Listing of some possible applications of chitosan in agriculture and the related effects (activity and plant defence responces).
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10548",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Lean Manufacturing",title:"Lean Manufacturing",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Lean manufacturing is a process used in production to maximize efficiency and minimize waste by considering sustainability and the environment. This book presents a comprehensive overview of lean manufacturing in various enterprises, including manufacturing, construction, and the fabric and textile industry, among others. Chapters cover such topics as barriers to lean manufacturing, enterprise modeling, lean practices and circular economies, and more.",isbn:"978-1-83969-150-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-149-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-151-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92922",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"lean-manufacturing",numberOfPages:244,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"7409b2acd5150a93004300800918b736",bookSignature:"Karmen Pažek",publishedDate:"November 3rd 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10548.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3677,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:6,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 20th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 16th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 6th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 5th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"179642",title:"Prof.",name:"Karmen",middleName:null,surname:"Pažek",slug:"karmen-pazek",fullName:"Karmen Pažek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/179642/images/system/179642.jpg",biography:"Karmen Pažek was born in 1976. She graduated from the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Maribor, Slovenia, in 2000. In 2001 she was employed at the same faculty as an assistant for the field of grassland management. Between 2000 and 2003, she enrolled in the master\\'s study program in Agriculture Economics at the same faculty, and in 2003 she received her master\\'s degree. In the same year, she enrolled in a doctoral study in Agriculture Economics at the Faculty of Agriculture and obtained the status of a research assistant. In 2006 she successfully completed her Ph.D. in Agriculture Economics.\n\n\n\nSince 2006 she has been habilitated at the University of Maribor, and Life Sciences (she has been a full professor since 2016) for the field of Farm management. She holds several courses at all levels of study. She is currently the head of the 1st-degree study Agriculture Economics and Rural Development and the Vice Dean for Education.\n\n\n\nHer research includes the development of decision support tools and systems for farm management (simulation modeling, multicriteria decision analysis, option models, risk management), the economics of agricultural production, and other modern methods of operational research.",institutionString:"University of Maribor",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Maribor",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1360",title:"Production Engineering",slug:"technology-industrial-engineering-production-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"76130",title:"Application of Lean in a Small and Medium Enterprise",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97059",slug:"application-of-lean-in-a-small-and-medium-enterprise",totalDownloads:216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Application of lean principles in manufacturing as well as services has been revolutionizing the operations for more than five decades. Many large as well as small enterprises have implemented lean and reported benefits in both direct and indirect activities of business. Due to advent of digital technologies and better understanding of process improvement approaches made lean much more effective across many sectors. In this chapter, we highlight various elements of lean and its application to a small enterprise in food processing sector in India. We draw some useful insights based on the implementation of lean and challenges faced by SMEs.",signatures:"Venkataramanaiah Saddikuti, Saketh Saddikuti Venkat and Ganesh Babu Shanmugam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76130",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76130",authors:[{id:"292211",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Venkataramanaiah",surname:"Saddikuti",slug:"venkataramanaiah-saddikuti",fullName:"Venkataramanaiah Saddikuti"},{id:"337430",title:"Mr.",name:"Saketh",surname:"Saddikuti Venkat",slug:"saketh-saddikuti-venkat",fullName:"Saketh Saddikuti Venkat"},{id:"349737",title:"Mr.",name:"Ganesh Babu",surname:"Shanmugam",slug:"ganesh-babu-shanmugam",fullName:"Ganesh Babu Shanmugam"}],corrections:null},{id:"75200",title:"Lean and Kaizen: The Past and the Future of the Methodologies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96169",slug:"lean-and-kaizen-the-past-and-the-future-of-the-methodologies",totalDownloads:379,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lean and Kaizen improvement methodologies have been in the entrepreneurship spotlight for a long time. They can be adopted by any kind of enterprise, and they succeed in producing better long-term results, improving their performance, but most important, influencing the philosophy of the organizations implemented. In this research, many case studies and success stories of companies implementing Kaizen or/and Lean methodologies, or even the new Lean Kaizen methodology, will be introduced. We attempt to evaluate the performance of Lean and Kaizen implemented companies and distinguish the elements that made the difference. Maybe, it is some specific tool, or an aspect in the culture that was enhanced, since the implementation of these business process improvement methodologies. Finally, thoughts and estimations will be presented, regarding the future of these methodologies, in the unstable and rapidly changing economic environment.",signatures:"Vasileios Ismyrlis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75200",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75200",authors:[{id:"190036",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasileios",surname:"Ismyrlis",slug:"vasileios-ismyrlis",fullName:"Vasileios Ismyrlis"}],corrections:null},{id:"76432",title:"Introduction to Lean Waste and Lean Tools",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97573",slug:"introduction-to-lean-waste-and-lean-tools",totalDownloads:296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the turbulent and complex business environments, many Indian SMEs are facing stiff competition in the domestic as well as in the global market from their multinational counterpart. The concept of lean has gained prominence due to the fact that the resource based competitive advantages are no longer sufficient in this economy. Hence, lean is no longer merely an option but rather a core necessity for engineering industries situated in any part of the globe, if they have to compete successfully. Lean Manufacturing (LM) which provides new opportunities to create and retain greater value from the employee of the industry based on their core business competencies. The challenge of capturing, organizing, and disseminating throughout the aggregate business unit is a huge responsibility of the top management. The success of any industry depends on how well it can manage its resources and translate in to action. The adoption of lean manufacturing through effective lean practices depends on interpretations of past experiences and present information resides in the industry. Generally, in an industry, some tangible and intangible factors exist in the form of non-value adding activities which hinder the smooth lean implementation are known as lean manufacturing barriers (LMBs).",signatures:"Shyam Sunder Sharma and Rahul Khatri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76432",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76432",authors:[{id:"311981",title:"Dr.",name:"Shyam Sunder",surname:"Sharma",slug:"shyam-sunder-sharma",fullName:"Shyam Sunder Sharma"},{id:"338090",title:"Mr.",name:"Rahul",surname:"Khatri",slug:"rahul-khatri",fullName:"Rahul Khatri"}],corrections:null},{id:"76093",title:"Effect of Lean Practices on Organizational Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96482",slug:"effect-of-lean-practices-on-organizational-performance",totalDownloads:136,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The study focuses on the analysis of the direct effect of Lean Manufacturing (LM) practices on operational performance in manufacturing industry. A model for evaluating the effect of LM is developed taking into consideration as a fundamental variable that affects the causal relationship between LM practices and operational performance. A structural equation model was proposed and investigated across the manufacturing industry in India. A structured survey questionnaire was used to collect empirical data from 400 Indian companies. A total of 203 usable responses were obtained giving a response rate of 53%. The data was analyzed using SPSS- AMOS software. The results revealed that LM practices directly and positively affected operational performance. The results indicated that the structural equation model remained invariant across the Industry. The study provides further evidence to managers and practitioner on the effect of LM practices on operational performance in developing countries like India.",signatures:"Lokpriya Mohanrao Gaikwad and Vivek K. Sunnapwar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76093",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76093",authors:[{id:"246830",title:"Prof.",name:"Lokpriya Mohanrao",surname:"Gaikwad",slug:"lokpriya-mohanrao-gaikwad",fullName:"Lokpriya Mohanrao Gaikwad"},{id:"251857",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek K.",surname:"Sunnapwar",slug:"vivek-k.