Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5852",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Peripheral Nerve Regeneration - From Surgery to New Therapeutic Approaches Including Biomaterials and Cell-Based Therapies Development",title:"Peripheral Nerve Regeneration",subtitle:"From Surgery to New Therapeutic Approaches Including Biomaterials and Cell-Based Therapies Development",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Peripheral nerve injuries are a high-incidence clinical problem that greatly affects patients' quality of life. Despite continuous refinement of microsurgery techniques, peripheral nerve repair still stands as one of the most challenging tasks in neurosurgery, as functional neuromuscular recovery is rarely satisfactory in these patients. Therefore, the improvement of surgical techniques and the clinical application of innovative therapies have been intensively studied worldwide. Direct nerve repair with epineural end-to-end sutures is still the gold standard treatment for severe neurotmesis injuries but only in cases where well-vascularized tension-free coaptation can be achieved. When peripheral nerve injury originates a significant gap between the nerve stumps, nerve grafts are required, with several associated disadvantages. Therefore, the development of scaffolds by tissue engineering can provide efficient treatment alternatives to stimulate optimum clinical outcome. Nerve conduit tailoring involves reaching ideal wall pores, using electrospinning techniques in their fabrication, surface coating with extracellular matrix materials, and adding of growth factors or cell-based therapies, among other possibilities. Also, intraluminal cues are employed such as the filling with hydrogels, inner surface modification, topographical design, and the introduction of neurotrophic factors, antibiotics, anti-inflammatories and other pharmacological agents. A comprehensive state of the art of surgical techniques, tissue-engineered nerve graft scaffolds, and their application in nerve regeneration, the advances in peripheral nerve repair and future perspectives will be discussed, including surgeons' and researchers' own large experience in this field of knowledge.",isbn:"978-953-51-3166-3",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3165-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4812-8",doi:"10.5772/65612",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"peripheral-nerve-regeneration-from-surgery-to-new-therapeutic-approaches-including-biomaterials-and-cell-based-therapies-development",numberOfPages:224,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"d1cd2e797f008dcee9dd0c1010145eb8",bookSignature:"Ana Colette Mauricio",publishedDate:"May 31st 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5852.jpg",numberOfDownloads:14994,numberOfWosCitations:10,numberOfCrossrefCitations:7,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:38,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 12th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 2nd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 29th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 28th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"56285",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Colette",middleName:null,surname:"Maurício",slug:"ana-colette-mauricio",fullName:"Ana Colette Maurício",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/56285/images/system/56285.jpeg",biography:"Ana Colette Pereira de Castro Osório Maurício has a degree on Veterinary Medicine since 1995, a PhD on Veterinary Sciences since 1999 from Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária (FMV) - Universidade de Lisboa (ULisboa) and Habilitation in Veterinary Sciences (ICBAS-UP) since 2011. The PhD experimental work was developed at Instituto Gulbenkian Ciência (IGC) in Oeiras, Portugal, at Freiburg Medicine Faculty in Germany and at Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia (FCT) from Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL). At the present, she is an Associated Professor with Habilitation, from the Veterinary Clinics Department of Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas de Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto (UP), she is the vice-President of the Pedagogic Council of ICBAS – UP. She is a Member of the Scientific Council and Member of the Representatives Council of ICBAS-UP. She is the Director of the Veterinary Sciences Doctoral Program at ICBAS – UP. She is the Scientific Coordinator of Regenerative Medicine and Experimental Surgery sub-unit from Centro de Estudos de Ciência Animal (CECA) of Instituto Instituto de Ciências, Tecnologias e Agroambiente da Universidade do Porto (ICETA). For the past 12 years she coordinates a multidisciplinary research group of Experimental Surgery and Regenerative Medicine, working with several biomaterials and cellular therapies. She started working with embryonic stem cells obtained by somatic nuclear transfer for therapeutic use; with Ian Wilmut´s group (Dolly’s cloned sheep). Several relevant publications had been produced and conducted to a PhD thesis that she co-supervised together with Ian Wilmut and to the first Portuguese cloned animal (R Ribas, B Oback, W Ritchie, T Chebotareva, J Taylor, AC Maurício, M Sousa, I Wilmut, 2006. Cloning and Stem Cells 8(1): 10; R Ribas, J Taylor, C McCorquodale, AC Maurício, M Sousa, I Wilmut, 2006. Biology of Reproduction 74: 307; R Ribas, B Oback, W Ritchie, T Chebotareva, T Ferrier, C Clarke, J Taylor, E Gallagher, AC Maurício, M Sousa, I Wilmut, 2005. Cloning and Stem Cells 7(2): 126). But ethical issues related to the collection and manipulation of human embryonic stem cells, even for therapeutic use is very controversial and understandable. So, more recently the potential of fetal stem cells derived from extra-embryonic tissues has been deeply investigated by her research group. Therefore, a continued effort to identify and characterize novel stem cell populations appears critical for widespread clinical success. This effort implies in vitro studies, experimental surgery and in vivo testing, before the clinical trials and the compassive treatment in such clinical cases where the traditional and standard treatments failed. Her research groups works exactly in this direction, so she created a multidisciplinary team, including Veterinaries, Engineers, Medical Doctors that through Experimental Surgery have a crucial role in the development of biomaterials and cellular therapies, allowing a close share of knowledge between biomaterials design, development of cellular systems, and surgeons needs when related to specific clinical cases. This group has several recent relevant publications in the research areas of nerve, bone, musculoskeletal and vascular tissue regeneration. In her laboratory have been working several PhD and Post-Doctoral students from various countries who have acquired a high level of competence in the study of tissue regeneration. She is the supervisor of several PhD, Post-Doctoral and Master students (16 PhD thesis already concluded with success and 14 PhD thesis on going), she is the co-author of a large number of scientific articles published in Indexed Journals (she publishes as Maurício AC) and of several scientific book chapters. She was the principal researcher of several national and international scientific projects. Editor of three international scientific books, inventor of three international patents.",institutionString:"University of Porto",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"10",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Porto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1054",title:"Neurobiology",slug:"mental-and-behavioural-disorders-and-diseases-of-the-nervous-system-neurobiology"}],chapters:[{id:"55127",title:"Peripheral Nerve Injury and Current Treatment Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68345",slug:"peripheral-nerve-injury-and-current-treatment-strategies",totalDownloads:2974,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Neuronal cells are the main fundamental anatomic unit of the system. Nerve injuries are generally divided into three categories as neuropraxia, axonotmesis and neurotmesis. Neurotmesis is the most severe form. Schwann cells are activated within 24 hours of the injury and the healing cascade continued with the cells, which are stimulated by Schwann cells. And neurotrophic factors like nerve growth factor (NGF) have a crucial role in regeneration and degeneration processes. Additionally, Schwann cells upregulate the expression of some proteins, such as fibronectin, which are crucial for axonal regeneration. All this information about nerve healing sheds light on treatment studies. Iatrogenic nerve injury has an important place in peripheral nerve injury. Causes may be direct surgical damage, wrong intraoperative patient positioning, anaesthesia-related reasons or limb tourniquets. Typical symptoms are motor or sensory deficits such as paraesthesia, weakness, paralysis and pain. Many of the traumatic nerve injuries require surgical repair. Direct nerve repair and autologous nerve grafts are still gold-standard treatment options. Additionally, nerve conduits are very successful to provide an ideal peripheral support for neuronal recovery but are still insufficient. In recent years, research efforts have focused on the neurotrophic factors and cell-based therapies to perform better microenvironment for neuronal healing.",signatures:"Aysu Hayriye Tezcan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55127",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55127",authors:[{id:"205536",title:"Prof.",name:"Aysu",surname:"Hayriye Tezcan",slug:"aysu-hayriye-tezcan",fullName:"Aysu Hayriye Tezcan"}],corrections:null},{id:"54669",title:"Peripheral Nerve Entrapment and their Surgical Treatment",doi:"10.5772/67946",slug:"peripheral-nerve-entrapment-and-their-surgical-treatment",totalDownloads:1748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nerves pass from one body area to another through channels made of connective tissue and/or bone. In these narrow passages, they can get trapped due to anatomic abnormalities, ganglion cysts, muscle or connective tissue hypertrophy, tumours, trauma or iatrogenic mishaps. Nearly all nerves can be affected. The clinical presentation is pain, paraesthesia, sensory and motor power loss. The specific clinical features will depend on the affected nerve and on the chronicity, severity, speed and mechanism of compression. Its incidence is higher under some occupations and is some systemic conditions: diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism, acromegaly, alcoholism, oedema and inflammatory diseases. The diagnosis is suspected with the clinical presentation and provocative clinical test, being confirmed with electrodiagnostic and/or ultrasonographic studies. Magnetic Resonance Studies (MRI) rule out ganglion cysts or tumours. Conservative medical treatment is often sufficient. In refractory ones, surgical decompression should be performed before nerve damage and muscle atrophy are irreversible. The ‘double crash’ syndrome happens when a peripheral nerve is compressed at more than one point along its trajectory. In cases with marked muscle atrophy, a ‘supercharge end‐to‐side’ nerve transfer can be added to the decompression. After decompression in those few cases with refractory pain, a nerve neurostimulator can be applied.",signatures:"Vicente Vanaclocha‐Vanaclocha, Nieves Sáiz‐Sapena, Jose María\nOrtiz‐Criado and Nieves Vanaclocha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54669",authors:[{id:"199099",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",surname:"Vanaclocha",slug:"vicente-vanaclocha",fullName:"Vicente Vanaclocha"}],corrections:null},{id:"54665",title:"Nerve Transfers in the Treatment of Peripheral Nerve Injuries",doi:"10.5772/67948",slug:"nerve-transfers-in-the-treatment-of-peripheral-nerve-injuries",totalDownloads:2081,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Successful re-innervation of proximal limb peripheral nerve injuries is rare. Axons regenerate at ~1 mm/day, reaching hand muscles by 24 months, finding them atrophied and fibrosed. Peripheral nerve injury repair is often delayed waiting for spontaneous recovery. This waiting time should not be longer than 6 months as after 18 months reinnervation will not achieve effective muscular function. When spontaneous recovery is impossible, referral too late or damage too severe, other options like a transfer from a nearby healthy nerve to the injured one must be considered. They are very successful, and the deficit in the donor site is usually minimal. The most common nerve transfers are a branch of the spinal nerve to the trapezius muscle to the suprascapular nerve, a branch of the long head of the triceps to the axillary nerve, a fascicle of the ulnar nerve to the motor branch of the biceps muscle, two branches of the median nerve to the posterior interosseous nerve and the anterior interosseous nerve to the ulnar nerve. There are many more options that can suit particular cases. Introduced in brachial plexus injury repair, they are now also applied to lower limb, to stroke and to some spinal cord injuries.",signatures:"Vicente Vanaclocha-Vanaclocha, Jose María Ortiz-Criado, Nieves\nSáiz-Sapena and Nieves Vanaclocha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54665",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54665",authors:[{id:"199099",title:"Dr.",name:"Vicente",surname:"Vanaclocha",slug:"vicente-vanaclocha",fullName:"Vicente Vanaclocha"},{id:"204650",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose María",surname:"Ortiz-Criado",slug:"jose-maria-ortiz-criado",fullName:"Jose María Ortiz-Criado"},{id:"204651",title:"Dr.",name:"Nieves",surname:"Saiz-Sapena",slug:"nieves-saiz-sapena",fullName:"Nieves Saiz-Sapena"},{id:"204652",title:"BSc.",name:"Nieves",surname:"Vanaclocha",slug:"nieves-vanaclocha",fullName:"Nieves Vanaclocha"}],corrections:null},{id:"55030",title:"Surgical Treatment of Brachial Plexus Injury",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68442",slug:"surgical-treatment-of-brachial-plexus-injury",totalDownloads:1523,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, brachial plexus injury has been attracting increasing attention, partly because of an increasing incidence arising out of higher survival rates for patients after polytrauma. Brachial plexus injury is one of the hardest and most mutilating injuries. Owing to advances in microsurgical techniques, we can achieve success in restoring motor function for these patients. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce the reader with various microsurgical techniques, including nerve fascicle transfers and end-to-side neurorrhaphy (ETSN), which can be used for brachial plexus reconstruction based on personal experience with 1130 nerve reconstructions performed by the first author (PH) between 1993 and 2017. Another goal of brachial plexus surgery is the resolution of severe intractable pain which can develop in up to 20% of cases. Dorsal root entry zone (DREZ) thermocoagulation is a very effective method for treatment of severe neuropathic pain.",signatures:"Pavel Haninec and Libor Mencl",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55030",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55030",authors:[{id:"200723",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Haninec",slug:"pavel-haninec",fullName:"Pavel Haninec"},{id:"200895",title:"Dr.",name:"Libor",surname:"Mencl",slug:"libor-mencl",fullName:"Libor Mencl"}],corrections:null},{id:"54772",title:"The Role of Nucleotides in Glial Cells during Peripheral Nerve Trauma and Compressive Disorders",doi:"10.5772/68068",slug:"the-role-of-nucleotides-in-glial-cells-during-peripheral-nerve-trauma-and-compressive-disorders",totalDownloads:2266,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Studies have shown that the administration of drugs containing pyrimidine nucleotides, such as uridine triphosphate (UTP) and cytidine monophosphate (CMP), has been effective in pain-intensity reductions in patients with painful conditions as diabetic neuropathy, back pain, and cervical and trauma-compressive changes. The combination of pyrimidine nucleotides UTP and CMP is part of a peripheral neuro-regenerative process. Its pharmacological properties are stimulation of nerve cells proteins synthesis, nerve cell membranes synthesis, myelin sheaths synthesis, and neurite sprouting through P2Y receptors activation. Herein, chapter will be discussed the combination of UTP and CMP, and in some cases, the inclusion of cobalamin (B12 vitamin) that appears to have analgesic effects in neuropathic pain secondary to spine structural disorders assigned to a complex pharmacodynamic. The mechanisms involved can be both indirect (protein synthesis in nerve cells, myelin synthesis, synthesis of MBP, etc.) and direct (P2Y receptor stimulation).",signatures:"Marina Manhães, Marcelo Cesar, Rayssa Justo, Mauro Geller,\nMendel Suchmacher and Rafael Cisne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54772",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54772",authors:[{id:"200441",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",surname:"Cisne",slug:"rafael-cisne",fullName:"Rafael Cisne"},{id:"200473",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcelo",surname:"Cesar",slug:"marcelo-cesar",fullName:"Marcelo Cesar"},{id:"200474",title:"Ms.",name:"Rayssa",surname:"Justo",slug:"rayssa-justo",fullName:"Rayssa Justo"},{id:"200475",title:"Ms.",name:"Marina",surname:"Manhães",slug:"marina-manhaes",fullName:"Marina Manhães"},{id:"205068",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",surname:"Geller",slug:"mauro-geller",fullName:"Mauro Geller"},{id:"205069",title:"MSc.",name:"Mendel",surname:"Suchmacher",slug:"mendel-suchmacher",fullName:"Mendel Suchmacher"}],corrections:null},{id:"55017",title:"The Role of Pharmacological Agents in Nerve Regeneration after Peripheral Nerve Repair",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68378",slug:"the-role-of-pharmacological-agents-in-nerve-regeneration-after-peripheral-nerve-repair",totalDownloads:1879,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Peripheral nerve injuries are frequent and represent a significant pathology of the peripheral nervous system because, despite operative techniques and successful microsurgical repair, in most cases, the nerve repair is followed by scar formation. Numerous investigations have been carried out with the aim of finding pharmacological substances that can prevent scar formation and speed up the regeneration of repaired nerves. This chapter is dedicated to the efforts of many researchers to find different pharmacological agents with local effects on the improvement of nerve regeneration. Numerous experiments have been carried out in mice and rabbits using hyaluronic acid, tacrolimus, cyclosporin A, melatonin, vitamin B12, methylprednisolone, riluzole and potassium and calcium channel blockers. In the experimental animal studies, topical pharmacological agents were used at the site of peripheral nerve repair. The effect of these substances is most commonly studied in sciatic nerve injury in experimental animals. Their effects were evaluated using a variety of methods, such as morphological, biomechanical, electrophysiological and functional evaluation, and the above‐mentioned substances, have been shown to have neuroprotective and neuroregenerative properties though different mechanisms.",signatures:"Agon Mekaj and Ymer Mekaj",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55017",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55017",authors:[{id:"199721",title:"Prof.",name:"Ymer",surname:"Mekaj",slug:"ymer-mekaj",fullName:"Ymer Mekaj"},{id:"200047",title:"Dr.",name:"Agon",surname:"Mekaj",slug:"agon-mekaj",fullName:"Agon Mekaj"}],corrections:null},{id:"54592",title:"Adult and Reparative Neurogenesis in Fish Brain",doi:"10.5772/67951",slug:"adult-and-reparative-neurogenesis-in-fish-brain",totalDownloads:1207,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The fish brain has a unique feature of vertebrates—it grows with the growth of body over a lifetime. In this regard, fishes are a convenient model for the study of embryonic and postembryonic development of the central nervous system and of the influence of different factors on these processes. Currently, the mechanisms of adult brain morphogenesis of fish, which retain larval stage for a long time, are poorly understood. This is particularly true for participation of radial glia during morphogenesis of the brain, as well as the presence and distribution of the proliferative zone in the adult fish brain. Another interesting and little known aspect is the posttraumatic ability of fish to form active neurogenic niches. Investigation of the structural organizations of neurogenic niches and special conditions of the extracellular environment, as well as the interactions between neighboring cells in a neurogenic niche, is interesting and relevant direction in the study of the neuronal stem cells biology. Injury of fish brain creates special conditions for the implementation of genetic programs aimed at strengthening the proliferation of progenitor cells, as well as the activation and proliferation activity in the neuronal stem cells.",signatures:"Evgeniya V. Pushchina, Anatoly A. Varaksin, Mariya E. Stukaneva\nand Eva I. Zharikova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54592",authors:[{id:"169621",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgeniya",surname:"Pushchina",slug:"evgeniya-pushchina",fullName:"Evgeniya Pushchina"}],corrections:null},{id:"54991",title:"Effect of Local Delivery of GDNF Conjugated Iron Oxide Nanoparticles on Nerve Regeneration along Long Chitosan Nerve Guide",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68526",slug:"effect-of-local-delivery-of-gdnf-conjugated-iron-oxide-nanoparticles-on-nerve-regeneration-along-lon",totalDownloads:1323,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Local delivery of neurotrophic factors is a pillar of neural repair strategies in the peripheral nervous system. The main disadvantage of the free growth factors is their short half‐life of few minutes. In previous studies, it was demonstrated that conjugation of various neurotrophic factors to iron oxide nanoparticles (IONP) led to stabilization of the growth factors and to the extension of their biological activity compared to the free factors. In vitro studies performed on organotypic dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cultures seeded in NVR gel (composed mainly of hyaluronic acid and laminin) revealed that the glial cell–derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) conjugated to IONP‐enhanced early nerve fiber sprouting and accelerated the onset and progression of myelin significantly earlier than the free GDNF and other free and conjugated factors. The present article summarizes results of in vivo study, aimed to test the effect of free versus conjugated GDNF on regeneration of the rat sciatic nerve after a severe segment loss. We confirmed that nerve device enriched with a matrix with GDNF gives more successful results in term of regeneration and functional recovery in respect to the hollow tube; moreover, there are no detectable differences between free versus conjugated GDNF.",signatures:"Federica Fregnan, Michela Morano, Ofra Ziv-Polat, Mira M.\nMandelbaum-Livnat, Moshe Nissan, Tolmasov Michael, Akiva\nKoren, Tali Biran, Yifat Bitan, Evgeniy Reider, Mara Almog, Nicoletta\nViano, Shimon Rochkind, Stefano Geuna and Abraham Shahar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54991",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54991",authors:[{id:"48118",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefano",surname:"Geuna",slug:"stefano-geuna",fullName:"Stefano Geuna"},{id:"200265",title:"Dr.",name:"Federica",surname:"Fregnan",slug:"federica-fregnan",fullName:"Federica Fregnan"},{id:"205254",title:"Dr.",name:"Michela",surname:"Morano",slug:"michela-morano",fullName:"Michela Morano"},{id:"205256",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoletta",surname:"Viano",slug:"nicoletta-viano",fullName:"Nicoletta Viano"},{id:"205868",title:"Dr.",name:"Ofra",surname:"Ziv-Polat",slug:"ofra-ziv-polat",fullName:"Ofra Ziv-Polat"},{id:"205869",title:"Dr.",name:"Mira M.",surname:"Mandelbaum-Livnat",slug:"mira-m.-mandelbaum-livnat",fullName:"Mira M. Mandelbaum-Livnat"},{id:"205870",title:"Dr.",name:"Moshe",surname:"Nissan",slug:"moshe-nissan",fullName:"Moshe Nissan"},{id:"205872",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",surname:"Tolmasov",slug:"michael-tolmasov",fullName:"Michael Tolmasov"},{id:"205873",title:"Mr.",name:"Akiva",surname:"Korn",slug:"akiva-korn",fullName:"Akiva Korn"},{id:"205874",title:"Dr.",name:"Tali",surname:"Biran",slug:"tali-biran",fullName:"Tali Biran"},{id:"205875",title:"Dr.",name:"Yifat",surname:"Bitan",slug:"yifat-bitan",fullName:"Yifat Bitan"},{id:"205876",title:"Dr.",name:"Evgeniy",surname:"Reider",slug:"evgeniy-reider",fullName:"Evgeniy Reider"},{id:"205877",title:"Prof.",name:"Shimon",surname:"Rochkind",slug:"shimon-rochkind",fullName:"Shimon Rochkind"},{id:"205878",title:"Prof.",name:"Abraham",surname:"Shahar",slug:"abraham-shahar",fullName:"Abraham Shahar"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5369",title:"Umbilical Cord Blood Banking for Clinical Application and Regenerative Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"711421bf3bdb0e540fc84267b82b1995",slug:"umbilical-cord-blood-banking-for-clinical-application-and-regenerative-medicine",bookSignature:"Ana Colette Mauricio",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5369.