augmented reality is divided into:
There are four main stages in augmented reality systems’ functioning [5]: scene capture, identification, processing and preview.
The reality that has to be augmented with digital content is captured by video or optical see-through devices. The captured reality is scanned to determine the position of virtual content that augments it by markers or tracking technologies. When the scene becomes recognized and identified, relevant virtual content is required from different sources. The final step is to create a mixed image of the real scene and embedded virtual content.
Users need the appropriate software to view and interact with digital content that augments the physical world. They can use augmented reality browsers or specific applications.
Recently, augmented reality is a popular tool used in various fields of business, advertising and tourism. There are many examples of successful augmented reality-based campaigns. Some companies choose this technological approach to increase their sales, attract more customers and guarantee their social presence. Others use augmented reality to create a personal and emotional connection between the products and services they offered and potential and actual customers. Some companies rely on unforgettable authentic experiences that can be offered to consumers through augmented reality applications and subsequent positive results from such campaigns.
Augmented reality can improve the perception of the surrounding real world with new sensations and perceptions, which is a prerequisite for a better understanding of the physical world [6]. This is of utmost importance for the education sector. Augmented reality makes possible learning in the real world and changes the way learners interact with the objects around them.
Present-day digital learners, on the other hand, are keen to use technologies from their daily lives in the learning process. Like any technology that is able to engage learners’ attention and provoke their interest and activity, augmented reality is a subject of interest for teachers.
The main questions that should be asked in an emerging idea of implementing new technologies in education are as follows:
Why to use them and what positive effects can be expected?
How they can be used to support the realization of dominant pedagogical paradigms?
The concept of immersive learning has become more and more relevant in recent years. Immersive learning is a theory based on the use of technologies and technical tools to create an educational environment, where learners are immersed in new worlds, learn through different perceptions and senses and have first-person experiences [7]. The idea is to place learners in new situations or environments that offer different sensations and experiences and create conditions for more curious and motivating learning. Technologies that help realize the ideas of immersive learning are virtual reality and augmented reality.
With augmented reality, the training is carried out in a different type of learning environment, with opportunities to enrich the learning content and acquire new skills and competences.
The technology creates conditions for building a new type of learning environment that combines reality and the virtual world. The boundaries between them are blurred and a united learning space is created that is rich in possibilities, perceptions and sensations and offers new ways of acquiring knowledge and skills [7]. Learners are placed in an authentic learning environment and provided with a real-world experience [8, 9]. Every real object is enriched with dynamically changing information. Learners may receive additional information that depends on their specific actions with objects and each interaction can cause a different reaction, which can be a source of new knowledge for them [10]. The interaction with real and virtual objects is a way to realize active learning.
Learners can interact, explore and experiment with virtual objects, discovering their properties and behavior-something that is not always possible in the real world or is not safe. There are many examples of using augmented reality in training-from studying the structure of molecules and atoms, exploring the universe, the planets and the Earth, to acquiring knowledge for the structure of the human body and the functioning of human organs and systems. Learners are active participants who take control of the interaction with digital content in real time. They have the ability to take decisions and actions in order to achieve the learning objectives [7]. Such kind of learning approach can facilitate the understanding of abstract or complex concepts through their concretization [11, 12]. At the same time, it provokes imagination and creativity and increases the learners’ interest and motivation.
In a hybrid learning space, learners can interact not only with the real objects and the digital content that augments them but also with other participants [7]. The learning environment allows the implementation of some of the approaches of modern smart pedagogy, where learners are active, motivated and engaged participants-learning by doing, applying a research approach to training and working in a constructivist environment, context-based learning.
Today’s learners are digital learners. They were born and live with technologies and prefer to study in the digital environments. Most of them spend more and more time using various electronic devices mainly for chat or games. A serious problem with the reluctance of young people to read books and textbooks is arising. Parents and teachers face difficult questions about how to encourage teens to read more. Integrating augmented reality to traditional books can help solve the problem and generate engagement and fun in reading.
The integration of augmented reality technology and traditional books creates the so-called augmented books. They look like traditional books, but when readers point their smartphones or tablets to pages, the content comes to life. 3D models, video, audio, animations and interactive elements appear. Through technology, print materials are enriched with digital multimedia information, which can make learning content easier to read and more engaging.
Augmented reality supports the acquisition of practical skills and experience through training in a mixed environment and simulations. To be prepared for the real world, learners must have not only knowledge but also practical skills and experience. Augmented reality applications allow them to actively develop their skills by working, manipulating and experimenting with both virtual objects and 3D models of real objects. Augmented reality helps different situations and problems of practice to be recreated, which resolved by learners leads to the acquisition of practical skills and experience.
The ability to manage their own learning stimulates and motivates learners. They can discover new properties and behavior of objects and processes, following their individual research approach. Augmented reality is a technology that is able to inspire learners, spark their interest, stimulate their creativity and curiosity, create positive emotions and attitude to the learning, and enhance their motivation. These are the necessary prerequisites for a positive change in the educational process and its orientation toward digital learners’ needs.