-sunnapwar",fullName:"Vivek K. Sunnapwar"}],corrections:null},{id:"75353",title:"Enhancement of Textile Supply Chain Performance through Optimal Capacity Planning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96292",slug:"enhancement-of-textile-supply-chain-performance-through-optimal-capacity-planning",totalDownloads:244,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Manufacturing companies in the textile and apparel field face stiff competition due to the globalization of trade between suppliers, producers and customers. To meet this challenge, they need to be efficient by adopting new lean manufacturing approaches and new analysis and management tools leading to more flexible and agile production and distribution processes. For the textile and apparel industry, where products’ life cycle is short due to fashion changes, a new integrated approach of production and distribution planning is needed. Based on linear programming techniques and integrating subcontracting activities, our approach takes into account the characteristics of demand, including its short life cycle, seasonality and fashion effect. For these reasons, a sequential approach is adopted, combining tactical and operational decision levels for production and distribution activities, in order to satisfy customer needs at lower cost by reacting quickly to changes and delivering on time. The deployed approach is structured according to the DMAIC lean tool. Validated on real instances, this approach proves its efficiency by achieving cost reduction when internal production capacity is adequately and efficiently planned.",signatures:"Imen Safra and Kaouther Ghachem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75353",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75353",authors:[{id:"336845",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"safra",surname:"Imen",slug:"safra-imen",fullName:"safra Imen"},{id:"345868",title:"Dr.",name:"Kaouther",surname:"Ghachem",slug:"kaouther-ghachem",fullName:"Kaouther Ghachem"}],corrections:null},{id:"75657",title:"From Lean Manufacturing to Lean Construction: How Principles, Tools, and Techniques Evolved",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96191",slug:"from-lean-manufacturing-to-lean-construction-how-principles-tools-and-techniques-evolved",totalDownloads:323,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lean manufacturing first emerged in the automotive industry. However, low productivity and low efficiency in production are major problems for the majority of industries relying on a heavy workforce. Being one of these, the construction industry suffers from low productivity rates along with inefficient work practices. To prevent those, the industry has shifted its focus from the traditional approach to a more innovative one, which is called Lean construction. Lean construction aims to maximize value while minimizing waste. Therefore, it intends to create safer, smoother, and more efficient processes to eliminate waste. This chapter focuses on Lean construction and highlights the generic Lean tools and techniques practiced in the construction industry indicating its historical journey from Lean manufacturing. The chapter aims to raise awareness towards the efficiency of Lean methods in the construction industry with respect to practices observed in manufacturing.",signatures:"Sevilay Demirkesen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75657",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75657",authors:[{id:"338001",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sevilay",surname:"Demirkesen",slug:"sevilay-demirkesen",fullName:"Sevilay Demirkesen"}],corrections:null},{id:"75939",title:"Model-Based Enterprise Continuous Improvement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96856",slug:"model-based-enterprise-continuous-improvement",totalDownloads:234,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The enterprise reengineering based on enterprise modelling is usually carried out within the framework of conventional projects. This leads to relatively long projects that are not compatible with a highly variable economic environment. The objective of the evolution management presented here is to use enterprise modelling and all the benefits it brings in a framework that allows for more continuous improvement than is generally observed. The proposed architecture is made up of three levels: a strategic level based on performance measurement, a tactical level that manages system migration and is based on enterprise models, and an operational level consisting of managing a portfolio of evolution projects. Together, these allow a shorter set of projects to be carried out, while remaining coherent and aligned with the company’s strategy. This approach puts enterprise modelling methods and continuous improvement/Lean management approaches into perspective, allowing complementarities and opening up interesting perspectives concerning enterprise re-engineering methods.",signatures:"Bruno Vallespir and Anne Zouggar-Amrani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75939",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75939",authors:[{id:"345188",title:"Prof.",name:"Bruno",surname:"Vallespir",slug:"bruno-vallespir",fullName:"Bruno Vallespir"},{id:"348617",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",surname:"Zougar-Amrani",slug:"anne-zougar-amrani",fullName:"Anne Zougar-Amrani"}],corrections:null},{id:"75617",title:"Single Minute Exchange of Dies: Classical Tool of Lean Manufacturing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96665",slug:"single-minute-exchange-of-dies-classical-tool-of-lean-manufacturing",totalDownloads:268,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Effective utilization of the resources is the need of an hour particularly when it comes to the manufacturing industry. It is having a paramount importance to have a proper utilization of the resources, on the same line in any manufacturing industries to reduce the setup time is also one of the ways to do so. Single Minute Exchange of Dies (SMED) is one of the classical method which is normally used to reduce the setup time. In this technique complete videography of the existing changeover is done and then by analyzing it waste activities identified and other improvement plant has been done in each iteration. The chapter also showcases the SMED technique applications in a gear industry. Remarkable resources and results have been achieved through the implementation of classical tool of Lean manufacturing is made.",signatures:"Yash Dave",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75617",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75617",authors:[{id:"338618",title:"Dr.",name:"Yash",surname:"Dave",slug:"yash-dave",fullName:"Yash Dave"}],corrections:null},{id:"75408",title:"Lean Manufacturing as a Strategy for Continuous Improvement in Organizations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96427",slug:"lean-manufacturing-as-a-strategy-for-continuous-improvement-in-organizations",totalDownloads:337,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The implementation of lean manufacturing is one of the most discussed and studied topics in management; references are at the business, educational and public levels. However, the changes faced in the fourth industrial revolution generate challenges that will only encounter solution through innovative efforts and industrial improvements as well as a radical change in our way of interacting. In the current revolution, there are digital changes that cause ruptures in social, economic and political aspects, and the administrative process is part of it, this chapter proposes to analyze the implementation of lean manufacturing in the process of continuous improvement in business organizations through a literary review of the implementation of tools.",signatures:"María Marcela Solís-Quinteros, Carolina Zayas-Márquez, Luis Alfredo Ávila-López and Teresa Carrillo-Gutirrez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75408",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75408",authors:[{id:"281004",title:"Dr.",name:"María Marcela",surname:"Solís-Quinteros",slug:"maria-marcela-solis-quinteros",fullName:"María Marcela Solís-Quinteros"},{id:"343581",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Alfredo",surname:"Avila-Lopez",slug:"luis-alfredo-avila-lopez",fullName:"Luis Alfredo Avila-Lopez"},{id:"343697",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Zayas-Márquez",slug:"carolina-zayas-marquez",fullName:"Carolina Zayas-Márquez"},{id:"343698",title:"Dr.",name:"Teresa",surname:"Carrillo-Gutiérrez",slug:"teresa-carrillo-gutierrez",fullName:"Teresa Carrillo-Gutiérrez"}],corrections:null},{id:"74769",title:"Development of Integrated Lean Six Sigma-Baldrige Framework for Manufacturing Waste Minimization: A Case of NAS Foods