Rice fungicides registered in India (Source: Central Insecticide Board, Govt. of India)
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9558",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Active Learning - Theory and Practice",title:"Active Learning",subtitle:"Theory and Practice",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In the context of globalization changes in educational systems, it is important to modify approaches to the educational process and introduce learning technologies that allow for maximum involvement in learning. One such technology is the technology of active learning, which engages learners through participation in the cognitive process and certain tasks as well as through the collective activities of the subjects of the educational process. This book discusses the theoretical analysis of active learning and contains practical recommendations for its implementation.",isbn:"978-1-83968-477-7",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-473-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-478-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87353",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"active-learning-theory-and-practice",numberOfPages:174,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"c55b272766d51c3d563abc25c026b939",bookSignature:"Olena Lutsenko and Gregory Lutsenko",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9558.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4130,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 20th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 8th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 9th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena",middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Lutsenko",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225667/images/system/225667.jpg",biography:"Olena Lutsenko obtained her Ph.D. in 2021. Since 2015, she has had the opportunity to work on a departmental research topic on the fundamentalization of natural education for sustainable development. She is currently working on scientific topics at Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University, Ukraine, and teaches medical and biological disciplines and features of teaching methods of these disciplines. She has published more than seventy-nine scientific papers, including five textbooks and five monographs. Her recent research focuses on the peculiarities of preparing future teachers for their professional activities, as well as on the introduction of modern educational technologies in educational activities.",institutionString:"Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"316545",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregory",middleName:null,surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"gregory-lutsenko",fullName:"Gregory Lutsenko",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/316545/images/system/316545.jpg",biography:'Gregory Lutsenko obtained a Ph.D. in 2014 with his dissertation, \\"Theoretical and methodological principles of fundamentalization of physical education in higher education: didactic and managerial aspects.” He has served as head of the Department of Pedagogy and Education Management, Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University, Ukraine, since September 2015. His research interests include automated management systems for educational and scientific activities of higher education. Dr. Lutsenko is the author of more than eighty published works.',institutionString:"Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Oleksandr Dovzhenko Hlukhiv National Pedagogical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"265",title:"Education",slug:"social-sciences-education"}],chapters:[{id:"79315",title:"Features of Management of Research Activity in Higher Educational Institutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100512",slug:"features-of-management-of-research-activity-in-higher-educational-institutions",totalDownloads:164,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern pedagogical science and practice seek to comprehend the holistic pedagogical process from the standpoint of management science, to give it a clear scientifically sound character. The statement of many domestic and foreign researchers that management is real and necessary not only in the field of technical, production processes but also in the field of complex social systems, including pedagogical, is true. The introduction of innovation management is important for successful research at the university. Therefore, the main idea/goal of our study is to develop the concept of innovation as new ideas and knowledge (radical and those that improve the result), mechanisms for their practical implementation, and, most importantly, mechanisms for the dissemination of innovations. On the one hand, in many countries there are tendencies to create largely, often international clusters of research work, on the other - now in the staff of universities are introduced positions of research management specialists in existing projects and centers. Unlike pure administration, innovation research managers must make decisions based on scientific knowledge and information about society as a whole. Some authors note a growing similarity between non-university research centers, industrial laboratories, and classical universities. In fact, scientists from industrial and large research organizations have greater autonomy, for example, there are optimal conditions for creative research (at the university it is combined with the educational process). Large joint projects and the commercialization of research results in many disciplines represent this trend. The main methodology of our study was methods of theoretical and empirical nature. In the process of researching the problem outlined by us, we found that thus, it is established that the introduction of a system of information management of research activities in higher education, in general, contributed to the growth of performance management of research activities and improve the level of training of future professionals. Therefore, we dedicate our research to the peculiarities of educational management in educational institutions of Ukraine.",signatures:"Gregory Lutsenko and Olena Lutsenko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79315",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79315",authors:[{id:"225667",title:"Mrs.",name:"Olena",surname:"Lutsenko",slug:"olena-lutsenko",fullName:"Olena Lutsenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"75350",title:"Active Learning: The Panacea to Miseducative Practices in Teacher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96360",slug:"active-learning-the-panacea-to-miseducative-practices-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:380,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Traditional education has ripple effects in education. The way the educator was taught is almost always the way the educator teaches the learners. Traditional education has a narration sickness (Freire, 2000) and the so-called educators are proselytising ideologues who are after the production of copy cats. Active learning in teacher education is anchored in reflective thinking on all practices. The teacher education student should be encouraged to embark on action research which makes one to be introspective. Thus action research makes the teacher involved in active life-long learning. The teacher who has been groomed in action research abhors routine and ritualistic methods of teaching. The action research oriented teacher makes learners active in learning episodes.",signatures:"Davison Zireva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75350",authors:[{id:"332250",title:"Dr.",name:"Davison",surname:"Zireva",slug:"davison-zireva",fullName:"Davison Zireva"}],corrections:null},{id:"69557",title:"Usage-Based and Universal Grammar-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89737",slug:"usage-based-and-universal-grammar-based-approaches-to-second-language-acquisition",totalDownloads:1192,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The theoretical controversy that surrounds the acquisition of a second or foreign language is seemingly unending. Though there are dissensions in the literature, past studies had indicated that scholars tended to fall into two groups of schools of thought, the usage-based and the universal grammar-based approaches in second language acquisition. This paper reviews the literature of recently published findings in scholarly papers and contrasted the varied views of how second language can be acquired. Empirical evidence of both views are contrasted and discussed. Included in the discussion are environmental variables such as types of input and the length of input and non-environmental variables that are innate in learners.",signatures:"Kim Hua Tan and Vafa Shojamanesh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69557",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69557",authors:[{id:"284466",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kim Hua",surname:"Tan",slug:"kim-hua-tan",fullName:"Kim Hua Tan"},{id:"309067",title:"Dr.",name:"Vafa",surname:"Shojamanesh",slug:"vafa-shojamanesh",fullName:"Vafa Shojamanesh"}],corrections:null},{id:"75088",title:"Non-Formal Education as a Foundation for Active Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96002",slug:"non-formal-education-as-a-foundation-for-active-learning",totalDownloads:306,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter will include several examples of how non-formal education serves as a foundation for active learning. It will relate how non-formal education organizations such as the scouting movement through the World Organization of the Scout Movement (WOSM), works to engage young people to be developed holistically. It will also mention non-formal active learning strategies and their relation to semiotic and esthetic stimuli. The role of semiotics in non-formal active learning will be exemplified, and the article will mention how self-commitment may be created when using non-formal education and active learning. Finally, it will be discussed how dialogism takes part in this process.",signatures:"Roy Alonso Terrazas Marín and Brenda Linda Alvarado Espinoza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75088",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75088",authors:[{id:"297298",title:"Dr.",name:"Roy",surname:"Alonso Terrazas Marín",slug:"roy-alonso-terrazas-marin",fullName:"Roy Alonso Terrazas Marín"},{id:"340946",title:"Dr.",name:"Brenda",surname:"Linda Alvarado Espinoza",slug:"brenda-linda-alvarado-espinoza",fullName:"Brenda Linda Alvarado Espinoza"}],corrections:null},{id:"75959",title:"Activity-Based Online Learning: A Response to Dyslexia and COVID",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96359",slug:"activity-based-online-learning-a-response-to-dyslexia-and-covid",totalDownloads:228,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Dr. Charles Potter’s Reading Fluency Programme implements individual learning programmes focusing on children’s learning needs. The methods and materials can be used in the treatment of dyslexia, as well as for working with children with reading, writing, and spelling difficulties or difficulties with rate of work at school. The programmes are activity-based, and are introduced through online sessions related to the child’s individual learning needs as identified through initial assessment and ongoing evaluation. Based on assessment, an individual programme is developed for the child, focusing on areas of need. The programme then uses electronic books, activity books and materials for treatment of phonological and phonemic difficulties, phonic difficulties, as well as linked problems with reading, writing, spelling, reading comprehension and working memory development. This chapter provides theoretical background on the neurolinguistic basis of the programme’s methods and materials, which have been developed internationally and implemented pre COVID with both first and second language speakers of English. It also provides information on how the materials have been implemented post COVID using activity-based online learning formats, and the results of children based on pre and post assessments.",signatures:"Charles Potter",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75959",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75959",authors:[{id:"93190",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",surname:"Potter",slug:"charles-potter",fullName:"Charles Potter"}],corrections:null},{id:"75444",title:"Artificial Intelligence in Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96498",slug:"artificial-intelligence-in-education",totalDownloads:1433,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Information technology, through networking, knowledge-based systems and artificial intelligence, interactive multimedia, and other technologies, plays an increasingly important role, which will even increase in the future, in the way that education is taught and delivered to the student. For this reason, we decided to present some ideas for such learning-training environments in education in this chapter. Like many researchers in other countries, we are also developing a user-friendly general system, designed particularly for solving problems. It is based on experience-based intelligent tutoring systems, and intended primarily for executing better lessons and for students’ self-learning. Like all powerful tools, experience-based AI design approaches must be applied carefully. Without a carefully designed experience and extensive testing, these systems could easily result in unwanted outcomes (such as negative training or increased phobia anxiety). Despite the promise of the early efforts, the best approaches to designing these experiences are still topics of research and debate. Any technology as powerful as AI provokes many general social and ethical questions in all of us. Does AI make killing by remote control too consequence-free? Do AI models systematize existing biases? What will AI do when it enters education? We will try to provide an answer to this question in the following chapter.",signatures:"Andrej Flogie and Boris Aberšek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75444",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75444",authors:[{id:"332017",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrej",surname:"Flogie",slug:"andrej-flogie",fullName:"Andrej Flogie"},{id:"332021",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",surname:"Aberšek",slug:"boris-abersek",fullName:"Boris Aberšek"}],corrections:null},{id:"75643",title:"Technology Enabled Active Learning in