Water balance variables in Tempranillo vineyard, Extremadura (Spain).
\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-406-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-405-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-407-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"cefab077e403fd1695fb2946e7914942",bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11473.jpg",keywords:"Wage Gap, Gender Segregation, Fundamental Human Rights, Health Access, Social Inequity Processes, Modern Apartheid, Resilience, Cultural Gaps, Globalization, Geopolitics of Social Inequality, Public Policies, Social Vulnerability",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 11th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"13 days",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Bykbaev is a member of the UNESCO Chair of Politecnica Salesiana University. She has contributed as co-author and author to approximately thirty scientific publications in the field of statistics, inclusive education, and social and cultural anthropology. These publications focus on the visibility of problems in the field of public health and focus on the creation of proposals to improve community health. Dr. Bykbaev is an active member of the NODO Ecuadorian Network of Women Scientists (REMCI).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313341",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yaroslava",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Bykbaev",slug:"yaroslava-robles-bykbaev",fullName:"Yaroslava Robles-Bykbaev",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313341/images/system/313341.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Politecnica Salesiana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Politecnica Salesiana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ecuador"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444316",firstName:"Blanka",lastName:"Gugic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444316/images/20016_n.jpg",email:"blanka@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58589",title:"Convenience of Applying of Viticulture Technique as a Function of the Water Status of the Vine-Stock",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72799",slug:"convenience-of-applying-of-viticulture-technique-as-a-function-of-the-water-status-of-the-vine-stock",body:'Because of the high dependence of fruit quality on various environmental and endogenous factors [1, 2], several agronomic techniques have been used to improve the quality of the berries. Appropriate viticultural practices that enhance ripening, by creating favourable mesoclimates, or by achieving adequate but not excessive vine vigour, will improve wine quality [3]. Soil water availability is a critical factor for vine performance and wine composition. Reports show that severe water stress can influence various physiological and metabolic plant processes, including growth, photosynthesis, and respiration and might be detrimental to fruit quality because of a poor canopy development and reduced leaf assimilation rate thus leading to an inadequate vine capacity to ripen the crop [4, 5, 6], particularly under high yield levels [7]. These, in turn, can affect the production, composition and characteristics of the must [8] and, in consequence, the quality of the resulting wine [9]. However, controversy remains as to whether there is any direct effect on berry metabolism other than inhibition of growth [10]. In semi-arid regions, irrigation is often applied as a technique to increase yield and in occasions to achieve a proper supply-demand vine balance. Regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) consists of applying short episodes of water restriction, typically starting after bloom (anthesis), whereby irrigation water is supplied at amounts below those lost to vineyard or crop evapotranspiration (ETc) [11]. Several studies have reported that water stress during the growing season has some beneficial effects (increasing anthocyanin and polyphenol concentrations and soluble solids content) on grape berry quality [12, 13, 14, 15]. Water stress applied during the period from fruit set to
In another hand, it is widely accepted that very high crop yields delay ripening and reduce fruit and wine quality [24]. The crop level is a determining factor in berry quality and one of the goals of modern viticulture is to establish field practices which are able to limit vineyard yield and improve grapevine composition [31, 32]. The cluster thinning is a common practice designed to control yield and ripening under adverse conditions of climate. This practice influences the sink-source ratio, restricting part of the yield without lowering leaf surface area. Thinning allows the plant to concentrate its activity on the remaining clusters, making it an effective method of regulating production and modifying the composition of the berries [31, 33, 34]. Several authors have found that cluster thinning enhances berry ripening, affecting the contents of sugars, acids, polyphenols and aromas of the harvested grape and therefore positively affecting the quality of the wine [34, 35]. Cluster thinning is in cases applied to regulate the yield levels and to help ripening the crop under poor climatic conditions or excessive crop demand. However, results presented in literature have reported contrasting results, with cluster thinning leading to better fruit quality in some cases [36, 37], but with no clear effect in some others [33, 38]. Studies on cluster thinning have also shown the importance of the time when it is performed. When thinning is performed at
The overall effect of irrigation might change according to other cultural practices particularly those affecting the crop level [24, 40]. Vines with higher crop level seem to benefit more of a higher amount of irrigation both in terms of yield [41] and of fruit composition [42]. Numerous studies exist in the effects of water deficit and control of yield by eliminating fruits (thinning) on berry composition, but less research has been developed to the combination of both techniques in its composition of wines. Determination of such relationships between composition and chromatic characteristics allow greater understanding of how interactions between cultural practices and chemical composition are reflected in the perception of colour. This type of study is particularly important in vineyards with resource limitations, as would be the case in deficit irrigated grapevines with high crop loads. Such studies are also relevant in relation to red grapevine cultivars, since the repercussions of these practices on the phenolic and chromatic characteristics of the wines obtained need to be analysed. Up to new, few studies have analysed how the combined practice of these techniques affects wine phenolic composition, and the results are not conclusive as to how the water status of the vine impacts on the effect of cluster thinning or vice-versa [18, 19, 39, 43, 44].
The phenolic compounds from the grape are responsible for some of the main organoleptic characteristics of the resulting wine, including its colour, astringency and aroma. In the red wine making process, the phenolic compounds of the skin and seeds are transferred to the must during the fermentation and maceration process [45]. Phenolic compounds can be divided into flavonoid (anthocyanins, flavan-3-ols and flavonols) and non-flavonoid (stilbenes and
In plants, increased synthesis of phenols is a common response to stress [52] and the same environmental conditions that cause oxidative stress are associated with the induction of phenylpropanoid metabolism. Phenylpropanoids and flavonoids are involved in the protection against oxidative stress [53]. The level of lipid peroxidation and how the total antioxidant capacity and the phenolic compound content evolve can both be used as indicators of stress and the response to it. One response to stressors during ripening is an increase in the amount of phenolic compounds. These include flavonoids and phenylpropanoid glycosides, compounds that are part of the cellular antioxidant system, and which are involved in the elimination of ROS [52, 53, 54, 55].
ROS have been implicated in plant growth and stress responses. The production and detoxification of ROS are both highly regulated processes, and ROS levels are kept under tight control. The antioxidant system plays an important part in ROS homeostasis [56, 57]. It includes such enzymes as peroxidase (POX), catalase (CAT) and superoxide dismutase (SOD). Stresses and physiological processes in plants both induce the development of a complex network of oxidant/antioxidant reactions that modulate the resulting oxidative response [58, 59]. Thus, a key role in the response to stresses is played by the activities involved in ROS production and elimination, and they are also involved in such physiological processes as ripening [60]. In this regard, while the participation of peroxidases, catalases and superoxide dismutase is crucial for the control of the production or elimination of ROS, their activities are affected by water stress and defoliation [30].
Tempranillo is the most common variety of red grape in Spain comprising a total of 205,975 ha (20% of Spain’s total vineyard area), though most of these are cultivated under rainfed conditions with typically low yields (≤ 6500 kg ha−1). This cultivar is originally from northern, cool regions of Spain and today is the most widely cultivated for production of red wines all over Spain. It is reputedly to be sensitive to water stress and prone to early leaf senescence [61].