Plc",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95279",slug:"development-of-integrated-lean-six-sigma-baldrige-framework-for-manufacturing-waste-minimization-a-c",totalDownloads:345,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The aim of this study objective is to develop an integrated constant quality improvement model so as to minimize unwanted biscuit processing industry wastes. The method used was lean- six- sigma elements to define measure and improve unwanted process company wastes. In other word, Baldrige with six-sigma were created to define, measure and improve management perspectives. The tasks were integrated using both quantitative and qualitative analyzing tools implementing mixed strategies. The result was improved by using FMEA analysis was carried out at each stage of the existing process used to determine the failure of the process and to analyses and improve the production quality. The SPSS software was also used. In the finding section, the correlation and regression analysis has shown that there is strong relationship between each variance. There are different wastes that identified in six sigma (DMAIC) on NAS food Plc as a result; the value of waste ratio indicated is 36.7%. This show non-lean of the food industry is practiced. The defect of the company also calculated and defect per million are 67,308. This shows that the biscuit production has a production capability with a failure of 67,308 every 1000,000 productions it high failure rate. The contribution of the paper has indicated that there are limited studies were conducted so far to implement waste minimization tools like six-sigma, lean and MBNQA framework approach integration for food processing industry.",signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew and Selamawit Gebreyohanis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74769",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74769",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"},{id:"338417",title:"Ms.",name:"Selamawit",surname:"Gebreyohanis",slug:"selamawit-gebreyohanis",fullName:"Selamawit Gebreyohanis"}],corrections:null},{id:"75149",title:"Analysis, an Anathema: Is That a Fervent Diatribe of Lean?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96166",slug:"analysis-an-anathema-is-that-a-fervent-diatribe-of-lean-",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Should there be an understanding that rigor in analysis must be out-of-bounds for Lean initiatives? Will this rigor not facilitate a benchmarking of Lean initiatives? Why not a Lean initiative cause-consequence assessment not performed for building future fault tolerance? The effectiveness of a company’s strategy is critical to its success or failure. Lean strategy seems to be claimed as a widely recognized factor for business success and competitive advantage. However, empirical evidences do not promote the idea that Lean has delivered results every time. Study results indicate that success or failure of lean initiatives strongly depends on how companies approach it and on whether company has created their own curated philosophy towards Lean. Then, success is not dependent alone on a strategy, but on how daily operations are aligned to strategy. This chapter aims to address the above questions and a greater number of questions that we experience on a day-to-day basis with regard to Lean applications in the real world. Chapter Learning Objectives: Understanding Lean, Lean failure modes, and Lean initiative precautions.",signatures:"Sajit Jacob and Krishnamurthy Kothandaraman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75149",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75149",authors:[{id:"299036",title:"Mr.",name:"Sajit",surname:"Jacob",slug:"sajit-jacob",fullName:"Sajit Jacob"},{id:"299213",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishnamurthy",surname:"Kothandaraman",slug:"krishnamurthy-kothandaraman",fullName:"Krishnamurthy Kothandaraman"}],corrections:null},{id:"76883",title:"Lean Manufacturing towards Green Manufacturing Practices and Its Implementation in SME’s",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97389",slug:"lean-manufacturing-towards-green-manufacturing-practices-and-its-implementation-in-sme-s",totalDownloads:184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The manufacturing SMEs are facing the burden of non-equilibrium of the supply–demand chain along with the global change in the climate. Several SMEs are looking for a substitute that can create a balance between performance and the environment. In spite of numerous studies related to green and lean that has been evolved, none of them is able to clearly define the spheres of green and lean. Here in this chapter, there is an exploration of advancement of lean and green manufacturing and its impact on other sectors. It also highlights the methodology adopted in implementing the same. This chapter recognizes the commonalities between lean and green approaches, the collaboration and impact, techniques involved. Also, the impediments and perplexities confronted by the manufacturing sector are examined. Further, this gives a better understanding of the challenges before implementing lean with green. This chapter also recognizes possible gaps in the literature that will help to eliminate the barrier toward this Neo manufacturing.",signatures:"J.P. Rishi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76883",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76883",authors:[{id:"339553",title:"Dr.",name:"J.P.",surname:"Rishi",slug:"j.p.-rishi",fullName:"J.P. Rishi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75839",title:"Lean Manufacturing Practices and Environmental Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96973",slug:"lean-manufacturing-practices-and-environmental-performance",totalDownloads:321,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Lean manufacturing is considered a rewarding production strategy due to its positive effects on organizational and economic efficiency in various industries. Given the growing ecological consciousness, environmental achievements of lean manufacturing also incorporate a strong economic relevance. The main objective of this chapter is, therefore, to investigate the impact of lean manufacturing practices on environmental performance and the existing coherences between Lean and ecologically oriented variables such as resource usage, energy consumption, and air pollution. The methodology is literature review evaluating the findings of research in this sphere. Besides the discussion of its principles and methods, current trends and challenges regarding lean production as a business model that supports eco-efficiency are presented. The implications of this study will allow executives to better recognize and simultaneously solve both the economic and environmental problems posed by their companies.",signatures:"Ruhet Genç",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75839",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75839",authors:[{id:"340234",title:"Prof.",name:"Ruhet",surname:"Genç",slug:"ruhet-genc",fullName:"Ruhet Genç"}],corrections:null},{id:"78284",title:"Circular and Lean Food Supply Chains",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99769",slug:"circular-and-lean-food-supply-chains",totalDownloads:175,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Circular economy (CE) refers to the industrial economy that aims to achieve enriched sustainability through restorative objects and supply chain design. Many governments have put in place different initiatives in line with the CE. On the other hand, the term Lean operations refers to the reduction of the non-value adding activities and waste in a supply chain. The food sector has been criticized for its sustainability and circularity due to the high levels of food and packaging waste and at the same time the increasing costs. Although food supply chain entities have started to implement circular economy and lean practices, the current efforts do not seem to be sufficient to achieve a circular and lean food system. The aim of this chapter is to explore the possibility of a circular and at the same lean food supply chain.",signatures:"Stella Despoudi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78284",authors:[{id:"338855",title:"Dr.",name:"Stella",surname:"Despoudi",slug:"stella-despoudi",fullName:"Stella Despoudi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2020",title:"New Technologies",subtitle:"Trends, Innovations and Research",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"170d84903f390df23023d0623d8577d3",slug:"new-technologies-trends-innovations-and-research",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. 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Kim",dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2020",dateReviewed:"April 16th 2020",datePrePublished:"June 15th 2020",datePublished:"April 14th 2021",book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"316140",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuri",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Yuri Kim",slug:"yuri-kim",email:"yurikim@hotmail.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"Canadian Space Agency",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}]},book:{id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",fullTitle:"Satellite Systems - Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",publishedDate:"April 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. 