Electrical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95930",slug:"technology-enabled-active-learning-in-electrical-engineering",totalDownloads:80,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Educational technology supports meaningful learning and enables the presentation of spatial and dynamic images, which portray relationships among complex concepts. The Technology-Enabled Active Learning (TEAL) involves media-rich software for simulation and visualization in freshman Electrical Engineering carried out in a specially redesigned classroom to facilitate group interaction. These technology-based learning materials are especially useful in safety procedures in transformers in electrical engineering to help students conceptualize phenomena and processes. This study analyzes the effects of the unique learning environment of the TEAL on students’ cognitive and affective outcomes. The assessment of the project included examining students’ conceptual understanding before and after studying safety procedures in electrical engineering in a media-rich environment. We also investigated the effect of this environment on students’ preferences regarding the various teaching methods. As part of the project, we developed pre-test and posttests consisting of conceptual questions from standardized tests, as well as questions designed to assess the effect of visualizations and experiments. It consisted of a small- and a large-scale experimental groups and a control group. TEAL students improved their conceptual understanding of the subject matter to a significantly higher extent than their control group peers. A majority of the students in the small-scale experiment noted that they would recommend the TEAL course to fellow students, indicating the benefits of interactivity, visualization, and hands-on experiments, which the technology helped enable also about teaching learning process for building students confidence is discussed. In the large-scale implementation students expressed both positive and negative attitudes in the course survey and feedback is also mentioned.",signatures:"Syed Abdur Rauf Magrabi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75643",authors:[{id:"329692",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Syed Abdur Rauf",surname:"Magrabi",slug:"syed-abdur-rauf-magrabi",fullName:"Syed Abdur Rauf Magrabi"}],corrections:null},{id:"76643",title:"University Mathematics-Laden Education, Competencies and the Fighting of Syllabusitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97692",slug:"university-mathematics-laden-education-competencies-and-the-fighting-of-syllabusitis",totalDownloads:214,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Syllabusitis is a name for a disease that consists of identifying the mastering of a subject with proficiency related to a syllabus. In this chapter I argue that using a set of mathematical competencies as the hub of mathematics-laden education can be a means to fight syllabusitis. The introduction and thorough exemplification of this idea was the main outcome of the Danish KOM Project. Furthermore, a two-dimensional structuring of the relation between subject specific competencies and subject matter was suggested. As the analytic core of this chapter I argue that such a two-dimensional structure has proven to be a crucial element when attempting to put the competency idea into educational practice, and exemplify how that can be done when it comes to mathematics-laden education at university level.",signatures:"Tomas Højgaard",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76643",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76643",authors:[{id:"341219",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",surname:"Højgaard",slug:"tomas-hojgaard",fullName:"Tomas Højgaard"}],corrections:null},{id:"78086",title:"The Development Biology Authentic Learning of Mahasarakham University Demonstration School (Secondary), Thailand",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98772",slug:"the-development-biology-authentic-learning-of-mahasarakham-university-demonstration-school-secondary",totalDownloads:134,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the “Development of Authentic Biology Learning Activities, Mahasarakham University Demonstration School (Secondary)” research study. The study included a sample group of 160 students in Grade 10 at Mahasarakham University (MSU) Demonstration School (Secondary), Thailand, divided via purposive sampling into an experimental group of 80 students and a control group of 80 students. The experimental group used authentic learning techniques to study biology, whereas the control group used normal learning to study the same subject. The study used a quasi-experimental design to assess biology knowledge after learning in both groups as well as the experimental group’s attitude towards the active learning method. The instruments used include a set of authentic biology learning activities, biology knowledge tests, and an attitude questionnaire. Results show that students in the experimental group increased their knowledge of biology after engaging in authentic learning and had a positive attitude about learning via this method. Authentic learning activities in biology give students a better understanding of the subject, evidenced by higher knowledge test scores after authentic learning, and thus is an effective way to organize learning activities for students not only in biology but in other courses of study as well.",signatures:"Wutthisak Bunnaen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78086",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78086",authors:[{id:"342787",title:"Dr.",name:"Wutthisak",surname:"Bunnaen",slug:"wutthisak-bunnaen",fullName:"Wutthisak Bunnaen"}],corrections:[{id:"81439",title:"Corrigendum to: The Development Biology Authentic Learning of Mahasarakham University Demonstration School (Secondary), Thailand",doi:null,slug:"corrigendum-to-the-development-biology-authentic-learning-of-mahasarakham-university-demonstration-s",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited 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purinergic system is capable of modulating physiological and biochemical processes. Currently, it has been widely studied for its therapeutic potential and modulation of physiological processes, such as performance in the process of apoptosis, thromboregulation, cell proliferation, platelet aggregation, endothelial vasodilation, and pain mechanism, as well as neurotransmission and neuroprotection. In addition, promising studies also report an association of the purinergic system with inflammatory processes and immune responses. The purinergic system is defined as a set of components capable of generating a cellular intercommunication network. Composed of signaling molecules, regulatory enzymes and specific receptors, this organization is capable of modulating several basal pathways of the organism, however, its understanding is relatively recent for researchers. It is understood that purinergic signaling is present in all aspects of immunity and inflammation and, increasingly, studies show that extracellular ATP, together with its adenosine metabolite, are the main mediators of response. This occurs since most immune cells express P2 and P1 receptors, which are sensitive to the ATP and adenosine molecules, respectively. In addition, depending on the amount of ATP in the extracellular environment, this cotransmitter can act as an immunostimulant or immunodepressor, on the other hand, the concentration of adenosine has anti-inflammatory actions and is considered a potent immunosuppressive molecule.
\r\n\r\n\tThe objective of this book is to describe the purinergic system, as well as the correlation between the system and the health and disease process.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-784-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-783-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-785-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1221b77b01348ed7b1e62d992a016012",bookSignature:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10801.jpg",keywords:"Ectonucleotidases, E-NTPDase, E-5'-Nucleotidase, Nucleotides, Adenosine, Nucleosides, Receptors - P1, P2, A1, A2, Purinergic System and Inflammation, Cytokines",numberOfDownloads:156,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 21st 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 23rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini has a degree in Pharmacy and a Ph.D. in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee and a member of the Biovitta Research Institute",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul (UFFS), Brazil. She has degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences (Toxicological Biochemistry). She is a member of the UFFS research advisory committee and the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently the leader of the Biological and Clinical Studies in Human Pathologies research group. She is also a professor of postgraduate programs in Biomedical Sciences and Science and Food Technology at UFFS and the postgraduate program in Biochemistry at the Federal University of Santa Catarina (UFSC), Brazil. She has experience in pharmacy and clinical analysis, including in oxidative stress, the purinergic system, and human pathologies. Dr. Bagatini is a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"81580",title:"Graft-Versus-Host Disease: Pathogenesis and Treatment",slug:"graft-versus-host-disease-pathogenesis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:39,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81764",title:"Involvement of the Purinergic System in Cell Death in Models of Retinopathies",slug:"involvement-of-the-purinergic-system-in-cell-death-in-models-of-retinopathies",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81799",title:"Cross Talk of Purinergic and Immune Signaling: Implication in Inflammatory and Pathogenic Diseases",slug:"cross-talk-of-purinergic-and-immune-signaling-implication-in-inflammatory-and-pathogenic-diseases",totalDownloads:49,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82409",title:"Purinergic Signaling in Covid-19 Disease",slug:"purinergic-signaling-in-covid-19-disease",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81681",title:"Immunomodulatory Effects of a M2-Conditioned Medium (PRS® CK STORM): Theory on the Possible Complex Mechanism of Action through Anti-Inflammatory Modulation of the TLR System and the Purinergic System",slug:"immunomodulatory-effects-of-a-m2-conditioned-medium-prs-ck-storm-theory-on-the-possible-complex-mech",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"81927",title:"Purinergic System in Immune Response",slug:"purinergic-system-in-immune-response",totalDownloads:18,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82583",title:"Leukaemia: The Purinergic System and Small Extracellular Vesicles",slug:"leukaemia-the-purinergic-system-and-small-extracellular-vesicles",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82374",title:"The Potential of the Purinergic System as a Therapeutic Target of Natural Compounds in Cutaneous Melanoma",slug:"the-potential-of-the-purinergic-system-as-a-therapeutic-target-of-natural-compounds-in-cutaneous-mel",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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In several developed countries such as North America and European Union (EU) also, rice consumption has increased due to food diversification and immigration (Faure and Mazaud, 1996). Worldwide, rice is grown on 161 million hectares, with an annual production of about 678.7 million tons of paddy (FAO, 2009). About 90% of the world’s rice is grown and produced (143 million ha of area with a production of 612 million tons of paddy) in Asia (FAO, 2009). Rice provides 30–75% of the total calories to more than 3 billion Asians (Khush, 2004; von Braun and Bos, 2004). To meet the global rice demand, it is estimated that about 114 million tons of additional milled rice needs to be produced by 2035, which is equivalent to an overall increase of 26% in the next 25 years. The possibility of expanding the area under rice in the near future is limited. Therefore, this extra rice production needed has to come from a productivity gain (Kumar and Ladha, 2011). Maximum yields per unit area of land can be achieved and sustained only if along with high yielding crop varieties there is also a provision for protection of the crop against its enemies (Srivastava et al., 2010). Amongst the various biotic factors affecting rice production and productivity, rice diseases are one of the most important ones. The annual losses due to rice diseases are estimated to be 10-15% on an average basis worldwide. Therefore, judicious management of rice diseases can result in improved productivity and additional grain harvested. Rice diseases are caused by wide variety of pathogen including fungus, bacteria, virus and nematodes (Ling, 1980). In the pre-war period, diseases of rice were practically unimportant in Tropical Asia where ancient varieties were traditionally grown on soils of low fertility (Areygunawardena, 1968). However, with the increasing demand for world rice supplies and advent of green revolution resulting in use of improved varieties, high fertilization, irrigation and intensive cultural practices have resulted in great increase in the occurrence and severity of diseases infesting rice in several countries (Teng, 1990). The major rice diseases that often cause great economic losses are rice blast (
The various methods used for managing rice disease includes, use of resistant varieties, cultural practices, biological and chemical control. All these methods have varied degrees of success in managing rice diseases. The most important control tactics used worldwide includes use of resistant varieties and chemical control. Breeding for disease resistant varieties has been long used for managing the rice diseases and is one of the most economical methods which contributed immensely to world’s rice productivity (Mew, 1991; Bonman,
Rice blast and brown spot were the major diseases noticed during pre independent India and before introduction of high yielding varieties. After introduction of HYV, along with them, BLB, tungro and sheath blight have become major diseases. Recently diseases like sheath rot, false smut, stem rot and grain discolouration which were minor and occurring sporadically are emerging and causing considerable yield loss. This is primarily due to climate change, crop intensification and changes in practice. Out of the total yield loss due to diseases in rice, 35% is by blast, 25% by sheath blight, 20% by BLB, 10% by tungro and remaining 10% by other diseases.