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"56285",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Colette",surname:"Maurício",slug:"ana-colette-mauricio",fullName:"Ana Colette Maurício"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3293",title:"Recent Advances in Autism Spectrum Disorders",subtitle:"Volume I",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75b66fb38eb33a901ecd7e9279ff3c27",slug:"recent-advances-in-autism-spectrum-disorders-volume-i",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3293.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28359",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"685",title:"Epilepsy",subtitle:"Histological, Electroencephalographic and Psychological Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93a8993809704cb0c536e02067400bd6",slug:"epilepsy-histological-electroencephalographic-and-psychological-aspects",bookSignature:"Dejan Stevanovic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28680",title:"Dr.",name:"Dejan",surname:"Stevanovic",slug:"dejan-stevanovic",fullName:"Dejan Stevanovic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3544",title:"Recent Advances in Autism Spectrum Disorders",subtitle:"Volume II",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"601b4c43b6f88bcd29ab35455c57f68d",slug:"recent-advances-in-autism-spectrum-disorders-volume-ii",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3544.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"28359",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3856",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5a47495e99f48e249726f8d02f798ff5",slug:"traumatic-brain-injury",bookSignature:"Farid Sadaka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3856.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101031",title:"Dr.",name:"Farid",surname:"Sadaka",slug:"farid-sadaka",fullName:"Farid Sadaka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"773",title:"Post Traumatic Stress Disorders in a Global Context",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d0958a26a52cca485fc440fa0eb74e0",slug:"post-traumatic-stress-disorders-in-a-global-context",bookSignature:"Emilio Ovuga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/773.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"70800",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilio",surname:"Ovuga",slug:"emilio-ovuga",fullName:"Emilio Ovuga"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"462",title:"Autism",subtitle:"A Neurodevelopmental Journey from Genes to Behaviour",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"autism-a-neurodevelopmental-journey-from-genes-to-behaviour",bookSignature:"Valsamma Eapen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/462.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62816",title:"Dr.",name:"Valsamma",surname:"Eapen",slug:"valsamma-eapen",fullName:"Valsamma Eapen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"964",title:"Huntington's Disease",subtitle:"Core Concepts and Current Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7469b484fe69f49ebe4553d913a025dc",slug:"huntington-s-disease-core-concepts-and-current-advances",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/964.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3823",title:"Epilepsy Topics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cccc3d3bf1205c4866d66d0913fac6b0",slug:"epilepsy-topics",bookSignature:"Mark D. Holmes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3823.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27747",title:"Prof.",name:"Mark D.",surname:"Holmes",slug:"mark-d.-holmes",fullName:"Mark D. Holmes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5384",title:"New Developments in Anxiety Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c355c8b1bce4b291f916878f12e0ab8a",slug:"new-developments-in-anxiety-disorders",bookSignature:"Federico Durbano and Barbara Marchesi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5384.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157077",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",surname:"Durbano",slug:"federico-durbano",fullName:"Federico Durbano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79789",slug:"corrigendum-graves-disea-1",title:"Corrigendum: Graves’ Disease",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79789.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79789",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79789",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79789",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79789",chapter:{id:"76577",slug:"autoimmune-mechanism-and-recurrence-risk-in-graves-disease",signatures:"Vasudha Bakshi and Gollapalli Rajeev Kumar",dateSubmitted:"December 8th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 8th 2021",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 1st 2021",book:{id:"10312",title:"Graves' Disease",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Graves' Disease",slug:"graves-disease",publishedDate:"December 1st 2021",bookSignature:"Robert Gensure",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10312.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16515",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Gensure",slug:"robert-gensure",fullName:"Robert Gensure"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"291193",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vasudha",middleName:null,surname:"Bakshi",fullName:"Vasudha Bakshi",slug:"vasudha-bakshi",email:"vasudhapharmacy@cvsr.ac.in",position:null,institution:null},{id:"335131",title:"Dr.",name:"Gollapalli Rajeev",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Gollapalli Rajeev Kumar",slug:"gollapalli-rajeev-kumar",email:"rajeevpharmacy@cvsr.ac.in",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"76577",slug:"autoimmune-mechanism-and-recurrence-risk-in-graves-disease",signatures:"Vasudha Bakshi and Gollapalli Rajeev Kumar",dateSubmitted:"December 8th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 8th 2021",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"December 1st 2021",book:{id:"10312",title:"Graves' Disease",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Graves' Disease",slug:"graves-disease",publishedDate:"December 1st 2021",bookSignature:"Robert Gensure",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10312.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16515",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Gensure",slug:"robert-gensure",fullName:"Robert Gensure"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"291193",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vasudha",middleName:null,surname:"Bakshi",fullName:"Vasudha Bakshi",slug:"vasudha-bakshi",email:"vasudhapharmacy@cvsr.ac.in",position:null,institution:null},{id:"335131",title:"Dr.",name:"Gollapalli Rajeev",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Gollapalli Rajeev Kumar",slug:"gollapalli-rajeev-kumar",email:"rajeevpharmacy@cvsr.ac.in",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"10312",title:"Graves' Disease",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Graves' Disease",slug:"graves-disease",publishedDate:"December 1st 2021",bookSignature:"Robert Gensure",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10312.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16515",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Gensure",slug:"robert-gensure",fullName:"Robert Gensure"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10433",leadTitle:null,title:"Repurposed Drugs for Cancer",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tMany existing drugs have the potential to be repurposed for the treatment of cancer by way of their known metabolic, antiangiogenic, apoptotic, epigenetic and immunologic bioactivities. Most of these drugs are in common use, relatively inexpensive and less toxic than conventional approved anti-cancer agents. These repurposed agents may be particularly useful in areas where standard oncology drugs are unaffordable or inaccessible, and for the frail or elderly where toxicities of standard agents are a major concern, or for refractory cancer cases when standard options have been exhausted.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis volume will provide a comprehensive scientific background, clinical evidence as well as recommendations for practical applications of a majority of these repurposed agents.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"040ede75ef07474d088cfaa4993b2131",bookSignature:"Dr. Raymond Chang and Dr. Angus Dalgleish",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10433.jpg",keywords:"Metformin, Triiodothyronine, Disulfiram, Artensunate, Mebendazole, Heparins, Dipyridamole, Cimetidine, Naltrexone, Itraconazole, Tetracycline, Beta-blockers",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 2nd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 31st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 18th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Chang received both his B.A. and M.D. degrees from Brown University. He subsequently completed post-doctoral training at Yale-Waterbury and Cornell-New York Hospitals. Dr. Chang, internationally respected and uniquely trained in Western medicine and traditional Eastern medicine, is known as a pioneer in the field of alternative cancer therapies. He is a member of academic medical societies including the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the European Society of Medical Oncology (ESMO).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"319123",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"raymond-chang",fullName:"Raymond Chang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319123/images/system/319123.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Institute of East-West Medicine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"319124",title:"Dr.",name:"Angus",middleName:null,surname:"Dalgleish",slug:"angus-dalgleish",fullName:"Angus Dalgleish",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319124/images/system/319124.png",biography:null,institutionString:"St. Georges, University of London",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"St George's, University of London",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9500",title:"Recent Advances in Bone Tumours and Osteoarthritis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea4ec0d6ee01b88e264178886e3210ed",slug:"recent-advances-in-bone-tumours-and-osteoarthritis",bookSignature:"Hiran Amarasekera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9500.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67634",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiran",surname:"Amarasekera",slug:"hiran-amarasekera",fullName:"Hiran Amarasekera"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71933",title:"High FSR and Critical Coupling Control of Microring Resonator Based on Graphene-Silicon Multimode Waveguides",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92210",slug:"high-fsr-and-critical-coupling-control-of-microring-resonator-based-on-graphene-silicon-multimode-wa",body:'
1. Introduction
In recent years, there has been intense research about ring resonators (RRs) as the building blocks for various photonic applications such as optical switches, wavelength multiplexers, routers, optical delay lines, and optical sensors [1, 2, 3]. In the literature, microring resonators with high-quality factors (Q) are required for enhanced nonlinear effects, low threshold lasing, and sensing applications. Almost all of the proposed microring resonator structures used directional couplers as coupling elements. It was shown that such devices are very sensitive to fabrication tolerance [4]. However, a very high Q is undesirable for high-speed signal processing since it can significantly limit the operational bandwidth of the system. In addition, in microring resonator structure, the coupling ratio and loss must be matched so that the ring operates near the critical coupling to achieve a high extinction ratio [5]. To obtain a high bandwidth, a solution is to use a directional coupler with a small gap between two waveguides in order to increase the coupling coefficient. However, this causes large excess mode conversion losses, limiting the flexibility of this approach [6].
Another type of coupler, namely, the 2 × 2 multimode interference (MMI) coupler, has been employed in ring resonators [7, 8, 9, 10]. MMI couplers have been shown to have relaxed fabrication requirements and are less sensitive to the wavelength or polarization variations [11, 12]. In recent years, we have presented some microring resonators based on silicon waveguides using 2 × 2, 3 × 3 MMIs for the first time [4, 13, 14, 15]. It showed that the proposed devices have good performance compared with structures based on directional couplers.
In a single ring resonator, control of the critical coupling is an important requirement [16, 17, 18]. In the literature, the Mach-Zehnder (MZI) configuration is used for this purpose [17]. The key physical mechanism they rely on is the plasma dispersion effect or thermo-optic effect. Another approaches used to create phase shifter are based on silicon-organic hybrid slot waveguides [19] and BTO-Si slot waveguides [20]. The major drawbacks of these schemes are relatively large dimensions. In addition, plasma dispersion can only induce a small variation of the refractive index; the long length of the phase shifter is required. In this chapter, we use the graphene-silicon waveguide (GSW) for phase shifter and controlling the coupling coefficient.
It is noted that in the literature, the MZI configuration for critical coupling control is based on two 3 dB 2 × 2 directional couplers or 2 × 2 MMI coupler. In this chapter, we do not need to use the MZI for controlling the critical coupling of microring resonators, but we present a new way of achieving the critical coupling based on architecture itself. Our approach has advantages of compact size and ease of fabrication with the current CMOS circuit.
In addition, we use the graphene-silicon waveguide for the phase control. Graphene is a single-sheet carbon atom in a hexagonal lattice [21]. Graphene has some potential properties for optical devices. Graphene is a 2-D single-layer carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice that has raised considerable interest in recent years due to its remarkable optical and electronic properties. For example, graphene has a much higher electron mobility than silicon [22, 23, 24]. In particular, it has a linear dispersion relationship in the so-called Dirac points where electrons behave as fermions with zero mass. As a result, we can design optical switches or modulators based on this property. Graphene can also absorb light over a broad-frequency range, so this enables high-speed applications. The density of states of carriers near the Dirac point is low, and the Fermi energy can be tuned significantly with relatively low applied voltage. The Fermi-level tuning changes the refractive index of the graphene. Therefore, the graphene sheet integrated with optical waveguide such as silicon on insulator (SOI) waveguide can provide the possibilities of programmable in optoelectronics.
2. Microring resonator based on multimode waveguides
2.1 Device structure
A new optical microring resonator based on only one multimode waveguide with four ports is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1.
Microring resonator based on only one multimode waveguide structure.
Figure 2(a) shows the single-mode waveguide profile. We use silicon on insulator waveguide with a width of 500 nm and height of 250 nm for input and output waveguides. For a multimode waveguide, we use a wider width of WMMI=6μm. The field profile of the fundamental mode of the SOI waveguide is shown in Figure 2(b). The refractive indices of silicon and silicon oxide used in our simulations are nSi=3.45, nSiO2=1.45. The field profiles of the fundamental mode and the first-order mode of the multimode waveguide are shown in Figure 2(c) and (d). In this structure, we use a bent waveguide to connect input port 3 to port 4 as a ring resonator waveguide. Because port 3 is very near to port 4, the bent waveguide radius is relatively small. Therefore, our structure can provide a very high free spectral range (FSR), which is suitable for high-speed communications.
Figure 2.
(a) SOI waveguide structure, (b) field profile of the single-mode SOI waveguide, (c) fundamental mode of the multimode waveguide, and (d) the first-order mode of the multimode waveguide.
In the next section, we show that our structure can act like a microring resonator. In order to control the critical coupling, we use graphene integrated with silicon waveguide. Graphene can be incorporated into silicon to implement graphene-silicon waveguide. The length of the graphene waveguide is Larm. The cross-section view of the graphene-silicon waveguide is shown in Figure 3(a). The GSW has a monolayer graphene sheet of 340 nm on top of a silicon waveguide, separated from it by a thin Al2O3 layer. Graphene, Al2O3, and silicon together formed a capacitor structure, which was the basic block of the graphene modulator and phase shifter [25]. The refractive index of Al2O3 used in our simulations is 1.6 at the operating wavelength of 1550 nm.
Figure 3.
(a) Graphene-silicon waveguide structure and (b) field profile with a chemical potential of μc=0.45eV.
For example, the field profile of the waveguide with a chemical potential μc=0.45eV is shown in Figure 3(b).
In a multimode waveguide, the information of the image position in the x direction and phases of the output images is very important. We need to know where the multi-images appear in order to design output waveguides to capture the optical output. Furthermore, phase information of the spot images or output images is important for such devices as MMI switch. It can be shown that the field in the multimode region will be of the form [12]
fxLMMI=1N∑p=0N−1finx−xpexp−jφpE1
where xp=b2p−NWMMIN,φp=bN−ppπN; finx describes the field profile at the input of the multimode region; xp and φp describe the positions and phases, respectively, of N self-images at that output of the multimode waveguide; p denotes the output image number; and b describes a multiple of the imaging length. For short device, we choose b = 1.
Consider a 4 × 4 multimode waveguide with the length of L=LMMI=3Lπ2, where Lπ=πβ0−β1 is the beat length of the MMI and β0,β1 are the propagation constants of the fundamental and first-order modes supported by the multimode waveguide with a width of WMMI. The phases associated with the images from input i to output j can be presented by
φij=−π2−1i+j+4+π16i+j−i2−j2+−1i+j+42ij−i−j+12E2
We showed that the characteristics of an MMI device can be described by a transfer matrix [2]. This transfer matrix is a very useful tool for analyzing cascaded MMI structures. Phase ϕij is associated with imaging an input i to an output j in an MMI coupler. These phases ϕij form a matrix S4x4, with i representing the row number and j representing the column number. A single 4 × 4 MMI coupler at a length of LMMI=3Lπ2 is described by the following transfer matrix [26, 27]:
S4x4=121−j001+j01−j1+j001+j1−j01+j001−jE3
The output and input amplitudes at four ports of the 4 × 4 multimode waveguide can be expressed by
where Ein,i (i = 1, 2, 3, 4) and Eout,j (j = 1, 2, 3, 4) are complex amplitudes at input ports and output ports 1–4, respectively. From Eqs. (3) and (4), we can calculate the relations ships between the input and output amplitudes of Figure 1 as follow:
Ein,1Ein,4=MEin,2Ein,3=ejΔφ2τκκ∗−τ∗Ein,2Ein,3E5
where τ=cosΔφ2,andκ=sinΔφ2, Δφis the phase difference between the graphene-silicon waveguide with the length of Larm and the silicon on insulator waveguide and can be calculated by [28]
Δφ=2πλΔneffLarmE6
The phase difference Δφ can be controlled by applying a voltage Vg to the graphene sheet. The field propagation of the multimode waveguide for input ports 1 and 2 is shown in Figure 4. The optimal length of the MMI is calculated by the 3D-BPM [29]. We show that the optimal length is found to be 214 μm.
Figure 4.
Field propagation of 4 × 4 MMI coupler: (a) field propagation, in 1, and (b) field propagation, in 2.
The light propagation through the resonator is characterized by a round-trip transmission Ein,3=αexpjθEin,4, where θ=2πλneffLR is the round-trip phase, α is the loss factor, neff is the effective refractive index of the SOI single-mode waveguide, and LR is the ring resonator circumference. The normalized transmitted power of the device can be calculated by
At resonance wavelengths when θ=2mπ,m=1,2,3,…, the normalized power transmission is
T=Ein,2Ein,12=α−cosΔφ/221−αcosΔφ/22E8
2.2 Graphene-silicon waveguide
The presence of the graphene layer changes the propagation characteristics of the guided modes, and these can be controlled and reconfigured, changing the chemical potential by means of applying a suitable voltage Vg. The real and image parts of the refractive index of graphene with different chemical potentials are shown in Figure 5 [30].
Figure 5.
Refractive index of graphene sheet.
Graphene has optical properties due to its band structure that provides both intraband and interband transitions. Both types of the transitions contribute to the material conductivity expressed by
σω=σintraω+σinterωE9
where σintraω and σinterω are the intraband and interband conductivities, which can be calculated by the Kubo’s theory:
σintraω=ie2πℏω+i2ΓμckBT+2lne−μc/kBT+1E10
σinterω=−ie24πℏln2μc−ω−2iΓℏ2μc+ω−2iΓℏE11
where e is electron charge, ℏ is the angular Planck constant, kB is the Boltzmann constant, T is the temperature, μc is the Fermi level or chemical potential, Γ=eVF2μμc is the electron collision rate, μ is electron mobility, and VF is the Fermi velocity in graphene.
The dielectric constant of a graphene layer can be calculated by [21, 22]
εgω=1+iσωωε0ΔE12
The refractive index of the graphene layer sheet can be changed by providing the applied voltage Vg to the graphene sheet. It is because it will change the value of the chemical potential:
μcVg=ℏVFπηVg−V0E13
where V0 is the offset voltage from zero caused by natural doping.
2.3 Critical coupling control
It is shown that the normalized transmission T through the device can be switched from unity to zero at the condition of critical coupling, given by α=τ. The control of the phase shift Δφ, so the condition of the critical coupling is met, can be achieved through applying voltage to the graphene sheet. The effective index of the graphene-silicon waveguide calculated at different chemical potentials by FDM method is shown in Figure 6. We see that for low-loss waveguide, the chemical potential should be larger than μc=0.4eV. By changing the chemical potential, the transmission and coupling coefficients τ,κ can be changed as shown in Figure 7. The simulations show that we can get full control of the coupling coefficient from zero to unity by changing the chemical potential from μc=0.4eV to μc=0.58eV.
Figure 6.
Effective refractive index of the GSW waveguide.
Figure 7.
Transmission and coupling coefficients of the resonator with different chemical potentials.
The transmissions of the device at different chemical potentials and loss factors are shown in Figure 8. The simulations have two very important features which are the key for most of the proposed applications: (1) The transmitted power is zero at a value of critical coupling, and (2) for high-quality factor, the portion of the curve to the right of the critical coupling point is steep. Small changes of the phase shifter can control the transmitted power and switch between unity and zero [17]. This chapter shows that we can achieve high-speed devices based on our proposed microring resonator.
Figure 8.
Transmissions of the microring resonator with different chemical potential and loss factor.
Some other performance parameters of the microring resonator are finesse, Q-factor, resonance width, and bandwidth. These are all terms that are mainly related to the full width at half of the maximum (FWHM) of the transmission. The quality factor Q of the microring resonator of the structure in Figure 1 can be derived as [3]
Q=πNgLRλατ1−ατE14
Another important parameter for microring resonators is the finesse F, which is defined and calculated for the single- and add-drop microring resonators by
F=FSRΔλFWHM=πατ1−ατE15
where ΔλFWHM is the resonance full width at half maximum and FSR is the free spectral range. The free spectral range is the distance between two peaks on a wavelength scale. By differentiating the equation φ=βLR, we get FSR=λ2ngL, where the group index ng=neff−λdneffdλ.
Figure 9 shows the finesse and quality factor with different chemical potential at a radius of 5μm. We see that a maximum finesse and quality factor can be achieved at a chemical potential of μc=0.57eV.
Figure 9.
Finesse and quality factor at different chemical potentials.
The normalized transmissions of the propose microring resonator in Figure 1 at microring radii of 5μm and 50μm are shown in Figure 10. Here we assume that the chemical potential is μc=0.45eV. The simulations show that the exact characteristics of a single microring resonator can be achieved.
Figure 10.
Transmissions of the microring resonator with two microring radii of 5μm and 50μm.
Finally, we use FDTD method to simulate the proposed microring resonator based on multimode waveguide. In our FDTD simulations, we take into account the wavelength dispersion of the silicon waveguide. A light pulse of 15 fs pulse width is launched from the input to investigate the transmission characteristics of the device. The grid sizes Δx = Δy = Δz = 20 nm are chosen in our simulations for accurate simulations [31]. The FDTD simulations for the proposed microring resonator with chemical potential of 0.45 and 0.42 eV are shown in Figure 11(a) and (b). The simulations show that the device operation has a good agreement with our prediction by analytical theory.