This chapter analyses and studies the effects of the combination of water deficit and thinning on the constitution and composition of the Tempranillo grape, namely on the lipid peroxidation, oxidant and antioxidant enzymes activities and their interactions on phenolic profile and chromatic characteristic from the wines. Also, relations between wine chromatic parameters and phenolic substances have been investigated.
The experiment was conducted in a
The experimental design was a complete randomised block with 16 experimental plots, 4 replicates by 4 treatments (irrigation and cluster thinning). Experimental plots consisted of 48 vines across 6 rows. The experiment comprised 768 vines in total. The irrigation regimes, applied during
Full irrigation (R100), corresponding to 100% of crop evapotranspiration (ETc).
Deficit irrigation (R25) corresponding to 25% of ETc
ETc was calculated using the equation ETc = ETo × Kc, where ETc was estimated as the product of reference evapotranspiration (ETo), measured by a weather station at the site, and crop coefficient (Kc), following the methodology of Allen et al. [62]. Irrigation was initiated when stem water potential (Ψs) reached −0.5 MPa and stopped after harvest, in mid-September. Irrigation was applied with pressure-compensated emitters supplying 4 L h−1 and spaced 120 cm apart. Two cluster load levels were established for each irrigation regime:
Control treatment (C) without cluster thinning (7–9 clusters m−2 of planting area)
Cluster-thinning treatments (T), in which the load was adjusted to 4–5 clusters m−2 of planting area by removing clusters at
Table 1 represents the ETo, ETc and Kc, as well as the irrigation amount applied in the R100 and R25 treatments for each of the study years. Also shown is the water status of the plant during the growing period in the two campaigns (stem water potential during the flowering-
Year | Seasonal measurements | Irrigation (mm) | Ψs flowering- | Ψs | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rainfall (mm) | ETo (mm) | ETc (mm) | Kc | R1001 | R25 | R100 | R25 | R100 | R25 | |
2007 | 182 | 975 | 508 | 0.52 | 172 | 62 | −0.54 −0.81–0.51 | −0.58 | −0.56 | −0.77 |
2008 | 129 | 1026 | 755 | 0.74 | 611 | 153 | −0.52 | −0.76 | −0.49 | −0.89 |
Water balance variables in Tempranillo vineyard, Extremadura (Spain).
R100 = Full irrigation (100% ETc); R25 = Water deficit (25% ETc)
Effective seasonal rain, reference evapotranspiration (ETo), crop evapotranspiration (ETc), crop coefficient (Kc) from April to September and mean values in each season of stem water potential (Ψs). Irrigation: Volumes of water applied in the 2007 and 2008 treatments. In 2007 and 2008, the ETc values were obtained by means of a lysimeter installed in the vineyard.
Table 2 represents the physico-chemical characteristics of the grapes at harvest and the chromatic characteristics of the wines. The winemaking protocol and analytic methodology can be consulted in Gamero et al. [19].
Parameters | Treatment | Irrigation dosage1,3 | Significance level2 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R100 | R25 | R | T | R × T | ||
Yield (kg ha−1) | C | 21403.75a | 18749.58a | |||
T | 14987.03b | 14704.16b | ||||
Berry weight (g) | C | 2.17a | 2.00b | |||
T | 2.03b | 1.90b | ||||
Total soluble solids (°Brix) | C | 22.75ab | 21.93b | |||
T | 23.87ab | 24.37a | ||||
Titratable acidity (g tartaric acid L−1) | C | 6.43a | 5.51ab | |||
T | 5.12ab | 4.32b | ||||
Maturity index4 | C | 3.60b | 4.08b | |||
T | 4.66ab | 5.81a | ||||
Colour intensity (AU) | C | 6.69b | 6.71b | |||
T | 9.51a | 9.70a | ||||
Colour hue | C | 0.65a | 0.62b | |||
T | 0.67a | 0.60b | ||||
% red | C | 52.81b | 54.00a | |||
T | 52.06b | 54.88a | ||||
% blue | C | 13.00a | 12.31b | |||
T | 13.20a | 12.08b | ||||
% yellow | C | 34.18a | 33.67b | |||
T | 34.73a | 33.02b |
Mean values of 2007 and 2008 seasons combined for yield, berry composition and wine chromatic characteristics of cv. Tempranillo wines, subjected to different irrigation dosage levels with cluster-thinning treatment (T) and without cluster-thinning treatment (C) in Extremadura (Spain).
R100C = Full irrigation (R100) without cluster thinning (C); R100A = Full irrigation with cluster thinning; R25C = Water deficit without cluster thinning and R25A = Water deficit with cluster thinning
Significance level: ns = not significant; * =
Values followed by different letters indicate significant differences between them (
Maturity index = Total soluble solids/titratable acidity
Phenols, flavonoids and phenylpropanoid glycosides were assayed colourimetrically. First, grapes were homogenised with methanol, chloroform and 1% NaCl (1:1:0.5). The homogenate was filtered and centrifuged at 3200 × g for 10 min. Total phenols (expressed as μg caffeic acid g−1 FW) were determined at 765 nm with Folin:Ciocalteu reagent according to the method of singleton et al. [63]. Total flavonoids (expressed as μg rutin g−1 FW) were determined according to the method of Kim et al. [64], calculating the content on the basis of the rutin standard curve. Phenylpropanoids (expressed as μg verbascoside g−1 FW) were determined at 525 nm based on estimating an
Lipid peroxidation was determined by measuring malondialdehyde (MDA) formation using the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) method as described by Madhava Rao and Sresty [66]. The MDA concentration (expressed as nmol MDA g−1 FW) was calculated using an extinction coefficient of ε = 155 mM−1 cm−1.
Enzymatic activities were determined on a crude extract of the grapes. The grapes (2 g mL−1) were homogenised at 4°C in 50 mM phosphate buffer, pH 6.0. The homogenate was filtered and centrifuged at 39,000 × g for 30 min at 4°C. The pellet was discarded, and the supernatant filtered and collected for the enzyme assays. The protein content was determined by the method of Bradford [67].
Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.7) activity, POX, was measured at 590 nm (ε = 47.6 mM−1 cm−1) [68], and the coniferyl alcohol (CA) peroxidase activity, CA-POX, was determined by measuring the decrease in absorbance at 265 nm of a reaction medium consisting of the enzyme extract and 0.1 mM CA in 25 mM acetate buffer pH 5.0 (ε = 7.5 mM−1 cm−1). A unit of CA-POX is defined as the amount of enzyme required to cause the oxidation of 1 nmol CA per minute at 25°C, pH 5.0. The superoxide dismutase (SOD) (EC 1.15.1.1) activity was determined from the absorbance at 560 nm according to [69]. A unit of SOD is defined as the amount of enzyme required to cause 50% inhibition of NBT reduction. Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) (EC 1.14.18.1) activity was determined from the absorbance at 390 nm [70]. A unit of PPO is defined as the amount of enzyme required to cause a decrease in absorption of 0.001 units min−1.
Low molecular weight phenols were analysed by HPLC-DAD, following the method described in Gómez-Alonso [71], though with some slight modifications to enhance the resolution. After filtering (0.25 m diameter Chromafil filters, Düren, Germany), 10 μl of wine were directly injected into a LC-Agilent 1200 (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA, USA) chromatographic system. Separation was performed in an Ace® 5 C18 250 × 4.6 mm (Advanced Chromatography Technologies, Aberdeen, Scotland) column used as stationary phase.