The market share of fungicide used on rice in India during 2010-11 is Rs 380 crores, of which blast and sheath blight fungicides alone constitute 280 crores and the share of fungicides used against brown spot, BLB, grain discoloration, stem rot and false smut is 100 crores.
Fungicides prevent rice diseases which can result in severe damage to the crop in terms of both quality and quantity. Globally 8.4 % of fungicides market share is for rice (Collins, 2007). Synthesizing and characterizing a new molecule to be used as fungicide involves several steps. Initially the new lead molecule is tested in-vitro for its efficacy against the target pathogen and then it is characterized under field condition to ascertain its efficacy against the target disease and to finalize the most effective dose/rate that can be used for the control of the target disease. Several fungicides belonging to different groups have been synthesized and evaluated for use in rice ecosystem. More than 30 fungicides have been registered for use in rice (Table 1) and several new molecules are under testing. The rice fungicides can be broadly classified in two categories.
Rice fungicides registered in India (Source: Central Insecticide Board, Govt. of India)
These fungicides have narrow to moderate spectrum of control and are highly specific. These are applied on the seed surface before sowing. The seed is dressed with either a dry formulation or wet treated with a slurry or liquid formulation. Low cost earthen pots can be used for mixing pesticides with seed or seed can be spread on a polythene sheet and required quantity of chemical can be sprinkled on seed lot and mixed mechanically by the farmers (http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/seed_certification/seed_treatment_Insecticides%20&%20Fungicides. html). The major advantage is that it provides high level of control at low dose and with low residue. In the greenhouse study, tricyclazole at 0.2g/kg of seed effectively controlled leaf blast upto 21 days after planting and resulted in 8.2 μg/g tricylazole in the leaves at that time according to GLC assay (Froyd et al., 1976). Anwar and Bhat (2005) evaluated few fungicides
Metalaxyl 28.35% | 0.75 - 1.5 fl. oz. per 100 lbs. of seed. | For |
Trifloxystrobin 22% | 0.32 - 0.64 fl. oz./cwt | For |
Mefenoxam 33.3% | Apply 0.0425 to 0.085 oz. per 100 lbs. of seed for | For |
Thiram 42% | 1.5 fl oz/bu | For seed decay, damping off, and seedling blights caused by Pythium and Rhizoctonia |
Mancozeb 50% | 4 oz. per 100 lbs. of seed. | For control of damping-off, seed rots, and seedling blights caused by Drechslera and Pythium. Drill box treatment. |
Mancozeb 37% | 3.4 to 6.7 oz. per 100 lbs. of seed. | For control of soil borne and seed borne fungi causing seed rot and reduced seedling vigor. Apply before, during, or after soaking in water. |
Carboxin 10% + Thiram 10% | 5 to 6.8 fl. oz. per 100 lbs. of seed. | For control of various seed and seedling diseases. The higher rate is recommended for control of |
Carboxin 5.7% + Thiram 5.7% | 9 to 12 fl. oz. per 100 lbs. of seed. | To control various seed and seedling diseases, especially effective against |
Carbendazim 50 WP | 4 g/kg of seeds | To control blast, brown spot and udbatta disease of rice |
Tricyclazole 75 WP | 3 g/kg of seeds | To control rice blast disease |
Rice Seed treatment fungicides:
These fungicides are applied as spray using power or back pack sprayers directed towards the plant foliage. These fungicides may be contact (surface acting) or systemic (translocated inside plant) in action. They are highly effective in controlling foliar rice diseases with good residuality. Based on their chemical class and mode of action, rice fungicides can be further grouped into following categories;
Some of the new fungicides as per the AgroProjects and Agranova database are mentioned below:
Fungicide timing is a very critical component in disease control and management. The disease needs to be present in order to justify any fungicide application and its effectiveness. This is not the case in every field and the variety grown greatly influences the disease impact, even if present. The geographical and sometimes micro-climatic conditions of the cropping area also greatly influence the incidence and intensity of any plant disease. Thus scouting and sound decision-making are worthwhile, compared to “blanket” preventative fungicide applications (Cartwright et al, 2004). Application of right chemical (Hexaconazole 5SC) at a right time (maximum tillering stage) was very important in control of sheath blight (Swamy et al., 2009). While, Pencycuron 250 EC was very effective under Punjab and West Bengal rice growing conditions against sheath blight when sprayed at maximum tillering stage(Lore et al., 2005; Biswas, 2002).
Several studies have revealed that many new fungicides have been identified for managing sheath blight in rice which differs in their efficacy from place to place and time of application. Dithane M-45 (Das and Mishra, 1990), Carbendazim and Mancozeb (Thangaswamy and Ranagswamy, 1989; Roy and Saikia, 1976) Iprodione (Izadyar and Baradaram, 1989) Triazole (Suryadi
The major consideration for the design of fungicide use strategies is the threat of fungicide resistance. Fungicide resistance can occur when a
Considerable efforts have been made by industry to conduct research in the areas of mode of action, resistance risk, field monitoring for baseline sensitivity and sensitivity variations in treated fields. Numerous pathogens that attack the highly maintained grasses, such as those found on golf courses, frequently require weekly spray applications through out the summer. This has led to resistance development in
The first report of practical resistance to fungicides in rice crop was recorded in 1971 on blast pathogen (
Bennett (2012), reported a suspected mutation of the
Kim et al., 2010, reported on Bakanae disease pathogen
Studying the case histories of resistance development by considering the genetic, biochemical and epidemiological process which explains the complex interaction and changing factors determining the rate and severity of development of fungicide resistance
Acquired fungicide resistance is a major threat to plant disease control by chemicals. Pathogens respond to fungicides by evolving resistance against them. Fungicides which provide maximum control also create maximum selection pressure on the pathogen to acquire resistance. Resistance results from one or more changes at genetic level of pathogen population due to mutations occurring in nature. Fungicide itself does not induce resistance. It selects resistant propagules already present at low frequency in natural population of pathogen.
Fungicides may be categorised based on resistance development by the pathogen as low resistant risk fungicides –dithiocarbamate which are protectant fungicides and have multisite action, medium risk fungicedes- SBI’s where mutation of several genes is required and high risk fungicides – benzimidazole and strobulins where resistance is controlled by single gene. Thus, a major consideration for the design of fungicide use strategies is the threat of fungicide resistance. There have been considerable efforts by industry to conduct research in the areas of mode of action, resistance risk and field monitoring.
Blast is the most important fungal disease of rice and occurs in all the rice growing regions of the world. Fungicidal control is largely practised for blast disease in temperate or subtropical rice cultivation, mainly in Japan, China, South Korea, Taiwan and, increasingly, Vietnam. The majority of the fungicides used in blast control are protectants. In early years, copper and mercury compounds were recommended against blast but were found not suitable because of phytotoxicity and mammalian toxicity. Current major products are mainly systemics with a residual activity of at least 15 days, although older organophosphorous products such as edifenphos are still widely used. The modern rice fungicides include isoprothiolane, probenazole, pyroquilon and tricyclazole (Anon., 1992; Filippi and Prabhu, 1997), and are applied as foliar sprays, as granules into water or seed-box treatments (irrigated lowland rice), or as seed dressings for upland rice. In recent years, newer melanin biosynthesis inhibitors such as carpropamid (Motoyama et al., 1999; Thieron et al., 1999) or broad-spectrum fungicides like azoxystrobin (strobilurin)(Lee and Beaty, 1999) have gained favour.
According to Kapoor and Singh (1982) benomyl seed treatment (1:400 w/w) gives protection to seedlings in nursery for 24-25 days. It inhibits spore germination and appressorium formation. Venkata Rao and Muralidharan (1983) found benomyl, carbendazim, MBC, edifenphos (all 0.1%) and 0.25% mancozeb effective against the blast in the order listed, and significantly better than other fungicides. Tewari and Kameshwar Rao (1983) applied carbendazim through mud balls, soil drench and foliar spray at the rate of 0.5 kg a i/ha and found effective control of the disease. Three sprays were given at the tillering stage at 10 day interval and two sprays at the neck emergence stage at 5 days interval. Saikia (1991) has confirmed the same number and timing of sprays of edifenphos, thiophanate methyl and carbendazim at 0.1% effectively reducing the leaf blast by 71.3-81% and neck blast by 60-65% with corresponding increase in yield. Studies on efficacy of fungicides indicated that tricyclazole and isoprothiolane are highly effective resulting in 87.9 and 83.8% reduction in neck blast and 33.8 and 29.9% increase in grain yield over check, respectively (Sachin and Rana, 2011). Sood and Kapoor (1997) evaluated seven fungicides and found that tricyclozole 75 WP was most effective and reduced the leaf and neck blast by 89.2% and 94.5% respectively. Muhammad Saifulla
Prasanna Kumar et. al. (2011c) evaluated three new QoI fungicides (Kresoxim methyl, Metaminostrobin and Trifloxystrobin) in combinations with other groups for two seasons against against blast and sheath blight of rice. All the QoI group fungicides were very effective in controlling leaf and neck blast and also improved the growth of the plant in terms of height, test weight and yield. Kresoxim methyl 40% + Hexaconazole 8% SC @ 200+40 g ai/ha was effective against leaf blast (5.18% and 11.11%) and neck blast (11.11% and 11.85%) with highest yield of 45.75 and 53.42 q/ha respectively during Kharif 2010 and summer 2011. Similar effectiveness was recorded in Kresoxim methyl 50% @ 200 g ai/ha against leaf blast (5.18% and 11.11%) and neck blast (11.85% and 11.11%) which was found on par with tricyclozole @ 225 g ai/ha. Application of Metaminostrobin 20% SC + hexaconazole 5% SC and Metaminostrobin alone gave higher grain yield 41.26 and 41.23 q/ha respectively and was on par with tricylcozole 75%WP. The combination was effective against leaf blast (21.11 and 18.89%) and neck blast (25.56 and 33.89%) during Kharif 2009 and summer 2010.