Figure 11.
Optical field propagation through the coupler for input signal presented at (a) port 1 and (b) port 2.
3. Conclusions
We presented a new microring resonator based on only one multimode waveguide. The critical control of the microring resonator can be achieved by using graphene-silicon waveguide. The proposed device has all characteristics of a traditional microring resonator. Some important parameters of the proposed device such as finesse, quality factor, etc. are also presented in this chapter. The device operation has been verified by using the FDTD. This microring resonator structure is very compact and can be useful for further applications in optical switching, filtering, and sensing.
Acknowledgments
This research is funded by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Vietnam under the project BĐKH.30/16-20.
\n',keywords:"multimode interference (MMI), silicon on insulator, multimode waveguide, directional coupler, finite difference time difference (FDTD), finite difference method (FDM), microring resonators (MRRs), graphene",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71933.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71933.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71933",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71933",totalDownloads:608,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:48,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 20th 2020",dateReviewed:"March 20th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 1st 2020",datePublished:"October 21st 2020",dateFinished:"April 25th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"We present a new approach for designing a compact microring resonator structure based on only one multimode waveguide, which can provide a very high free spectral range (FSR) and capability of controlling the critical coupling. The silicon on insulator (SOI) waveguide and graphene-silicon waveguide (GSW) are used for the proposed structure. By changing the applied voltage on the graphene sheet, we can achieve a full control of the critical coupling. Some important properties of the proposed microring resonator such as free spectral range and quality factor are analyzed. We show that our structure can provide all characteristics of a single microring resonator with universal applications such as optical switching, modulating, filtering and signal processing, etc.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71933",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71933",book:{id:"10093",slug:"electromagnetic-propagation-and-waveguides-in-photonics-and-microwave-engineering"},signatures:"Trung-Thanh Le and Duy-Tien Le",authors:[{id:"223579",title:"Prof.",name:"Trung-Thanh",middleName:null,surname:"Le",fullName:"Trung-Thanh Le",slug:"trung-thanh-le",email:"thanh.le@isvnu.vn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Vietnam National University, Hanoi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Vietnam"}}},{id:"240025",title:"Dr.",name:"Duy-Tien",middleName:null,surname:"Le",fullName:"Duy-Tien Le",slug:"duy-tien-le",email:"thanhvn_au@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Microring resonator based on multimode waveguides",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Device structure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Graphene-silicon waveguide",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Critical coupling control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Le T-T. Two-channel highly sensitive sensors based on 4 × 4 multimode interference couplers. Photonic Sensors. 2017;20:1-8. DOI: 10.1007/s13320-017-0441-1'},{id:"B2",body:'Le T-T. Multimode Interference Structures for Photonic Signal Processing. Denmark: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing; 2010'},{id:"B3",body:'Chremmos I, Schwelb O, Uzunoglu N, editors. Photonic Microresonator Research and Applications. New York: Springer; 2010'},{id:"B4",body:'Le D-T, Le T-T. Fano resonance and EIT-like effect based on 4x4 multimode interference structures. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research. 2017;12(13):3784-3788'},{id:"B5",body:'Yariv A. Universal relations for coupling of optical power between microresonators and dielectric waveguides. Electronics Letters. 2000;36:321-322'},{id:"B6",body:'Vlasov Y, McNab S. Losses in single-mode silicon-on-insulator strip waveguides and bends. Optics Express. 2004;12:1622-1631'},{id:"B7",body:'Xu DX, Densmore A, Waldron P, Lapointe J, Post E, Delâge A. High bandwidth SOI photonic wire ring resonators using MMI coupler. Optics Express. 2007;15:3149-3155'},{id:"B8",body:'Cahill L, Le T. The design of signal processing devices employing SOI MMI couplers. In: Proceedings of the SPIE of Paper 7220–2, Integrated Optoelectronic Devices (OPTO 2009), Photonics West. San Jose, California, USA: San Jose Convention Center; 2009. pp. 24-29'},{id:"B9",body:'Cahill LW, Le TT. MMI devices for photonic signal processing. In: 9th International Conference on Transparent Optical Networks (ICTON 2007). Rome, Italy; 2007. pp. 202-205'},{id:"B10",body:'Le TT, Cahill LW. Microresonators based on 3x3 restricted interference MMI couplers on an SOI platform. In: The IEEE LEOS Conference, 2009 (LEOS ’09), Belek-Antalya. Turkey; 2009. pp. 479-480'},{id:"B11",body:'Soldano LB. Multimode interference couplers [PhD Thesis]. Delft, the Netherlands: Delft University of Technology; 1994'},{id:"B12",body:'Bachmann M, Besse PA, Melchior H. General self-imaging properties in N x N multimode interference couplers including phase relations. Applied Optics. 1994;33(18):3905-3911'},{id:"B13",body:'Le T-T. Microring resonator based on 3x3 general multimode interference structures using silicon waveguides for highly sensitive sensing and optical communication applications. International Journal of Applied Sciences and Engineering. 2013;11:31-39'},{id:"B14",body:'Le T-T, Cahill L. Generation of two Fano resonances using 4x4 multimode interference structures on silicon waveguides. Optics Communications. 2013;301-302:100-105'},{id:"B15",body:'Le D-T, Do T-D, Nguyen V-K, Nguyen A-T, Le T-T. Sharp asymmetric resonance based on 4x4 multimode interference coupler. International Journal of Applied Engineering Research. 2017;12(10):2239-2242'},{id:"B16",body:'Choi JM, Lee RK, Yariv A. Control of critical coupling in a ring resonator–fiber configuration: Application to wavelength-selective switching, modulation, amplification, and oscillation. Optics Letters. 2001;26:1236-1238'},{id:"B17",body:'Yariv A. Critical coupling and its control in optical waveguide-ring resonator systems. IEEE Photonics Technology Letters. 2002;14:483-485'},{id:"B18",body:'Le T-T. Control of critical coupling in 3x3 mmi couplers based on optical microring resonators and applications to selective wavelength switching, modulation, amplification and oscillation. Journal of Science and Technology. 2017;6:24-28'},{id:"B19",body:'Steglich P, Mai C, Villringer C, Pulwer S, Casalboni M, Schrader S, et al. Quadratic electro-optic effect in silicon-organic hybrid slot-waveguides. Optics Letters. 2018;43:3598-3601'},{id:"B20",body:'Abel S, Eltes F, Ortmann JE, Messner A, Castera P, Wagner T, et al. Large Pockels effect in micro- and nanostructured barium titanate integrated on silicon. Nature Materials. 2019;18:42-47'},{id:"B21",body:'Hanson GW. Dyadic Green’s functions and guided surface waves for a surface conductivity model of graphene. Journal of Applied Physics. 2008;103:064302'},{id:"B22",body:'Capmany J, Domenech D, Muñoz P. Silicon graphene Bragg gratings. Optics Express. 2014;22:5283-5290'},{id:"B23",body:'Midrio M, Galli P, Romagnoli M, Kimerling LC, Michel J. Graphene-based optical phase modulation of waveguide transverse electric modes. Photonics Research. 2014;2:A34-A40'},{id:"B24",body:'Xing P, Ooi KJA, Tan DTH. Ultra-broadband and compact graphene-on-silicon integrated waveguide mode filters. Scientific Reports. 2018;8:9874'},{id:"B25",body:'Bao Q. 2D Materials for Photonic and Optoelectronic Applications. United Kingdom: Woodhead Publishing; 2019'},{id:"B26",body:'Le T-T. Two-channel highly sensitive sensors based on 4 × 4 multimode interference couplers. Photonic Sensors. 2017;7:357-364'},{id:"B27",body:'Le T-T, Cahill L. The design of 4×4 multimode interference coupler based microring resonators on an SOI platform. Journal of Telecommunications and Information Technology. 2009;2:98-102'},{id:"B28",body:'Petrone G, Cammarata G. Modelling and Simulation. UK: InTech Publisher; 2008'},{id:"B29",body:'Le T-T. An improved effective index method for planar multimode waveguide design on an silicon-on-insulator (SOI) platform. Optica Applicata. 2013;43:271-277'},{id:"B30",body:'Amin R, Ma Z, Maiti R, Khan S, Khurgin JB, Dalir H, et al. Attojoule-efficient graphene optical modulators. Applied Optics. 2018;57:D130-D140'},{id:"B31",body:'Rumley S, Bahadori M, Polster R, Hammond SD, Calhoun DM, Wen K, et al. Optical interconnects for extreme scale computing systems. Parallel Computing. 2017;64:65-80'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Trung-Thanh Le",address:"thanh.le@vnu.edu.vn",affiliation:'
International School (VNU-IS), Vietnam National University (VNU), Hanoi, Vietnam
International School (VNU-IS), Vietnam National University (VNU), Hanoi, Vietnam
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10093",type:"book",title:"Electromagnetic Propagation and Waveguides in Photonics and Microwave Engineering",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Propagation and Waveguides in Photonics and Microwave Engineering",slug:"electromagnetic-propagation-and-waveguides-in-photonics-and-microwave-engineering",publishedDate:"October 21st 2020",bookSignature:"Patrick Steglich",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10093.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-189-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-188-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-190-5",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",numberOfWosCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"223128",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Steglich",slug:"patrick-steglich",fullName:"Patrick Steglich"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"737"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"73022",type:"chapter",title:"Introductory Chapter: Electromagnetic Propagation and Waveguides in Photonics and Microwave Engineering",slug:"introductory-chapter-electromagnetic-propagation-and-waveguides-in-photonics-and-microwave-engineeri",totalDownloads:337,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Patrick Steglich",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"223128",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Steglich",fullName:"Patrick Steglich",slug:"patrick-steglich"}]},{id:"73249",type:"chapter",title:"The Antiresonant Reflecting Optical Waveguide Fiber Sensor",slug:"the-antiresonant-reflecting-optical-waveguide-fiber-sensor",totalDownloads:709,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Ran Gao and Jiansen Ye",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"319332",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiansen",middleName:null,surname:"Ye",fullName:"Jiansen Ye",slug:"jiansen-ye"},{id:"355616",title:"Prof.",name:"Ran",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",fullName:"Ran Gao",slug:"ran-gao"}]},{id:"71685",type:"chapter",title:"Optical Waveguides Based on Sol-Gel Coatings",slug:"optical-waveguides-based-on-sol-gel-coatings",totalDownloads:590,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Helena Cristina Vasconcelos",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"93646",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",middleName:"Cristina",surname:"Cristina Vasconcelos",fullName:"Helena Cristina Vasconcelos",slug:"helena-cristina-vasconcelos"}]},{id:"71933",type:"chapter",title:"High FSR and Critical Coupling Control of Microring Resonator Based on Graphene-Silicon Multimode Waveguides",slug:"high-fsr-and-critical-coupling-control-of-microring-resonator-based-on-graphene-silicon-multimode-wa",totalDownloads:608,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Trung-Thanh Le and Duy-Tien Le",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"223579",title:"Prof.",name:"Trung-Thanh",middleName:null,surname:"Le",fullName:"Trung-Thanh Le",slug:"trung-thanh-le"},{id:"240025",title:"Dr.",name:"Duy-Tien",middleName:null,surname:"Le",fullName:"Duy-Tien Le",slug:"duy-tien-le"}]},{id:"71408",type:"chapter",title:"Rigorous Analysis of the Propagation in Metallic Circular Waveguide with Discontinuities Filled with Anisotropic Metamaterial",slug:"rigorous-analysis-of-the-propagation-in-metallic-circular-waveguide-with-discontinuities-filled-with",totalDownloads:615,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Hedi Sakli and Wyssem Fathallah",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"315445",title:"Dr.",name:"Hedi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakli",fullName:"Hedi Sakli",slug:"hedi-sakli"},{id:"315446",title:"Dr.",name:"Wyssem",middleName:null,surname:"Fathallah",fullName:"Wyssem Fathallah",slug:"wyssem-fathallah"}]},{id:"72088",type:"chapter",title:"Long-Distance and Low-Radiation Waveguide Antennas for Wireless Communication Systems inside Tunnels",slug:"long-distance-and-low-radiation-waveguide-antennas-for-wireless-communication-systems-inside-tunnels",totalDownloads:563,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Shotaro Ishino, Satoshi Denno, Narumi Yashiro and Seiichi Suzuki",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"209476",title:"Mr.",name:"Shotaro",middleName:null,surname:"Ishino",fullName:"Shotaro Ishino",slug:"shotaro-ishino"},{id:"320213",title:"Mr.",name:"Satoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Denno",fullName:"Satoshi Denno",slug:"satoshi-denno"},{id:"320214",title:"Mr.",name:"Narumi",middleName:null,surname:"Yashiro",fullName:"Narumi Yashiro",slug:"narumi-yashiro"},{id:"320236",title:"Mr.",name:"Seiichi",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",fullName:"Seiichi Suzuki",slug:"seiichi-suzuki"}]},{id:"68652",type:"chapter",title:"Study of Refraction Effects for Propagation over Terrain",slug:"study-of-refraction-effects-for-propagation-over-terrain",totalDownloads:663,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Vladimir Schejbal, Ondrej Fiser and Vadim Zavodny",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"301637",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Schejbal",fullName:"Vladimir Schejbal",slug:"vladimir-schejbal"},{id:"301645",title:"Dr.",name:"Ondrej",middleName:null,surname:"Fiser",fullName:"Ondrej Fiser",slug:"ondrej-fiser"},{id:"301646",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadim",middleName:null,surname:"Zavodny",fullName:"Vadim Zavodny",slug:"vadim-zavodny"}]},{id:"71068",type:"chapter",title:"Mode Interferences of VLF Waves in the Presence of an Anisotropic Terrestrial Waveguide",slug:"mode-interferences-of-vlf-waves-in-the-presence-of-an-anisotropic-terrestrial-waveguide",totalDownloads:639,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ting Ting Gu and Hong Lei Xu",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"311601",title:"Dr.",name:"Hong Lei",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Hong Lei Xu",slug:"hong-lei-xu"},{id:"311617",title:"Dr.",name:"Ting Ting",middleName:null,surname:"Gu",fullName:"Ting Ting Gu",slug:"ting-ting-gu"},{id:"411418",title:"Dr.",name:"Kai",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Kai Li",slug:"kai-li"}]},{id:"72815",type:"chapter",title:"Radiation Fluxes Waveguide-Resonance Phenomenon Discovered in Result of X-Ray Nanosize Beam Formation Study",slug:"radiation-fluxes-waveguide-resonance-phenomenon-discovered-in-result-of-x-ray-nanosize-beam-formatio",totalDownloads:395,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Egorov Evgenii Vladimirovich and Egorov Vladimir Konstantinovich",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"232472",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Egorov",fullName:"Vladimir Egorov",slug:"vladimir-egorov"},{id:"247324",title:"Mr.",name:"Evgeniy",middleName:null,surname:"Egorov",fullName:"Evgeniy Egorov",slug:"evgeniy-egorov"}]},{id:"71813",type:"chapter",title:"Characteristics of Radiation of a round Waveguide through a Flat Homogeneous Heat Shield",slug:"characteristics-of-radiation-of-a-round-waveguide-through-a-flat-homogeneous-heat-shield",totalDownloads:515,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Viktor F. Mikhailov",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",authors:[{id:"316078",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Mikhailov",fullName:"Victor Mikhailov",slug:"victor-mikhailov"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7294",title:"Fiber Optics",subtitle:"From Fundamentals to Industrial Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0323a38fa4ac1a4f7e90c886ee28e6fe",slug:"fiber-optics-from-fundamentals-to-industrial-applications",bookSignature:"Patrick Steglich and Fabio De Matteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7294.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"223128",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Steglich",slug:"patrick-steglich",fullName:"Patrick Steglich"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"66269",title:"Introductory Chapter: Fiber Optics",slug:"introductory-chapter-fiber-optics",signatures:"Patrick Steglich and Fabio De Matteis",authors:[{id:"223128",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",middleName:null,surname:"Steglich",fullName:"Patrick Steglich",slug:"patrick-steglich"},{id:"266147",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Matteis",fullName:"Fabio De Matteis",slug:"fabio-de-matteis"}]},{id:"63853",title:"Optical Fiber Probe-Based Manipulation of Cells",slug:"optical-fiber-probe-based-manipulation-of-cells",signatures:"Xiaoshuai Liu and Yao Zhang",authors:[{id:"264018",title:"Prof.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Yao Zhang",slug:"yao-zhang"},{id:"264019",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaoshuai",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Xiaoshuai Liu",slug:"xiaoshuai-liu"}]},{id:"67332",title:"Structured Light Fields in Optical Fibers",slug:"structured-light-fields-in-optical-fibers",signatures:"Monika Bahl",authors:[{id:"269741",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:null,surname:"Bahl",fullName:"Monika Bahl",slug:"monika-bahl"}]},{id:"63766",title:"Cavity Generation Modeling of Fiber Fuse in Single-Mode Optical Fibers",slug:"cavity-generation-modeling-of-fiber-fuse-in-single-mode-optical-fibers",signatures:"Yoshito Shuto",authors:[{id:"171589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshito",middleName:null,surname:"Shuto",fullName:"Yoshito Shuto",slug:"yoshito-shuto"}]},{id:"65102",title:"Delta-Sigma Digitization and Optical Coherent Transmission of DOCSIS 3.1 Signals in Hybrid Fiber Coax Networks",slug:"delta-sigma-digitization-and-optical-coherent-transmission-of-docsis-3-1-signals-in-hybrid-fiber-coa",signatures:"Jing Wang, Zhensheng Jia, Luis Alberto Campos and Curtis Knittle",authors:[{id:"105348",title:"Dr.",name:"Jing",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Jing Wang",slug:"jing-wang"},{id:"279684",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhensheng",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Zhensheng Jia",slug:"zhensheng-jia"},{id:"279685",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",fullName:"Alberto Campos",slug:"alberto-campos"},{id:"279686",title:"Dr.",name:"Curtis",middleName:null,surname:"Knittle",fullName:"Curtis Knittle",slug:"curtis-knittle"}]}]}],publishedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"166",title:"Electromagnetic Waves",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6561a39a2e8aaffc6cde23ecd65cdfde",slug:"electromagnetic-waves",bookSignature:"Vitaliy Zhurbenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3721",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitaliy",surname:"Zhurbenko",slug:"vitaliy-zhurbenko",fullName:"Vitaliy Zhurbenko"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"415",title:"Behaviour of Electromagnetic Waves in Different Media and Structures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8496cd6f3c63a2b4d0b69076ec095343",slug:"behavior-of-electromagnetic-waves-in-different-media-and-structures",bookSignature:"Ali Akdagli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76005",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Akdagli",slug:"ali-akdagli",fullName:"Ali Akdagli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2431",title:"Dielectric Material",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"70942e6b7ab8fb1bfa75537709d3910d",slug:"dielectric-material",bookSignature:"Marius Alexandru Silaghi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2431.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"128198",title:"Dr.",name:"Marius Alexandru",surname:"Silaghi",slug:"marius-alexandru-silaghi",fullName:"Marius Alexandru Silaghi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3706",title:"Wave Propagation in Materials for Modern Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"wave-propagation-in-materials-for-modern-applications",bookSignature:"Andrey Petrin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3706.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7760",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Petrin",slug:"andrey-petrin",fullName:"Andrey Petrin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7617",title:"Electromagnetic Fields and Waves",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d87c09ddaa95c04479ffa2579e9f16d2",slug:"electromagnetic-fields-and-waves",bookSignature:"Kim Ho Yeap and Kazuhiro Hirasawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7617.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"126825",title:"Dr.",name:"Kim Ho",surname:"Yeap",slug:"kim-ho-yeap",fullName:"Kim Ho Yeap"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],publishedBooksByAuthor:[{type:"book",id:"6608",title:"Applications of Silicon Photonics in Sensors and Waveguides",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc52ff67c98658891744fe212c1cc8c1",slug:"applications-of-silicon-photonics-in-sensors-and-waveguides",bookSignature:"Lakshmi Narayana Deepak Kallepalli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6608.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"147425",title:"Dr.",name:"Lakshmi Narayana Deepak",surname:"Kallepalli",slug:"lakshmi-narayana-deepak-kallepalli",fullName:"Lakshmi Narayana Deepak Kallepalli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6515",title:"Emerging Waveguide Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12ab2b13b1ca330409dc239647a53895",slug:"emerging-waveguide-technology",bookSignature:"Kok Yeow You",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6515.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"188673",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok Yeow",surname:"You",slug:"kok-yeow-you",fullName:"Kok Yeow You"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"78540",title:"The Incidence of Ovulation and Detection of Genes Associated with Ovulation and Twinning Rates in Livestock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99936",slug:"the-incidence-of-ovulation-and-detection-of-genes-associated-with-ovulation-and-twinning-rates-in-li",body:'
1. Introduction
Complex traits are typically influenced by multiple genes by their combined contributions and modifications of environmental factors. However, a few genes or loci account for most variation between individuals for any given domesticated species. Researchers develop various methods, such as marker-assisted selection (MAS), to improve production and reproduction, and performance traits because of their economic significance in dairy and beef cattle over the last 50 years. This chapter presents issues about the major traits with economic values for the genetic improvement of livestock reproduction. It also covers aspects from basic information about physiological mechanisms of ovarian follicular development in ruminants to incidence of multiple ovulations to the fundamental studies of ovulation rate in model species to all aspects of ovulation rates and genetic studies to identify quantitative trait loci or causative mutations affecting ovulation rates and more explicitly twinning rates in bovine species.