The various phenolic compounds were identified by order of elution and the retention times of their respective standards. A total of 42 phenolic compounds were identified, distributed between simple and conjugated anthocyanins and monomeric and dimeric flavonols and flavanols. The anthocyanins were identified in the monoglucoside, acetyl-glucoside and
The concentration was calculated in mg L−1 of malvidin-3-glucoside, myricetin-3-glucoside and catechin for anthocyanins, flavonols and flavanols, respectively.
Wine colour was evaluated using the indices proposed by Glories [72]: colour intensity (CI) was calculated by adding the absorbance readings at 420, 520 and 620 nm, while hue (CT) was determined as the ratio of absorbance readings at 420 and 520 nm, and percentages of red, blue and yellow (red %, blue % and yellow %). The wines were centrifuged for 3 min at 1100 × g before spectrophotometric analysis. Measurements were taken using a Shimadzu UV-1700 spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Japan).
Data were analysed using a general linear model, with water status (two levels), cluster thinning (two levels) and their interactions as factors. Differences between treatments were obtained using Tukey’s test for significant differences (
A principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to observe the distribution of the wines of the different treatments as a function of their phenolic composition. A correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationships between phenolic compounds and agronomic factors and Tukey’s test was used to evaluate significant correlations (
The partial least squares (PLS) approach was used to analyse the relationships between wine colour and HPLC-quantified phenolic compounds. Collinearity between X variables was discarded as significant correlations were not found between them. The statistical analyses were performed with the XLSTAT-Pro (Addinsoft 2009, París, France) statistical software package.
Table 3 shows the different values obtained for oxidant and antioxidant activities, and phenolic content in grapes at harvest. With thinning, all these phenolic components were found in higher or equal concentrations, but not lower. The greater value of lipid peroxidation corresponds to CT (rainfed and thinned). The SOD activity was always lower than in the unthinned treatments. It stands out that the lowest values of SOD activity corresponded to CT. Regarding the activity of PPO, an enzyme which catalyses the formation of
Treatmentt6 | Lipid peroxidation nmol MDA g−1 FW | Superoxide dismutase (SOD) U mg−1 prot | Peroxidase (POX) U mg−1 prot | Conyferilalcohol peroxidase (CA-POX) U mg−1 prot | Polyphenoloxidase (PPO) U mg−1 prot | Total Phenols μg caffeic acid g−1 FW | Total Phenylpropanoid glycosides μg verbascoside g−1 FW | Total flavonoids μg rutín g−1 FW |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C | 94.6 ± 20.5b | 89.3 ± 21.7b | 4.9 ± 1.2b | 53.6 ± 16.5b | 1415.5 ± 615.4b | 988.6 ± 142.2a | 1689.9 ± 290.5b | 1122.3 ± 211.0b |
CT | 130.1 ± 23.0a | 71.6 ± 18.0b | 4.2 ± 1.5b | 66.2 ± 19.3ab | 900.3 ± 189.0a | 1108.9 ± 158.0a | 2013.5 ± 188.3b | 1589.7 ± 132.4a |
R100C | 88.3 ± 18.4b | 158.7 ± 22.8a | 5.2 ± 1.2b | 78.2 ± 20.8a | 1510–3 ± 312.5b | 1045.6 ± 100.1a | 1865.0 ± 366.0ab | 1325.6 ± 126.1ab |
R100T | 91.4 ± 24.3b | 81.5 ± 20.1b | 2.6 ± 1.0a | 79.0 ± 22.1a | 1389.0 ± 340.0b | 966.0 ± 144.5a | 1924.4 ± 171.3b | 1159.0 ± 206.6b |
Average values (2007 and 2008 vintage) of lipid peroxidation, antioxidant activities, total phenols, phenylpropanoid glycosides and flavonoids on grapes cv. Tempranillo at harvest.
C = Rainfed without cluster thinning; R100C = Full irrigation without cluster thinning; CT = Rainfed with cluster thinning; R100T = Full irrigation with cluster thinning
Data were the means ± SD of at least 10 replicates obtained from 5 different experiments. The values were subjected to the Tukey test (different letters within each column indicate significant difference,
Table 4A and B shows the mean concentration values over the 2 year study period of anthocyanin and non-anthocyanin flavonoid substances (flavanols and flavonols) of the R100C, R100T, R25C and R25T wines, as well as the results of the statistical analysis.
Compound | Load | Water status2 | Significance level1 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
R | T | Irrigation | Thinning | R and T | ||||||
R100 | R25 | in C | in T | in R25 | in R100 | |||||
90.21ab | 83.35b | |||||||||
111.08a | 100.19a | |||||||||
11.96a | 10.26a | |||||||||
11.28a | 11.2a | |||||||||
10.18b | 11.65b | |||||||||
14.45a | 14.32ab | |||||||||
82.88a | 79.59a | |||||||||
100.35a | 92.06a | |||||||||
15.04ab | 13.23b | |||||||||
T | 18.73a | 17.58ab | ||||||||
C | 7.97b | 8.11ab | *** | *** | ||||||
T | 11.80a | 11.06ab | ||||||||
C | 3.32a | 2.62a | * | ns | ||||||
T | 3.93a | 3.49a | ||||||||
C | 3.15a | 1.70b | * | |||||||
T | 2.01b | 1.53b | ||||||||
C | 112.36a | 105.25a | ** | * | ||||||
T | 136.82a | 125.67a |
Average values (2007 and 2008 vintage) of anthocyanins (mg L−1) in Tempranillo wines from vines subjected to different irrigation dosages and with different crop level loads, cluster thinned (T) and non-thinned (C), in Extremadura (Spain).
ANOVA test significance level. R: irrigation; A: cluster thinning; R and A: combination of both treatments. ns = not significant; * =
For the same compound, values followed by different letters indicate significant differences between treatments (
Table 4A shows the amount of monoglucosides (G), acetates (A) and coumaroyl derivatives (C) and the amounts of delphinidin (Dp), cyanidin (Cy), petunidin (Pt), peonidin (Pn) and malvidin (Mv) compounds.
In the case of the flavanols (Table 4B), as well as the mean concentration values of (+)-catechin (Cat) and (−)-epicatechin (Ep), also shown are the global mean values of these monomers (Mon) and, as well as the individual mean of (−)-epicatechin-(4ß-8)-(+)-catechin (PB1), (−)-epicatechin-(4ß-8)-(−)-epicatechin (PB2) and (+)-catechin-(4ß-8)-(+)-catechin (PB3) values, the combined mean values of these dimers (Dim). The flavonols are grouped together by the flavonol molecule present, such that myricetin (My), quercetin (Qc), kaempherol (Kp) and isorhamnetin (Ir) glucosides represent the total values, respectively.