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\r\n\tSchiff base (imine -N=CH-) is one of a popular group of organic compounds prepared from primary amines and aldehyde. Not only as organic compounds but also as ligands for metal complexes, a number of studies have been carried out so far. In this context, this book aims to record a wider range of interdisciplinary content on Schiff base compounds, with an emphasis on the latest advances. This book will aim to compile research results, commentary, reviews, etc., that have dealt with preparation, spectroscopy, crystallography, (asymmetric) synthetic roles, physical properties (magnets, optics, and so on), computational chemistry, and/or theoretical chemistry and their discussions. The book will also intend to focus on Schiff base and its strong connection from organic chemistry to biochemistry or polymer materials chemistry.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-679-6",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-678-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-680-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ce51efbe2cae97ca3199350ef6c498ec",bookSignature:"Dr. Takashiro Akitsu",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12078.jpg",keywords:"Schiff Base, Imine, Azomethine, Synthesis, Characterization, Crystal Structure, Chirality, Liquid Crystals, Polymers or Biopolymers, Metal Complex, Salen-Type Ligand, Computational Chemistry",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 20th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 21st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 19th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 8th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 6th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"25 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A professor from the University of Science, Japan, has published 220 articles and book chapters. Dr. Akitsu studied at the Institute for Protein Research (metalloproteins), Keio University (photo and magnetic functional organic/inorganic hybrid compounds), and Stanford University (physical and bioinorganic chemistry) before moving to Tokyo University of Science.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"147861",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashiro",middleName:null,surname:"Akitsu",slug:"takashiro-akitsu",fullName:"Takashiro Akitsu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/147861/images/system/147861.jpg",biography:"Takashiro Akitsu, Ph.D., is now a professor in the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Division II, Tokyo University of Science, Japan. Studying crystal and electronic structures of chiral copper complexes, he graduated from Osaka University and obtained his Ph.D. in Physical and Inorganic Chemistry in 2000. Dr. Akitsu studied at the Institute for Protein Research (metalloproteins), Keio University (photo and magnetic functional organic/inorganic hybrid compounds), and Stanford University (physical and bioinorganic chemistry) before moving to Tokyo University of Science. He has published 220 articles and book chapters. 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For many years, the control of pathogens has been performed mainly through the application of chemical pesticides, due to their easy application, the relatively low cost and the broad spectrum of action. Pesticides application for crop defence has been widely used since post-war years and led to a large yield growth in agriculture, contributing to economical development, reducing endemic diseases and protecting/restoring plantations, forests, harvested wood products [1]. In fact, plant diseases represent a critical problem to successful production. Agricultural productivity has demonstrated to get benefits from the utilization of pesticides both at quantitative and healthy level, e.g. when pesticides are properly used, they contribute to the higher production and quality characteristics of crops. However, the advantages in their use comprise several drawbacks problems related to two main aspects: the human health and the environmental impact. In fact, the chemical plant protection products, including even copper that is allowed in organic agriculture, are mostly toxic, persistent, bio-accumulative and extremely harmful not only for human health, but also for many living organisms [2]. Pesticides can contaminate environmental matrices coming up the aquifer [3], causing direct and permanent damage to the ecosystem. In addition, there is the real possibility that their residues can get into the food chain of consumers [4]. The massive use of these chemical substances has also favoured the emergence of resistance phenomena in the major crop pests [5] and the contemporary disappearance of many pests’ natural enemies, such as bumblebees, butterflies and bees [6].
\nThe pesticides application and their related effects constitute a topic of major concern, so that, according to the new Europe directive in favour of a sustainable agriculture, many plant protection products currently in use will be replaced with lower environmental impact substances. For this reason, many scientific works and researches have been focused in developing alternative approaches to the use of pesticides for managing crop diseases, through experimentations that have followed different paths including physical methods [7] integrated pest management and biological control [8]. A promising approach consists in the use of natural compounds such as plant extracts and their active principles (alkaloids, phenols, monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, isoprenoids), which have been studied for their various antifungal, antibacterial and antioxidant properties [9–11] and animal derived compounds like chitosan. It has proved to be very interesting for controlling plant diseases [12]. In fact, it has been shown both to possess a broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against several phytopathogenic organisms and to induce numerous biological responses in plants [13].
Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide that can be obtained from the deacetylation of chitin, a long-chain polymer of N-acetyl-glucosamine present and easily extracted from fungal cell wall and crustacean shells (Figure 1). From a practical viewpoint, the shells of marine crustaceans such as crabs and shrimps are very affordable for a commercial production of chitin. They represent a practical challenge because they are available as waste from the seafood processing industry. Recent advances in fermentation technologies suggest that the cultivation of selected fungi can provide an alternative source of chitin and chitosan [14].
The structure of the molecules of chitin (β-(1-4)-N-acetyl-D-glucosamine) and chitosan (β-(1-4)-D-glucosamine) that results from the partial deacetylation of chitin.
In addition to its low cost production, chitosan also possesses other biological properties such as non-toxicity, biocompatibility and biodegradability, which make chitosan a sustainable and eco-friendly molecule.
\nChitin is the second renewable carbon source after lignocelluloses biomass and, in fact, about 1600 tons of chitin are annually produced [15]. For industrial production, solid chitin is soaked in 40–50% (w/v) NaOH. This process removes more than 80% of the acetyl residues and converts N-acetyl-D-glucosamine into β-1,4-D-glucosamine. Complete deacetylation is possible by repeating the alkaline treatment. Therefore, the term “chitosan” is not uniquely related to a defined compound, but to a group of commercially available copolymers that are heterogeneous for deacetylation degree, molecular mass, polymerization degree and acid dissociation constant (pKa value) [13]. These different characteristics, in particular the degree of deacetylation and the molecular weight, influence the physic-chemical properties (including viscosity and solubility), and they have a direct influence on the biological properties of the substance and the effects in plants and pathogens.
\nAll these characteristics make chitosan very useful for several industrial applications, namely cosmetology, food, biotechnology, pharmacology, medicine and, more recently, agriculture [16].
\nBased on the current state of research and progress in agriculture, this chapter will consider the potential uses of this natural compound in plant disease control, based mainly on a dual mode of action involving a direct antimicrobial activity and an indirect resistance induction that elicit several defence responses in the plants. The upgrading of the plant defence mechanisms against pathogen represents a very innovative approach for crop protection [15], and it will be described separately. Moreover, the last advanced researches such as seed treatment and soil amendment applications will be described. Postharvest fruit application will not be included because extensively discussed in the literature [17].
\nOne of the most studied proprieties of chitosan is its high antimicrobial activity against a wide variety of microorganisms such as fungi, bacteria and viruses (Table 1). An antimicrobial substance is defined as a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of microorganisms [18].
\nA broad spectrum fungicidal activity of chitosan has been described: it inhibits
Chitosan also prevents the growth of several pathogenic bacteria including
Besides these activities, chitosan is able to inactivate the replication of viruses and viroids thus limiting their spread [29], even though relatively few research studies on its antiviral activity have been reported [30].