Augmented reality is a promising technology that has its place in education. The listed benefits make it a preferred tool for both teachers and learners. The technology enables innovative forms of training and learning, and supports the realization of new pedagogical paradigms.
Augmented reality also has some disadvantages that must be taken into account in order to use technology in the best possible way in education. The technology requires the availability of smart devices, which can put learners in an unequal position. Technical problems of different nature are possible, caused by device camera malfunctions, lack of high-speed Internet connection as well as software issues. On the other hand, it is possible that augmented reality applications may distract and divert the learners’ attention from the learning materials and cause undesirable reactions and results. Developing appropriate educational applications is a difficult process. It takes time and resources and requires an innovative approach to present virtual content as well as to choose tools and approaches to access and interact with it.
Augmented reality can be integrated in different ways in training. It can be used to create augmented textbooks or to develop augmented reality educational applications.
Nowadays, interactive books are very popular because they make reading an active process. Augmented books are a subtype of interactive books.
Augmented book is a traditional (paper) book with additional virtual content, which is accessible through appropriate hardware and software tools [13]. The augmented books enhance the traditional ones with interactive visualizations, animations, 3D models, and audio and video materials. All these multimedia components improve reading and engage readers’ attention [14]. A very important feature of augmented textbooks is that they allow learners to interact with virtual content, explore and make experiments, which guarantee active learning, better and easier perception and understanding of complex and abstract concepts. They can have a positive impact on learners’ achievements and attitude toward their own learning [15].
Augmented textbooks have a significant advantage over other e-textbooks. People can read them as traditional books, but at the same time, they have an access to additional interactive digital content. There is no need to buy special equipment to use them since a smartphone or tablet is required to visualize integrated digital content-devices that learners use every day.
Augmented reality gives new dimensions to traditional textbooks, which many digital learners consider being boring. The technology can turn textbooks into an interactive tool that engages learners, motivates them to read and learn, as well as entertains them. Much more learning content can be included in augmented textbooks that exceeds the requirements of the curriculum. The additional content is accessible to anyone who has the need or desire to deepen his knowledge.
Figure 2 shows an augmented book Bugs: Interact with Augmented Reality Creepy Crawlies (by Hannah Wilson, Carlton Kids Publisher). After scanning the pages, readers can see 3D models of different species of bugs and interact with them. Magic Books, Animal Kingdom Education Book, Animals Encyclopedia, Secrets of the Ocean, iStorm: Wild Weather and Other Forces of Nature, Dinosaur 4D +, Live Solar System and many others are good examples of books and textbooks that are created with augmented reality technology. Many of them target younger learners to provoke and stimulate their desire to read. Among the augmented textbooks that are used in secondary schools, colleges and universities are the statistical software for processing experimental data, cutting tools, Ethnobotany Workbook, Imagina Books: Human Body and others.
Augmented book bugs: Interact with augmented reality creepy crawlies.
Another approach to use augmented reality in education is to develop augmented reality applications.
More and more products created with augmented reality technology are available in the educational applications market. Many teachers choose such applications as an effective and powerful tool to help students better understand abstract concepts.
Augmented reality can represent objects and processes that are difficult to imagine and turn them into 3D models allowing learners to interact with them. The abstract concepts come to life and become part of the real world, which make them easier to learn.
Augmented reality can be used as an effective tool that “translates” theoretical scientific concepts into things from the real world and daily life, making them understandable to learners.
Physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology and mathematics are among the subjects where augmented reality technology can be used effectively. The various physical and chemical properties of the objects and the existing regularities can be easily understood with the help of augmented reality. The anatomy and structure of the human body and the functioning of human systems can be visualized by augmented reality in 3D space in biology courses. The properties of curves, surfaces and 2D and 3D geometric figures can be studied in mathematics and geometry classes. Trips to the farthest corners of the earth and the universe are possible, as well as going back to the past and tracking historical events and places.
Working with virtual objects can help learners to acquire and develop practical skills and experience in safe environment.
Figure 3 shows an educational application with augmented reality-Anatomy 4D that can be used to study human organs and systems. There are markers that need to be printed in advance and 3D models of human organs and systems are displayed after scanning them. The application allows learners to interact with 3D objects and digital content.
Educational application anatomy 4D.
The combination of virtual and augmented reality can help to develop educational applications that immerse learners into new worlds with many different sensations. A good example of mixture of both technologies is Google Expeditions.
Google Expeditions is a learning application that allows learners to get to know the world, its history and culture through virtual reality or augmented reality tours.
In virtual reality tours, participants in the learning process use their mobile devices and Google Cardboard to immerse themselves in the digital world and explore the world, the universe, oceans, mountains, caves, galleries and museums without leaving the classroom (Figure 4). In augmented reality tours, virtual objects are integrated into the physical environment and they become part of the learning space. Training occurs in a shared environment, where interactions and experiments are possible under the guidance of teachers.
Virtual reality tour with Google expeditions.
Augmented reality applications generate a great interest and desire to work, because they allow learners to be active, to be researchers and to control their own learning.