Nine combinations of fungicides and insecticides were tested for their efficacy and compatibility on major pests and disease of rice (Prasanna Kumar et. al., 2011a). The combination treatments involving the insecticides and fungicide treatment recorded moderate severity ranged from 12.1 to 18.5%. Combination of tricylcazole 75% WP + Fipronil 5% SC recorded least disease severity and insect infestation (17% neck blast) and highest yield of 5190 kg/ha, followed by isoprothiolane 40% EC + fipronil 5% SC compared to untreated check which recorded highest neck blast incidence(34%).
Similar results regarding the efficacy of various fungicides have been reported by different researchers globally. Varier
Sheath blight is one of the most important rice diseases worldwide and ranks number two position after blast disease. Common fungicides used earlier against sheath blight were copper, organomercury and organo-aresenic compounds (Ou 1985). Carbendazim, benomyl, ediphenfos and kitazin have been reported to be the most effective chemicals recorded by various Indian workers (Premalatha Dath 1990). The fungicidal control of sheath blight in India was attempted by Kannaiyan and Prasad (1976) and Bhaktavatsalam et. al. (1977). The rhizosphere population of the pathogen of rice seedlings was drastically reduced through foliar sprays of the fungicides such as kitazin, edifenphos, benomyl, carboxin and carbendazim. The efficacy of benomyl (Das and Panda, 1984) and carbendazim (Bhaktavatsalam et. al., 1977; Rajan and Alexander, 1988) in the management of sheath blight was studied. Benomyl and captan at 0.2% were highly effective in reducing the seedling infection while soil drenching with edifenphos, kitazin and benomyl during tillering stage was also effective in controlling the disease. Seed treatment with carbendazim, chloroneb, chlorotholonil, carboxin, benomyl and phenyl mercury acetate (PMA) reduced the seed borne infection of the pathogen and improved the seed germination, shoots and root growth, seedling vigour and prolonged the viability of the seeds. Again, 0.2% sprays of benomyl, kitazin, edifenphos and chlorotholonil were highly effective in controlling sheath blight and increased the grain yield in field trials. Roy and Saikia (1976) obtained the best control of sheath blight with carbendazim or by benomyl sprays (0.05%) both in green house and field tests. In field trials with six fungicides, kitazin granule was the most effective in reducing the disease severity, followed by edifenphos (Verma and Menon, 1977) but Mathai and Nair (1977) showed that edifenphos was the best as it increased the yield.
Flutolanil, a new systemic fungicide developed with both protective and curative properties is very effective to control various Rhizoctonia groups of fungi including rice sheath blight (Araki, 1985; Hirooka et. al., 1989). However, sheath blight disease was effectively controlled by 80% at low concentration of 1.6 to 3.2µg/g of plant. Foliar spray, soil drenching and seed treatment have been tried effectively under green house and field studies. Sundravadana et al., 2007, reported that for controlling sheath blight disease, the optimum rate of azoxystrobin was 125 g/ha. Field trials in 2008 and 2009 conducted by Parsons et al., (2009) showed that a newly formulated mixture of azoxystrobin and propiconazole called Quilt Xcel™ was highly effective in controlling sheath blight and protecting rice yield and milling quality.
PrasannaKumar et. al. (2011c) evaluated three new QoI fungicides (Kresoxim methyl, Metaminostrobin and Trifloxystrobin) and combinations with other groups were evaluated for two seasons against blast and sheath blight of rice. All the QoI group fungicides were very effective in controlling sheath blight and also improved the growth of the plant in terms of height, test weight and yield. Kresoxim methyl 40% + Hexaconazole 8% SC @ 200+40 g ai/ha was effective against sheath blight (12.59% and 20.74%) with highest yield of 45.75 and 53.42 q/ha respectively during Kharif 2010 and summer 2011. During summer 2010, application of Metaminostrobin 20% SC+hexaconazole 5% SC and Metaminostrobin alone gave higher grain yield 41.26 and 41.23 q/ha respectively. The combination was effective against sheath blight (25 and 16.11%) during Kharif 2009 and summer 2010. They also found that Trifloxystrobin 50% WG @ 200 g ai/ha recorded higher yield (47.66 q/ha and 50.17 q/ha) in both the seasons (Kharif 2010 and summer 2011). The stand alone formulation of trifloxystrobin 50% WG @ 200 g ai/ha was effective against sheath blight with PDI of 15 and 11.11% during Kharif 2010 and summer 2011 respectively.
PrasannaKumar et. al. (2011b) also reported that application of hexaconazole 75% WG @ 50g ai/ha, tetraconazole 11.6% w/w ME @ 1.0 L/ha and thifluzamide 24% SC @ 110 ai/ha were found highly effective in controlling sheath blight with increased yield when compared to untreated check. Thifluzamide a new fungicide group of carboxynilide was tested for its efficacy against sheath blight in three seasons (PrasannaKumar et. al., 2012). They found that among different concentrations, thifluzamide 24% SC at 110 g ai/ha was effective in reducing the disease severity [12 % (2005), 19.33% (2006) and 21.33 (2009)] when compared to uncontrolled check [47% (2005), 62.33 (2006) and 59.67 (2009). Carboxynilide group fungicide was both preventive and curative in effect without phytotoxicity.
A combination of fungicide and insecticide were evaluated against important diseases and insects in rice during kharif 2007, 2008, 2009 and 2010 (PrasannaKumar et. al., 2011a). They found that during 2009, the ready mix formulation of flubendiamide 3.5% + hexaconazole 5% WG @ 85 g/ha were effective in controlling rice pests to maximum extent. The combination treatment recorded least sheath blight severity of 13.9% with the yield of 4190 kg/ha when compared to the standard check (40.6% and 2409 kg/ha).
Swamy et. al. (2009) reported that new fungicide formulations tricyclozole 400g + propiconazole 125g @ 0.25% and trifloxystrobin 25g + tebuconazole 50g @ 0.04% was on par with the standard checks hexaconazole 5% EC @ 0.2% and validamycin 3L @ 0.25%. Similarly, a new formulation Captan 70% + Hexaconazole 5% WP @ 0.2% was significantly effective in reducing the sheath blight of rice (Kiran Kumar and PrasannaKumar, 2011).
Foliar sprays of fungicides such as validamycin A in Vietnam, Thailand, Korea, Malaysia and Japan and pencycuron in Malaysia have been widely used (IRRI, 1993). First spray is applied between the stage of early internode elongation and the development of 2.5- to 5-cm panicle in the boot, and the second on 80-90% of emerging panicles from 10-14 days later. The best time to apply chemicals was at the jointing stage, during which time the percentage tiller infected was highly correlated with sheath blight at wax ripeness stage: percentage yield loss depended on disease index at wax ripeness (CPC, 2005).
Brown spot is one of the most important rice diseases in India. The disease affects the yield and milling quality of the grain. Sulpha drugs like sulphanilamide and antibiotics like nyastatin and griseofulvin have been used for seed treatment to control brown spot in rice. Spraying with captafol, edifenphos and zineb was also found to be effective (Chakrabarthi et. al. (1975). A new formulation Captan 70% + Hexaconazole 5% WP @ 0.2% was significantly effective in reducing the brown spot of rice (Kiran Kumar and PrasannaKumar, 2011). According to Sunder
Sheath rot of rice occurs in most rice-growing regions of the country. Chemical control of sheath rot has been intensively studied in India. Murty (1986) found that carbendazim, edifenphos and mancozeb (seed treatment and two foliar sprays around the booting stage) reduced sheath rot incidence significantly. Benomyl and copper oxychloride have also been reported to be effective in the field. However, studies by Lewin and Vidhyasekaran (1987) indicated that all fungicides they tested (captafol, carbendazim, carboxin, copper oxychloride, edifenphos, iprobenfos, iprodione, mancozeb, tridemorph, thiophanate-methyl and validamycin) were ineffective. Seed treatment with benlate and panoctine improves germination of sheath rot infected seeds (Alagarsamy and Bhaskaran, 1987). For field control of the disease, hinosan, bavistin, and dithane M-45 proved to be effective. Fungicides like kitazin, benlate, difolatan, miltox, NF-48 and deconil were sprayed @ 0.2% separately on plants twice at 10 days interval during the flowering stage, could control the disease effectively. According to Raina and Singh (1980) and Chinnaswamy et. al. (1981), the most effective fungicide for the control of sheath rot was carbendazim followed by MBC, aureofungin and difolatan.
Effective combinations of fungicides (carbendazim) and insecticides (monocrotophos) to control sheath rot and leaf-folder, Cnaphalocrocis medinalis (Raju et al., 1988) resulted in lower incidence of sheath rot. Combined spraying of monocrotophos with any of the fungicides edifenphos, mancozeb and carbendazim resulted in reduced sheath rot and highest yields. Tridemorph + phosphamidon followed by carbendazim + phosphamidon and tridemorph + neem oil provided the best control and increased yield against sheath rot and rice mealybug, Brevennia rehi, (Lakshmanan, 1992). Two sprays of either thiophanate-methyl (Das et al., 1997), carbendazim (Das et al., 1997; Dodan et al., 1996) or propiconazole (Dodan et al., 1996) were highly effective in controlling rice sheath rot and significantly increased grain yield.
False smut has recently become an important disease of rice in India. Hybrids are more prone for this disease and fungicides have been extensively tested to manage the disease. Singh (1984) identified aureofungin, captan, captafol, fentin hydroxide, furcarbanil, mancozeb, and thiocyanomethylthiobenzothiozole to be effective in inhibiting conidial germination. Seed treatment with fungicides did not check the disease, but spraying the rice crop with carbendazim and copper fungicides at the time of tillering and pre-flowering effectively controlled the disease and yields increased (Anon., 1990). Copper oxychloride was most effective in decreasing disease incidence by 95.5 and 96.1% on the basis of infected tillers and grains, respectively, with a corresponding increase of 7.2% in grain yield (Dodan et al., 1997). Propiconazole or azoxystrobin applied during the boot stage of rice reduced the number of false smut balls in harvested rice grain by 50-75% but yield was not affected. Copper hydroxide fungicides reduced false smut balls in harvested rice by 80% but yield was also often reduced significantly. Barnwal (2011) observed that two sprays of propiconazole (0.1%) was found effective which recorded least false smut disease with number of affected florets panicle (1 of 4.13) with disease severity of 22.2 per cent and disease control over check of 77.6 per cent.