\nThe exact mechanism of the direct antimicrobial action of chitosan is still ambiguous, and different mechanisms have been proposed and described [14, 28], but none of them are mutually exclusive. The main mode of action proposed is related to its cationic properties [31] hypothesis supported by the lack of antifungal activity of uncharged chitin oligomers [32]. In fact, unlike chitosan, the polymeric form of chitin is naturally uncharged, and it does not show substantial antimicrobial activity. Basing on this model, the positive charges on the chitosan molecules interact with negatively charged pathogen surfaces (electrostatic interactions); this leads to the cell structure destruction, causing an extensive cell surface alterations and increasing membrane permeability [33–35]. Another proposed mechanism involved the alteration of cell permeability by chitosan that includes its deposition onto the pathogen cell surface, and consequent creation of an impermeable polymeric layer that prevents the uptake of nutrients in the cell, and in the meantime changes of the metabolite excretion in the extracellular matrix [28].
\nChitosan is also able to chelate some essential nutrients, metal ions and trace elements necessary for bacterial and fungal growth [12, 28], inhibiting thereby toxin production and microbial growth [36].
All plants, whether they are resistant or susceptible, respond to pathogen attack by the induction of a coordinate signalling system, which results in the accumulation of different gene products. The responses to pathogen attack are effective at different levels: at first, the pathogen recognition leads to the development in the plant of a rapid localized cell death, also known as the hypersensitive response (HR), that causes necrosis at the site of infection (local response). Then, even in uninfected parts of the plants, a systemic expression of a broad spectrum and long-lasting resistance against further pathogen infection is triggered. This leads to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the activation of defence-related genes as well as an enhanced expression of genes related to the production of molecules, such as phytoalexins, terpens, pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins and many enzymes involved in defence mechanisms (phenylalanine ammonia-lyase [PAL], polyphenol-oxidases [PPOs] and peroxidases such as guaiacol-peroxidase (G-POD) and ascorbate peroxidase [APX]) [37–39].
\nThe signals able to trigger the defence mechanisms in plants are called elicitors, and they can be produced in the site of infection both by infected plant cells (endogenous elicitors, released by the plants upon contact with the pathogen) and by the pathogen itself (exogenous pathogenic elicitors). They consist of several compounds including oligosaccharides, lipids, peptides and proteins, and they are capable, even at low concentrations, to act as signal molecules inducing the plant to trigger the defensive responses [40]. The elicitors, once recognized by transmembrane receptors of plant cells, induce an immune response, both locally (around the infection site/application) and systemic, through the translocation of signalling molecules in distal tissues [41]. The increasing knowledge of the mechanisms underlying the plant response to pathogen attacks has supported the idea that it is possible to achieve a broad-spectrum disease control and an increased protection against virulent pathogens by artificially inducing the plant’s own resistance mechanisms using substances with elicitor function. It is now well-documented that treatment of plants with various eliciting agents leads to an induced resistance against subsequent pathogen attacks, both locally and systemically. Therefore in order to enhance plant resistance in agriculture the use of elicitors is becoming a very attractive and eco-friendly tool that could provide efficient alternatives to the usage of chemical pesticides for managing plant diseases, thus reducing their environmental negative impacts.
\nMoreover, it is known that chitosan at low molecular weight acts as a potent biotic elicitor, able to induce plant defence responses and to activate different pathways that increase the crop resistance to diseases [13, 15, 28, 42, 43]. The most studied plant responses to chitosan treatment are the formation of chemical and mechanical barriers and the synthesis of new molecules and enzymes involved in the defence response [15, 37]. In some cases, chitosan causes the induction of the hypersensitive response, mainly around the infection site, that leads to the programmed cell death [44]. This hypersensitive response can be followed by systemic response of the plant defence mechanisms. These latter mainly include the synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites with active roles in defence: phenolic compounds such as lignin, callose, phytoalexins, PR proteins (pathogenesis-related proteins) and the modulation of the activity of key enzymes of metabolic pathways involved in the defensive response, such as the PAL, peroxidases and chitinase (Figure 2) [45–48].
Some proposed effects of chitosan as elicitor of plant defence responses [
The mechanism of action of chitosan and the responses induced by the latter in plant-pathogen interaction is not yet entirely clear. As written above, the plant through transmembrane cell receptors recognizes the elicitors, but the specific receptor for the chitosan has not yet been identified [37]. Protein kinase cascades that may relay the signal to transcription factors (TFs) have not been identified as well. Various models have been proposed to explain the role of chitosan in the activation of plant defence genes. A proposed direct elicitation of gene activity in plant defence implicates chitosan/DNA interactions (Figure 2). The proposed predictive models assume that chitosan induces the activation of defence genes by modifying the structure of DNA (chromatin remodelling) along with reductions in the architectural transcription factor high mobility group HMG A [43, 49] or by the interaction with the DNA polymerase complex [50].
\nThe defensive responses that are induced by chitosan treatment may depend on the pathosystem and, even in the same crop, on numerous factors, including the type of treatment application (
In agriculture, "Seed treatments are the biological, physical and chemical agents and techniques applied to seed to provide protection and improve the establishment of healthy crops" [International Seed Federation (ISF)]. It represents the first line of defence for seeds and seedlings against pests infecting the seed teguments or living in the soil (seedborne and soilborne pathogens). It provides protection during the critical stage of germination and the very first seedling development, when seeds and seedlings are unable to protect themselves from invasive pathogens [51]. The substance applied to the seeds can be of various nature such as chemical pesticides, biochemical substance, natural compounds [8, 52], and there are many different techniques that can be used for this purpose. Among them, seed coating and dressing represent a common procedure of seed treatment applied for preventing diseases and pests [53, 54] other than improving the seedling performances, i.e. the seedling emergence time, synchronized emergence, improve germination percentage, emergence rate and yield in many field crops [52, 55–57].
\nThe technique of seed dressing involves the application on the seed surface of thin layer of the active product, such as pesticides, fertilizers or growth promoters [57], often in combination with other additives. These other components may include colour (effective pigment), filming agents, surfactants or tackifiers. These products come in dry formulations as powders or liquid formulations are also available for sprays, dips, fluid drilling gels and solid matrix priming.
\nChitosan represents an interesting prospective in this field because it could cover different aspects thanks to its variety of properties mainly related to the molecular weight [15]. The high molecular weight confers to chitosan biopolymer characteristics, so that it can be used as film, forming physical barriers (film) around the seeds preventing the pathogen infection [58, 59].
\nThe low molecular weight chitosan posses high antimicrobial activity, which increases with weight decreasing, demonstrated against a wide variety of microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast and fungi [60, 61] even if some controversial evidences for a correlation between bactericidal activity and chitosan molecular weight have been found [62]. Thanks also to its ability to induce plant resistance, low molecular weigh chitosan has great potential as protector against diseases.
\nAn interesting application on seed is the use of chitosan as film coating as a delivery system for fertilizers, plant protection products and micronutrients for crop growth promotion [13]. Chitosan in fact can vehicular and protect other antimicrobial compounds such as essential oils. Essential oils have demonstrated antimicrobic activity [10, 11, 63] but are very volatile and their incorporation into coating can ensure a better persistence of the active ingredient on the surface and maintain high concentration of active molecules [64].