2. The overview of ovulation induction
Ovulation is the release of a fertilization-competent oocyte (mature female germ cells) from the ovary into the fallopian tubes in the female abdominal cavity where male sperm cells fertilize; thus, it is an essential and sophisticated biological process for sexual reproduction. Ovulation is an ovarian response that is initiated due to the surge of luteinizing hormone (LH) through the anterior pituitary gland. Thus LH surge triggers ovulation and estrus [1, 2] and the development of the corpus luteum, which initiates a series of ovarian activities in females. It works with the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which plays a fundamental role in regulating for development of ovarian follicles as well as selection. It also stimulates granulosa cell differentiation, regulating gonadal functions, including steroidogenesis [3, 4]. LH, along with FSH, are considered gonadotrophic hormones because of their role in controlling the function of the ovaries in the development of preovulatory follicles to stimulate certain molecular events. This complex spectrum of events includes various types of ovarian cells, the activation of various signaling pathways, and the controlled expression of specific genes affecting the overall mechanism. LH and FSH levels are regulated and highly dependent on the pattern of release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus [5, 6].
Up to the last decade, a significant focus on ovulation and related features has been the association analysis of known candidate genes. The entire process of ovulation varies in mammals, following where they can be spontaneous or induced manners [7]. Spontaneous ovulation is the ovulation process in which females exhibit a constant cycle of reproductive hormones and does not require to be aroused in any way through a male to generate a preovulatory LH surge associated with reproduction. Species that are naturally ovulating through estrous produce mature ova through a process necessary for fertilization to occur. The females are ovulating spontaneously include mice, rats, domestic dogs, sheep, goats, horses, pigs, monkeys, and humans [8, 9]. The entire cycling process of ovulation varies among species. For example, while humans and primates experience monthly menstruation processes, all other animal species ovulate through various other ovulatory mechanisms [10].
Whereas female who displays mating-induced ovulation will have spontaneous development of follicles to maturation due to some component of coitus that is an externally-derived and receipt of genital stimulation during, or just before mating. Therefore, despite exhibiting high estradiol levels resulting from follicular maturation, they do not ovulate because they entail priming of males resulting in a long mating cycle to ensure successful fertilization [11].
Often, steroid-induced LH surges are not seen in ovulation types induced during reproductive periods, indicating insufficient or reduced secretion level of GnRH due to lack of positive feedback from estrogen and progestin hormones upon gonadotropin secretion. However, paradoxically, some natural ovulating species may undergo an occasionally induced preovulatory LH surge due to mating. Species in which females are triggered in induced ovulation include rabbits, domestic cats, ferrets, and camels [8].
Reproduction is a highly dynamic process and has significant consequences on livestock profitability. Reproductive success is conditioned by fertility, productivity, and fecundity. In particular, there are several minor genes and some major genes, which are fecundity related genes (Fec) that significantly affect reproductive traits, like ovulation rate, prolificacy, and litter size genetically [12].
Livestock species are mainly classified either as monotocous species, like cattle, water buffaloes, and horses, or multiparous species, like goat, sheep, and pig based on ovulation rate depending on the characteristic of a species [13].
Biological factors for the consistent multiple ovulations and how to improve or control the ovulation rate in other single-ovulating species in livestock have been of interest to some researchers to understand and intervene in the process of follicular development by applying assisted reproductive technologies. Therefore, identifying various experimental animal models with multiple ovulation rates could efficiently enhance the selection response in farm animals.
Specifically, the reproduction process is primarily influenced by genetic and environmental factors for a transformation from primordial follicle to mature ovulatory stage and typically has low to medium inheritance; thus, traditional phenotype-based selection methods are often time-consuming processes due to a lack of efficiency.
It is more effective to select breeding animals based on their genotypic structure to increase ovulation rate, prolificacy, and litter size as reproductive abilities in livestock species. Eventually, selecting animals based upon highly polymorphic marker information for reproduction efficiency (MAS) will be of great importance for future breeding programs in the livestock production system.
3. The use of molecular genetic markers and techniques to improve reproductive performance in livestock
Genetic improvement of reproductive efficiency is one of the most effective strategies available to improve the performance of farm animals. Especially in the last 50 years, selection program based on classical or molecular genetic principles has led to significant positive changes in dairy and beef cattle [14]. Reproductive efficiency is influenced mainly by environmental factors such as dietary regimen, animal health and management, and their interactions, as well as by many genes in dairy animals. Reproductive traits generally have low-to-moderate heritability and do not show excellent progression to phenotype-dependent selection by classic selection methods. Therefore, determining the genes that affect the reproductive ability and including them in the selection program is one of the crucial arguments in increasing the efficiency and success of the selection process.
Genetic markers of follicle number in cattle ovaries can identify heifers that will become highly fertile cows because genes play an active role not only in the physical structure of an organism but also in its functioning. Therefore, analysis of the farm animal genomes will enable us to identify putative genes that are supposed to affect fertility and cow productivity, which are economically important traits in livestock, as the ultimate goal. Specific chromosomal regions, which contribute to complex traits, are called quantitative trait loci (QTL). Several studies were conducted to identify genetic variation in quantitative traits in livestock and laboratory species since the genetic variation is an essential part of breeding programs. A possibility of detecting loci that affect quantitative traits using genetic markers has been realized since Sax’s study with beans, which utilized seed-coat characters as markers due to the relationship with seed size in 1923 [15].
Selecting desirable alleles at particular loci based on marker information will increase the selection response for the next generation. Short sequences of DNA, called genetic markers, are specific DNA regions in the animal genome that indicate variation within the population. These polymorphic regions can be positively or negatively associated with particular reproductive traits of interest. One of the main tools for genetic improvement is the wide usage of molecular markers such as microsatellites, minisatellites, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) using different methods such as PCR-RFLP, SSCP, SSR, qRT-PCR, and whole-genome analysis or the next-generation sequencing [16].
Especially microsatellite markers are not only highly polymorphic but also reasonably abundant throughout the genome [17]. The relationship between marker alleles and phenotypic observations on the trait is used widely in linkage analysis to map a segregating QTL in a population. The presence of highly polymorphic DNA markers in genetic maps in various farm animals and their relationship to phenotypes provide an effective tool for QTL affecting traits. However, identifying markers closely linked to the target region and determining the association between marker allele and QTL allele, which control the quantitative traits, are rather complex processes. A high-resolution marker map and precisely recorded phenotypic values are needed to determine the linkage between marker loci and QTL with low to moderate effect controlling the traits like reproductive performance [18]. Therefore, the QTL region affecting mainly low-moderate heritable traits is detected to find molecular markers that can be applied in the MAS system, enhancing the genetic gain for the reproductive trait of interest.
Several reproductive traits have been associated with fertility in dairy cattle, including age at puberty, early ovulation, size of ovulatory follicles, multiple ovulation, ovarian cystic structure, embryo survival, and heat detection [19, 20], which heritability rates are around 1–5% [21]. The prediction of these heritability ratios still notifies that there is a potential to make genetic progress selecting against reproductive traits in bovine. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are widely used powerful techniques to discover genetic variants strongly associated with various complex traits concerning any disease resistance, productive and reproductive abilities in different organisms over the last twenty years. For this purpose, chip-based microarray technology has been developed as a high processing platform to support GWAS analysis. GWAS is a technique that assays high-density SNP markers located throughout the genome to identify putative locations, either causative or in linkage with continuous phenotypic variation. The availability of millions of SNPs markers makes the system easily genotyping on throughput platforms by covering the whole genome [22]. Various GWAS studies have been carried out on livestock, especially in dairy cattle [23], beef cattle [24], water buffalo [25], pigs [26], sheep [27], and goat breeds [28]. However, the large number of potential genes identified by GWAS have not been fully validated yet. As the best-powered studies, they are combining researches of GWAS data and genomic selection (GS) with MAS in livestock species will precisely accelerate the accomplishment of analyzing massive genotypic data through millions of genetic markers which are collected from up to hundreds of thousands of phenotyped animals with diseases and traits of interest soon [29, 30]. In addition, other new technologies, including RNA-sequencing technology, to be implemented through the genome-wide sequencing of mRNAs in animal species can be widely applied in such studies over time [31]. In conclusion, it is expected that many more major genes, causative mutations, and even several genes with minor effects will be definitively identified shortly due to the drastic decrease in prices for SNP genotyping and DNA and mRNA sequencing with the substantial increase in livestock genomic studies.
4. Developmental stages of ovarian follicles
Folliculogenesis, the complex biological process of forming ovulatory follicles among the cohort of growing primordial follicles on the ovaries produced by female animals throughout their lifetimes, causes changes in ovarian morphological characteristics during the typical estrus cycle, an essential aspect of female reproduction [32]. Cattle are a monovular species that can produce several hundred thousand primordial follicles at the onset of puberty, depending on their physiological mechanism. However, practically less than 1% of these follicles will grow and be ovulatory in the late stages of development due to atresia. Selecting a single dominant follicle among many growing primordial follicles is an essential step in livestock reproductive technology. Therefore, any intervention or malfunction in this process can lead to infertility or multiple ovulation in females. The current follicle selection process focuses on the role of follicle growth and selection of the dominant follicle regulated by LH, FSH, and insulin-like growth factor family (IGF) hormone mechanisms [33].
Many studies on the growth stages and developmental processes of follicles in animals have also presented different models. As one of the most notable models, Rajakoski proposed the developmental stages of antral ovarian follicular growth in cattle occur in a wave-like pattern [34]. Many researchers reported that each cycle usually involves two or three waves. As a result of applying transrectal ultrasonography technology, the concept of follicular waves known to that day has been re-investigated and facilitated the understanding of the pattern of follicular waves during the estrus cycle [35, 36]. Therefore, ultrasonography technology has provided more detailed information about the follicular developmental stage and the follicular wave dynamics. In addition, monitoring the growth and development patterns of follicles has enabled us to make more detailed observations about follicle selection and understand how it relates to the endocrine secretion mechanism during the maturation of follicles [36, 37].
First, Pierson and Ginther observed individual follicular development during the cycle using this technology [37]. Later, various intensive studies were carried out to investigate these developmental stages of animal husbandry, especially in sheep and cattle breeds [38, 39]. The follicular wave pattern in ruminants is typically two or three follicular waves per cycle in cattle; incredibly primitive and very fertile dairy cows usually have two wave cycles, while nulliparous dairy heifers aged 2–2.5 years have three-wave cycles [40]. However, it is three to six waves per cycle in sheep [41]. Studies were proving that the developmental processes of follicles within a follicular wave are highly variable among waves. After puberty, all primordial follicles have an equal chance of becoming mature follicles. Primary follicular wave is characterized as the synchronous growth of a group of small antral follicles. One of them is eventually selected to be dominant and thereby becoming ovulatory among the group of follicles within each follicular wave. But all other remaining “subordinate” follicles of the ovulation wave will regress and degenerate during the typical estrus cycle [42, 43]. The dominant or mature follicle of the wave is typically the largest in diameter. Still, the subordinate follicles belong to the same group of follicles which the dominant follicle comes from [40].
Traditionally, in cattle, the day when a follicular wave can be first detected determines the day when the first observation of the dominant follicle can be made retrospectively [44]. A first dominant follicular wave emerges when the follicles are 4–5 mm in diameter at approximately the day of ovulation [42]. Subsequently, a second ovulatory wave can be detected about 9 or 10 days later [45]. The main event that causes single ovulation to occur in cattle is called follicle selection. Diameter deviation occurs approximately 2 to 3 days after the emergence of the follicular wave in the selection of follicles in the morphological process. Thus, while the future dominant follicle grows continuously, the growth rate of the lower follicles slows down, and then their growth is stopped entirely, and they undergo degeneration. Although this deviation varies among individual animals, it is widely accepted as it has been observed in this range in many studies using both Bos taurus and Bos indicus breeds [46, 47, 48]. However, the high progesterone concentration prevents the first dominant follicle from maturing, as the corpus luteum has not regressed yet. Thus, the first dominant follicle cannot be functional and ovulatory. Subsequently, a second ovulatory wave can be observed. The dominant follicle from this wave can keep on growing and ovulating during the corpora lutea (CL) regression. In addition, a third source of the ovulatory follicle becomes apparent on day 16 after ovulation in some cattle breeds due to the regression of the second dominant follicle during luteolysis. Even if each wave involves simultaneous emergence of a cohort of follicles, usually one of them, sometimes two, become dominant follicle(s), and all of the others eventually become subordinates. A single oocyte is released from the dominant follicle due to either naturally occurring or artificially induced ovulation. On the other hand, subordinate follicles begin to regress right after a short growing phase [44, 45].
It was noticed from individual to individual that the follicle size at ovulation was quite different. Dairy heifers showing two-wave cycles have a follicle at a diameter of 16.5 mm in ovulation. However, follicle size is smaller in heifers (13.9 mm) with three-wave cycles [44]. Similarly, the size of ovulation follicles has been reported as 14.8 mm in Holstein heifers. However, the follicle size observed for lactating dairy cows was slightly larger and was found to be 17.4 mm [49]. In many studies of follicular diameter deviation, both the future dominant follicle and the most significant lower follicle were more prominent in Bos taurus. However, diameter deviation occurred at similar times after wave emergence in Bos taurus and Bos indicus. Bos indicus has a smaller follicle size when the deviation in the follicle diameter cannot be fully revealed. Nevertheless, the results of the studies support the idea that the future dominant follicle generally has a size advantage over the largest subordinate one [46, 48, 50].
Reproductive biotechnology has recently emerged as a powerful tool to improve livestock productivity and reproductive performance. Therefore, these modern reproductive technologies have started to be used instead of conventional classical techniques in many reproductive-based studies recently. Progress in our understanding of follicle development and selection has sparked the development of synchronization protocols for fixed-time artificial insemination (AI), in addition to the applications of other cutting-edge reproductive technologies such as in-vitro fertilization (IVF), embryo culturing and transfer (ET), cloning, estrus synchronization, transgenesis, and much more new emerging reproductive biotechnologies [51, 52]. As a result, these developments in terms of sustainable livestock productivity are important for optimal follicle growth and making the right choices to increase reproductive efficiency in livestock species.
5. The incidence of multiple ovulations
Cattle are a uniparous species that means females usually produce only one progeny per conception due to the single dominant follicle in each ovulatory cycle. Alterations in follicle selection can lead to codominant follicles and multiple ovulations, which are the basis for multiple births in cattle and sheep [53]. In rare cases, the synchronous emergence of two follicles as a physiological pattern, albeit in a monovular type, is altered so that the follicle selection mechanism allows both to be selected as the dominant follicle among several follicles in the follicular wave. The ease of evaluating follicular events by trans-rectal ultrasonography and the accuracy of the data obtained from these studies have allowed cows to be widely used as an ideal research model in follicular studies in ruminants and humans [54, 55].
Ultimately two oocytes are released from codominant follicles at the end of ovulation due to either natural stimulation or artificial inducements. In the development of codominant follicles, deviations occur in the diameter of the follicles when the largest follicle and the second-largest follicle are close to 8.5 mm. The third-largest follicle has a low growth performance, and the deviation in 2nd largest follicle may occur 36–50 h after the deviation of the first follicle [56]. Ovulation of two future dominant follicles occurs either from the same ovary simultaneously, or each follicle consists of a separate ovary [57]. In a study, synchronous production of two oocytes from different follicles was observed due to the evidence of two corpus luteum (CL) on the ovaries of cattle [58]. Also, research about follicular development during the estrous cycle in twin-calving cows indicated that double and triple ovulations coincide from different ovulatory follicles of the same follicular wave rather than ovulation of single mature follicles from two consecutive waves [59]. In addition, the authors noted that the cysts in the ovary and lack of CL possibly increased the incidence of double ovulation during pregnancy [60]. Therefore, as more than one follicle deviates and becomes dominant, the chance will be increased for ovulation of more follicles simultaneously. After all, twins, triplets, or overall multiple births in rare circumstances will become a reality if all subsequent events commonly occur for both oocytes from fertilization to parturition.
The natural incidence of twin or triplets birth in cattle is mainly due to multiple ovulations that have been summarized in many studies, even if the results are inconsistent [61]. While the multiple births five decades ago is around 1–5% depending on breed, genetics, parity, and other environmental conditions [62], this rate has increased up to 10–22% in lactating dairy cows today. There have been many studies conducted about regulating multiple birth rates in cattle by selecting genetically favorable animals [63], utilizing hormonal treatments [64], or utilizing embryo transfer techniques [65]. One of the reasons affecting ovulation rates is low progesterone secretion in older cows, which might be the main reason for the increase in circulating LH level and eventually causes enhance ovulation numbers as progesterone has a suppressive effect on LH release. In addition, growth hormone and nutritional treatments greatly influence a multi-ovulation response of an individual [66]. Also, the ovulations of two follicles simultaneously caused to increase in days of milk among pregnant animals [60]. In a recent study, the incidence of multiple ovulation rates in early lactating animals was 14.1%, but they did not significantly affect various reproductive outcomes of cattle [67]. Although the underlying mechanisms of multiple ovulation have been studied extensively, the dynamics of the entire mechanism are still not fully explained.
Monozygotic twins are genetically and physically identical since they are formed from one fertilized egg, splitting into two identical halves during early embryonic developmental stages. Thereby both individuals are always the same sex. In the case of dizygotic or fraternal twins, two different sperm fertilize two completely different ova simultaneously. Thus the successful result of ovulation and fertilization of two oocytes will be dizygotic twins. Dizygotic twins are not identical genetically or phenotypically as monozygotic twins are. They are not necessarily the same sex as opposed to monozygotic twins. They can also be similar or different from siblings born from the same parents during different gestations [68].
Twin or triplets birth is an unavoidable issue in dairy and beef cattle production systems which negatively affects the health, production, reproduction and overall decreases the productive life span of animals [69]. The study reports that the calf survival incidence from twin- and triplet-producing animals were relatively low, around 44% depending on the breed composition [70]. In a recent study of the economic analysis of multiple births, the economic loss to the livestock breeder from each twin calving was estimated at between $59 and $161 in cow-calf production systems [71], even if twin calving could reduce substantially beef meat production costs owing to more calf growth at weaning [69]. Thus twin or triplet calving causes to lessen overall cow reproductive efficiency, productivity, and thus the profitability of enterprises. In conclusion, a complete understanding of the complex process of follicular growth during the estrus cycle and the development of oocytes will undoubtedly improve the knowledge to maximize and control the efficiency of reproduction in livestock species, especially the existence of dizygotic twinning since the fertilization of more than one oocyte after ovulation will be the main reason of multiple births.
6. Studies on ovulation rate in small ruminants as a model organism
Detection of the specific major genes that control reproduction traits provides the opportunity to improve genetic gain in livestock species. However, fertility traits generally have low heritability, and reproductive improvements in a phenotypic selection based on observable data are pretty low and limited. However, ovulation rate and litter size in sheep are important fertility traits, and they have high economic values for breeders [72]. The ovulation rate mainly determines the productivity of sheep. Ovulation rate and litter size are expressed in only one gender and can only be recorded relatively late in the animal’s lifespan. Focusing on improving fertility traits will have a long-term impact on the profitability of the sheep production system [73]. For more than a decade, sheep have been used by many researchers as an essential model organism to identify genes that control reproductive functions such as high fertility rate and ovarian follicle selection and also to investigate the physiological mechanisms involved in this reproductive system. Strong evidence was detected for major genes controlling prolificacy in sheep [74]. Specifically, the genetic influence on prolificacy variability in sheep has demonstrated that many genetic mutations have essential roles in controlling the ovulation rate. Those genes were tested in several populations based on the patterns of phenotypic segregation. Therefore, the selection of breeding animals will be more effective based on genotyping for relevant candidate genes to improve fertility and fecundity traits such as ovulation rate and litter size in small ruminants.
In a study conducted in this context, it was observed that sheep developed from the Booroola Merino strain had an autosomal mutation that increased the ovulation rate by approximately one and a half ova [75]. Therefore, it was an excellent candidate to investigate the mechanisms controlling ovulation rate in mammals [74, 76]. It was reported that the Booroola fecundity gene (FecB) has a partial dominant effect on litter size due to embryonic loss in homozygous carrier animals with high ovulation rates [77]. Subsequently, it was observed that, on average, one copy of the FecB gene enhanced the number of offspring by about 1.5, with increasing ovulation rates of about 1.65 ova per copy of the gene. The gene was accurately mapped to chromosome (Chr) 6 in a region where the bone morphogenetic protein receptor 1B (BMPR1B) was located in sheep [78]. This region is syntenic to Chr 3 or 5 in mice and Chr 4 in humans [79].
Moreover, the other major gene was detected, increasing ovulation rate and litter size in Inverdale sheep. The Inverdale fecundity gene (FecXI) has been located on the X chromosome and increases ovulation rates in the heterozygous ewes [80]. But, homozygous ewes are observed to be infertile due to lack of follicle development [81]. Another fecundity gene (FecXH) was also identified successfully on the X chromosome in the Hanna sheep population [82]. Both FecXI and FecXH were mapped in the bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP15) site. However, different point mutations were identified in the BMP15 gene in Inverdale and Hanna sheep populations. If ewes are heterozygotes for any of them, it causes to increase ovulation rate to two-three ova. However, if sheep is homozygous for Booroola mutation, it dramatically raises ovulation rate from 5 to 14 [83]. Another study investigating the ovulation rate records obtained from daughters of ewes inseminated by Coopworth rams to understand the inheritance pattern of ovulation rate also proved that there was another maternally inherited gene affecting productivity traits located on the X chromosome (FecX2w). But the location of this gene is entirely different from the gene on Inverdale FecX locus [80]. The findings of studies conducted about four decades ago have guided many subsequent types of research on this subject, in which sheep are extensively used as model organisms in this subject.