Flavanols | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compound | Load | Water status2 | Significance level1 | |||||||
R | T | Irrigation | Thinning | R and T | ||||||
R100 | R25 | in C | in T | in R25 | in R100 | |||||
C | 25.67b | 31.89a | ||||||||
T | 16.35c | 23.08b | ||||||||
C | 4.35a | 4.01a | ||||||||
T | 5.42a | 4.31a | ||||||||
C | 34.54c | 49.44b | ||||||||
T | 40.95ab | 71.18a | ||||||||
C | 6.64b | 6.00b | ||||||||
T | 6.00b | 8.24a | ||||||||
C | 17.08bc | 16.14c | ||||||||
T | 21.96a | 18.27b | ||||||||
C | 30.03b | 35.91a | ||||||||
T | 21.77c | 27.38b | ||||||||
C | 58.26c | 71.59b | ||||||||
T | 71.04b | 97.69a | ||||||||
C | 88.29c | 107.49b | ||||||||
T | 92.81c | 125.07a | ||||||||
C | 8.06c | 9.64b | ||||||||
A | 11.46b | 14.06a | ||||||||
C | 6.52c | 8.20b | ||||||||
A | 7.84bc | 10.5a | ||||||||
C | 1.40c | 1.74b | ||||||||
A | 1.55bc | 2.17a | ||||||||
C | 0.96c | 1.28b | ||||||||
A | 1.24b | 1.62a | ||||||||
C | 16.94c | 20.85b | ||||||||
A | 22.09b | 28.37a |
Average values (2007 and 2008 vintage) of flavanols, flavonols, (mg L−1) in cv. Tempranillo wines from vines subjected to different irrigation dosages and with different crop load levels, cluster thinned (T) and non-thinned (C) in Extremadura (Spain).
ANOVA test significance level. R: irrigation; A: cluster thinning; R and A: combination of both treatments. ns = not significant; * =
For the same compound, values followed by different letters indicate significant differences between treatments (
Results of the general linear model analysis only found statistical significance of the irrigation and thinning interaction in Cy, PB1, PB3, Dim and total flavonoid substances. A statistical analysis was then performed of the overall effect of irrigation dosage and its individual effect on each crop load, as well as of the overall effect of cluster thinning and its effect on each water status.
As can be seen in Table 4A, the different irrigation dosages had almost no effect on wine anthocyanin concentration values. Slightly lower concentrations of these substances were found in the wine from R25 treatment compared to the wine from R100 treatment, but the differences were non-significant (
However, the opposite trend was observed for the rest of the flavonoid families (flavanols and flavonols). The R25 wines contained significantly higher concentrations of Cat, the flavonol compounds My, Qc, Kp and Ir, Mon and total flavanols (Table 4B). An analysis of the effect of irrigation dosage on the different crop loads revealed significant differences only in the wines from the cluster-thinned treatments (R25T vs. R100T).
In terms of wine anthocyanin composition, the effect of thinning was greater than of irrigation, with the A-treatment wines having significantly higher values of all the substances of this family, except for the acetyl-acetate derivatives. The biggest differences were found in the G (18%), Mv (15%) and Dp (29%). Table 4A also shows the separate analysis made of the effect of thinning on the R25 and R100 wines, with a greater and more significant response in R100. These results confirm the importance of vine water status in the effect of cluster thinning on the concentration of anthocyanin substances present in the wines. In addition, when compared to the C-treatment wines, the T-treatment wines had lower concentrations (
Table 4A and B also shows the results of the combined statistical analysis of the four treatments. In concordance with the results described above, the highest and lowest values for anthocyanin substances were found in the 100T and 25C wines, respectively. Of these substances, Cy (the sum total of cyanidin compounds) is a special case as both the lower irrigation dosage as well as cluster thinning resulted in lower concentration values, with the consequent concentration value for the R100C wines being significantly higher than for the other wines.
Values of the PB1 and PB3 dimers increased as irrigation dosage fell, with the 25T and 100C wines having the minimum and maximum values, respectively. Finally, and given the sensitivity of flavonols to both irrigation dosage and crop load, the R25T wines had significantly higher values than the R100C.
To determine the degree of correlation between the agronomic parameters (
No significant correlation was found between
Figure 1 represents the projection of the variables and samples in the plane defined by the first two principal components. The two principal components explain 96.65% of total variance. Principal component 1, which explains 71.87% of the variance, allows to distinguish the T wines from the C wines. This component is characterised by titratable acidity (TA), yield and berry weight on the positive side of the axis and by practically all the phenolic substances except G and Pt on the negative side, such that as we shift from left to right the wines are poorer in phenolic substances. The second principal component explains 24.78% of the variance and allows to distinguish the R100 from the R25 wines and is characterised by high monomer concentrations on the positive side of the axis and by
Principal component analysis (PCA) between the different parameters studied (stem water potential Ψs, yield, ° brix and maturity index (MI) and wine phenolic compounds. G: ∑ Glycosides, Cm: ∑ Coumarates, Pt: ∑ Petunidins, Dp: ∑ Delphinids, Cy: ∑ Cyanidins, My: ∑ Myricetins, Qc: ∑ Quercetins; Kp: ∑ Kaempherols; Ir: ∑ Isorhamnetin; Mon:∑ Monomers; Dim: ∑ Dimers, TA: total acidity.
A PLS regression was performed to determine correlations between the chromatic parameters of the different wines, Colour intensity and Colour hue (CI, CT), percentage of red, blue and yellow and dA%, and the phenolic compounds with significant inter-treatment differences. The chromatic data were taken as Y variables and phenolic substance concentrations as X variables. The data were also standardised to approximately the same scale to better reveal the correlations between the colour and chemical variables. Two new variables (axes) were obtained through this technique which explains together 97% of total variance.
Figure 2 shows how CI was high and positively correlated with the presence of G, C, Dp, Pt and My, with this correlation being higher and more intense in the R100T and R25A wines. Conversely, %dA and %red were positively correlated with Kp (sum total of kaempherol glucosides) and the overall amount of flavonol, with this correlation being higher in the R25T wines. These results allow to make wine colour predictions based on wine phenolic composition. Accordingly, colour intensity can be predicted by the amount of certain phenolic compounds in the wines: G and C, Dp and Pt, and My. In the same way, the %dA and %red of a wine can be predicted by the concentration of Kp and flavonols.
Partial least squares (PSA) regression between the colorimetric parameters and wine phenolic compounds. G: ∑ Glycosides, Cm: ∑ Coumarates, Pt: ∑ Petunidins, Dp: ∑ Delphinids, Cy: ∑ Cyanidins, My: ∑ Myricetins, Qc: ∑ Quercetins; Kp: ∑ Kaempherols; Ir: ∑ Isorhamnetin; Mon:∑ Monomers; Dim: ∑ Dimers.
The results obtained for phenols, flavonoids and PPGs in grapes at harvest are consistent with those obtained by Tardáguila et al. [73] who describe increased overall amounts of phenols and anthocyanins in grapes from thinned cv. Tempranillo vines. Likewise, Diago et al. [27] also describe an increase in these compounds caused by thinning in this variety, although the treatment was much less effective in the Garnacha variety. Esteban et al. [74] and Ojeda et al. [75] describe similar results in the content of total phenols, flavonoids, anthocyanins and flavonols as a result of water stress. Again, the combination of water deficit and thinning is the treatment with the greatest incidence on the evolution and content of these phenolic compounds. The SOD activity was always lower than in the unthinned treatments, an aspect which could have been the cause of the observed greater level of lipid peroxidation in the water deficit and thinned treatment. The nonspecific peroxidase activity was very low, especially in the thinned treatments. On the contrary, in the harvest the CA-POX activity’s levels were slightly higher with thinning than without thinning. This enzyme might be involved in the production of H2O2 during the formation of lignins [76]. According to our previous results [30], it does not appear to be affected by either the stage of ripening or the different treatments (thinning and water deficit).