Regardless of the chosen approach of integration of augmented reality in learning, the technology creates prerequisites and conditions for acquiring new knowledge and skills in an environment that is rich in sensations, perceptions and emotions.
There are many augmented reality applications that are specifically designed for education and are free for use for both teachers and learners. Often, teachers prefer to develop their own learning content and materials that are designed and tailored to their learners’ goals.
Users can create augmented reality applications with various software platforms (many of them are free to use). There are two main approaches: using augmented reality browsers or augmented reality software development kit.
Augmented reality browsers are applications that display virtual geolocation multimedia content upon real-world objects. Browsers access remote resources through web protocols and services, index content through media streams and support various MIME formats [16]. Augmented reality browsers offer not only opportunities for publishing content that augments the reality but also tools for developing augmented reality projects.
With browsers, the process of creating augmented reality projects is quick and easy, and no special programming skills are required since templates are used and most of the procedures are automated. There are some limitations of created projects-recognition of only 2D images is possible and inability for interaction between users and virtual content. A major drawback of this approach is that there are no standards that allow augmented content to be interchangeable. Content created with the tools of one browser cannot be accessed through another browser [17].
Popular augmented reality browsers and their project creation tools include HP Reveal (HP Reveal Studio), BlippAR (Blippar Studio and Blipp-Builder), Zappar (ZapWorks Studio and ZapWorks Designer), Wikitude (Wikitude Studio) and more.
Different terms are used to refer to the created products (layers, channels and worlds), but the principle of action is identical-consecutive steps: (1) selection of the images-targets, which will be scanned; (2) add different types of digital content that will enrich the images; (3) review and test and (4) publish the project. After creating and publishing augmented reality projects, users (learners) must scan the images with augmented reality browser in order to visualize the digital content.
Figure 5 shows an augmented reality project created with Wikitude Studio. When scanning the image (a table with logical functions), learners can see a video material, which illustrates the results of the logical functions and their dependence on the values of the input arguments. Video material is created by Google Doodle and is accessible in YouTube.
Wikitude studio project.
Augmented reality software development kits (AR SDK) have fundamental features such as image, object and location recognition, position estimation and others. Among the popular AR SDKs are ARKit, ARCore, Vuforia Engine, Wikitude AR SDK, Kudan, AR SDK, EasyAR SDK and ARToolKit. They all allow 2D image recognition and are compatible with different platforms (iOS, Android, Windows and others). Some of them provide 3D object recognition features, while others help create geolocation applications. AR SDKs can be used to create augmented reality applications for smartphones, tablets and a variety of wearable devices. This approach results in developing stand-alone applications that users use to view virtual content that augments and enriches real objects.
Augmented reality applications, created with AR SDKs, are interactive, are feature-rich and embody the best of augmented reality technology. Their development is a complex and time-consuming process, requiring programming skills.
Figure 6 shows an augmented reality application BookStatistica, developed with Unity and Vuforia Engine. After scanning different markers, virtual buttons appear on the device screen. Learners can make a choice between different options-for example, video materials that show how statistical methods are done in different statistical packages.
Virtual buttons in BookStatistica application.
The digital transformation is inherent in today’s society and is possible due to the diversity of information and communication technologies and comprehensive Internet access. The transition covers all spheres of people’s lives and is rapidly advancing into education. It is compulsory for the educational goals to incorporate ideas for preparing learners to work with digital technologies in the digital world.
Technologies in education can greatly facilitate all activities in the learning process. There are different ways to integrate them into training. They can be used to deliver traditional training and guarantee automating and speeding up of most of learning and administrative activities. But the most important idea behind the use of innovative technologies is to change the role of learners-to put them in the center of learning and turn them into active participants, who construct their own knowledge, follow their personalized learning path, and create and share content with other learners in an interactive mode.
Today’s learners are born in digital world. They use different devices and technologies in their daily lives but cannot successfully implement them in an educational environment [7]. Therefore, the teachers’ part is very important. They have to integrate technologies in the most appropriate way in the training, taking into account the needs and characteristics of learners in order to maximize their educational benefits.
Augmented and virtual realities have a great potential in the field of education because they can significantly change the way the learning is carried out and fill it with new sensations and perceptions. Augmented reality creates an immersive educational space that is a mix of real world and digital content and offers rich experience. Learners can work and interact with virtual objects that are integrated into the real world. They receive context-based digital information for each observed physical object or process. The use of the technology makes it possible for learners to understand complex and abstract theories and concepts much faster and more easily that inspires and motivates them. Augmented reality is one of the innovative technologies that combine attractiveness and effectiveness of the training. It brings to life print textbooks and turns them into attractive, fun and interactive tools that make reading and studying active processes. A significant advantage of augmented reality to virtual reality is that it overcomes the risk of learners’ social exclusion and insufficient social and communication skills since they are not isolated in virtual worlds and can interact with other learners.
Augmented reality is among the innovative technologies that are able to transform education into smart education to correspond to the developing smart digital society.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
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\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\n\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to Straive, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\n\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\n\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
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