Currently, the segregation of five major genes that affect ovulation rate and prolificacy has been characterized at the molecular level in various sheep and goat breeds that cause significant phenotypic variations. Overall the detected genes are bone morphogenetic protein receptor, type 1B (BMPR1B; in Booroola Merino, Javanese, Small Tail Han, Hu, Garole, and Kendrapada breeds) [78, 84, 85], bone morphogenetic protein 15 (BMP15; in Inverdale, Hanna, Romney, Belclare, Cambridge, Galway, Lacaune, Raza Aragonesa, Olkuska, and Grivette breeds) [82], growth differentiation factor 9 (GDF9; in Belclare, Cambridge, Icelandic Thoka, Santa Ines, Embrapa, Finnish Landrace, Norwegian White Sheep, Ile de France, and Baluchi breeds) [86], beta-1,4-N-acetyl-galactosaminyl transferase 2 (B4GALNT2 in Lacaune) [87], and leptin receptor (LEPR in Davisdale sheep) [88]. Causative polymorphism studies in different prolific sheep breeds showed at least 12 identified allelic variants for the BMP15, BMPR1B, and GDF9 genes encompassed in the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signaling pathway secreted from the oocyte. TGF-β is significantly associated with ovulation rate, litter size, and prolificacy and thus plays a critical role in the folliculogenesis of small ruminants. Many studies reported that the mutations in TGF-β pathway-related genes enhanced ovulation rate (35–100%) in heterozygous animals [89]. Moreover, even if causative mutations for fecundity are not fully discovered, two other genetic variants were identified as FecX2W [90] and FecD [91], which are segregated in prolific sheep breeds in recent studies. Similarly, about 20 different candidate genes, including TGF-β related genes, were also detected to play a crucial role in regulating folliculogenesis and prolificacy-related traits in several goat breeds [28]. To improve the genetic makeup of animals affecting high productivity in livestock, over 30 small ruminants, mostly high-yielding sheep and few goat breeds, have been actively used in candidate gene studies that focused on detecting variation related to reproductive performance-related traits.
7. Ovulation rate studies in bovine
7.1 Cattle as a model animal for multiple ovulation
As a uniparous species, cattle produce only one progeny in most cases, resulting from ovulation of a single follicle during the pregnancy. Nevertheless, the natural incidence of twin or triplet calving in cattle is mainly due to multiple follicular ovulations concerning breed differences, age of dam, parity, season, the effects of feeding and management systems, geographic location of raised animals, and other environmental effects [62]. Specifically, the incidence of double birth was observed as approximately 1% in beef cattle [92]. In comparison, this rate was determined as 4–5% on average, ranging from about 1% for heifers to nearly 10% for older cows in dairy cattle [93, 94]. Several studies were conducted concerning underlying causes of multiple ovulation rates, particularly twinning rates in cattle by selecting genetically highly polymorphic animals [63], using trans-rectal ultrasonography or quantifying by circulating AMH concentrations, utilizing embryo transfer techniques [65], or utilizing hormonal treatments [64].
The ovulation rate is closely related to the twinning rate in cattle due to the high genetic correlation between ovulation and twinning rates, ranging from 0.75 to 1.0 [95]. Although the genetic control of multiple ovulation in cattle by major genes has long been the subject of research, and there has been significant interest in the mechanism underlying multiple ovulation in bovine species [70], genes with significant effects on ovulation rate have unfortunately not been identified until recently [96].
7.2 QTL studies about twinning and ovulation rates
The selection of genetically superior animals in terms of twinning frequency has been practiced in long-term experimental herds in different countries. For this purpose, various research herds for multiple ovulation studies have been implemented to be established in various countries for four decades. These herds were begun to set up in the early eighties to select for increased twinning rates in France [97], Australia [76], New Zealand [98], and Meat Animal Research Center (MARC) of the USDA-ARS in the USA [99] to develop effective genetic strategies to improve production efficiency including twinning and ovulation rates, meat quality, and animal health in dairy and beef cattle production. MARC twinning population initiated with a total of 307 well-suited cows from twelve different experimental beef, dairy, and dual purposes breeds to study involved in follicular development and recruitments and identify genes affecting primarily twinning rate; later taken into account of ovulation rate in 1981 [63, 100]. These cows were selected based on their high twinning frequencies. The twinning rate can be defined as sequential events due to ovulation, conception, and embryonic survival [101]. Sires whose dams were founders of the herd and sires whose daughters had high twinning rates were used for breeding the founder cows. In addition, semen collected from sires that mainly originated from Swedish and Norwegian breeds was used in the project. The founder breeds in the herd were mainly Holstein (18%), Swedish Red and White and Norwegian Red (12.8%), Swedish Friesian (16.1%), Pinzgaurer (18.4%), Simmental (15.8%), Charolais (5.3%), Angus and Hereford (8.3%), and other breed crosses (5.3%) [102]. The primary objective of the research was to increase the twinning rate in the herd. Therefore, they selected animals based on twinning performance. However, later on, they also evaluated animals’ ovulation rate records for 8 to 10 estrous cycles since ovulation rate is highly genetically correlated with the twinning rate (0.90) [58]. Thus, they used an animal model with multi-trait repeated records to predict breeding values for twinning rates in 1990. By applying this methodology, they were able to use information not only from the individual but also from all available relatives for twinning and ovulation rates. The most significant advantage of using ovulation rate records as an estimator of twinning rate is to reduce generation interval and reduce the number of cows retained for several generations. The estimated twinning rate was about 4% in 1984. But this prediction rose linearly to 35% in 1996 [100]. In the latest report, all the cows with lower estimated breeding values (EBV) were culled from the herd. Thus herd size was reduced from 750 to 250 cows giving birth annually. The twinning rate then was enhanced from 35% to over 50% annually since 1997 [103, 104].
Many studies have been conducted to identify ovulation rate and twinning rate QTL in different cattle populations. Several genomic regions for putative ovulation rate were detected on BTA7 and 23 [105], on BTA5, 7, and 19 [106], on BTA5 [107, 108], on BTA7, 10, and 19 [109], on BTA14 [101] for ovulation rate using the USDA Meat Animal Research Center (MARC) twinning herd, a herd with a substantial contribution from Holstein–Friesian and Norwegian Red breeds [110]. A suggestive twinning rate QTL on BTA5, 7, 12, and 23 have been identified in the Norwegian dairy cattle population [111, 112]. Twinning rate QTL based on genome-wide searches have also been observed on BTA5, 7, 19, and 23 [113], on BTA8, 10, 14, 21, and 29 [114], on BTA2, 5, and 14 [115] in North American commercial dairy cattle populations; on BTA6, 7, and 23 in the Israeli-Holstein cattle using daughter design [116], on BTA20 and 28 in the INRA experimental herd selected for twinning [117]. In studies using composite MARC herds, it was determined that cows producing twins based on genetic selection for high twinning and ovulation rates over multiple generations produced about two-fold more secondary follicles than animals in the control groups. The probable reason for the higher twinning and ovulation rates in this herd may be the combined effects of multiple genes associated with these quantitative traits [63, 100]. Multiple positional candidate gene regions associated with ovulation rate, twinning rate, and multiple birth rates in various cattle breeds have been identified by linkage analysis, interval mapping, linkage disequilibrium (LD) analysis, the combined linkage-linkage disequilibrium analysis (LDLA), and GWAS analyses even if only a few have been replicated. Depending on the statistically significant level, the QTL or single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) determined in the studies so far were diverse throughout the bovine genome. They spanned about 18 of the 30 bovine chromosomes given in Table 1 [89].
Chromosomal locations of quantitative trait loci (QTL) and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) associated with ovulation rate, twinning rate, and multiple birth rate in various cattle breeds [89].
It is noteworthy that a crucial QTL region was detected on BTA5 in the MARC experimental herd, commercial dairy cattle populations raised in North American and Norway. Some of the founder sires in the composite MARC population were originated from Scandinavian countries whose progenies gave multiple births. Therefore, the probability of detecting the same QTLs in future studies is quite high due to sharing a significant portion of the founder genes in two different populations [63]. Furthermore, different studies have reported that IGF-1 as a candidate gene (especially the 2nd intronic region) in BTA5 is substantially associated with the twinning rate in US Holstein cattle [118, 119]. The presence of several QTLs for twinning rate and ovulation rate was detected, which were spanned 24 out of the 30 bovine chromosomes as a result of studies using high-throughput single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) genotyping throughout the genome based on linkage (LE) and linkage disequilibrium (LD) analyses.
7.3 Novel candidate genes affecting multiple births in cattle
In cattle, twin or triplet births are naturally occurring reproductive processes, although not a joint physiological event in bovine. Models derived from the study of high prolific sheep breeds provide a framework for searching the regulation of follicular development in monotocous species, such as in cattle or humans.
A highly fertile cow named ‘Treble’ was born in 1993 at one of the cattle herds in New Zealand. Although the breed’s origin is unknown, it has been assumed to likely include a hybrid of Hereford, Holstein, Angus, and Jersey breeds based on the coat color pattern. Treble calved three sets of triplets her life span as one heifer and two stillborn calves at the first time in 1995, two heifers and one bull, named as Trio at the second time in 1996, all stillborn calves due to considerable difficulty during the delivery period at the third time in 1999. Treble was cloned later, and two clone progenies were born in AgResearch Centre, NZ, in 2000. On the other hand, a son of a highly prolific cow named the ‘Triple’ was bred with a group of cows with high calving rates that had several progenies by 2008. Thirteen daughters out of his total of forty-four daughters produced a total of fifteen twin and six triplet sets, where triplet calving were 29% of all multiple calving, supporting the idea of a naturally-occurring major bovine allele contributing to a high fecundity rate in a family of cattle with triplet calving ability throughout the generations in New Zealand. The possible scenario for this situation might be that a gene or set of genes should be segregated as a single copy from a dam (Treble) to some descendants through its son (Trio) for single gene inheritance. Moreover, such a unique gene allele is expected to be segregated as dominant or partially dominant in female animals [70].
Several daughters (131) of Trio were born by AI in the USA by following the importation of his sperms at a University of Wisconsin (UW)-Madison research farm from 2008 to 2011. The research reports that a significant bovine allele for high ovulation was identified and mapped on a 2-Mb window on BTA10 (+1.02 CL per cycle for carriers vs. noncarriers for the marker allele of the high ovulation rate) by using fine mapping techniques employed the animals raised at UW-Madison research farm [120]. Thus, the daughters of Trio proved that there was evidence of a high-fecundity allele transmitting on BTA10 that had a major influence on multiple ovulations in cattle [96]. The detected location was not overlapped with any major genes previously reported for the high ovulation rate and litter size in prolific sheep breeds. Eventually, in addition to the noteworthy reproductive performance of Treble, all of her descendants, including Trio, also displayed extraordinary reproductive performance. Therefore, the members of the Treble family with highly reproductive ability should be heavily employed in gene mapping studies to discover major genes with high fecundity rates. It can provide a significant resource for the subsequent investigation of genetic diversity in bovine productivity [70]. In the follow-up study, the location of a major gene for high ovulation rate was strongly detected at 1.2 Mb region of BTA10 using half-sib daughters sired by a bull that assumed to be carriers of the Trio allele due to a single mutation. It is noteworthy that the novel region obtained does not overlap with any major gene previously reported, which significantly affecting ovulation rates in ruminants. Thus, the study reports that the newly identified regions could be employed to track inheritance patterns for multiple ovulation rates using from the carrier father’s lineage since the screening of the aforementioned candidate gene consist of any functionally putative causative mutations in the coding region and 5′ or 3′ flanking regions, reminding that the polymorphic SNP region might affect the expression level of any candidate gene controlling the high reproductive performance of animals [96]. When the follicular and hormonal dynamics of animals carrying the high prolific Trio alleles were examined in animals raised at UW, the Trio carrier animals displayed multiple ovulation. The carriers produced more dominant and ovulating follicles with smaller diameters and volumes in this process due to the slower follicle growth rate close to the beginning of deviation during the entire follicular wave. In the study, even if the deviation times were similar between heterozygous bearing allele from Trio and half-sibling noncarriers, a significant increase in the selected number of multiple dominant ovulatory follicles in cow having Trio allele was reported to be associated with the enhanced concentration of FSH secretion close to the deviation time in the follicle. There was also evidence that smaller-sized follicles had more LH receptors in animals carrying the Trio allele than noncarriers, supporting the potential novel physiological mechanisms causing the production of multiple ovulatory follicles in the Trio allele carriers [89].
This newly identified candidate region covering 1.2 Mb in BTA10 contains seven protein-coding genes, of which three of them might be taken into account as putative candidate genes. These genes are the small-mothers against decapentaplegic (SMAD) family member 3 (SMAD3), SMAD family member 6 (SMAD6), those of which are the primary signal transducers for the receptors of the transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ)/Bone Morphogenic Protein (BMP) superfamily ligands [123], and IQ motif containing H (IQCH), which is strongly related with the first menstrual cycle in human females [124]. The other follow study stated well-conserved SMAD6 gene, which plays a crucial role in preventing the BMP/SMAD-dependent signaling pathway, was 9.3 times more expressed in carrier animals for the high fecundity Trio allele versus noncarriers using animals in UW-Madison research farm by applying quantitative real-time PCR technique.
Ultimately, the effect of over-expression of the SMAD6 gene displayed a similar impact of causative mutations on the functions of BMP15, BMPR1B, and GDF9 genes as part of a signaling pathway that may alter the incidence of ovulation rate upward in prolific sheep breeds [125].
In another study to determine the genetic basis of the observed increases in twinning and calf mortality in Italian indigenous Maremmana cattle breed, the most significant SNP markers (Hapmap22923-BTA-129564) were located near two genes, ARHGAP8 and TMEM200C on BTA24, which could be putative functional candidates for cattle twinning rates [121]. Furthermore, in a very recent study, the researchers detected a major QTL mapped to a 70 kb window between 31.00 and 31.07 Mb on BTA11 for multiple maternal births, explaining approximately 16% of the total genetic variation based upon linkage-disequilibrium analysis (LD) using the whole-genome sequence information of the Swiss cattle population. The identified QTL includes the LHCGR and FSHR genes as functional candidate genes. Precisely, a regulatory variant in the 5′ non-coding region of LHCGR is predicted as a potential causative mutation for the QTL region [122].
8. Conclusions
These studies covering the physiological mechanisms regulating ovarian follicular development through multiple births displayed us the reproductive traits are highly complex traits that involve a potential genetic background and significant contributions of various environmental factors. Several studies report that causative mutations in TGF-β pathway-related genes, including BMP15, BMPR1B, and GDF9, strongly affect the ovulation rates in prolific small ruminants, which tend to conceive and maintain multiple ovulation spontaneously. Even if the bovine is naturally low-ovulating mammals, some variations may still be observed in the ovulation rates, despite the low heritability; thus, there is a potential to make genetic progress through selection against reproductive traits by using multiple observations of ovulation rate as the indirect selection criterion in cattle. Recent fine-mapping studies that narrow the genomic region truly, influencing multiple ovulation, especially on BTA5, 10, 11, 14, and 24, give positive signals that causative mutation controlling high ovulation may be identified shortly.
The complete understanding of the complex process of follicular growth during the estrus cycle and the development of oocytes will undoubtedly improve the knowledge to maximize and control the efficiency of reproduction in livestock species, especially the existence of twin or triplet births since the fertilization of more than one oocyte after ovulation will be the main reason for multiple births. On the other hand, it should not be ignored that many factors, including genetic but primarily environmental sources, specifically breed differences, age and parity of dams, the season of calving, and the effect of feeding and management systems significantly affect ovulation and twinning rates importantly in especially cattle production systems. Therefore, the production of twin calves might be more profitable for the breeder by implementing appropriate management and feeding programs to cope with the reproductive problems faced by twin-bearing cows.
In conclusion, understanding the genetic background of high fertility in mammals, on the one hand, is extremely important for the designing of convenient genetic improvement and management programs in livestock; on the other hand, it provides the basic knowledge necessary to overcome fertility problems in humans by using the cow as the ideal model organism.