Most studies on the effect of irrigation on grape berry and wine anthocyanin composition have found a decrease in the concentration of different anthocyanin derivatives and in their overall concentration as irrigation dosage is increased [77, 78]. Until a few years ago, these results were explained as being secondary effects of irrigation, including modification of berry size and consequently of skin/pulp ratio, which were responsible for the decrease in the concentration of these substances in the berry [75]. In this respect, sufficiently large increases in R100 berry size were not obtained in our study (Table 2) to generate, by dilution effect, a decrease in the concentration of these substances in the wines. However, recent studies have found that these substances are synthesised in the biosynthetic phenylpropanoid pathway, and it has been shown that it is the pre-
In a similar study to ours conducted in Requena (Spain) with Tempranillo vines, Intrigliolo et al. [9] found increased anthocyanin concentrations in wines from the most irrigated vines. They explained their results as the consequence of the greater water requirements and the inability of cv. Tempranillo, typically grown in colder regions, to adapt to edapho-climatic conditions. This could also be the case in our study, as the highest values were observed in the R100 wines. This result might also suggest a greater synchrony between sugar and anthocyanin accumulation in the berry of the higher irrigation treatments [18].
The significant differences that were found in the flavanol- and flavonol-type substances are not a decisive factor for these substances. Studies have shown that while water deficit has a moderate effect on flavonol synthesis, the effect of the irrigation application period is almost negligible [23, 80]. This would explain the significant increase in My, Qc, Kp and Ir in the R25 wines compared to the R100 wines. The synthesis of these substances is light dependent, so the lower leaf area observed in the R25 treatment may also have contributed to this increase. In this respect, Matthews et al. [81] reported that the decrease in berry weight was higher, and consequently the increase in flavonoid concentration was higher, when water stress was imposed to pre-
Given the higher content of anthocyanin substance in the A-treatment musts [18], the formation of copigments must have taken place in them in a greater proportion during fermentation, which would in turn have resulted in greater flavonol extraction. This may be one of the reasons why, when the effect of irrigation was analysed separately on the two load levels, significant differences were only found in My, Qc and Ir values in the R100T versus R25T comparison. This result is very important, as copigments stabilise the colour of young red wines [50].
The results shown in Table 4A and B concurs with those from previous studies which show that cluster thinning is a useful tool to increase the concentration of different flavonoid compounds in grapes and wines [29, 37, 82]. Oenologically speaking, and in full concurrence with the results observed by Peña-Neira et al. (29), the most important and notable effects of cluster thinning are those related to the increase in phenolic compound values via the phenylpropanoid pathway.
Among the anthocyanin substances, the increase in the coumarate forms is particularly important, as these are more stable than the monoglucosides [83, 84] and offer greater stability to wine colour. Also notable is the low significance of cluster thinning on the R25 wines. In a similar study performed with the Syrah grape [82], cluster thinning led to significant increases in the coumarate forms of malvidin and peonidin. In our study, the maximum anthocyanin content in the R25 berries may have been generated at lower TSS values than those at which the berries were harvested (24.37°Brix), so that anthocyanin material may have been lost in these berries.
The increase in flavonols is especially interesting, since these contribute to astringency and also play an important role in anthocyanin copigmentation and in the formation of more complex pigments during the ageing process [85, 86]. In the copigmentation phenomenon which contributes to the stabilisation of the colour of red wines [50, 87], Baranac et al. [88] reported that flavonol substances are amongst the best copigments, especially quercetin [89].The increased concentrations of catechin and procyanidin B1 are also important given their relation to colour and body stability through these copigmentation and polymerisation reactions with other flavonols.
Similar to the results from other studies [19, 26, 39], wines from the cluster-thinned treatments had higher CI values. Colour hue variation between wines as a function of vine water status has also been described in other studies, though with contradictory results [21]. In our study, the greater presence of cyanidin due to the later ripening of the R100C grapes may have been responsible for the higher percentage of blue hues (
Many studies have used statistical techniques to find correlations between phenolic compounds and colour parameters during the maturation and ageing processes of red wine [90]. In one interesting work, Monagas et al. [91] showed that chromatic attributes of red wines could be predicted by their phenolic profile using polynomial regression techniques. The substances which provided the best fitting model in that study were the anthocyanin compounds, and in the specific case of cv. Tempranillo wines the pyruvic adducts. According to the PLS regression which we preformed, the CI of Tempranillo wines can also be predicted as a function of anthocyanin compounds, specifically C, G, and Df and Pt compounds. Along the same line, our work also confirms the findings of Escudero-Gilete et al. [92]. They studied the correlations between colour and anthocyanin composition of wines made from a blend of cv. Tempranillo and cv. Graciano grapes and found that the petunidin compounds (monoglucoside, acetyl-acetate and acetyl-coumarate) were the ones most closely related to the chromaticity of these wines. Similarly, the negative correlation between the percentages of yellow and blue and the flavanols which were also found by the PLS regression concur with the findings of the previously cited work of Monagas et al. [91]. From all of the above, it can be concluded that the thinning treatment generated, most notable, an increase in wine colour intensity and that vine water stress modified, most notably, wine hue as a result of differences in flavonol concentrations.
This work contributes to our understanding of how vine-growing practices can affect the compounds responsible for the sensory attributes of wines. It is shown how modification of water status and crop load through deficit irrigation and cluster-thinning techniques can induce variations in the phenolic composition and consequently the chromatic characteristics of a wine. It can be concluded from the results that post-
This research was supported by funds from INIA, FEDER and Junta de Extremadura, Projects RTA2005-00038-C06 and RTA2008-00037-C04. The authors gratefully acknowledge the technical assistance of Dra. Mar Vilanova (Misión Biológica de Galicia, CSIC) in statistical analysis.
Hydroponic techniques have been developed to facilitate cultivation under diverse environments and to improve farming practices using soilless methods. In this novel world, hydroponic farming makes efficient use of fertilizers and water, increases productivity, and provides better crop quality; Table 1 shows the difference in productivity between soil and soilless culture for different crops. Also, due to the risks of soil and water contamination in metropolitan areas, this technique has a potential alternative to agricultural production in cities. Hydroponic systems irrespective of their scale reduce dependence on the soil as a substrate and instead derive nutrition directly from the hydroponic solution comprising of water and nutrients [2]. Because hydroponics provides better control of plant growth, it is possible to achieve high quality and productivity through careful management of—nutrient composition, dissolved O2 concentration, temperature, pH, and electrical conductivity (EC) of the nutrient solution. Nutrient supply in hydroponics can significantly influence the nutrition, taste, texture, color, and other characteristics of fruit and vegetable crops [3]. In hydroponics, essential nutrient elements are dissolved in appropriate concentrations and relative ratios to achieve the normal growth of plants [4]. It is well known that the productivity and quality of crops grown in hydroponic systems are markedly dependent on the extent of the plant nutrients acquisition from the growing medium [5]. Due to this, nutrient solution and its management are the cornerstone for a successful hydroponics system and are the most important determining factors of crop yield and quality.