Singh and Singh (1985) have reported that 0.4% Bordeaux mixture or 0.25% COC sprayed thrice at 10 days interval starting when the crop is 60-65 days old gave about 90% reduction in disease incidence.
Stem rot disease is becoming more serious mainly in rain-fed crop. In India under field conditions, foliar application of mercurial fungicides like merculin and agrosan GN were found to be better than non mercurial like captan and thiram (Kang et. al., 1970). Hinosan, kitazin and brassicol were also found effective in reducing the disease with corresponding increase in yield (Jain, 1975).
Bakanae or foot rot disease is not widely distributed in all rice-growing areas of the country. However, the disease more serious in some endemic areas. Seed treatment with organo-mercury compounds is highly effective in controlling
Seed treatment with wettable powder containing ipconazole offered protection against seedborne diseases including bakanae (Tateishi et al., 1998). Seed treatments with benomyl + thiram and thiophanate methyl + thiram were more effective than carboxin + thiram. A drench treatment on seedlings did not provide significant control of the disease (Padasht et al., 1996). Seed soaking for 8 h in a suspension of emisan alone or emisan + streptocycline gave effective control of soil microflora including
Narrow brown spot is generally not considered economically important, and no crop loss information is available on the disease. The commonly used fungicides
From past three decades several fungicedes have been tested at All India Co-ordinated Research Centres in India for their efficacy against important diseases of rice (Table 3).
The ability of the pathogens to adopt to intensive cultivation of cereals and need to feed the increasing population will lead to increase in area of intensive cropping along with increase in consumption of fungicides. The key change in fungicide use have usually been associated with changes in the spectra of pathogens as well as in crop intensities, practices or prices. Shift in pathogen spectra could not be predicted and will continue to occur in the future due to increase in free trade. The R&D expenditures of major Agro companies on fungicides is > 60 % as against 40% for seed and traits. This ensures that new fungicides will continue to be developed to protect the cultivars species with no genetic disease resistance. Efforts are made develop a new strategy for environmentally friendly control of fungal plant diseases with the development of proteomics-based fungicides.
The trend towards a more judicious use of fungicides in combination with disease forecasting done would be continued which will help reduce the risk of adaptation by the target pathogen and at the same time will reduce residues in the environment and on the produce. The efforts of breeding for disease resistance will increase along with tools of genetic engineering. Both genetic resistance and selective fungicides are prone to adaptation by the pathogen. Another new area of research is the use of antimicrobial peptides (AMP) for improving resistance to pathogens using transgenic plants as bio-factories for fungicides or bactericides. The balance between genetic and chemical control will continue and research on both areas will complement each other to assure the availability of effective combinations of host resistance and fungicides for crops to produce higher and quality produce.
In current scenario, diverse industrial setups have been expanded very rapidly. Consequently, numerous industrial effluents particularly textile, oil, and gas, pharmaceutical, paint, fertilizer, petrochemical, metal, and mining industries have made major contribution to wastewater. These industrial effluents contain toxic dyes, nitrates, 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid herbicide (2,4-D herbicide), toxic heavy metals, pharmaceutical waste, organic waste, total ammonia nitrogen (TAN), micropollutants, and so on [1]. Wastewater comprising these noxious chemicals is lethal to humans as well as aquatic life. In this frame of reference, several techniques have been exploited for wastewater treatment in the literature explicitly, biological techniques, chemical procedures, and physical methods. Since biological techniques were constrained due to toxic contaminants, long processing time, as well as insufficient degradation of pollutants, that is, perfluorinated compounds is devoid of biological disintegration owing to 533 kJ mol−1 energy content required to fracture C▬F bond [2, 3], and physical adsorption is a nondestructive method, which could not oxidize pollutants entirely, solely accountable for shifting pollutants from one phase to another as well as pricey method for a powerful adsorbent, which cannot regenerate [4], and chemical methods, which increase cost as well as generate toxic sludge [5].
Over the last few decades, diverse advanced oxidation processes, namely peroxone, ozonation, and electro-oxidation, have been carried out for wastewater treatment through hydroxyl-free radical (HȮ) production [6, 7]. Peroxone technique is a blend of hydrogen peroxides (H2O2) and ozone (O3), and on this account several free radicals are produced, which oxidize waste organic compound present in water, but requirement of hydrogen peroxide enhances its cost as well as its storage and transport problem [8]. Furthermore, peroxone has shortcomings of low oxygen ozone conversion rate and been suppressed under neutral and acidic environments [9]. Likewise, ozonation is highly resourceful practice for treatment of large bio-recalcitrant-based wastewater; such type of waste usually required high quantity of energy to decay and has the ability to resist microbes; being an oxidizing agent, a large number of intermediates are generated by ozone, which initiated chain reaction and hence degraded waste. On the contrary, ozone reacts with naturally occurring bromide ions in water to form carcinogenic bromates as side products [10] and has less oxidation potential of 2.07 as well as inadequacy of degrading ozone refractory compounds [11]. Although electro-oxidation process has been provoked in treatment of refractory compounds [12] and micropollutants-based wastewater, nevertheless it has a drawback of more energy consumption (3–5 V) during electrolysis [13]. Additionally, electrochemical-based electrocoagulation techniques are where current is passed across wastewater solution containing electrodes, and metallic ions released from dissolution of anode result in coagulation
To overcome these dilemmas of traditional advanced oxidation techniques, researchers have been devising various electrochemical advanced oxidation practices notably, electro-Fenton, photoelectro-Fenton, electro-peroxone, and photoelectro-peroxone for wastewater treatment. Nonetheless, homogeneous electro-Fenton and photoelectro-Fenton techniques catalyzed degradation of persistent organic pollutants only under acidic media, and its alternative heterogeneous techniques could conduct full mineralization of same pollutants under neutral pH [15]. In this circumstance, hybrid electro-peroxone (EP) and photoelectro-peroxone (PEP) have been accredited for wastewater treatment under alkaline, neutral, acidic pH, posed good disintegration, and mineralization rates [16, 17, 18]. As a matter of fact, EAOPs are hybrid approaches, which have been constructed by integrating two or more practices for enhanced ȮH formation to accelerate abatement of pollutants in wastewater [19]. As a matter of fact, ȮH species is the second strongest oxidant with 2.8 V oxidation potential usually prompting nonselective attacks on C▬H bond to oxidize and mineralize pollutants very swiftly as demonstrated through Eq. (6) [20]. Additionally, ȮH could randomly demolish refractory pollutants when existing satisfactorily in water and exploited admirable degradation rate of 108 to 1010 M−1 s−1 [21].
Similarly, electro-peroxone is basically hybrid of two elementary approaches, which includes ozonation and electrolysis. In this context, all these techniques were taken into an account to mitigate their drawbacks and develop a novel method named electro-peroxone by putting all together [22]. Solely, oxygen was injected into ozone generator, which interleaved its inlet sparged effluent within cathode at electrolytic cell, where oxygen reduction
Even though EP is an expedient approach, its rate of degradation of pollutants usually diminishes with acidity of solution; these acids further make complex with ions, thereby preventing their oxidation. Furthermore, much quantity of O3 is consumed during EP process [27]. Therefore, existing techniques were modified by incorporating UV light as energy source into electro-peroxone to devise hybrid PEP approach. Photo-electro-peroxone is fundamentally hybrid of three elementary approaches, which include ozonation, electrolysis, and photolysis; these methodologies were coupled to endorse full abatement of pollutants by ȮH formation, which could be proceeded either through Eq. (7) or through (8)
This chapter study aimed to theoretically probe environmentally friendly, cost-effective, comparatively less energy consuming, no secondary toxic side product instigating, and highly versatile novel techniques for wastewater treatment. In this context, recently EAOPs-based hybrid EP and PEP approaches have been discussed for wastewater treatment. Photo-electroperoxone and EP have vividly treated distillery biodigester effluent [31], refractory pharmaceutical [32], hospital [33], ballast water [34], herbicides [18], micropollutants [35], organic pollutant [30], acidic [2], landfill leachates [36], industrial [37], and municipal secondary effluents [26]-based wastewater. Degradation rate of pollutants could be written in terms of rate law to demonstrate chemical kinetic of pollutants during wastewater treatment by electro-peroxone approach. When uniform current is provided to reactor, HȮ formation rate also turns out to be constant and
Experimental setup has been devised for degradation of pollutants in wastewater through EP and PEP approaches, which is illustrated in Figure 1. Wastewater treatment was processed in air-proof semi-batch reactor [40]. One-liter wastewater was incorporated inside the reactor, and pairs of electrodes, that is, cathode and anode 1 cm apart, were interleaved in the middle of the reactor. Quartz jacket-enclosed UV lamp was perpendicularly immersed in reactor for UV photolysis during PEP process. Bubble diffuser and magnet stirrer bar were placed to diffuse mixture of ozone and O2 gases in aqueous solution and to mix content inside the reactor. Electrolytic operations such as EP and PEP were performed under galvanostatic conditions
Schematic illustration of reactor devised for electro-peroxone and photoelectro-peroxone for wastewater treatment image reproduced from ref. [
In the literature, a wide spectrum of wastewater applications such as textile, pharmaceutical, biodigester effluents, refractory compounds, and real wastewater treatments have been successfully conducted by researchers as demonstrated by Table 1.