\n',keywords:"ovulation rate, twinning rate, polymorphism, QTL, MAS, livestock",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78540.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78540.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78540",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78540",totalDownloads:95,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 8th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 16th 2021",datePrePublished:"September 11th 2021",datePublished:"February 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"September 11th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Cattle is a monotocous species that generally produce only one offspring per conception. However, multiple ovulations are a naturally emerging reproductive phenomenon typically controlled by genetic structure and environmental factors. On the other hand, few genes or causative mutations might explain significant genetic variations between animals for the reproductive traits. Studies report different methods, including QTL analysis, fine mapping, GWAS, and MAS selection, to improve such traits due to their economic importance. The recent fine-mapping study, which narrows the genomic region, indeed, influencing multiple ovulation, gives positive signals that causative mutation controlling high ovulation rate may be identified shortly. In conclusion, identifying the major genes that considerably affect ovulation and twinning rates provides the opportunity to increase reproduction efficiency by improving genetic gain in livestock species.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78540",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78540",signatures:"Ozden Cobanoglu",book:{id:"10751",type:"book",title:"Bovine Science",subtitle:"Challenges and Advances",fullTitle:"Bovine Science - Challenges and Advances",slug:"bovine-science-challenges-and-advances",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Muhammad Abubakar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10751.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-509-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-508-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-510-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"352470",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ozden",middleName:null,surname:"Cobanoglu",fullName:"Ozden Cobanoglu",slug:"ozden-cobanoglu",email:"ocobanoglu@uludag.edu.tr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The overview of ovulation induction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. The use of molecular genetic markers and techniques to improve reproductive performance in livestock",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Developmental stages of ovarian follicles",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. The incidence of multiple ovulations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Studies on ovulation rate in small ruminants as a model organism",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Ovulation rate studies in bovine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"7.1 Cattle as a model animal for multiple ovulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"7.2 QTL studies about twinning and ovulation rates",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"7.3 Novel candidate genes affecting multiple births in cattle",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Richards JS, Hedin L. Molecular aspects of hormone action in ovarian follicular development, ovulation, and luteinization. Annual Review of Physiology. 1988;50:441-463. DOI:10.1146/annurev.ph.50.030188.002301'},{id:"B2",body:'Nosek TM. Essential of human physiology. Gold Standart Multimedia Inc.; 1998. Section 5'},{id:"B3",body:'Kumar TR, Wang Y, Lu N, Matzuk MM. Follicle stimulating hormone is required for ovarian follicle maturation but not male fertility. Nature Genetics. 1997;15:201-204'},{id:"B4",body:'Robker RL, Richards JS. Hormonal control of the cell cycle in ovarian cells: Proliferation versus differentiation. Biol. Reprod. 1998;59:476-482'},{id:"B5",body:'Baird DT, McNeilly AS. Gonadotrophic control of follicular development and function during the oestrous cycle of the ewe. J. Reprod. Fertil. Suppl. 1981;30:119-133'},{id:"B6",body:'Stamatiades GA, Kaiser UB. Gonadotropin regulation by pulsatile GnRH: Signaling and gene expression. Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 2018;463:131-141. DOI:10.1016/j.mce.2017.10.015'},{id:"B7",body:'Milligan SR. Pheromones and rodent reproductive physiology. Symposia of the Zoological Society of London; 1980;45:251-275'},{id:"B8",body:'Bakker J, Baum, MJ. Neuroendocrine regulation of GnRH release in induced ovulators. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 2000;21(3):220-262. DOI:10.1006/frne.2000.0198'},{id:"B9",body:'Adams GP, Ratto MH. Ovulation-inducing factor in seminal plasma: A review. Animal Reproduction Science. 2012;136(3):148-156. DOI:10.1016/j.anireprosci.2012.10.004'},{id:"B10",body:'Strassmann BI. The evolution of endometrial cycles and menstruation. The Quarterly Review of Biology. 1996;71(2):181-220. DOI:10.1086/419369'},{id:"B11",body:'Knobil ENJD. Physiology of Reproduction. Raven Press. New York; 1988'},{id:"B12",body:'Davis GH. Major genes affecting ovulation rate in sheep. Genet. Sel. Evol. 2005;37(1):11-23'},{id:"B13",body:'Hafez ESE, Sugie T. Behavioural oestrus and ovulatory cycle in beef cattle with a note on the clay model technique. Acta Zoologica. 1963;44(1-2):57-71. DOI:10.1111/j.1463-6395.1963.tb00401.x'},{id:"B14",body:'Simm G. Genetic Improvement of Cattle and Sheep. Ipswich, UK: Farming Press.; 1998'},{id:"B15",body:'Sax K. The association of size differences with seed-coat pattern and pigmentation in Phaseolus Vulgaris. Genetics. 1923;8:552-560'},{id:"B16",body:'Cobanoglu O. Genetic markers and various applications in animal husbandry. Hasad Animal Husbandry Magazine. 2012;321:48-54'},{id:"B17",body:'Weber JL, May PE. Abundant class of human DNA polymorphisms which can be typed using the polymorphism chain reaction. Amer. J. Human Genetics. 1989;44:388-396'},{id:"B18",body:'Soller M, Beckmann JS. Cloning quantitative trait loci by insertional mutagenesis. Theor. Appl. Genet. 1987;74:369-378'},{id:"B19",body:'Cushman RA, De Souza JC, Hedgpeth VS, et al. Superovulatory response of one ovary is related to the micro- and macroscopic population of follicles in the contralateral ovary of the cow. Biology of Reproduction. 1999;60(2):349-354'},{id:"B20",body:'Gargantini G, Cundiff LV, Lunstra DD, et al. Genetic relationships between male and female reproductive traits in beef cattle. The Professional Animal Scientist. 2005;21:195-199'},{id:"B21",body:'Cammack K, Thomas M, Enns R. Reproductive traits and their heritabilities in beef cattle. Prof. Anim. Sci. 2009;25:517-528. DOI:10.15232/s1080-7446(15)30753-1'},{id:"B22",body:'Koopaee HK, Koshkoiyeh AE. SNPs genotyping technologies and their applications in farm animals breeding programs: Review. Braz. Arch. Biol. Technol. 2014;57(1):87-95'},{id:"B23",body:'Zhang H, Zhipeng Wang Z, Wang S, Li H. Progress of genome wide association study in domestic animals. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology. 2012;3(1):26. DOI:10.1186/2049-1891-3-26'},{id:"B24",body:'Sharmaa A, Lee JS, Dang CG, Sudrajad P, Kim HC, Yeon SH, Kang HS, Lee SH. Stories and challenges of genome wide association studies in livestock—A review. Asian Australas. J. Anim. Sci. 2015;28:1371-1379. DOI:10.5713/ajas.14.0715'},{id:"B25",body:'de Camargo GMF, Aspilcueta-Borquis RR, Fortes MRS, Porto-Neto R, Cardoso DF, Santos DJA, Lehnert SA, Reverter A, Moore SS, Tonhati H. Prospecting major genes in dairy buffaloes. BMC Genomics. 2015;Oct 28(16):872. DOI:10.1186/s12864-015-1986-2'},{id:"B26",body:'Verardo LL, Silva FF, Lopes MS, Madsen O, Bastiaansen JWM, Knol EF, Kelly M, Varona L, Lopes PS, Guimarães SEF. Revealing new candidate genes for reproductive traits in pigs: combining Bayesian GWAS and functional pathways. Genet. Sel. Evol. 2016;Feb 1(48):9. DOI:10.1186/s12711-016-0189-x'},{id:"B27",body:'Tobar KMC, Alvarez DCL, Franco LAA. Genome-wide association studies in sheep from Latin America. Review. Rev. Mex. Cienc. Pecu. 2020;11(3):859-883. DOI:10.22319/rmcp.v11i3.5372'},{id:"B28",body:'Gomes de Lima L, Balbino de Souza NO, Rios RR, Araújo de Melo B, Alves dos Santos LT, Silva KDM, Murphy TW, Fraga AB. Advances in molecular genetic techniques applied to selection for litter size in goats (Capra hircus): A review. Journal of Applied Animal Research. 2020;48(1):38-44. DOI:10.1080/09712119.2020.1717497'},{id:"B29",body:'Iwata H, Hayashi T, Terakami S, Takada N, Sawamura Y, Yamamoto T. Potential assessment of genome-wide association study and genomic selection in Japanese pear Pyrus Pyrifolia. Breed. Sci. 2013;63:125-140'},{id:"B30",body:'Cui Y, Yan H, Wang K, Xu H, Zhang X, Zhu H, Liu J, Qu L, Lan X, Pan C. Insertion/deletion within the KDM6A gene is significantly associated with litter size in goat. Front. Genet. 2018;9:1-11'},{id:"B31",body:'Miao X, Luo Q, Zhao H, Qin X. Genome-wide analysis of miRNAs in the ovaries of Jining Grey and Laiwu black goats to explore the regulation of fecundity. Sci. Rep. 2016;6:379-383. DOI:10.1038/srep37983'},{id:"B32",body:'Cobanoglu O. Physiological mechanisms of multiple ovulations and factors affecting twin calving rates in cattle. J. Res. Vet. Med. 2011;30(1):73-82'},{id:"B33",body:'García-Guerra A, Kirkpatrick BW, Wiltbank MC. Follicular waves and hormonal profiles during the estrous cycle of carriers and non-carriers of the trio allele, a major bovine gene for high ovulation and fecundity. Theriogenology. 2017a;100:100-113'},{id:"B34",body:'Rajakoski E. The ovarian follicular system in sexually mature heifers with special reference to seasonal, cyclical, and left-right variations. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1960;34(52):7-68'},{id:"B35",body:'Pierson RA, Ginther OJ. Follicular populations during the estrous cycle in heifers. I. Influence of day. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 1987;14:165-176'},{id:"B36",body:'Sirois J, Fortune JE. Ovarian follicular dynamics during the estrous cycle in heifers monitored by real-time ultrasonography. Biol. Reprod. 1988;39:308-317'},{id:"B37",body:'Pierson RA, Ginther, OJ. Ultrasonography of the bovine ovary. Theriogenology. 1984;21:495-504'},{id:"B38",body:'Lucy MC, Savio JD, Badinga L, De La Sota RL, Thatcher WW. Factors that affect follicular ovarian dynamics in cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 1992;70:3615-3626'},{id:"B39",body:'Campbell BK, Scaramuzzi RJ, Webb R. Control of antral follicular development and selection in sheep and cattle. J. Reprod. Fertility. 1995;49:335-350'},{id:"B40",body:'Knopf L, Kastelic JP, Schallenberger E, Ginther OJ. Ovarian follicular dynamics in heifers – Test of 2-wave hypothesis by ultrasonically monitoring individual follicles. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 1989;6:111-119'},{id:"B41",body:'Ginther OJ, Kot K, Wiltbank MC. Associations between emergence of follicular waves and fluctuations in FSH concentrations during the estrous-cycle in ewes. Theriogenology. 1995;43:689-703'},{id:"B42",body:'Ginther OJ, Kastelic JP, Knopf L. Composition and characteristics of follicular waves during the bovine estrous cycle. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 1989;20:187-200'},{id:"B43",body:'Adams GP. Control of ovarian follicular wave dynamics in cattle: Implications for synchronization & superstimulation. Theriogenology. 1994;41:19-24'},{id:"B44",body:'Ginther OJ, Knopf L, Kastelic JP. Ovarian follicular dynamics in heifers during early pregnancy. Biology of Reprod. 1989b;41:247-254'},{id:"B45",body:'Ginther OJ, Knopf L, Kastelic JP. Temporal associations among ovarian events during bovine oestrous cycles with two and three follicular waves. J. Reprod. Fertility. 1989a;87:223-230'},{id:"B46",body:'Ginther OJ, Kot K, Kulick LJ, Wiltbank MC. Emergence and deviation of follicles during the development of follicular waves in cattle. Theriogenology. 1997a;48:75-87'},{id:"B47",body:'Sartori R, Fricke PM, Ferreira JCP, Ginther OJ, Wiltbank MC. Follicular deviation and acquisition of ovulatory capacity in bovine follicles. Biol. Reprod. 2001;65:1403-1409'},{id:"B48",body:'Gimenes LU, Sa MF, Carvalho NAT, Torres JRS, Souza AH, Madureira EH, Trinca LA, Sartorelli ES, Barros CM, Carvalho JBP, Mapletoft RJ, Baruselli PS. Follicle deviation and ovulatory capacity in Bos indicus heifers. Theriogenology. 2008;69:852-858'},{id:"B49",body:'Sartori R, Haughian J, Rosa GJM, Shaver RD, Wiltbank MC. Differences between lactating cows and nulliparous heifers in follicular dynamics, luteal growth, and serum steroid concentrations. J. Dairy. Sci. 2000;83(Suppl 1):212'},{id:"B50",body:'Sartori R, Gimenes LU, Monteiro Jr PLJ, Melo LF, Baruselli PS, Bastos MR. Metabolic and endocrine differences between Bos taurus and Bos indicus females that impact the interaction of nutrition with reproduction. Theriogenology. 2016;86:32-40'},{id:"B51",body:'Choudhary KK, Kavya KM, Jerome A, Sharma RK. Advances in reproductive biotechnologies. Veterinary World. 2016;9(4):388-395. DOI:10.14202/vetworld.2016.388-395'},{id:"B52",body:'Hadgu A, Fesseha H. Reproductive biotechnology options for improving livestock production: A review. Adv. Food Technol. Nutr. Sci Open J. 2020;6(1):13-20. DOI:10.17140/AFTNSOJ-6-164'},{id:"B53",body:'Silva del Río N, Kirkpatrick BW, Fricke PM. Observed frequency of monozygotic twinning in Holstein dairy cattle. Theriogenology. 2006;66:1292-1299'},{id:"B54",body:'Ginther OJ, Kot K, Kulick LJ, Wiltbank MC. Sampling follicular fluid without altering follicular status in cattle: Oestradiol concentrations early in a follicular wave. J. Reprod. Ferti. 1997b;109:181-186'},{id:"B55",body:'Beg MA, Bergfelt DR, Kot K, Ginther OJ. Follicle selection in cattle: Dynamics of follicular fluid factors during development of follicle dominance. Biol. Reprod. 2002;66:120-126'},{id:"B56",body:'Ginther OJ. The theory of follicle selection in cattle. Domest. Anim. Endocrinol. 2016;57:85-99'},{id:"B57",body:'Wiltbank MC, Fricke PM, Sangsritavong S, Sartori R, Ginther OJ. Mechanisms that prevent and produce double ovulations in dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 2000;83:2998-3007'},{id:"B58",body:'Echternkamp SE, Spicer LJ, Gregory KE, Canning SF, Hammond JM. Concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-I in blood and ovarian follicular fluid of cattle selected for twins. Biology of Reprod. 1990a;43:8-14'},{id:"B59",body:'Echternkamp S.E. Endocrinology of increased ovarian folliculogenesis in cattle selected for twin births. Am. Society of Anim. Sci. 2000;1-20'},{id:"B60",body:'Silva del Rio N, Colloton JD, Fricke PM. Factors affecting pregnancy loss for single and twin pregnancies in a high-producing dairy herd. Theriogenology. 2009;71:1462-1471'},{id:"B61",body:'Andreu-Vázquez C, Garcia-Ispierto I, Ganau S, Fricke PM, López-Gatius F. Effects of twinning on the subsequent reproductive performance and productive lifespan of high-producing dairy cows. Theriogenology. 2012;78:2061-2070'},{id:"B62",body:'Sreenan JM, Diskin MG. Effect of a unilateral or bilateral twin embryo distribution on twinning and embryo survival rate in the cow. J. Reprod. Fertil. 1989;87:657-664'},{id:"B63",body:'Gregory KE, Echternkamp SE, Dickerson GE, Cundiff LV, Koch RM, Van Vleck, LD. Twinning in cattle: I. foundation animals and genetic and environmental effects on twinning rate. J. Anim. Sci. 1990a;68:1867-1876'},{id:"B64",body:'McCaughe WJ, Dow C. Hormonal induction of twinning in cattle. Vet. Rec. 1977;100:29-30'},{id:"B65",body:'Davis ME, Harvey WR, Bishop MD, Gearheart WW. Use of embryo transfer to induce twinning in beef cattle: Embryo survival rate, gestation length, birth weight and weaning weight of calves. J. Anim. Sci. 1989;67(2):301-310'},{id:"B66",body:'Webb R, Armstrong D.G. Control of ovarian function; effect of local interactions and environmental influences on follicular turnover in cattle: A review. Livestock Production Science. 1998;53:95-112'},{id:"B67",body:'Kusaka, H, Miura, H, Kikuchi M, Sakaguchi M. Incidence of double ovulation during the early postpartum period in lactating dairy cows. Theriogenology. 2017;91:98-103'},{id:"B68",body:'Fricke PM. Review: Twinning in dairy cattle. Prof. Anim. Sci. 2001;17:61-67'},{id:"B69",body:'Cobanoglu O, Twinning in cattle: Desirable or undesirable? J. Biol. Environ. Sci. 2010;4(10):1-8'},{id:"B70",body:'Morris CA, Wheeler M, Levet GL, Kirkpatrick BW. A cattle family in New Zealand with triplet calving ability. Livestock Science. 2010;128:193-196'},{id:"B71",body:'Cabrera VE, Fricke PM. Economics of twin pregnancies in dairy cattle. Animals. 2021;11:552. DOI:10.3390/ani11020552'},{id:"B72",body:'Notter D.R. Genetic aspects of reproduction in sheep. Reproduction in Domesticated Animals. 2008;43:122-128'},{id:"B73",body:'Pramod KR, Sharma SK, Kumar R, Rajan A. Genetics of ovulation rate in farm animals. Veterinary World. 2013;6(11):833-838'},{id:"B74",body:'Davis GH, Montgomery GW, Allison AJ, Kelly RW, Bray AR. Segregation of a major gene influencing fecundity in progenyof Booroola sheep. New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research. 1982;25:525-529'},{id:"B75",body:'Turner HN. Origins of the Csiro Booroola. In: The Booroola Merino. Piper LR, Bindon, BM, Nethery RD (eds.) Melbourne, Csiro; 1982;1-7'},{id:"B76",body:'Bindon BM, Piper LR, Cheers MA, Curtis YM, Nethery RD, Holland EJ. Ovulation rate of cattle selected for twinning, Proceedings of the Australian Society for Reproductive Biology, Fourteenth annual conference Univ. of Sydney, Australia; 1982;99:11-14'},{id:"B77",body:'Piper LR, Bindon BM, Davis GH. The single gene inheritance of the high litter size of the Booroola Merino. In Genetics of Reproduction in Sheep. Eds RB Land and DW Robinson. Butterworths, London; 1985;115-125'},{id:"B78",body:'Wilson T, Wu XY, Juengel JL, Ross IK, Lumsden JM, Lord EA, Dodds KG, Walling GA, McEwan JC, O’Connell AR, McNatty KP, Montgomery GW. Highly prolific Booroola sheep have a mutation in the intracellular kinase domain of bone morphogenetic protein IB receptor (ALK-6) that is expressed in both oocytes and granulosa cells. Biology of Reprod. 2001;64:1225-1235'},{id:"B79",body:'Montgomery GW, Crawford AM, Penty JM, Dodds KG, Ede AJ, Henry HM, Pierson CA, Lord EA, Galloway SM, Schmack AE, Sise JA, Swarbrick PA, Hanrahan V, Buchanan FC, Hill DF. The ovine Booroola fecundity gene (FecB) is linked to markers from a region of human chromosome 4q. Nat. Genet. 1993;4:410-414'},{id:"B80",body:'Davis, GH, Bruce GD, Dodds KG. Ovulation rate and litter size of prolific Inverdale (FecX1) and Hanna (FecXH) sheep. Pfoc. Assoc. Adv. Anim. Breed. Genet. 2001;14:145-178'},{id:"B81",body:'Montgomery GW, McNatty KP, Davis GH. Physiology and molecular genetics of mutations that increase ovulation rate in sheep. Endocr. Rev. 1992;13:309-328'},{id:"B82",body:'Galloway SM, McNatty KP, Cambridge LM, Laitinen MPE, Juengel JL, Jokiranta TS, McLaren RJ, Luiro K, Dodds KG, G. Montgomery W, Beattie AE, Davis GH, and Ritvos O. Mutations in an oocyte-derived growth factor gene (BMP15) cause increased ovulation rate and infertility in a dosage-sensitive manner. Nat. Genet. 2000;25:279-283'},{id:"B83",body:'McNatty, KP, Juengel JL, Wilson T, Galloway SM, Davis GH. Genetic mutations influencing ovulation rate in sheep. Reproduction, Fertility and Development. 2001;13:549-555'},{id:"B84",body:'Mulsant P, Lecerf F, Fabre S, Schibler L, Monget P, Lanneluc I, Pisselet C,Riquet J, Monniaux D, Callebaut I, Cribiu E, Thimonier J, et al. Mutation in bone morphogenetic protein receptor-IB is associated with increased ovulation rate in Booroola merino ewes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2001;98:5104-5109'},{id:"B85",body:'Souza C. The Booroola (FecB) phenotype is associated with a mutation in the bone morphogenetic receptor type 1 B (BMPR1B) gene. J. Endocrinol. 2001;169:1-6'},{id:"B86",body:'Hanrahan JP, Gregan SM, Mulsant P, Mullen M, Davis GH, Powell R, Galloway SM. Mutations in the genes for oocyte-derived growth factors GDF9 and BMP15 are associated with both increased ovulation rate and sterility in Cambridge and Belclare sheep (Ovis aries). Biol. Reprod. 2004;70:900-909'},{id:"B87",body:'Drouilhet L, Mansanet C, Sarry J, Tabet K, Bardou P, Woloszyn F, Lluch J, Harichaux G, Viguie C, Monniaux D, Bodin L, Mulsant P, et al. The highly prolific phenotype of Lacaune sheep is associated with an ectopic expression of the B4GALNT2 gene within the ovary. PLoS Genet. 2013;9:e1003809'},{id:"B88",body:'Juengel JL, French MC, O’connell AR, Edwards SJ, Haldar A, Brauning R, Farquhar PA, Dodds KG, Galloway SM, Johnstone PD, Davis GH. Mutations in the leptin receptor gene associated with delayed onset of puberty are also associated with decreased ovulation and lambing rates in prolific Davisdale sheep. Reprod. Fertil. Dev. 2016;28:1318-1325'},{id:"B89",body:'García-Guerra A, Battista SE, Wiltbank MC, Kirkpatrick BW, Sartori R. Mechanisms regulating follicle selection in ruminants: Lessons learned from multiple ovulation models. Anim. Repro. 2018;15(1):660-679'},{id:"B90",body:'Davis GH, Dodds KG, Wheeler R, Jay NP. Evidence that an imprinted gene on the X chromosome increases ovulation rate in sheep. Biol. Reprod. 2001;64:216-221'},{id:"B91",body:'Juengel JL, O’connell AR, French MC, Proctor LE, Wheeler R, Farquhar PA, Dodds KG, Galloway SM, Johnstone PD, Davis GH. Identification of a line of sheep carrying a putative autosomal gene increasing ovulation rate in sheep that does not appear to interact with mutations in the transforming growth factor beta superfamily. Biol. Reprod. 2011;85:113-120'},{id:"B92",body:'Rutledge JJ. Twinning in cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 1975;40:803-815'},{id:"B93",body:'Cady RA, Van Vleck LD. Factors affecting twinning and effects of twinning in Holstein dairy cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 1978;46:950-956'},{id:"B94",body:'Ryan DP, Boland MP. Frequency of twin births among Holstein-Friesian cows in a warm dry climate. Theriogenology. 1991;36:1-10'},{id:"B95",body:'Van Vleck LD, Gregory KE, Echternkamp SE. Ovulation rate and twinning rate in cattle: Heritabilities and genetic correlation. J. Anim. Sci. 1991;69:3213-3219'},{id:"B96",body:'Kirkpatrick BW, Morris CA. A major gene for bovine ovulation rate. PLoS ONE. 2015;10:e0129025'},{id:"B97",body:'Frebling J, Gillard P, Menissier F. Preliminary results of natural twinning ability in a selected sample of Charolais and Maine Anjou cows and their progeny. 2nd World Congress on Genetics applied to Livestock Production, 8. Symposia; Madrid; 1982;(2):351-355'},{id:"B98",body:'Morris, CA, Day AM. Ovulation results from cattle herds with high twinning frequency. Proceedings 3rd World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production. Lincoln, Nebraska, USA; 1986;96-100'},{id:"B99",body:'Gregory KE, Echternkamp SE, Dickerson GE, Cundiff LV, Koch RM. Twinning in cattle. In: Proc. VI World Conf. on Anim. Prod. 1988;481'},{id:"B100",body:'Gregory KE, Bennett GL, Van Vleck LD, Echternkamp SE, Cundiff LV. Genetic and environmental parameters for ovulation rate, twinning rate, and weight traits in a cattle population selected for twinning. J. Anim. Sci. 1997;75:1213-1222'},{id:"B101",body:'Gonda MG, Arias JA, Shook GE, Kirkpatrick BW. Identification of an ovulation rate QTL in cattle on BTA14 using selective DNA pooling and interval mapping. Anim. Genet. 2004;35:298-304'},{id:"B102",body:'Gregory KE, Echternkamp SE, Cundiff LV. Effects of twinning on dystocia, calf survival, calf growth, carcass traits, and cow productivity. J. Anim. Sci. 1996;74:1223-1233'},{id:"B103",body:'Echternkamp SE, Gregory K. E. Effects of twinning on gestation length, retained placenta, and dystocia. J. Anim. Sci. 1999a;77:39-47'},{id:"B104",body:'Echternkamp SE, Gregory K. E. Effects of twinning on postpartum reproductive performance in cattle selected for twin births. J. Anim. Sci. 1999b;77:48-60'},{id:"B105",body:'Blattman AN, Kirkpatrick BW, Gregory KE. A search for quantitative trait loci for ovulation rate in cattle. Anim. Genet. 1996;27:157-162'},{id:"B106",body:'Kirkpatrick BW, Byla BM, Gregory KE. Mapping quantitative trait loci for bovine ovulation rate. Mamm. Genome. 2000;11(2):136-139'},{id:"B107",body:'Kappes SM, Bennett GL, Keele JW, Echternkamp SE, Gregory KE, Thallman RM. Initial results of genomic scans for ovulation rate in a cattle population selected for increased twinning rate. J. Anim. Sci. 2000;78:3053-3059'},{id:"B108",body:'Allan MF, Kuehn LA, Cushman RA, Snelling WM, Echternkamp SE, Thallman RM. Confirmation of quantitative trait loci using a low-density single nucleotide polymorphism map for twinning and ovulation rate on bovine chromosome 5. J. Anim. Sci. 2009;87:46-56'},{id:"B109",body:'Arias J, Kirkpatrick BW. Mapping of bovine ovulation rate QTL; an analytical approach for three generation pedigrees. Anim. Genet. 2004;35:7-13'},{id:"B110",body:'Van Vleck LD, Gregory K.E. Genetic trend and environmental effects in a population of cattle selected for twinning. Journal of Animal Science. 1996;74:522-528'},{id:"B111",body:'Lien S, Karlsen A, Klemetsdal G, Vage DI, Olsaker I, Klungland H, Aasland M, Heringstad B, Ruane J, Gomez-Raya L. A primary screen of the bovine genome for quantitative trait loci affecting twinning rate. Mamm. Genome. 2000;11:877-882'},{id:"B112",body:'Meuwissen TH, Karlsen A, Lien S, Olsaker I, Goddard ME. Fine mapping of a quantitative trait locus for twinning rate using combined linkage and linkage disequilibrium mapping. Genetics. 2002;161:373-379'},{id:"B113",body:'Cruickshank J, Dentine MR, Berger PJ, Kirkpatrick BW. Evidence for quantitative trait loci affecting twinning rate in north American Holstein cattle. Anim. Genet. 2004;35:206-212'},{id:"B114",body:'Cobanoglu O, Berger PJ, Kirkpatrick BW. Genome screen for twinning rate QTL in four north American Holstein families. Anim. Genet. 2005;36:303-308'},{id:"B115",body:'Kim ES, Shi X, Cobanoglu O, Weigel K, Berger PJ, Kirkpatrick BW. Refined mapping of twinning-rate quantitative trait loci on bovine chromosome 5 and analysis of insulin-like growth factor-1 as a positional candidate gene. J. Anim. Sci. 2009b;87:835-843'},{id:"B116",body:'Weller JI, Golik M, Seroussi E, Ron M, Ezra E. Detection of quantitative trait loci affecting twinning rate in Israeli Holsteins by the daughter design. J. Dairy Sci. 2008;91:2469-2474'},{id:"B117",body:'Vinet A, Touze´ JL, Bichot R, Hestault O, Bellayer C, Boussaha M, Fritz S, Guillaume F, Sapa J, Bodin L, Phocas F. Genomewide scan for bovine ovulation rate using dense SNP map. 9th World Congress on Genetics Applied Livestock Production, 1-6 August 2010; Leipzig, Germany; 2010'},{id:"B118",body:'Kim ES, Berger PJ, Kirkpatrick BW. Genome-wide scan for bovine twinning rate QTL using linkage disequilibrium. Anim. Genet. 2009a;40:300-307'},{id:"B119",body:'Bierman CD, Kim E, Shi XW, Weigel K, Jeffrey Berger P, Kirkpatrick BW. Validation of whole genome linkage-linkage disequilibrium and association results, and identification of markers to predict genetic merit for twinning. Anim. Genet. 2010;41:406-416'},{id:"B120",body:'Kirkpatrick BW, Morris CA. Discovery of a major gene for bovine ovulation rate. Biology of Reproduction. 2011;85(1):419. DOI:10.1093/biolreprod/85.s1.419'},{id:"B121",body:'Moioli B, Steri R, Marchitelli C, Catillo G, Buttazzoni L. Genetic parameters and genome-wide associations of twinning rate in a local breed, the Maremmana cattle. Animal. 2017;11:1660-1666'},{id:"B122",body:'Widmer S, Seefried FR, von Rohr P, Hafliger IM, Spengeler M, Drogemuller C. A major QTL at the LHCGR/FSHR locus for multiple birth in Holstein cattle. Genet. Sel. Evol. 2021;53:57'},{id:"B123",body:'Dijke PT, Hill CS. New insights into TGF-β–Smad signalling. Trends Biochem. Sci. 2004;29:265-273'},{id:"B124",body:'Elks CE, Perry JRB, Sulem P, Chasman DI, Franceschini N, He C, Lunetta KL, Visser JA, Byrne EM, Cousminer DL, Gudbjartsson DF, Esko T et al. Thirty new loci for age at menarche identified by a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies. Nat. Genet. 2010;42:1077-1085'},{id:"B125",body:'Kamalludin MH, Garcia-Guerra A, Wiltbank M, Kirkpatrick BW. Trio, a novel high fecundity allele: I. Transcriptome analysis of granulosa cells from carriers and non-carriers of a major gene for bovine ovulation rate. Biol. Reprod. 2018;98:323-334'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Ozden Cobanoglu",address:"ocobanoglu@uludag.edu.tr",affiliation:'