Crop | Hydroponic system production (Kg/ha) | Open-field production (Kg/ha) |
---|---|---|
Rice | 13,456.56 | 841.03–1009.25 |
Maize | 8971.0 | 1682.07 |
Peas | 15,699.32 | 2242.76 |
Tomato | 403,335.81 | 11,203.75–22,407.47 |
Potato | 156,852.29 | 17,925.98 |
Cabbage | 20,184.84 | 14,577.94 |
Cucumber | 31,398.64 | 7849.66 |
Lettuce | 23,548.98 | 10.092.42 |
Yield comparisons for different crops between hydroponic and open field cultivation.
Source: Singh and Singh [1].
Plant nutrients used in hydroponics are dissolved in water and are mostly in inorganic and ionic forms. All the essential elements for plant growth are supplied using different chemical combinations and establishing a nutrient solution that provides a favorable ratio of ions for plant growth and development is considered an important step in cultivating crops in hydroponic systems [6]. Plant uptake of nutrients can only proceed when they are present in an available form for absorption, and in most situations, nutrients are absorbed in an ionic form. Ions are electrically charged forms of each nutrient, some are cations (positively charged) and others are anions (negatively charged). For example, nitrogen is absorbed as ammonium (NH4+, a cation) or nitrate (NO3−, an anion); Table 2 shows the available form of each nutrient and different nutrient solution formulas which have been established by many scientists. There are various standard nutrient solutions, such as the Hoagland and Snyder [13], Hoagland and Arnon [11], Steiner [14] Bollard [15], and others. These standard solutions are good as a general guideline but are not adapted to specific growing conditions. The function of a hydroponics nutrient solution is to supply the plant roots with water, oxygen, and essential mineral elements in soluble form. A nutrient solution usually contains inorganic ions from soluble salts of essential elements required by the plant. However, some organic compounds such as iron chelates may be present [16]. A total of 17 elements are considered essential for most plants, these are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, copper, zinc, manganese, molybdenum, boron, chlorine, and nickel [17]. An essential element has a clear physiological role, and its absence prevents the complete plant life cycle [18]. Among the minerals, N, P, and K are the most decisive elements in plants [6]. Some other elements such as sodium, silicon, vanadium, can stimulate growth, or can compensate for the toxic effects of other elements, or may replace essential nutrients in a less specific role. Tahereh et al. [19] reported that the plants grown in the absence of silica would be weak and show abnormal growth, and proper application of this nutrient can increase consistency and disease resistance, reduce the outbreak of nutrient deficiencies, improve product quality and increase crop yield. In hydroponics, all the nutrients are in a balanced ratio which is directly supplied to the plants, and composition must reflect the uptake ratio of individual elements by the crop, as the demand between species differs, and must be specific for each crop [20]. It is very important to keep ionic balance in the nutrient solution since plant growth and productivity can be negatively affected by the improper relationship between the essential nutrients, that is, the ratio of anions: NO3−, H2PO4− and SO42−, and the cations K+, Ca2+, Mg2+ [21], and a change in the concentration of one ion must be accompanied by either a corresponding change for an ion of the opposite charge, a complementary change for other ions of the same charge, or both [12]. However, for most common crop plants, critical levels for most nutrients have been determined [22].
Element | Form taken up by plants | Hoagland & Arnon | Hewitt | Cooper | Steiner |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
mg L−1 | |||||
Nitrogen | NH4+, NO3− | 210 | 168 | 200–236 | 168 |
Phosphorus | HPO4−2, H2PO4− | 31 | 41 | 60 | 31 |
Potassium | K+ | 234 | 156 | 300 | 273 |
Calcium | Ca2+ | 160 | 160 | 170–185 | 180 |
Magnesium | Mg2+ | 34 | 36 | 50 | 48 |
sulfur | SO42− | 64 | 48 | 68 | 336 |
Iron | Fe2+, Fe3+ | 2.5 | 2.8 | 12 | 2–4 |
Copper | Cu2+ | 0.02 | 0.064 | 0.1 | 0.02 |
Zinc | Zn2+ | 0.05 | 0.065 | 0.1 | 0.11 |
Manganese | Mn2+, Mn4+ | 0.5 | 0.54 | 2 | 0.62 |
Boron | H3BO3, BO3−, B4O72− | 0.5 | 0.54 | 0.3 | 0.14 |
Molybdenum | MoO42− | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.2 | Not considered |
Nutrients in the nutrient solution have great interactions that may gain either positive or negative effects on crop production, depending on crop growth stages, amounts, combinations, and balance [23]. Inadequate or excessive concentrations of minerals or an imbalanced ion composition in the nutrient solution may inhibit plant development, resulting in toxicity or nutrient-induced deficiencies [24]. In crop plants, the nutrient interactions are generally measured in terms of growth response and change in concentration of nutrients. Nutrient interactions may be positive or negative and also possible to have no interactions. Interaction between nutrients occurs when the supply of one nutrient affects the absorption and utilization of other nutrients. This type of interaction is most common when one nutrient is in excess concentration in the growth medium. Upon the addition of two nutrients, an increase in crop yield that is more than adding only one, the interaction is positive (synergistic). Similarly, if adding the two nutrients together produced less yield as compared to individual ones, the interactions are negative (antagonistic). When there is no change, there is no interaction. However, most interactions are complex and better understanding of nutrient interactions may be useful in understanding the importance of a balanced supply of nutrients and consequently improvement in plant growth or yields [25]. According to Marschner [26], at the level of the nutrient acquisition mechanisms, competitive or antagonistic phenomena among elements can occur, for example, the interaction between NH4+ and K+, and this could be crucial for NH4+ fed plants when exposed to a suboptimal/unbalanced availability of K+ because the competition could induce/exacerbate K+ deficiency [27], and it is more relevant when the additional application of NH4+ is of pivotal role to achieve specific qualitative objectives of the edible fruits [28]. The interactions between K+/Na+ and Cl−/NO3− could represent a limiting factor for soilless cultivation of crop plants, especially in a semiarid environment characterized by saline water. NaCl interferes with the uptake processes of both K+ and NO3−, since K+ is sensitive to Na+ in the external environment, while the uptake of NO3− is inhibited by Cl− [29]. This phenomenon could be even more pronounced in hydroponic solutions particularly when used in a closed system, where monitoring the ratio between Ca2+, Mg2+, and K+ in the solutions is very important to avoid K+/Ca2+ induced Mg2+ deficiency. Calcium, magnesium, and potassium compete with each other and the addition of any one of them will reduce the uptake rate of the other two [26]. Unbalanced fertilization practice, with a high level of K+ and Ca2+, can induce Mg2+ deficiency in crop plants, Schimansky [30] suggested that the excessive availability of K+ and Ca2+ could inhibit Mg2+ uptake by roots. Similarly, very high rates of Mg2+ fertilizers will depress K+ absorption by plants, but this antagonism is not nearly as strong as the inverse relation of K+ on Mg2+ [31]. Also, the uptake of nitrogen, sulfur, and iron is not exclusively dependent on its availability in the hydroponic solution but also on the presence of other elements. The uptake of NO3− was hampered by the shortages of iron and sulfur, and the effect on the assimilation process seems to play a dominant role in determining the NO3− accumulation at the leaf level. In the case of nitrogen and sulfur, the lacking one represses the assimilation of the other and induces physiological changes aiming at re-balancing the contents in the plant [32]. One of the greatest issues concerning hydroponic productions is sulfur starvation due to a consistent accumulation of NO3− in plant leaves [33]. The anion which is taken up relatively slowly can also reduce the uptake speed of its counter-ion, as observed for SO42− on K+ uptake [26].