Category of wastewater | Anode | Cathode | Standard reaction conditions | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Secondary effluent from coal industry | Dimension-ally stable anode (DSA) | Natural air diffusion electrode | pH: 4, current: 200 mA, electrolyte: 0.3 M Na2SO4, treatment time: 3 h, inlet ozone dose: 6 mg min−1, flow rate: 100 mL min−1 | [37] |
BDE of rice grains | Al | Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) | pH: 6, current: 0.032 mA m−2, electrolyte: 0.15 M Na2SO4, treatment time: 50 min, inlet ozone dose: 135 mg L−1, flow rate: 70 L min−1 | [31] |
Hospital wastewater | Pt sheet | Activated carbon fiber | pH: 9, current: 400 mA, electrolyte: 0.05 M Na2SO4, inlet ozone dose: 5 g h−1, flow rate: 1 L min−1 | [33] |
Ballast water | Perforated DSA | PTFE and carbon black-modified graphite felt (GF) | pH: 7, current: 50 mA, aeration rate: 50 mL min−1, temperature: 25°C, | [34] |
Refractory OMPs | Mixed oxides of ruthenium and iridium (RuO2/IrO2) coated Ti plate | Stainless steel plate | Current: 60 mA, treatment time: 15 min, inlet ozone dose: 7 mg L−1, concentration of model pollutant: 150 μg L−1, flow rate: 0.15 L min−1 | [35] |
LEV | Pt mesh | Carbon fiber composite | pH: 6.8, current: 140 mA, electrolyte: 0.05 mol L−1 Na2SO4, treatment time: 15 min, inlet ozone dose: 47 mg L−1, temperature: 25°C, flow rate: 0.08 mg L−1 | [41] |
TC and disinfections | Perforated dimension stable anode | Carbon black and PTFE-modified GF | pH: 7, current: 50 mA, electrolyte: 0.05 M Na2SO4, aeration rate: 50 mL min−1, E coli: 1000 CFU mL−1, concentration of model pollutant: 700 μg L−1, flow rate: 35 mL min−1 | [26] |
Multiple FQs | Pt plate | Fe-modified carbonized MOF | pH: 4.2, current: 210 mA, treatment time: 10 min, inlet ozone dose: 40.2 mg L−1, temperature: 25°C, concentration of model pollutant: 20 mg L−1, flow rate: 50 mL min−1 | [42] |
Carbamazepine | Carbon rod | CeOx/GF | pH:5, current: 0.05 mA, electrolyte: 0.05 Na2SO4 mol L−1, treatment time: 60 min, ozone output: 50 mg h−1, temperature: 25°C, concentration of model pollutant: 10 mg L−1, flow rate: 0.5 L min−1 | [43] |
Antibiotics and biocides | Pt | Carbon-PTFE | Phosphate buffer: 50 mM, current: 35 mA, electrolyte: Na2SO4 50 mM, inlet ozone dose: 4.5 mg L−1, temperature: 15°C, concentration of model pollutant: 10 μg L−1, flow rate: 0.35 L min−1 for each | [44] |
Acid orange 7 | Graphite (4 cm2) | Graphite (4 cm2) | pH:7.7, current: 0.5 A, anode to cathode ratio: 6: 6, electrolyte: 0.1 M Na2SO4, treatment time: 10 min, temperature: 25°C, concentration of model pollutant: 500 mg L−1, ozone flow rate: 8.5 L min−1 | [45] |
AR14 | Pt sheet | Carbon-PTFE (XC-72 carbon powder) | pH:10, current: 0.7 A, electrolyte: 0.1 M Na2SO4, treatment time: 30 min, temperature: 25°C, concentration of model pollutant: 400 mg L−1, flow rate: 0.25 L min−1 | [46] |
AV19 | Ti|IrSnSb-oxide plate | 3D GDE | pH: 3, current density: 20 mA cm−2, electrolyte: 0.05 M Na2SO4, inlet ozone dose: 14.5 mg L−1, temperature: 25°C, concentration of model pollutant: 40 mg TOC L−1, electrolyte flow rate: 2 L min−1, pressure exerted at GDE: 3 psi | [47] |
CV | Pt rod | Stainless steel wool | pH: 9, current: 0.1 A, electrolyte: 100 mg L−1 NaCl, inlet ozone dose: 2 mg L−1, temperature: 22°C, concentration of model pollutant: 50 mg L−1, peroxide: 15 mmol L−1 | [48] |
Diverse EP approaches are exemplified for diverse wastewater treatment under standard reaction conditions.
Textile industries are producing huge volume of wastewater nearly 30–50 cm3 water volume ton−1dyes. Subsequently, dyestuff effluents (10–20 mg L−1) have been discharged into sewages and rivers [49, 50]. Treatment of textile wastewater is inappropriate through biological treatment meanwhile it culprits toxic secondary by products at the end, alternatively several oxidants have been reported which were being restricted on accountability of structural intricacy of dyestuffs. Consequently, textile wastewater treatment is prompted by EAOPs. [51, 52, 53]. Anionic dye Acid Orange 7(C6H11N2NaO4S) containing wastewater (500 mg L−1) has been fully decontaminated with 90% and 99% exclusion of TOC and chemical oxygen demand (COD), respectively, within 90 minutes through EP approach carried out in cylindrical reactor [54]. Likewise, Acid Orange 7 was pulverized in a cylindrical baffled reactor to boost exchange among reactants and well-organized electrode arrangement by EP approach. Acid Orange 7 (500 mg L−1) mineralization cleared out 92% TOC and 99% COD were declined within 90 minutes at pH 7.7 with large electrode surface area ratio (6:6) by which degradation was considerably enhanced [45]. Similarly, Acid red 14 (AR 14) wastewater (400 mg L−1) has been disintegrated in Ep-based Box-Behnken experimental setup. Full disintegration of AR 14 was accomplished, and 69% COD exclusion was achieved within 60 minutes at 10 pH [46]. Another attempt has been made on decomposition of crystal violet (CV) with Kapp of 2.69 × 10−2 and 2.87 × 102 min−1, for 100 and 200 mg L−1 CV in wastewater, respectively. About 98% CV was eliminated at pH range of 7–9 within 5 minutes through combination of electrolysis/peroxone/H2O2, and corresponding treated wastewater was manifested no toxicity for microbes. Electro-peroxone approaches were provoked decolorization at alkaline media [48]. A novel approach has been made to smash Acid Violet 19 (AV19) in a lab-scale filter-press-based plant employing 3-D gas diffusion electrode as a cathode to attain better oxygen reduction reaction
Recurring detection of personal care and pharmaceutical compounds in water has increased health heedfulness and environmental considerations [55, 56]. Wastewater treatment plant could not completely eliminate antibiotics through traditional activated sludge and sedimentation techniques; as a result, these have been monitored in secondary wastewater effluents in certain quantity [56, 57, 58]. In contrast to traditional ozonation practices, ozone recalcitrant micropollutants notably chloramphenicol, ibuprofen, and clofibric acid have been effectively pulverized and accelerated degradation kinetics through triggering HȮ production by means of EP approach [59, 60]. Numerous advanced oxidation techniques have been launched to smash bio-recalcitrant paracetamol (PCT). EP approach has exhibited good efficiency in full disintegration of PCT with rate constant of 0.1662 min−1 [32]. Levetiracetam (LEV) removal was a bit challenging owing to polar structures, which was not susceptible to ozone degradation [61]. Extremely water-soluble antiepileptic drug LEV has been manifested pseudo-first-order degradation kinetics
Real wastewater in contrast to synthetic wastewater is more complex, having abundant organic micropollutants with varieties of molecular structures accompanying physicochemical properties [63, 64]. Biochemical oxygen demands (BODs)/COD ratio has been commenced for probation of biodegradability prospects and wastewater encompassing 0.4 or its onward ratio has manifested good biodegradability as well as decline in bio-toxicity [65]. Electro-peroxone approach was carried out for processing of reverse osmosis concentrate obtained from industrial coal wastewater. As a result, 92% decolorization, 89% UV254, and 71.2% TOC have been eradicated within 6 hours [37]. After treatment, 91.3% color reduction and 99.9% COD elimination were detected in distillery biodigester effluents (BDE) through EP approach, and low cost of 1 m3 BDE/2$ and less sludge formation are major gratification of this approach [31]. Chloramphenicol and clofibric acid such as ozone obstinate micropollutants in surface water have been oxidized by EP system and subsequently resulting in hypochlorous and hypobromous acids, which are the main culprit of engendering chlorinated and brominated derived byproducts were efficiently quenched by electrochemically produced H2O2 in surface water [35]. Several antibiotics conspicuously ciprofloxacin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, and trimethoprim have been eliminated from secondary wastewater effluents through EP [44]. Electro-peroxone practice was also employed to process municipal secondary effluents with negligible disinfection side products as well as 65% COD and 44% BOD were declined [26]. Diverse 89 pharmaceutical compounds were examined in terms of organic micropollutants (OMPs) exclusively existing in a real wastewater to evaluate their ozone reactivities and physiochemical properties by means of quantitative structure activity relationship (QSAR) for the sake of kinetic assessment. Pharmaceutical compounds having partial charge moieties, and branched, electrophiles, and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital energies were categorized as ozone-resistant compounds with ozone rate constant (kO3) < 102 M−1 s−1 and were degraded by sole EP. Conversely, ozone reactive pharmaceuticals accompanying with nucleophilic species, highly occupied molecular orbital energies, and conformation contingent charge descriptors were deemed to be ozone reactive with rate constant greater than 102 M−1 s−1 would be rapidly eradicated by EP and ozonation [66]. Additionally, ultrasound coupled EP system and virgin EP has been applied for textile industry effluent at 5.8 pH. 93% and 99% decolorization have been accomplished through virgin EP and the integrated ultrasound EP process within 60 minutes after treatment [67]. Similarly, real pesticide wastewater has been treated
In context of acidic wastewater treatment, few attempts have been made to mend EP process. Tannic acid has been oxidatively smashed by EP approach in two phases firstly tannic acid pulverized
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have exhibited brilliant adsorption to pollutants, and this tendency along with adsorption kinetic was further enhanced in terms of electro-sorption by employing them as electrodes [71]. Furthermore, CNTs have been demonstrated good electrochemical oxidation of pollutants, good chemical stability, electrical conductivity, and noteworthy mechanical strength during electrolysis [72] and photolysis [73]. Advanced oxidation approach has been integrated with adsorption to construct hybrid system for actively pulverization of pollutant in wastewater [74, 75]. Pharmaceutical compounds, particularly diclofenac sodium (DS), were completely fragmented by carbon nanotubes-polytetrafluoroethylene (CNTs-PTFE) electrode over five consecutives cycles exploiting pseudo-second-order kinetics. Where negatively charge diclofenac sodium was exhibited electro-sorption to CNTs-PTFE anode afterward, adsorption phenomena switched this anode into cathode and corresponding adsorbed pollutants were subsequently disintegrated by EP approach within 10 minutes and 99% TOC were eliminated after 1 hour [76]. Likewise, copper ferrite-modified carbon nanotubes (CuFe2O4/CNTs) were used as catalysts having brilliant recyclability to decomposed fluconazole (FLC) wastewater through EP. Catalyst has adsorbed FLC on its sphere and enhanced FLC mass transfer to electrode surface and thereby eliminated 89% FLC and integrated adsorption-EP technique has contributed 10% efficiency to virgin EP approach [77].