Department of Genetics, Faculty of Veterinary-Medicine, Bursa Uludag University, Bursa, Turkey
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"10751",type:"book",title:"Bovine Science",subtitle:"Challenges and Advances",fullTitle:"Bovine Science - Challenges and Advances",slug:"bovine-science-challenges-and-advances",publishedDate:"February 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Muhammad Abubakar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10751.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-509-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-508-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-510-0",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"119166",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:null,surname:"Ivanov",email:"ivanov@iep.uran.ru",fullName:"Victor Ivanov",slug:"victor-ivanov",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Electrophysics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"35037",title:"Fine Grained Alumina-Based Ceramics Produced Using Magnetic Pulsed Compaction",slug:"fine-grained-alumina-based-ceramics-produced-using-magnetic-pulsed-compacting",abstract:null,signatures:"V. V. Ivanov, A. S. Kaygorodov, V. R. Khrustov and S. N. Paranin",authors:[{id:"119146",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Khrustov",fullName:"Vladimir Khrustov",slug:"vladimir-khrustov",email:"khrustov@iep.uran.ru"},{id:"119166",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"Ivanov",fullName:"Victor Ivanov",slug:"victor-ivanov",email:"ivanov@iep.uran.ru"},{id:"119167",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Paranin",fullName:"Sergey Paranin",slug:"sergey-paranin",email:"paranin@iep.uran.ru"},{id:"119169",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",surname:"Kaygorodov",fullName:"Anton Kaygorodov",slug:"anton-kaygorodov",email:"kaygor@iep.uran.ru"}],book:{id:"2200",title:"Ceramic Materials",slug:"ceramic-materials-progress-in-modern-ceramics",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"116426",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalil",surname:"Khalil",slug:"khalil-khalil",fullName:"Khalil Khalil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"117241",title:"Dr.",name:"Ribal",surname:"Sabat",slug:"ribal-sabat",fullName:"Ribal Sabat",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Royal Military College of Canada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"118654",title:"Dr.",name:"Lang",surname:"Wu",slug:"lang-wu",fullName:"Lang Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/118654/images/1085_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Cheng Kung University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"119146",title:"Dr.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Khrustov",slug:"vladimir-khrustov",fullName:"Vladimir Khrustov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Electrophysics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"119167",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Paranin",slug:"sergey-paranin",fullName:"Sergey Paranin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Electrophysics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"119169",title:"Dr.",name:"Anton",surname:"Kaygorodov",slug:"anton-kaygorodov",fullName:"Anton Kaygorodov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Electrophysics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"119407",title:"Prof.",name:"Ming-Cheng",surname:"Chure",slug:"ming-cheng-chure",fullName:"Ming-Cheng Chure",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"119408",title:"Prof.",name:"Yeong-Chin",surname:"Chen",slug:"yeong-chin-chen",fullName:"Yeong-Chin Chen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Asia University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"119409",title:"Prof.",name:"Bing-Huei Chen",surname:"Chen",slug:"bing-huei-chen-chen",fullName:"Bing-Huei Chen Chen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nan Jeon University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"138662",title:"BSc.",name:"King-Kung",surname:"Wu",slug:"king-kung-wu",fullName:"King-Kung Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{"933869@":null},profiles:[],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6601},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5906},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2400},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12541},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1008},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17561}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"9"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11445",title:"Multi-Agent Technologies and Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d980826615baa6e33456e2a79064c5e8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Igor Sheremet",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11445.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"265237",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Sheremet",slug:"igor-sheremet",fullName:"Igor Sheremet"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11446",title:"Industry 4.0 - Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"be984f45b90c1003798661ef885d8a34",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Meisam Gordan and Dr. Khaled Ghaedi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11446.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"303193",title:"Dr.",name:"Meisam",surname:"Gordan",slug:"meisam-gordan",fullName:"Meisam Gordan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11447",title:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11448",title:"Artificial Neural Networks - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e57ff97a39cfc6fe68a1ac62b503dbe9",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Chi Leung Patrick Hui",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11448.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"22866",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi Leung Patrick",surname:"Hui",slug:"chi-leung-patrick-hui",fullName:"Chi Leung Patrick Hui"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11547",title:"Information Security and Privacy in the Digital World - Some Selected Topics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b268e581d5e458cb91b82c518f2717eb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Jaydip Sen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11547.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11549",title:"Data Integrity and Data Governance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"97a93f73a55957a70eb2a40de891b344",slug:null,bookSignature:" B. Santhosh Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11549.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"330426",title:"Dr.",name:"B. Santhosh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"b.-santhosh-kumar",fullName:"B. Santhosh Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11553",title:"Cyberspace - Challenges and Threats in the Disruptive Era",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ff86e203474b6696b712f0a11112d6e3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Arwin Datumaya Wahyudi Datumaya Wahyudi Sumari and Dr. Ulla Delfana Rosiani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11553.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"22530",title:"Dr.",name:"Arwin Datumaya Wahyudi",surname:"Sumari",slug:"arwin-datumaya-wahyudi-sumari",fullName:"Arwin Datumaya Wahyudi Sumari"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11554",title:"Information Systems Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3134452ff2fdec020663f241c7a9a748",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11554.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11556",title:"Numerical Simulation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0a68fbeb303684344bda285aa06769af",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Soofastaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11556.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11911",title:"Scientometrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ed74b66a0dc7d009900af198efc6b2e1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11911.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11912",title:"Expert Systems With Recent Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"514907388f7a2b291f71f9b93b58b795",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ercan Oztemel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11912.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"306974",title:"Prof.",name:"Ercan",surname:"Oztemel",slug:"ercan-oztemel",fullName:"Ercan Oztemel"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11913",title:"Scheduling Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"da42ea7b678d715e23ffcae50ae47078",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11913.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:42},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:62},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:122},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:12},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:3}],offset:12,limit:12,total:35},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10871",title:"Computed-Tomography (CT) Scan",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"966d8cf74fa27eea1b9cbc9a6ee94993",slug:"computed-tomography-ct-scan",bookSignature:"Reda R. Gharieb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10871.jpg",editors:[{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11196",title:"New Updates in E-Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6afaadf68e2a0a4b370ac5ceb5ca89c6",slug:"new-updates-in-e-learning",bookSignature:"Eduard Babulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11196.jpg",editors:[{id:"10086",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Babulak",slug:"eduard-babulak",fullName:"Eduard Babulak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4383},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3340,editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11001",title:"Density Functional Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"82d53383af78ab41eb982086c02fb2bb",slug:"density-functional-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11001.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1845,editors:[{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:1096,editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:995,editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"943e56ccaaf19ff696d25aa638ae37d6",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:3791,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11752",title:"Natural Drugs from Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a0a83c0822608ef7592bf16a5ed0ada4",slug:"natural-drugs-from-plants",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11752.jpg",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2982,editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:559,editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:546,editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:539,editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",numberOfDownloads:535,editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10251",title:"Plankton Communities",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e11e441ca2d2d5f631b1b4704505cfb6",slug:"plankton-communities",bookSignature:"Leonel Pereira and Ana Marta Gonçalves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10251.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10853",title:"Recent Advances in Polynomials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e8671bae09ccaa8b8e276c639a737fc",slug:"recent-advances-in-polynomials",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10871",title:"Computed-Tomography (CT) Scan",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"966d8cf74fa27eea1b9cbc9a6ee94993",slug:"computed-tomography-ct-scan",bookSignature:"Reda R. Gharieb",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10871.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10903",title:"Genetically Modified Plants and Beyond",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d7ed4faab99c92cd4d676dc86501df9",slug:"genetically-modified-plants-and-beyond",bookSignature:"Idah Sithole Niang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10903.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"90172",title:"Prof.",name:"Idah",middleName:null,surname:"Sithole-Niang",slug:"idah-sithole-niang",fullName:"Idah Sithole-Niang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10904",title:"Fusarium",subtitle:"An Overview of the Genus",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d9063e43f94bd1517d65fbc58b93c3",slug:"fusarium-an-overview-of-the-genus",bookSignature:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10904.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"100573",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Mahyar",middleName:null,surname:"Mirmajlessi",slug:"seyed-mahyar-mirmajlessi",fullName:"Seyed Mahyar Mirmajlessi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10654",title:"Brain-Computer Interface",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5308884068cc53ed31c6baba756857f",slug:"brain-computer-interface",bookSignature:"Vahid Asadpour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10676",title:"Recent Applications in Graph Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900c60742d224080732bd16bd25ccba8",slug:"recent-applications-in-graph-theory",bookSignature:"Harun Pirim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10676.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"146092",title:"Dr.",name:"Harun",middleName:null,surname:"Pirim",slug:"harun-pirim",fullName:"Harun Pirim"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11196",title:"New Updates in E-Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6afaadf68e2a0a4b370ac5ceb5ca89c6",slug:"new-updates-in-e-learning",bookSignature:"Eduard Babulak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11196.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"10086",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Babulak",slug:"eduard-babulak",fullName:"Eduard Babulak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1086",title:"Neuroradiology",slug:"neuroradiology",parent:{id:"190",title:"Oncology",slug:"medicine-oncology"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:22,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"1086",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5599",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eba16b1d15f462bf516788bd9a813fac",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",bookSignature:"Lee Roy Morgan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5599.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158053",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee Roy",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",slug:"lee-roy-morgan",fullName:"Lee Roy Morgan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"53170",doi:"10.5772/66310",title:"Current Management of Brain Metastases: Overview and Teaching Cases",slug:"current-management-of-brain-metastases-overview-and-teaching-cases",totalDownloads:1629,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Over the past two decades, increased global incidence of malignancy, improved systemic disease treatment with prolonged survival, and increased central nervous system (CNS) surveillance in cancer patients have all contributed to a rise in cerebral metastatic disease. As many patients retain good neurologic function, the approach to their management has shifted markedly; a pre-terminal prognosis and palliative treatment have been replaced by individualized care plans to prolong functional survival. However, the rapid shifts in disease characteristics, treatment options and emerging evidence can be challenging to navigate, and a rational approach to brain metastases is needed. We discuss the changing epidemiology of brain metastases and consider approaches to prognostic classification. We review current treatment modalities and discuss the significant studies pertaining to each, with emphasis on Level 1 evidence when available and cooperative group trials, as well as studies on adverse effects. To integrate the information presented, we offer case scenarios that highlight pertinent decision-making factors. The shift in care goal for cerebral metastases from symptom palliation to prolongation of survival is not only feasible, but in many cases indicated. The appropriate application of various treatment modalities must be considered in the context of individual patients and their primary cancer.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Karolyn Au, Ying Meng, Suganth Suppiah, Anick Nater, Rakesh\nJalali and Gelareh Zadeh",authors:[{id:"194279",title:"M.D.",name:"Karolyn",middleName:null,surname:"Au",slug:"karolyn-au",fullName:"Karolyn Au"},{id:"197665",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Meng",slug:"ying-meng",fullName:"Ying Meng"},{id:"197666",title:"Dr.",name:"Suganth",middleName:null,surname:"Suppiah",slug:"suganth-suppiah",fullName:"Suganth Suppiah"},{id:"197667",title:"Dr.",name:"Anick",middleName:null,surname:"Nater",slug:"anick-nater",fullName:"Anick Nater"},{id:"197668",title:"Dr.",name:"Gelareh",middleName:null,surname:"Zadeh",slug:"gelareh-zadeh",fullName:"Gelareh Zadeh"},{id:"197669",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jalali",slug:"rakesh-jalali",fullName:"Rakesh Jalali"}]},{id:"53003",doi:"10.5772/66131",title:"Managing CNS Tumors: The Nanomedicine Approach",slug:"managing-cns-tumors-the-nanomedicine-approach",totalDownloads:1175,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Albeit the rapidly evolving knowledge about tumor biochemistry enables various new drug molecules to be designed as treatments, malignant central nervous system (CNS) tumors remain untreatable due to the failure to expose the entire tumor to such therapeutics at pharmacologically meaningful quantities. Therefore, drug delivery in CNS tumors must be properly addressed, as otherwise, novel therapies will continue to fail. In this regard, nanomedicine poses an appealing platform for efficient drug delivery to the CNS, since it may be targeted to improve the drug availability in the site of action, which would be translated into lower drug doses and fewer side effects. Hence, the accumulation of data about the CNS physiology and their relevant receptors, the widening therapeutic armamentarium of drugs potentially useful in CNS chemotherapy and the alternative routes for administration may envisage nanomedicines as a forthcoming routine approach. Indeed, on the basis of the promising results gathered from preclinical studies of nanomedicine-based therapy both systemically and locally administered, some nanomedicines have already been approved for clinical trials in a variety of CNS tumor conditions to serve as the first steps in the translation of nanotherapy to clinic. Their outcome will steer research directions for further improvements.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Juan Aparicio-Blanco and Ana-Isabel Torres-Suárez",authors:[{id:"193558",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Torres-Suárez",slug:"ana-isabel-torres-suarez",fullName:"Ana Isabel Torres-Suárez"},{id:"195630",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Aparicio-Blanco",slug:"juan-aparicio-blanco",fullName:"Juan Aparicio-Blanco"}]},{id:"54440",doi:"10.5772/67591",title:"NeuroPharmacology: As Applied to Designing New Chemotherapeutic Agents",slug:"neuropharmacology-as-applied-to-designing-new-chemotherapeutic-agents",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Neurooncology anticancer drugs are no exception—their distribution and tissue interactions follow the general rules of classical pharmacology. In an attempt to assist with the new therapeutic approaches to manage cancers involving the central nervous system, classical chemobiodynamic compartment and pharmacokinetic models are discussed and illustrated. In addition, strategies and approaches for penetrating the blood brain barrier (BBB) are reviewed and modeled. Finally, in support of classical pharmacology, a new anticancer agent in clinical trial for brain tumors is reviewed as an example of clinical onco-neuropharmacology.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Andrew H. Rodgers and Lee Roy Morgan",authors:[{id:"158053",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee Roy",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",slug:"lee-roy-morgan",fullName:"Lee Roy Morgan"},{id:"193557",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Rodgers",slug:"andrew-rodgers",fullName:"Andrew Rodgers"}]},{id:"53265",doi:"10.5772/66304",title:"Comparative Anticancer Activity in Human Tumor Xenograft Models, Preclinical Pharmacology and Toxicology for 4- Hydroperoxyifosfamide (HOOI): A Potential Neuro-Alkylating Agent for Primary and Metastatic Cancers Involving the Central Nervous System",slug:"comparative-anticancer-activity-in-human-tumor-xenograft-models-preclinical-pharmacology-and-toxicol",totalDownloads:794,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Background: 4-Hydropeoxyifosfamide (HOOI) is a hydroperoxy derivative of ifosfamide that was developed as an anticancer agent that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which can be potentially useful in the management of brain tumors.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Lee Roy Morgan, Andrew H. Rodgers, Gerard Bastian, William S.\nWaud, Branko S. Jursic, Robert F. Struck, Gerald LaHoste and\nEdward Stevens",authors:[{id:"158053",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee Roy",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",slug:"lee-roy-morgan",fullName:"Lee Roy Morgan"}]},{id:"53368",doi:"10.5772/65791",title:"Advances in the Treatment of Primary Brain Tumors: The Realm of Immunotherapy",slug:"advances-in-the-treatment-of-primary-brain-tumors-the-realm-of-immunotherapy",totalDownloads:1065,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Central nervous system (CNS) tumors, although rare, represent a group of neoplasms that have a disproportionate morbidity and mortality. Despite advances in our understanding of tumor pathogenesis coupled with improvements in therapeutic options, overall survival for primary brain tumors remains dismal. Although challenging, newer approaches such as brachytherapy, immunotherapy, and electric field generators are currently being evaluated in the clinical setting with promising results. The field of immunotherapy in neurooncology is still in its infancy, but several advances have already been made, including the development of tumor vaccines, utilization of immune checkpoint inhibitors, and activation of tumor dendritic cells to stimulate the host’s immune system. Recent advances in noninvasive electric fields have been applied to the treatment of glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) with encouraging clinical outcome. In this chapter, we will review the latest advances in the treatment of glioblastoma multiforme with a focus on immunotherapy.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Michael J. Strong and Marcus L. Ware",authors:[{id:"193518",title:"Mr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Strong",slug:"michael-strong",fullName:"Michael Strong"},{id:"193559",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:null,surname:"Ware",slug:"marcus-ware",fullName:"Marcus Ware"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53170",title:"Current Management of Brain Metastases: Overview and Teaching Cases",slug:"current-management-of-brain-metastases-overview-and-teaching-cases",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Over the past two decades, increased global incidence of malignancy, improved systemic disease treatment with prolonged survival, and increased central nervous system (CNS) surveillance in cancer patients have all contributed to a rise in cerebral metastatic disease. As many patients retain good neurologic function, the approach to their management has shifted markedly; a pre-terminal prognosis and palliative treatment have been replaced by individualized care plans to prolong functional survival. However, the rapid shifts in disease characteristics, treatment options and emerging evidence can be challenging to navigate, and a rational approach to brain metastases is needed. We discuss the changing epidemiology of brain metastases and consider approaches to prognostic classification. We review current treatment modalities and discuss the significant studies pertaining to each, with emphasis on Level 1 evidence when available and cooperative group trials, as well as studies on adverse effects. To integrate the information presented, we offer case scenarios that highlight pertinent decision-making factors. The shift in care goal for cerebral metastases from symptom palliation to prolongation of survival is not only feasible, but in many cases indicated. The appropriate application of various treatment modalities must be considered in the context of individual patients and their primary cancer.