In hydroponic solutions, interactions among solutes cannot be neglected and therefore ion activity should be used in calculations instead of concentrations [34]. The high ionic concentrations can disrupt membrane integrity and function, as well as internal solute balance and nutrient absorption, resulting in nutritional deficiency symptoms similar to those observed when nutrient concentrations are below the required levels [24]. In addition, the root physiological process is not only affected by the availability levels of the nutrients, but also by the nutrient sources and/or by the interactions among the different nutrients [35]. The chemical forms of a nutrient are also very important, for example, plants can use a wide variety of nitrogen forms, ranging from the inorganic, namely NH4+ and NO3−, to the organic ones, like urea and amino acids [36]. Ammonium is an attractive nitrogen form for root uptake due to its permanent availability and the reduced state of the nitrogen; nevertheless, when both nitrogen forms are supplied to the nutrient solution, plant roots may absorb preferentially one of them, depending on the heredity of each specie [37]. Pure NH4+ nutrition caused the development of toxicity symptoms in many herbaceous plants, as well as inhibited NO3− uptake [38]. Therefore, a balanced nitrogen diet is clearly beneficial for several plant species as compared to that based exclusively on NO3− [39]. Tomato root growth was optimal when NO3− and NH4+ were supplied in a 3:1 ratio; on the contrary, when NH4+ concentration was too high, a strong inhibition in the root development was observed [40]. However, the form of nitrogen suitable for obtaining the maximum production for each species and its cultivation conditions has not yet been defined [37]. Also, the plant species and environmental conditions are two critical factors that affect the optimum NO3−/NH4+ ratio, which can affect not only root development and morphology but also the overall root biomass. According to [41], the chemical quality of nutrient solutions can affect plant yield and bioactive compounds.
Several physical-chemical phenomena can alter the nutrient availability for plants, the most important of which are—precipitation, co-precipitation, and complexation. Precipitation reactions may occur when cations and anions in an aqueous solution combine to form a precipitate. It is known that phosphate availability can be reduced at pH above 7 mostly due to precipitation with calcium and different calcium-phosphate minerals can potentially form above this pH [42], and precipitation of phosphates must be avoided in hydroponic solutions because it is not only depleting phosphorus from the nutrient solution, but it may also reduce the solubility of other nutrients, such as calcium, magnesium, iron, and manganese. Also, sulfur availability can be limited by precipitation with calcium, as calcium-sulfate minerals [43]. Co-precipitation also may strongly reduce the solubility of nutrients added at trace concentrations, such as copper, zinc, manganese, and nickel, when insoluble compounds, such as iron hydroxides, calcium carbonates, or calcium phosphates, are formed [44]. In hydroponic solutions, a complex chemical compound is formed when a metal nutrient is bound by one or more neutral molecules or anions, either of organic or inorganic nature. The resulting complex can be a neutral compound, a cation, or an anion, depending on whether positive or negative charges prevail. These reactions diminish the concentration of the free ions in the nutrient solution, changing elemental bioavailability. The addition, organic ligands, such as: ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), Diethylenetriamine Penta acetic Acid (DTPA), Ethylenediamine (O-Hydroxyphenyl acetic) Acid (EDDHA), and citrate, can increase the stability of certain elements in solution, especially iron, copper, and zinc [45].
The pH value of the nutrient solution greatly affects plants’ growth. This is because the nutrients added to the nutrient solution are available for the uptake by the plant are soluble in water only at particular pH levels, as shown in Figure 1. According to Mayavan et al. [47], the plants require a range of pH values to be maintained to ensure the availability of all the nutrients for uptake by the plants. Nutrient solution pH is typically managed between 5.5 and 6.5, and it seems to be a range where almost all hydroponically grown crops exhibit normal growth and nutrient uptake, and the optimum pH range for different crops grown hydroponically are shown in Table 3. However, species-specific pH responses of leafy greens grown in liquid culture hydroponic systems are largely unexplored [49]. However, the optimum pH for maximum growth differs not only between species, but also between cultivar, climatic conditions, and soil, substrate, or nutrient solution conditions [50]. Frick and Mitchell [51] indicated that the pH of a hydroponic nutrient solution fluctuates because of the unbalanced anion and cation exchange reaction with roots and there is no buffering capacity in hydroponics. The changes in the pH of a nutrient solution depend on the difference in the magnitude of nutrient uptake by plants, in terms of the balance of anions over cations. When the anions are up taken in higher concentrations than cations, for example, nitrate, the plant excretes OH− or HCO3− anions, to balance the electrical charges inside, which produces increasing in the pH value and this process is called physiological alkalinity [52]. Nutrient disorders and thereby growth reduction occur when pH is outside the optimum range, and several studies suggested that the direct effect of pH seems to be detrimental only at the extreme ends of acidity and alkalinity, and growth reductions and nutrient disorders outside of the conventional pH ranges can typically be attributed to pH-dependent factors [49, 53]. The growth response to pH is species-specific and further studies to investigate responses to pH of commercially important cultivars and species grown hydroponically need to be done [49]. In general, the pH of the plant root environment is affecting nutrient uptake, nutrient availability, ion antagonism, ionic species present, and solubility of fertilizer salts [50, 54]. Due to this, it is important to measure and maintain the pH value to the required level because a little drift in the pH value can make a lot of nutrients unavailable for the plants [47].
The availability of different nutrients at the different pH bands is indicated by the width of the white bar: The wider the bar, the more available is the nutrient. Source: Truog [
Crop | Optimum pH range |
---|---|
Tomato | 6.0–6.5 |
Pepper | 5.5–6.0 |
Egg plant | 6.0 |
Cucumber | 5.0–5.5 |
Strawberry | 6.0 |
Courgettes | 6.0 |
Banana | 5.5–6.5 |
Ficus | 5.5–6.0 |
Spinach | 6.0–7.0 |
Lettuce | 6.0–7.0 |
Cabbage | 6.5–7.0 |
Broccoli | 6.0–6.8 |
Asparagus | 6.0–8.0 |
Bean | 6.0 |
Basil | 5.5–6.0 |
Sage | 5.5–6.5 |
The optimum range of pH values for different crops grown hydroponically.
Source: Sharma et al. [48].