Similarly, carbon nitride-multiwall carbon nanotubes-based nanocomposite (n-C3N3/MWCNT) catalyst has actively smashed sodium oxalate in wastewater by endorsing adsorption of pollutant and accelerating electron transfer, which trigger O3 and O2 electro reduction [78]; consequently, H2O2 and Ȯ3− were generated, which has further enhanced HȮ formation [79]. On account of large surface area, activated carbons are good in elimination of micropollutants (MPs); on the contrary, MPs saturated activated carbons having high affinity for adsorbates pose a major challenge in regeneration of electrode, which was overwhelmed by oxidation of MPs through ozonation process [80] but some sorts of MPs were inert toward ozonation reaction [64]. In this frame, EP coupled with ozonation to exclude diverse MPs, namely trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, perfluorooctanoic acid, carbamazepine, diclofenac, and benzotriazole from wastewater and efficiently pulverized MPs from ozone. Afterward, ozone-resistant MPs were disintegrated
Electro-peroxone approaches have been well organized at alkaline and neutral pH; on the contrary, its progress was constrained at acidic pH, which bounds rate constant of H2O2 as of 9.6 × 106 to 0.01 M−1 s−1 for 11 to 3 pH, respectively. Hence, reaction between ozone and deprotonated peroxide has no more yielded reactive oxygen species [22]. Manganese carbon nitride-carbon nanotubes (C3N4-Mn/CNT) composite catalyst overcomes drawbacks of disintegrating pollutants in strongly acidic solution
Traditional EP approaches were mostly carried out by commencing 2-D electrode system, which have been demonstrated low mass transfer; therefore, to boost electrode performances for additional optimization of conducted treatment were suggested for forthcoming generation [78, 83]. Reticulated enamel carbon, graphite felt, polytetrafluoroethylene, and carbon felt-based cathodic materials were manifested O2 reduction for H2O2 formation [84]. Unlike conventional 2D-electrode in EP approach, 3D-electrode system could considerably promote the electrochemical efficiency of reactor owing to large surface area, which boosted H2O2 formation [85]. TiO2-loaded granular-activated carbon (TiO2-GAC) as a 3D electrode in EP system was applied for decomposition of diuron, which is a phenyl urea herbicide wastewater, hybrid 3-D/EP system was demonstrated two times more pseudo-first-order disintegration rate (effectiveness) than those of sole EP system. Diurons were adsorbed by TiO2-GAC and later polarized to synthesize microelectrodes, which yields ȮH. Moreover, TiO2-GAC has considerably enhanced H2O2 formation in a corresponding solution [68]. Being a 3-D activated carbon system, carbon felt (CF) has been shown elegant electrolytic proficiency, good mechanical stability, and cost effective [86]. N-doped-reduced graphene oxides (N-rGOs) supported carbon as well-designed cathode was demonstrated to improve oxygen reduction feedback for H2O2 generation, better conductivity, boosted electrocatalysis, and electron transfer rate [87, 88]. Diuron was completely smashed at 9 pH within 15 minutes through EP approach using versatile N-rGO/CF-based cathode electrode. Furthermore, N-rGO/CF exploited good efficiency in H2O2 formation and lessen energy expenditures for 10 cycles continuously to that of sole CF cathode. This system has led to processed real pesticide wastewater having COD of 3680 mg L−1 after processing till 360 minutes, and COD was declined to 47.7 mg L−1. Moreover, BOD/COD ratio of 0.4 and 0.04 has been obtained for processed and unprocessed real pesticide wastewater, respectively [88]. Another attempt was made in which a filter-press flow cell integrated with three-dimensional air diffusion electrode-based lab scale plant was devised to disintegrate levofloxacin and 63% mineralization accomplished at 3 pH [89]. Likewise, GF was modified with cerium oxides (CeOx) to well-designed cathode, and H2O2 exhibited chemisorption with CeOx; consequently, it will prompt reaction with O3 as compared with bulk H2O2. Consequently, CeOx/GF-EP system has been manifested 69.4% TOC exclusion in disintegration of carbamazepine within 60 minutes at pH range of 5–9 with upright fivefold recyclability. In contrast to traditional EP, this strategy is perquisite for degradation of refractory organic pollutants under acidic media by proficiently activating ozone, upgraded surface hydrophilicity, and lessen energy expenditure for electro-generation of H2O2 [43].
A novel hybrid approach comprising three electrodes in EP system for oxalate-containing wastewater has been developed. After elaboration of reaction mechanism, it was suggested that all reactions in combination subsidizes HȮ formation in EP. In contrast to two electrode systems, three electrodes system could be comparatively privilege in providing precise control and purifying salt-rich wastewater [79].
To proficiently mineralize and eliminate a wide range of biodegradable contaminants along with refractory pollutants from wastewater by low electrical energy requirement in cost effective and easy ways, some conventional approaches conspicuously biological treatment, ultrasound, electrocoagulation, and low-pressure filtration were coupled with electro-peroxone to devise novel complementary hybrid electro-peroxone system [67, 90, 91]. In this circumstance, synergy overcome constrained individual approaches that have low efficiency independently and accelerated attenuation of wastewater in terms of complementary hybrid electro-peroxone system.
Bio-electroperoxone (Bio-EP) approach has been devised for a two-way treatment of pharmaceutical wastewater, where microbes biodegrade some compounds at electrically bound biofilm reactor (EBBR), and the rest of all compounds that did not undergo biological oxidation was pulverized
Hydroxyl-free radicals could be synthesized by fracturing bubbles cavitation in aqueous medium through ultrasound (US) based on Eq. (16) [92]. Moreover, US also splits up ozone and peroxide based on Eqs. (17) and (18) [93, 94]. Integrated US/EP approach was applied to fragmentize acid orange 7 at pH 7, which has manifested 88% mineralization, 99% decolorization, and 85% COD elimination with pseudo-first-order kinetics [67].
Shale gas fracturing flowback water (SGFFW) was processed with electroperoxone-integrated electrocoagulation (EC/EP) or ECP approach and led to 82.5% COD exclusion up to 90 minutes, with 29.9% average current effectiveness. In ECP technique, coagulant hydroxyl-aluminum at anode eliminates colloids and suspended items [95] as well as catalyzed HȮ formation by reaction with O3 to breakdown pollutants
Low-pressure filtration was coupled with EP approach to design hybrid electro-peroxone filtration (EPF) system, which was continuously eliminated 64.87% ibuprofen (IBU) at less filtration pressure (0.8 kPa) within 8 seconds in its very low concentration of 1 mg L−1. IBU elimination efficacy was comparatively three times than that of individual efficiencies achieved from electrochemical filtration and ozone filtration. In contrast to sole EP, EPF was promoted mass transfer of HȮ and O3 owing to membrane permeation drift [91].
Downflow bubble column electrochemical reactor (DBCER) has led to incremented mass transfer and contact area owing to energetically liquid inflow, and small bubble formation takes place to cause commotion as well as did not let out electrochemically synthesized
Simple ozonation, photolysis, and electrolysis mechanisms were integrated to fashion novel hybrid PEP approach for wastewater treatment to overcome shortcoming of low mineralization rate during EP at acidic pH and dwindle corresponding electrical energy consumption. Henceforth, PEP and EP approaches have been contributed to synergistic effect, which has been quantitatively determined through enhancement factor calculated by Eqs. (22) and (23) [55].
Where kEP, kPEP, kO, kUV, and kE denote rate constants during pollutant disintegration for EP, PEP, ozonation, photolysis, and electrolysis, respectively. Enhancement factors along with degradation rate constants have been comparatively incremented during PEP approaches than those of EP for same wastewater treatment (e.g., Table 2).
Category of wastewater | Conducted approach | Anode | Cathode | Apparent degradation rate constant Kapp | Enhancement factor | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nitrobenzene | PEP | 12 cm2 platinum sheet | 40 cm2 carbon-PTFE | 93.0 | 5.8 | [30] |
— | EP | — | — | 86.7 | 5.5 | [30] |
Chlorobenzene | PEP | — | — | 212 | 8.4 | [30] |
— | EP | — | — | 164 | 6.7 | [30] |
Benzaldehyde | PEP | — | — | 112 | 4.7 | [30] |
— | EP | — | — | 98.0 | 4.1 | [30] |
1,4-Dioxane | PEP | Platinum/titanium (Pt/Ti) | Carbon-PTFE | 2.237 | 33.4 | [100] |
— | EP | — | — | 1.749 | 28.2 | [100] |
Nitrophenol | PEP | 50 cm2 carbon belt | 50 cm2 BDD | 0.145 | 13.2 | [40] |
— | EP | — | — | 0.074 | 6.7 | [40] |
2,4-D herbicide | PEP | Titanium | Graphene | 0.0009 | [18] | |
MY | ZVI/PEP | Platinum | Graphite felt | 0.1926 | 1.54 | [101] |
Reactive Yellow F3R | PEP | Ti/TiO3 | Graphite | 1.176 | 1.38 | [102] |
— | EP | — | — | 0.834 | 1.28 | [102] |
PFOA | PEP | rGO/BiOClfilm-based photoanode | Graphite | 17.5 | 4.73 | [2] |
CBZ | EP | Carbon rod | CeOx/GF | 2 × 10−2 | 3.12 | [43] |
Organic contaminant | Bio-EP | Nematic liquid crystal display electrode | Pt coated titanium | 0.0177 | [39] | |
Methylene blue | Bio-EP | Activated carbon granules | XC-72 carbon black | 0.237 | [90] |
Comparison between PEP and EP techniques has been demonstrated on basis of enhancement factors along with degradation rate constants for wastewater treatment.