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Karolyn Au, Ying Meng, Suganth Suppiah, Anick Nater, Rakesh\nJalali and Gelareh Zadeh",authors:[{id:"194279",title:"M.D.",name:"Karolyn",middleName:null,surname:"Au",slug:"karolyn-au",fullName:"Karolyn Au"},{id:"197665",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Meng",slug:"ying-meng",fullName:"Ying Meng"},{id:"197666",title:"Dr.",name:"Suganth",middleName:null,surname:"Suppiah",slug:"suganth-suppiah",fullName:"Suganth Suppiah"},{id:"197667",title:"Dr.",name:"Anick",middleName:null,surname:"Nater",slug:"anick-nater",fullName:"Anick Nater"},{id:"197668",title:"Dr.",name:"Gelareh",middleName:null,surname:"Zadeh",slug:"gelareh-zadeh",fullName:"Gelareh Zadeh"},{id:"197669",title:"Dr.",name:"Rakesh",middleName:null,surname:"Jalali",slug:"rakesh-jalali",fullName:"Rakesh Jalali"}]},{id:"53032",title:"Role of Pathologist in Driver of Treatment of CNS Tumors",slug:"role-of-pathologist-in-driver-of-treatment-of-cns-tumors",totalDownloads:1584,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The incidence of Central Nervous System (CNS) tumors is gradually increasing. Furthermore, metastatic neoplasms are frequently seen in neuropathology practice as a major cause of mortality and morbidity. Pathologists try to reach a more accurate diagnosis by mentally filtering a synthesis, comprising age, radiological characteristics and microscopic findings in the sample sent, starting already from the intraoperative diagnosis process. By displaying their skills, they unveil whether a lesion in the brain parenchyma is a normal or reactive tumor and if this is a tumor, is it primary or metastatic, and if it is primary, what is the tumor type or if it is metastatic, which organ could it be associated with. Pathologists use diagnostic, prognostic and predictive markers in order to enable the patient receive the most effective and sufficient treatment. They ensure that an individualized treatment is provided via these tools, by making a histological diagnosis of the lesion according to the WHO classification, identifying the course of the disease and preventing undesired and dangerous complications. This chapter will focus on answering these questions and share the value of a multidisciplinary approach in the management of brain tumors in neurosciences, which is gradually increasing in importance, and how pathologists execute this art.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Serdar Altınay",authors:[{id:"185324",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Altınay",slug:"serdar-altinay",fullName:"Serdar Altınay"}]},{id:"53873",title:"Primary Central Nervous System Lymphoma",slug:"primary-central-nervous-system-lymphoma-2017-03",totalDownloads:1682,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Although non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) is a frequent cancer worldwide, primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma (PCNSL) is a rare presentation, with an incidence of less than 0.5 per 100,000 persons-years in the western world. In the vast majority of cases, it has the histology of a diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and is a hardly curable disease with high relapse risk. Therapeutic options are limited by blood-brain barrier penetration of drugs and because of its low-incidence high-grade evidence from large studies is lacking, current management being based on reports on rather small cohorts. The current standard first-line treatment for PCNSL consists of high-dose methotrexate (HD-MTX) in combination with a variety of drugs and consolidation whole-brain radiotherapy, the latter being progressively replaced by chemotherapy. For patients relapsing after first-line treatment, intensive chemotherapy with autologous stem cell support is a feasible and relatively safe salvage therapy. In the present chapter, we briefly discuss primary central nervous system lymphoma management and review current therapeutic options and evidence-based recommendations. We discuss the role of whole-brain radiotherapy (WBRT) and new prospects to avoid this side effect-ridden approach. Also, we will look at new therapeutic approaches currently under investigation, including immunotherapy.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Mihnea Zdrenghea, Delia Dima, Ciprian Tomuleasa, Horia Bumbea\nand Cristina Bagacean",authors:[{id:"73222",title:"Dr.",name:"Delia",middleName:null,surname:"Dima",slug:"delia-dima",fullName:"Delia Dima"},{id:"193180",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihnea",middleName:null,surname:"Zdrenghea",slug:"mihnea-zdrenghea",fullName:"Mihnea Zdrenghea"},{id:"198423",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Bagacean",slug:"cristina-bagacean",fullName:"Cristina Bagacean"}]},{id:"53003",title:"Managing CNS Tumors: The Nanomedicine Approach",slug:"managing-cns-tumors-the-nanomedicine-approach",totalDownloads:1175,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Albeit the rapidly evolving knowledge about tumor biochemistry enables various new drug molecules to be designed as treatments, malignant central nervous system (CNS) tumors remain untreatable due to the failure to expose the entire tumor to such therapeutics at pharmacologically meaningful quantities. Therefore, drug delivery in CNS tumors must be properly addressed, as otherwise, novel therapies will continue to fail. In this regard, nanomedicine poses an appealing platform for efficient drug delivery to the CNS, since it may be targeted to improve the drug availability in the site of action, which would be translated into lower drug doses and fewer side effects. Hence, the accumulation of data about the CNS physiology and their relevant receptors, the widening therapeutic armamentarium of drugs potentially useful in CNS chemotherapy and the alternative routes for administration may envisage nanomedicines as a forthcoming routine approach. Indeed, on the basis of the promising results gathered from preclinical studies of nanomedicine-based therapy both systemically and locally administered, some nanomedicines have already been approved for clinical trials in a variety of CNS tumor conditions to serve as the first steps in the translation of nanotherapy to clinic. Their outcome will steer research directions for further improvements.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Juan Aparicio-Blanco and Ana-Isabel Torres-Suárez",authors:[{id:"193558",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Torres-Suárez",slug:"ana-isabel-torres-suarez",fullName:"Ana Isabel Torres-Suárez"},{id:"195630",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Aparicio-Blanco",slug:"juan-aparicio-blanco",fullName:"Juan Aparicio-Blanco"}]},{id:"54440",title:"NeuroPharmacology: As Applied to Designing New Chemotherapeutic Agents",slug:"neuropharmacology-as-applied-to-designing-new-chemotherapeutic-agents",totalDownloads:1212,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Neurooncology anticancer drugs are no exception—their distribution and tissue interactions follow the general rules of classical pharmacology. In an attempt to assist with the new therapeutic approaches to manage cancers involving the central nervous system, classical chemobiodynamic compartment and pharmacokinetic models are discussed and illustrated. In addition, strategies and approaches for penetrating the blood brain barrier (BBB) are reviewed and modeled. Finally, in support of classical pharmacology, a new anticancer agent in clinical trial for brain tumors is reviewed as an example of clinical onco-neuropharmacology.",book:{id:"5599",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-management-of-primary-and-secondary-cns-tumors",title:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors",fullTitle:"New Approaches to the Management of Primary and Secondary CNS Tumors"},signatures:"Andrew H. Rodgers and Lee Roy Morgan",authors:[{id:"158053",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee Roy",middleName:null,surname:"Morgan",slug:"lee-roy-morgan",fullName:"Lee Roy Morgan"},{id:"193557",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Rodgers",slug:"andrew-rodgers",fullName:"Andrew Rodgers"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1086",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems. \r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/25.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"April 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!1,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"197485",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Summers",slug:"j.-kevin-summers",fullName:"J. Kevin Summers",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197485/images/system/197485.jpg",biography:"J. Kevin Summers is a Senior Research Ecologist at the Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) Gulf Ecosystem Measurement and Modeling Division. He is currently working with colleagues in the Sustainable and Healthy Communities Program to develop an index of community resilience to natural hazards, an index of human well-being that can be linked to changes in the ecosystem, social and economic services, and a community sustainability tool for communities with populations under 40,000. He leads research efforts for indicator and indices development. Dr. Summers is a systems ecologist and began his career at the EPA in 1989 and has worked in various programs and capacities. This includes leading the National Coastal Assessment in collaboration with the Office of Water which culminated in the award-winning National Coastal Condition Report series (four volumes between 2001 and 2012), and which integrates water quality, sediment quality, habitat, and biological data to assess the ecosystem condition of the United States estuaries. He was acting National Program Director for Ecology for the EPA between 2004 and 2006. He has authored approximately 150 peer-reviewed journal articles, book chapters, and reports and has received many awards for technical accomplishments from the EPA and from outside of the agency. Dr. Summers holds a BA in Zoology and Psychology, an MA in Ecology, and Ph.D. in Systems Ecology/Biology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Environmental Protection Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:0,paginationItems:[]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"11601",title:"Econometrics - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11601.jpg",hash:"bc8ab49e2cf436c217a49ca8c12a22eb",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 13th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"452331",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian",surname:"Sloboda",slug:"brian-sloboda",fullName:"Brian Sloboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"81793",title:"Canine parvovirus-2: An Emerging Threat to Young Pets",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104846",signatures:"Mithilesh Singh, Rajendran Manikandan, Ujjwal Kumar De, Vishal Chander, Babul Rudra Paul, Saravanan Ramakrishnan and Darshini Maramreddy",slug:"canine-parvovirus-2-an-emerging-threat-to-young-pets",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"81271",title:"The Diversity of Parvovirus Telomeres",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102684",signatures:"Marianne Laugel, Emilie Lecomte, Eduard Ayuso, Oumeya Adjali, Mathieu Mével and Magalie Penaud-Budloo",slug:"the-diversity-of-parvovirus-telomeres",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"79909",title:"Cryopreservation Methods and Frontiers in the Art of Freezing Life in Animal Models",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101750",signatures:"Feda S. Aljaser",slug:"cryopreservation-methods-and-frontiers-in-the-art-of-freezing-life-in-animal-models",totalDownloads:170,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79782",title:"Avian Reproduction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101185",signatures:"Kingsley Omogiade Idahor",slug:"avian-reproduction",totalDownloads:151,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Kingsley O.",surname:"Idahor"}],book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"78802",title:"Intraovarian Gestation in Viviparous Teleosts: Unique Type of Gestation among Vertebrates",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100267",signatures:"Mari-Carmen Uribe, Gabino De la Rosa-Cruz, Adriana García-Alarcón and Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"intraovarian-gestation-in-viviparous-teleosts-unique-type-of-gestation-among-vertebrates",totalDownloads:184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"79209",title:"Virtual Physiology: A Tool for the 21st Century",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99671",signatures:"Carmen Nóbrega, Maria Aires Pereira, Catarina Coelho, Isabel Brás, Ana Cristina Mega, Carla Santos, Fernando Esteves, Rita Cruz, Ana I. Faustino-Rocha, Paula A. Oliveira, João Mesquita and Helena Vala",slug:"virtual-physiology-a-tool-for-the-21st-century",totalDownloads:137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78849",title:"Application of Vermicompost Fertilizer in Aquaculture Nutrition: Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100326",signatures:"Sonnia Nzilani Musyoka and Rita Nairuti",slug:"application-of-vermicompost-fertilizer-in-aquaculture-nutrition-review",totalDownloads:67,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Nutrition - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11416.jpg",subseries:{id:"20",title:"Animal Nutrition"}}},{id:"78617",title:"Doppler Ultrasound in the Reproduction of Mares",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98951",signatures:"Camila Silva Costa Ferreira and Rita de Cássia Lima Morais",slug:"doppler-ultrasound-in-the-reproduction-of-mares",totalDownloads:123,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Animal Reproduction",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10664.jpg",subseries:{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology"}}},{id:"78543",title:"Pulmonary Vein: Embryology, Anatomy, Function and Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100051",signatures:"Chan I-Ping and Hsueh Tung",slug:"pulmonary-vein-embryology-anatomy-function-and-disease",totalDownloads:171,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}},{id:"78564",title:"Anatomy of the Rhesus Monkey (Macaca mulatta): The Essentials for the Biomedical Researcher",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99067",signatures:"Christophe Casteleyn and Jaco Bakker",slug:"anatomy-of-the-rhesus-monkey-macaca-mulatta-the-essentials-for-the-biomedical-researcher",totalDownloads:308,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg",subseries:{id:"19",title:"Animal Science"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:7,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:11,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition",subtitle:"Production, Health and Environment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",slug:"animal-feed-science-and-nutrition-production-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"May 18th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Amlan Kumar Patra",hash:"79944fc8fbbaa329aed6fde388154832",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Animal Feed Science and Nutrition - Production, Health and Environment",editors:[{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",slug:"rabies-virus-at-the-beginning-of-21st-century",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Sergey Tkachev",hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Rabies Virus at the Beginning of 21st Century",editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",slug:"advanced-studies-in-the-21st-century-animal-nutrition",publishedDate:"December 8th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"László Babinszky, Juliana Oliveira and Edson Mauro Santos",hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Advanced Studies in the 21st Century Animal Nutrition",editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10497",title:"Canine Genetics, Health and Medicine",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10497.jpg",slug:"canine-genetics-health-and-medicine",publishedDate:"June 2nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland",hash:"b91512e31ce34032e560362e6cbccc1c",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Canine Genetics, Health and Medicine",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",publishedDate:"January 20th 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/25600/images/system/25600.jpg",institutionString:"Independent Researcher",institution:{name:"Harran University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9081",title:"Equine Science",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9081.jpg",slug:"equine-science",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland and Albert Rizvanov",hash:"ac415ef2f5450fa80fdb9cf6cf32cd2d",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Equine Science",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8460",title:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8460.jpg",slug:"reproductive-biology-and-technology-in-animals",publishedDate:"April 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi and Katy Satué Ambrojo",hash:"32ef5fe73998dd723d308225d756fa1e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Reproductive Biology and Technology in Animals",editors:[{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",institutionString:"Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Spain",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8524",title:"Lactation in Farm Animals",subtitle:"Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8524.jpg",slug:"lactation-in-farm-animals-biology-physiological-basis-nutritional-requirements-and-modelization",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Naceur M'Hamdi",hash:"2aa2a9a0ec13040bbf0455e34625504e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Lactation in Farm Animals - Biology, Physiological Basis, Nutritional Requirements, and Modelization",editors:[{id:"73376",title:"Dr.",name:"Naceur",middleName:null,surname:"M'Hamdi",slug:"naceur-m'hamdi",fullName:"Naceur M'Hamdi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/73376/images/system/73376.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",publishedDate:"March 13th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7233",title:"New Insights into Theriogenology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7233.jpg",slug:"new-insights-into-theriogenology",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Rita Payan-Carreira",hash:"74f4147e3fb214dd050e5edd3aaf53bc",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"New Insights into Theriogenology",editors:[{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Nutrition",value:20,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",value:28,count:3},{group:"subseries",caption:"Animal Science",value:19,count:5}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:148,paginationItems:[{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356823",title:"MSc.",name:"Seonghee",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"seonghee-min",fullName:"Seonghee Min",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu University",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"353307",title:"Prof.",name:"Yoosoo",middleName:null,surname:"Oh",slug:"yoosoo-oh",fullName:"Yoosoo Oh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Yoosoo Oh received his Bachelor's degree in the Department of Electronics and Engineering from Kyungpook National University in 2002. He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}},{id:"351158",title:"Prof.",name:"David W.",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"david-w.-anderson",fullName:"David W. Anderson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Calgary",country:{name:"Canada"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular economy, Contingency planning and response to disasters, Ecosystem services, Integrated urban water management, Nature-based solutions, Sustainable urban development, Urban green spaces",scope:"
\r\n\tIf we aim to prosper as a society and as a species, there is no alternative to sustainability-oriented development and growth. Sustainable development is no longer a choice but a necessity for us all. Ecosystems and preserving ecosystem services and inclusive urban development present promising solutions to environmental problems. Contextually, the emphasis on studying these fields will enable us to identify and define the critical factors for territorial success in the upcoming decades to be considered by the main-actors, decision and policy makers, technicians, and public in general.
\r\n
\r\n\tHolistic urban planning and environmental management are therefore crucial spheres that will define sustainable trajectories for our urbanizing planet. This urban and environmental planning topic aims to attract contributions that address sustainable urban development challenges and solutions, including integrated urban water management, planning for the urban circular economy, monitoring of risks, contingency planning and response to disasters, among several other challenges and solutions.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. He holds a Master’s Degree in Urban Development Planning from the University College of London (UCL), and a Ph.D. in Urban Planning & Engineering from TU Berlin. He has conducted applied research on urban planning and infrastructure issues in over 20 countries in Africa and Asia. In 2005 he joined Eawag-Sandec as Leader of the Strategic Environmental Sanitation Planning Group. Since 2015 he heads the research department Sanitation, Water and Solid Waste for Development (Sandec) at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology (Eawag).",institutionString:"Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Switzerland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/290571/images/system/290571.jpg",biography:"Rui Alexandre Castanho has a master\\'s degree in Planning, Audit, and Control in Urban Green Spaces and an international Ph.D. in Sustainable Planning in Borderlands. Currently, he is a professor at WSB University, Poland, and a visiting professor at the University of Johannesburg, South Africa. Dr. Castanho is a post-doc researcher on the GREAT Project, University of Azores, Ponta Delgada, Portugal. He collaborates with the Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura (UEx), Spain; VALORIZA - Research Center for the Enhancement of Endogenous Resources, Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre (IPP), Portugal; Centre for Tourism Research, Development and Innovation (CITUR), Madeira, Portugal; and AQUAGEO Research Group, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), Brazil.",institutionString:"University of Johannesburg, South Africa and WSB University, Poland",institution:{name:"University of Johannesburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null},editorialBoard:[{id:"181486",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Trillo",slug:"claudia-trillo",fullName:"Claudia Trillo",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSAZHQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:26:43.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Salford",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"308328",title:"Dr.",name:"Dávid",middleName:null,surname:"Földes",slug:"david-foldes",fullName:"Dávid Földes",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002nXXGKQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-11T08:25:45.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Budapest University of Technology and Economics",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282172/images/system/282172.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad de las Américas Puebla",institution:{name:"Universidad de las Américas Puebla",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"81831",title:"Deep Network Model and Regression Analysis using OLS Method for Predicting Lung Vital Capacity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104737",signatures:"Harun Sümbül",slug:"deep-network-model-and-regression-analysis-using-ols-method-for-predicting-lung-vital-capacity",totalDownloads:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Decision Science - Recent Advances and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11604.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}}]},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10859",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Concepts and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10859.jpg",slug:"data-mining-concepts-and-applications",publishedDate:"March 30th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ciza Thomas",hash:"63a4e514e537d3962cf53ef1c6b9d5eb",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Data Mining - Concepts and Applications",editors:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/43680/images/system/43680.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government of Kerala",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"10651",title:"Machine Learning",subtitle:"Algorithms, Models and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10651.jpg",slug:"machine-learning-algorithms-models-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 22nd 2021",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jaydip Sen",hash:"6208156401c496e0a4ca5ff4265324cc",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Machine Learning - Algorithms, Models and Applications",editors:[{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},testimonialsList:[{id:"8",text:"I work with IntechOpen for a number of reasons: their professionalism, their mission in support of Open Access publishing, and the quality of their peer-reviewed publications, but also because they believe in equality.",author:{id:"202192",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",slug:"catrin-rutland",institution:{id:"134",name:"University of Nottingham",country:{id:null,name:"United Kingdom"}}}},{id:"27",text:"The opportunity to work with a prestigious publisher allows for the possibility to collaborate with more research groups interested in animal nutrition, leading to the development of new feeding strategies and food valuation while being more sustainable with the environment, allowing more readers to learn about the subject.",author:{id:"175967",name:"Manuel",surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",institution:{id:"6221",name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",country:{id:null,name:"Mexico"}}}},{id:"18",text:"It was great publishing with IntechOpen, the process was straightforward and I had support all along.",author:{id:"71579",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",institutionString:"Utrecht University",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71579/images/system/71579.png",slug:"berend-olivier",institution:{id:"253",name:"Utrecht University",country:{id:null,name:"Netherlands"}}}}]},submityourwork:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:87,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:98,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:27,numberOfPublishedChapters:287,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:9,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:0,numberOfUpcomingTopics:2,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:10,numberOfPublishedChapters:103,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:0,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!1},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],subseriesList:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:null},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/119166",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"119166"},fullPath:"/profiles/119166",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()