\nFor example, different kinds of chitosan seed coatings with or without essential oils like thyme (
Blotter test for seed health analysis after 7 days of incubation at 25°C of durum wheat seeds artificially infected with
Another main application of chitosan as seed treatment concerns the elicitation of the systemic resistance in plants. Basing on recent evidences, chitosan, when applied as a seed treatment, behaves as a resistance elicitor, inducing a physiologically enhanced defensive ability in seedlings and plants, whereby the plant’s innate defences are potentiated [45, 66]. Chitosan is able to cross the seed teguments, probably by diffusing through microscopic ruptures caused by the imbibition [67] and to interact with embryo cells, influencing the plant cellular metabolism in the following stages of development. Using radio labelled chitosan, it has been showed that the chitosan applied to seed is transferred to the emerging seedling during their development [68]. The major effects produced by the seed/chitosan interaction can be summarize as follows: (a) the seeds germination index is enhanced, (b) the mean germination time and flowering time are reduced; (c) plant growth (e.g. shoot height, root length, and seedling, vegetative growth vigour) and biomass are increased [52]. In maize [69], rice [70] and wheat [71], the chitosan seed treatment increased the germination percentage and stress tolerance, and improved the vigour of the seedlings. In artichoke [53], chitosan seeds treatment resulted in a better growth of the seedlings (e.g. longer and better developed radicle and greener hypocotyls) and lower chance of being infected by fungi in comparison with the untreated seeds. The observed growth improvement by chitosan could be also related to the incorporation of nutrients (nitrogen) from chitosan. Chitosan seed treatment is also able to increase the content of important resistance markers, like phenols and the activities of defence-related enzyme, thus improving the plant resistance. Biochemical analyses on durum wheat and sunflower confirmed the ability of chitosan to induce plant defence increasing PAL, PPO, peroxidases, and chitinase activities and phenolic content in seedling. The enhancement of these plant defence mechanisms suggests the activation of systemic resistance processes. Laboratory results on the chitosan-induced resistance were also confirmed under field and greenhouse condition, where an enhancement of the number of emerged plants (Figure 4) and a reduction in the disease severity (root and foot rot and downy mildew, respectively) were observed [45, 66]. Chitosan seed treatment also induced lignifications process, considered one of the first line of defences in plant-pathogen interaction: in chilli, the lignin content of seedlings obtained from chitosan-treated seeds was higher than that of untreated ones [72], thus giving to the plant a major protection against potentially penetration of invasive pathogen.
Parcels of field trial (Italy) sowed with durum wheat seeds cv. Simeto artificially infected with
Chitosan seed treatment can also be effective in insect control because it stimulates plants to produce systemic antibodies with repellent effects on insect pests, as reported in soybean against
As previously described, chitosan can be used in several ways to reduce plant disease levels and prevent the development and spread of diseases, thus preserving crop yield and quality. Chitosan as soil amendment was found to successfully decrease
The amendment of soil with chitosan is eco-friendly, since in the soil chitosan can be degraded at a substantial rate, due to the enormous abundance and diversity of bacteria in most soils and the presumed presence of chitinases in a considerable fraction of the bacterial populations. Chitin degradation is mainly a bacterial process [82–85]. However, it still remains unknown the wideness of chitinolytic process due to soil bacteria population with different chitin degradation and whether fungi can also play a major role in this process. Works on microbial community members hypothesized a role of chitin in stimulating bacterial communities to a greater extent than the fungal ones [85, 86]. Among the bacteria genera isolated from chitin-treated soils, there were
In field conditions, chitosan alters the equilibrium of the rhizosphere, disadvantaging microbial pathogens and promoting the activity of beneficial microorganisms, such as
The beneficial effect of the chitosan seems to be linked not only to its impact on soil microbiota, but also on plant itself. Recently, an innovative bioremediation strategy uses the ability of chitosan to chelate minerals and other nutrients, making them more available for the uptake by the plant [97, 98]. This is important, since crop production is many times limited by low availability of essential mineral elements [99]. In agreement with this strategy, in Ref. [100], the effect of using chitosan oligosaccharides as a soil conditioner was demonstrated on the flowering and fruit growth of purple passion fruit. It was found that this soil conditioner increased significantly the numbers of flowers, fruit weight and juice production. The inclusion of soluble chitosan to hydroponic fertigation streams also promoted the growth and final yield of hydroponically cultivated potato microtubers [101].
\nThus, if chitosan can increase absorption of essential minerals, enhancing the plant’s nutritional value (biofortification), it is possible that it can also help plants to take up higher concentrations of toxic elements. In fact, the ability of chitosan to chelate certain ions also makes it an interesting compound to be used in phytoremediation. In Refs. [102, 103], the remediation of metal contaminated soil using chitosan as soil amendment was shown to be possible (Table 1).
Plant | Disease/pathogen | Activity/defence response | Application | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
Pear | Antifungal activity | Growth medium addition and postharvest treatment on fruits | [19] | |
Grapevine Strawberry | Antifungal activity | Growth medium addition and preharvest spray treatment | [20–21] | |
Dragon fruit | Antifungal activity | Growth medium addition and spray treatment on plants | [22] | |
Rise | Antifungal activity | Growth medium addition, seed treatment and treatment on plants | [23] | |
Bacterial growth inhibition | Growth medium addition and treatment on plants | [24–26] | ||
Wheat | Root and foot rot/ | Enhancing of phenol content and G-POD, APX, PAL and PPO activities; decreased disease incidence | Seed treatment | [45] |
Kiwi | Healthy plants | Modulation of G-POD, APX, PAL and PPO activities | Growth medium addition | [46] |
Maize | Healthy plants | Increased plant growth and biomass | Seed coating | [52] |
Artichoke | Healthy plants | Enhanced seedlings growth | Seed coating | [53] |
Soybean | Stimulation of systemic antibodies production with repellent effects | Seed treatment | [73] | |
Sunflower | Downy mildew/ | PAL, PPO, peroxidases, and chitinase activities and phenolic content in seedling | Seed treatment | [66] |
Chilli | Increased lignin content | Seed treatment | [72] | |
Tomato | Decreased disease severity | Soil addition | [74] | |
Celery | Decreased disease severity | Soil addition | [75] | |
Purple passion fruit | Healthy plants | Increased flowers number, fruit weight and juice production | Soil addition | [100] |
Potato | Healthy plants | Improved growth and final yield | Hydroponic fertigation | [101] |
Listing of some possible applications of chitosan in agriculture and the related effects (activity and plant defence responces).
The chitosan is an active molecule that finds many possible applications in agriculture with the aim of reducing or replacing more environmentally damaging chemical pesticides. Although it is a good alternative even in conventional farming, chitosan applications would find interesting opportunities particularly in organic farming, disadvantaged by the lack of effective tools for managing biotic diseases. The plant disease control in organic farming, especially those caused by fungal and bacterial pathogen, is currently based on copper treatments. However, the research of an ecological alternative is mandatory because of the environmental impact problems related to the use of this heavy metal. Thus, chitosan could represent an innovative eco-friendly strategy for managing plant diseases and replacing copper or reducing its use, thanks to its several properties such as those previously described. In fact, several studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of chitosan in protecting plants from biotic stresses by direct and/or indirect actions, but its interaction with pathogens and plants are still not fully understood. Chitosan application in the field, including formulation aspects, is one of the least studied issues and it needs further testing and validation.