rGO/BiOCl = reduced graphene oxide/bismuth oxy-chloride,
Organic pollutants containing plentiful wastewater have been magnificently treated by PEP. In this framework, derivatives of benzene particularly nitrobenzene, chlorobenzene, and benzaldehyde containing wastewater were processed through electro-peroxone and photoelectro-peroxone approaches. Although both approaches have been drawn out 98% TOC, PEP exhibited good degradation kinetics, and consumed less energy than that of EP and other advanced oxidation processes, which have been exploited slow degradation kinetics and used up high energy [30]. Similarly, 1,4-dioxane, a major contributor to refractory organic pollutant, is exclusively found in industrial wastewater and landfill leachates and was disintegrated with 33 times proficient pseudo-first-order rate constant
Similarly, PEP approaches have been eliminated herbicides at both alkaline and neutral pH. In this context, 2,4-D herbicide was entirely degraded within 25 minutes and its degradation kinetics has exploited first-order reaction rate by PEP approach having rate constant of about 2.5-folds higher than the rate constant of EP. Furthermore, 58.9% TOC has been wiped out during 2,4 D mineralization at pH of 7 from wastewater solution. On contrary to stainless steel and graphite felt, cathodic-activated carbon has promoted reaction rate by engendering H2O2 [28]. Likewise, another attempt has been made to boost 2,4-D herbicide disintegration through UV-assisted PEP. Complete fragmentation of 2,4-D herbicide in solution (58 mg L−1) was obtained at 5.6 pH in 112 minutes along with its 91% elimination; moreover, 76% TOC has been withdrawn during 2,4-D herbicide mineralization after 2 hours. Low pH and 85% COD along with trapping assessment revealed that both species ȮH and Ȯ2− have contributed to wastewater treatment [18]; hence, approximately at slightly acidic pH reaction could be proceeded between H+ ions and Ȯ3− to produce reaction active species (HȮ−)
Furthermore, PEP-based some attempts have been made in textile wastewater treatment. In this circumstance, MY dye containing wastewater has been processed by incorporating zero-valent iron (ZVI) as a nano-catalyst in the solution, which was further followed by PEP process and accelerated wastewater treatment. This hybrid PEP/ZVI approach has successfully decolorized wastewater solution (50 mg L−1) at acidic pH 3 within 25 minutes, as acidic media promotes H2O2 electrolytically based on Eq. (25) [101]. Moreover, reactive yellow F3R (RY F3R) wastewater was pulverized by PEP manifesting first-order kinetics and 97.66% decolorization and 84.64% TOC has been excluded with 14 and 1.4 times more degradation rate constant as compared with photolysis and EP sequentially.
Moreover, real textile wastewater also has been treated by PEP effectively by withdrawing TOC [102] and decolorization rate could be promoted by incorporating transition metals that in turn produce Fenton reagent. Fe+2 triggers ozone activation and hydroxyl-free radical formation as discussed in Eqs. (26) and (27) [28, 106].
In addition, COD parameter was applied to analyze pollutant concentration in landfill leachate and lower the pollutant concentration, and lesser oxidant would be acquired; hence, lower COD exclusion would be attained. Percentage of COD exclusion could be calculated by Eq. (28) where C0 and Cf denote quantity of COD that has been consumed by leachate before and after its treatment [107]. In this frame, 83% COD exclusion has been achieved at 5.6 pH through PEP [36].
Some amount of energy has required to perform electrochemical oxidation of wastewater. In this framework, specific energy is mandatory to disintegrate pollutants in innumerable wastewater treatment. Therefore, Eqs. (29) and (30) have been proposed to estimate energy supplied during EP, PEP, and complementary hybrid EP approaches [94].
Where SECEP and SECPEP are the specific energy consumptions for EP and PEP sequentially measured in kWh (gTOCremoved)−1, and SERPEP is the specific energy consumption or electrical energy requirement measured in kWh (gCODremoved)−1. U is an average cell voltage (V), I denotes current (A), t represents reaction time (h), r symbolizes energy requirements for ozone formation (kWh (kgO3)−1), CO3 designates ozone quantity consumed during EP and PEP approaches, TOC0 and TOCt indicate total organic carbon in the solution at 0 time and any time t (mg L−1), [PCT]0 and [PCT]t symbolize concentrations of unprocessed and processed paracetamol (PCT), respectively, V shows solution volume (L), PUV denotes power of UV lamp (W) [108], Δ(TOCexp) represents change in the concentration of TOC [89], (C0 − Ct) is the concentration of LEV in untreated and treated wastewater sequentially, R denotes energy expenditure for ozone formation, C symbolizes concentration of inlet ozone, Q indicates flow rate of gaseous ozone [41], a represents energy attained for ozone formation, Qgas designates feed gas volume, and CO3 reveals feed gas comprising ozone concentration [26].
Total organic carbon was effectively discarded from wastewater during mineralization of benzene derivatives through SECEP and SECPEP, of 1.07 and 0.66 kWh (gTOCremoved)−1 respectively [30]. Similarly, SECEP and SECPEP of 0.22 and 0.30 kWh (gTOCremoved)−1 have been achieved by removing TOC from 1,4-dioxane containing wastewater sequentially [100]. Nitrophenol decomposition has been expended SECEP and SECPEP, of 7.5 and 4.1 kWh (gTOCremoved)−1, respectively, for entire elimination of TOC. In addition to PEP, BDD electrode dramatically enhanced reaction kinetic; therefore, deducted energy requirement [40] SERPEP of 1.5 kWh (gCODremoved)−1 has been consumed in landfill leachate treatment using Eq. (31) [36]. Entire PCT breakdown
Overall, PEP dwindled almost 45% specific energy consumption than that of EP approaches for a same category of wastewater under unchanged reaction conditions; nevertheless, some exceptions may be commenced conspicuously in degradation of 1,4-dioxone. Complementary hybrid EP approaches have foremost expedience of comparatively reducing energy expenditures to that of a virgin EP as well as enhanced abatement of pollutants in wastewater treatment. In this milieu, bio-electroperoxone system offered much indulgence by in taking very low energy. In contrast to conventional 2-D electrodes, latest 3-D electrodes-based EP approaches have been manifested less energy consumption.
High-operating cost-advanced oxidation processes on accountability of derisory performance to wastewater treatment have been exploited sundry shortcomings, which urge necessity for EAOPs-based alternative techniques. In this framework, to exaggerate traditional 2-D EP system has been transformed into 3-D EP by modification in electrode texture as a result, more peroxide formation was catalyzed by large electrode surface area as well as considerably SEC were also dwindled. Notwithstanding PEP approaches were established to overcome dilemma of existing EP techniques under harsh conditions, where UV accelerated further prevailing hydroxyl-free radicals and synergistic effect of individual mechanisms involved in PEP have been substantially boosted enhancement factor along with degradation kinetics of pollutants in wastewater thereby diminishing energy expenditures in the form of SECPEP. Additionally, to improve some conventional methods more conspicuously filtration, electrocoagulation and biological treatments were coupled with EP to devise novel complementary hybrid EP-based EAOPs, which have demonstrated pragmatic mineralization effectiveness and declined required electrical energy consumption.
Over the last decade, EAOPs in wake of nonselective oxidation and prohibition of secondary products have been acquainted for wastewater treatment. Henceforth, EAOPs more conspicuously novel complementary hybrid EP and PEP approaches could be more economical option for wide spectrum of synthetic and real wastewater treatment along with reducing energy expenditures, which could be fruitful from laboratory to large scale.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen celebrates Open Access academic research of women scientists: Call Opens on February 11, 2018 and closes on March 8th, 2018.
",metaTitle:'Call for Applications: "IntechOpen Women in Science 2018" Book Collection',metaDescription:"IntechOpen celebrates Open Access academic research of women scientists: Call Opens on February 11, 2018 and closes on March 8th, 2018.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/women-in-science-book-collection-2018/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"On February 9th, 2018, which marks the official celebration of UNESCO’s International Day of Women and Girls in Science, we have announced we are seeking contributors for the upcoming “IntechOpen Women in Science 2018” Book Collection. The program aims to support women scientists worldwide whose academic needs include quality assurance, peer-review, fast publishing, collaboration among complementary authors, immediate exposure, and post-publishing citations reporting.
\\n\\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
\\n\\nWomen scientists can apply for one book topic, either as an editor or with co-editors, for a publication of an OA book in any of the scientific categories that will be evaluated by The Women in Science Book Collection Committee, led by IntechOpen’s Editorial Board. Submitted proposals will be sent to designated members of the IntechOpen Editorial Advisory Board who will evaluate proposals based on the following parameters: the proposal’s originality, the topic’s relation to recent trends in the corresponding scientific field, and significance to the scientific community.
\\n\\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"On February 9th, 2018, which marks the official celebration of UNESCO’s International Day of Women and Girls in Science, we have announced we are seeking contributors for the upcoming “IntechOpen Women in Science 2018” Book Collection. The program aims to support women scientists worldwide whose academic needs include quality assurance, peer-review, fast publishing, collaboration among complementary authors, immediate exposure, and post-publishing citations reporting.
\n\nAPPLYING FOR THE “INTECHOPEN WOMEN IN SCIENCE 2018” OPEN ACCESS BOOK COLLECTION
\n\nWomen scientists can apply for one book topic, either as an editor or with co-editors, for a publication of an OA book in any of the scientific categories that will be evaluated by The Women in Science Book Collection Committee, led by IntechOpen’s Editorial Board. Submitted proposals will be sent to designated members of the IntechOpen Editorial Advisory Board who will evaluate proposals based on the following parameters: the proposal’s originality, the topic’s relation to recent trends in the corresponding scientific field, and significance to the scientific community.
\n\nThe submissions are now closed. All applicants will be notified on the results in due time. Thank you for participating!
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. 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