The authors wish to thank the Office PQAI I “Organic farming and National food quality Systems and General Affairs” of the Italian Ministry of Agriculture, which funded the project “Copper reduction Strategies and possible alternatives to its use in organic farming - ALT.RAMEINBIO”, within which the reported study was realized.
Maintenance of railway tracks is essential for the safe operation of trains. Railway operators conduct track inspections using track geometry cars and track maintenance crews. However, regional railway operators, who carry fewer passengers, often lack the personnel and funds to conduct adequate track inspections. The monitoring of railway track geometry from an in-service vehicle has become increasingly attractive over the past decade [1].
To address this problem, a system that can monitor the track condition inexpensively and frequently using a device incorporating sensors and a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) unit, which is installed on in-service trains, has been developed [2, 3]. The system calculates root mean square (RMS) values from the vertical acceleration, lateral acceleration, and roll angular velocity of the car body. To select sites for repair, we adopt the method of prioritizing sites with the highest numerical values.
The acceleration RMS is closely related to the general health of the track [4]. In Ref. [5], RMS values are used to identify track irregularities for longitudinal level, alignment, cross-level. However, monitoring based on RMS values alone is not sufficient. Without frequency information, it is difficult to identify the type of track fault. Furthermore, since the amount of data generated by constant measurement is enormous, it is necessary to automate the analysis in order to monitor and predict the track condition efficiently.
In this study, we propose a method to classify the types of track faults automatically by means of machine learning, using a CNN trained on images created via a CWT from the vibration acceleration on the time-frequency plane. A continuous wavelet transform (CWT) is a transformation technique that emphasizes certain portions of the waveform by suppressing other portions as it proceeds by multiplying a target waveform using a mother wavelet [6]. A convolutional neural network (CNN) is a class of deep neural networks. It is widely used for image recognition.
To verify the effectiveness of the algorithm we developed, we first describe the results of simulating the vibration of a car body when passing over a faulty track. Next, we describe the results of diagnosing track faults from the vertical vibration acceleration data of a car body measured by a regional railway.
It should be necessary for railway operators to control track irregularity, such as vertical rail profiles, lateral alignment, gauge, cross-level, twist (depicted in Figure 1) properly. Track irregularities cause vehicle vibrations that degrade the rider’s comfort and increase the risk of derailments. Track irregularities are strongly correlated with vehicle vibrations. Thus, it can be possible to estimate general trends of the track condition by analyzing vehicle vibrations.
Track structure and irregularities.
Although track geometry measurement systems using in-service vehicles are becoming increasingly attractive around the world [2, 7, 8, 9], the repeated checking of the same track provides the information regarding track geometry degradation, which can be fed back to the track maintenance section for taking essential actions. The use of vehicle responses in the track geometry assessment process allows identifying of critical defects, which could not have been identified from geometry parameters, and thus, improve the maintenance operations.
Tsunashima et al. proposed techniques of condition monitoring of railway tracks based on time-frequency analysis [10]. They compared the performance of Hilbert-Huang transforms (HHT) and CWT for identifying track faults from car body vibration. It is shown that the feature of track fault can be identified in time-frequency plane.
Tsunashima proposed a classifier based on a machine learning technique for identifying track faults automatically from measured car body vibration [5]. It is shown that the degradation of track can be classified in the feature space consisting of car body vibration RMS.
Faghih-Roohi et al. proposed a deep convolutional neural network for the analysis of image data for the detection of rail surface defects [11]. They explored the efficiency of the proposed deep convolutional neural network for the detection and classification of rail surface defects.
Zheng et al. proposed a multi-object detection method based on a deep convolutional neural network that can achieve non-destructive detection of rail surface and fastener defects [12]. A defect detection model based on Mask R-CNN and ResNet framework was utilized to detect the surface defects.
Jin et al. proposed a machine learning framework based on wavelet scattering networks and neural networks for identifying railhead defects [13].
Alvarenga
When a train runs on a track, vibrations that correspond to the track geometry are generated [15, 16]. Therefore, in this study, to verify the relationship between the type of track fault and the car body vibration acceleration, and to evaluate the effectiveness of time-frequency analysis in detecting track faults, we simulated the occurrence of track faults, calculated the vertical vibration acceleration of the car body, and then applied a CWT, a method of time-frequency analysis, to the results.
A CWT is a method that simultaneously detects the frequency and time characteristics of an unsteady signal, by comparing the original signal with dilated and translated versions of a small wavelike function called the mother wavelet. Using this method, it is possible to view the amplitude and frequency information of the vibration acceleration as an image. In this study, we used the
This technique is well suited for analyzing unsteady signals, such as
where, variables
The vehicle model used in the simulation is shown in Figure 2 [10]. The vehicle model consists of a total of seven rigid bodies: one car body, two bogies, and four wheelsets. The car body and bogie were assigned two degrees of freedom (DOF) for bounce and pitch, and the wheelset was assigned one DOF for the bounce. The vehicle’s parameters were obtained from measurement data from a regional railway vehicle equipped with an onboard sensing device.
Vehicle model [
In the simulation, the vehicle model was run at 60 [km/h] for 500 [m], and the results were output for the section between 100 [m] and 350 [m]. We set rail joint faults (joint depressions) at 4 points; otherwise, the track was assumed to be straight. To set the rail joint faults, we used the function model shown in Figure 3 [18].
Track fault model.
The geometry of the modeled track are represented by
and
The track geometry used in the simulation is shown in Figure 4. At the 150 [m] and 200 [m] points, we set depths of
Track geometry with different faults.
In both cases, we set the depression length
The simulated vertical vibration acceleration of the car body is shown in Figure 5a. The figure shows that characteristic vibrations corresponding to the track geometry are generated at the points where the track faults were set. Figure 5b shows the result of the CWT of the simulated vertical vibration acceleration. The color bar indicates the magnitude of the amplitude in the time-frequency plane.
Simulated car body vertical acceleration and its CWT image.
At 150 [m] and 200 [m], the points where the joint depressions were simulated, vibrations in the frequency band of 15–30 [Hz] were detected due to the impulse-like track geometry, and variations depending on depth
Figure 6 shows the track condition monitoring system developed and applied for regional railway lines in Japan [2].
Track condition monitoring system [
Accelerometers and rate gyros in the onboard sensing device measure the car body vibration. A GNSS receiver detects the location and speed of the train. Collected data are transmitted to the data server in the monitoring center continuously via a mobile phone network.
The diagnostic software analyses the collected data and results are fed back to the railway operators through online channels via tablet computers. The diagnostic results are used to facilitate the maintenance work of railway operators.
Convolutional neural networks are a method used in the field of machine learning called deep learning and are particularly suitable for image recognition. In this study, we examined the effectiveness of classifying longitudinal level irregularities and joint depressions automatically, using a diagnostic algorithm, we constructed based on a convolutional neural network trained on CWT images generated from vertical vibration acceleration data from a car body. The diagnostic procedure is shown in Figure 7.
Diagnostic procedure.
The car body’s vertical acceleration with track faults was collected in a regional railway line using the track condition monitoring system. The input data for the classifier consists of vertical vibration acceleration measurements from an onboard sensing device in a car body, which are then converted into images using a CWT. Figure 8 shows an example of converting the measurements into a CWT image.
Measured car-body vertical acceleration and its CWT image.
The vibration characteristics of the joint depression at the distance of 25.82 [km] appear in the 10–30 [Hz] frequency range. The vibration characteristics of the longitudinal level irregularities around 25.95 [km] appear in the 0–5 [Hz] frequency range.
In this study, we investigated the following three types of diagnoses:
Classification of images into three types: longitudinal level irregularity, joint depression, and normal.
Classification of the degradation level of longitudinal level irregularity into normal, medium, and large.
Classification of the degradation level of joint depression into normal, medium, and large.
Examples of images used for each task are shown in Figures 9–11. The images were created with an aspect ratio of 1:1 (150 × 150 pixels), which is optimal for training.
CWT images of faulty track.
CWT images of the different levels of a degraded track (track irregularity).
CWT images of the different levels of a degraded track (joint depression).
For diagnosing the level of degradation of longitudinal level irregularities, in cases where the one-side amplitude of the vibration acceleration was normal, images of car body acceleration of
For diagnosing the level of degradation of joint depressions, in cases where the one-side amplitude of the vibration acceleration was normal, images of body acceleration of 0 to were used. To diagnose medium degradation, images of
We prepared a total of 300 images: 100 normal images, 100 images with a longitudinal level irregularity, and 100 images with a joint depression. We set aside 80% of the images for training and 20% for evaluation as shown in Figure 9.
Figure 12 shows the configuration of the trained convolutional neural network (see Appendix B). In the figure, the name of the process and the size (vertical × horizontal × channels) before processing are indicated above each layer, and the size after processing is indicated below the layer.
Network configuration.
The Convolution layer applies the convolution operation to the image, representing it in matrix form; the Max pooling layer performs information compression; the Affine layer combines information from different layers, and the Output layer outputs a set of probabilities indicating how well the image matches the three types of training image data. The number of training sessions was set to 50.
Figure 13 shows the results of using images for evaluation to discriminate longitudinal level irregularity track faults versus joint depression track faults versus normal track. The overall accuracy rate was 98.3%, demonstrating that convolutional neural networks are effective for the classification of track faults.
Detection accuracy for the type of track fault.
In order to classify the degradation level of longitudinal level irregularities into three types: normal, medium, and large, we prepared a total of 300 images: 100 normal, 100 medium, and 100 large. We set aside 80% of the images for training and 20% for evaluation. The network configuration and the number of training sessions were the same as in Section 5.3.
Detection results using the trained model are shown in Figure 14. The overall accuracy rate was 98.3%, demonstrating that the level of longitudinal level irregularity can be classified with high accuracy into normal, medium, and large.
Detection accuracy for the different levels of a degraded track (track irregularity).
In order to classify the degradation level of joint depression into three types: normal, medium, and large, we prepared a total of 300 images: 100 normal, 100 medium, and 100 large. We set aside 80% of the images for training and 20% for evaluation. The network configuration and the number of training sessions were the same as in Section 5.3.
Detection results using the trained model are shown in Figure 15. Some incorrect diagnoses were made in the images of normal and medium joint depression. However, the overall accuracy was 96.7%, which was sufficient to classify the level of joint depression, demonstrating that the diagnostic algorithm we developed is effective for the diagnosis of joint depression.
Detection accuracy for the different levels of a degraded track (joint depression).
Figure 16 shows an example of an image that was diagnosed incorrectly. The right side of Figure 16a was diagnosed as normal, even though it shows joint depression. Conversely, the left side of Figure 16a shows an image that was diagnosed correctly as a joint depression. Comparing those, the feature representing the joint depression is extremely small in the incorrectly diagnosed image. This reveals that an incorrect diagnosis can occur when the features are extremely small.
CWT images that were diagnosed incorrectly.
The right side of Figure 16b was diagnosed as normal, even though it shows a large track irregularity. Conversely, the left side of Figure 16b shows an image that was diagnosed correctly as a large track irregularity. The reason for the incorrect diagnosis was that the large amplitude of the vertical acceleration, shown in red color, was appeared at the bottom of the CWT image.
In this study, we proposed a method to classify the type and level of track faults automatically using a convolutional neural network trained on car body vibration acceleration measurements converted into images using a CWT, a well-known method of time-frequency analysis. The algorithm we developed was used to perform the diagnosis of track conditions on actual measurements.
The results demonstrated that it is possible to diagnose the type and level of degradation of track faults with high accuracy.
In future work, we plan to improve the algorithm to estimate the locations of track faults accurately in actual measurements and monitor the condition of railway tracks in more detail.
This research was funded by Nihon University Research Grant for Social Implementation (19-006) (2019). We would like to thank Editage (www.editage.jp) for English language editing.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
A CWT is a method that simultaneously detects the frequency and time characteristics of an unsteady signal, by comparing the original signal with dilated and translated versions of a small wavelike function called the mother wavelet. The CWT computes the inner products of a continuous signal with a set of continuous wavelets according to the following equation
where, variables
In this study, we used the real-valued
Real-valued Morlet wavelet.
A Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is a well-known deep learning architecture. There are numerous variants of CNN architectures. The basic components of CNN consist of convolutional layer, pooling layer, and fully-connected layers [19].
The objective of the convolution operation is to extract the significant features from the input image. The convolution layer is composed of several convolution kernels which are used to compute different feature maps. The feature maps are generated by the convolution operation with the filter that acts as the feature extractor as follows.
where
The Pooling layer is responsible for reducing the spatial size of the feature maps. This is to decrease the computational power required to process the data through size reduction. It is useful for extracting dominant features. There are two types of Pooling: Max Pooling and Average Pooling. Max Pooling returns the maximum value from the portion of the image. On the other hand, Average Pooling returns the average value. In this study, Max Pooling were used. Figure 18 shows the example of the Max Pooling operation.
Max pooling.
Rectified linear unit (ReLU) is one of the most famous activation functions. In this study, the following function is used to adjust the output of the Pooling Layer.
where
Softmax function defined by
was used in output layer. Where
In fully connected layers, the neuron applies a linear transformation to the input vector through a weights matrix. In this study, an Affine transformation was used in fully connected layer.
The loss function is the function that computes the distance between the current output of the algorithm and the expected output. In this study, we employed the categorical cross-entropy, which is well suited to classification tasks.
CWT | continuous wavelet transform |
RMS | root mean square |
CNN | convolutional neural network |
HHT | Hilbert–Huang transform |
GNSS | global navigation satellite system |
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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