Precipitation/dissolution phenomena are often promoted by pH changes and, therefore, pH must be continuously controlled or buffered. Cations may form insoluble hydroxides at alkaline pH or other insoluble precipitates by reacting with other anionic nutrients. PH values above 7 may cause the precipitation of iron, zinc, copper, nickel, and manganese as insoluble hydroxides [55]. Also, at high pH values and high dissolved CO2 concentrations, macronutrients like calcium and magnesium can precipitate as carbonates. As the pH increases above 7, most of the dissolved phosphorus reacts with calcium forming calcium phosphates. Gradually, reactions occur in which the dissolved free phosphate species form insoluble compounds that cause phosphate to become unavailable [56]. According to Resh [57], slightly acidic pH is optimum for hydroponic production because iron, manganese, calcium, and magnesium may form precipitates and become unavailable at pH above 7. Bugbee [58] also reported that availability of potassium and phosphorus is slightly reduced in a nutrient solution with high pH. The reason for the reduction in phosphorus uptake at a high pH level is explained by the reduction in the concentration of H2PO4−, which is the substrate of the proton-coupled phosphate symporter in the plasma membrane, in the pH range of 5.6–8.5; conversely, a decrease in pH can increase the activity of proton-coupled solute transporters and enhance anion uptake [59]. Because pH affects nutrient availability and nutrient uptake across the plasma membrane, it is difficult to determine whether growth inhibition and nutrient disorders observed at low pH of the nutrient solution are a result of the direct effect of excessive hydronium ion concentration or pH-dependent factors affecting nutrient availability and uptake. At acidic pH, for example, in uncontrolled hydroponic systems under anoxic conditions, some elements might also precipitate as insoluble sulfides. Also, it is very important to note that, the addition of nutrients in the form of salts to hydroponic solutions may lead to hydrolysis reactions, which may result in the acidification or alkalinization of the medium. For example, nitrogen supply may alter solution pH, if nitrogen is added only in the form of NO3− (alkalinization) or NH4+ (acidification) [60].
In general, stabilizing the pH of a nutrient solution is necessary for optimum crop productivity in hydroponics [51], and maintaining an adequate nutrient solution and pH level are often cited as major obstacles to hydroponic production [61]. Despite the fact that the optimal pH in the root zone of most crops grown hydroponically ranges from 5.5 to 6.5, although values as low as 4.0 have been proposed for preventing the incidence of infections from Pythium and Phytophthora spp. [13, 49]. Low pH in the rhizosphere poses abiotic stress, resulting directly (i.e., high H+ injury of roots) or/and indirectly (i.e., limited availability of phosphorus) in restricted plant growth and crop yield. The value of pH changes as the plant absorbs nutrients from the solution, the plants give hydrogen ions into the nutrients in exchange for the ions of elements they require, and they do this to be electrically neutral. The hydrogen ions that the plants get are a result of photosynthesis. These hydrogen ions combine with water to produce hydronium ions which increases the pH of the water. This has to be counteracted by adding acids like phosphoric acid into the nutrient solution to ensure the solubility of all the elements in the nutrients [47]. Various acids or bases used to adjust pH may also provide some interacting factors on the plants. For example, potassium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, phosphoric acid, and acetic acid are commonly used to maintain the pH of the nutrient solution. The presence of these acids or bases may have had small impacts through the addition of minerals such as potassium, phosphorus, and/or sodium and the increased concentration of acetates. Other nonmineral nutrients containing acids (carbonic, formic, citric, acetylsalicylic, etc.) could be used for pH adjustment, but their potential toxicity and interactions with the nutrient solutions would need careful consideration and study. Overall, it would be ideal to have a solution where pH could be maintained easily within a small pH range without the addition of mineral nutrients [62]. Wang et al. [63] found that a mixture of three (HNO3, H3PO4, and H2SO4) acids was much more effective than only single acid for maintaining an optimal solution pH of 5.5–6.5. The management of nutrient solution pH is an important challenge in soilless systems, since not only it may determine plant growth but also it influences dry matter production, root rhizosphere, and apoplastic pH [13]. However, in soilless culture, when maintaining marginal values of the optimum pH range, the risk of exceeding or dropping below them for some time increases due to the limited volume of nutrient solution per plant that is available in the root zone, and most plants, when exposed to external pH levels >7 or < 5, show growth restrictions. When soilless substrates are used instead of liquid-based hydroponics, pH in the nutrient solution interacts with substrates [64], and micronutrient toxicity occurs rather than deficiency. Therefore, the evaluation of the plant’s pH response must consider the growing systems employed.
In soilless culture, the total salt concentration of a nutrient solution must be considered, and the nutrient solution EC is an index of salt concentration and an indicator of electrolyte concentration of the solution and is related to the number of ions available to plants in the root zone. The EC is a measure of the total salts dissolved in the hydroponic nutrient solution. It is used for monitoring applications of fertilizers. However, EC reading does not provide information regarding the exact mineral content of the nutrient solution. It is an important factor that reflects the total content of macro- and micro-elements available to plants [6], and it is an easy and accurate method of measuring total salt concentration. Inadequate management of the nutrient solution, such as the use of a too high or a too low concentration of the nutrient solution, or an imbalanced ion composition could inhibit plant growth due to either toxicity or nutrient-induced deficiency [65]. In hydroponic production systems, EC management is one of the most important and manageable cultural practices that affects the visual, nutritional, and phytochemical quality of leafy vegetables [4]. However, managing the EC in moderately high levels—either by using low-quality water that contains residual ions, such as Cl−, Na+ and SO4−, or by adding major nutrients through stock solutions—is a cultivation management technique that provides great potential to achieve high dietary and organoleptic quality in fresh vegetables [24]. Each plant species has a proper uptake rate of the nutrient solution; excessively high or low levels of the nutrient solution have a negative effect on plants. For many leafy vegetables, there are already specific formulations used on a commercial scale for hydroponics, and the optimum EC levels for different crops grown hydroponically are shown in Table 4. Although the plants were supplied with suitable ion ratios, plants can easily suffer from nutrient deficiency or excess if the nutrient solution concentration is low or high. Therefore, it is crucial to determine the suitable EC level of nutrient solutions with favorable ion ratios for growing plants [6]. The optimal EC is crop specific and depends on environmental conditions [66]. Thus, the determination of the most favorable nutrient ratio for each species under diverse climatic conditions is of major importance.
Crop | EC (dSm−1) |
---|---|
Tomato | 2.0–4.0 |
Pepper | 0.8–1.8 |
Egg plant | 2.5–3.5 |
Cucumber | 1.7–2.0 |
Strawberry | 1.8–2.2 |
Courgettes | 1.8–2.4 |
Banana | 1.8–2.2 |
Ficus | 1.6–2.4 |
Spinach | 1.8–2.3 |
Lettuce | 1.2–1.8 |
Cabbage | 2.5–3.0 |
Broccoli | 2.8–3.5 |
Asparagus | 1.4–1.8 |
Bean | 2.0–4.0 |
Basil | 1.0–1.6 |
Sage | 1.0–1.6 |
Optimum range of EC values for different crops grown hydroponically.
Source: Sharma et al. [48].
Many studies have reported that EC levels of nutrient solutions affect the growth of various crops. The optimal EC level range should be from 1.5 to 3.5 dS m−1 for most hydroponic crops, but this value varies between crop species and phenological stages [6]. However, the upper levels of EC in nutrient solutions must be considered for each species, since excessive EC values may decrease the osmotic potential of the nutrient solution and consequently result in delays in water transport from roots to fruits, with negative effects on fruit expansion and yield [24]. The EC levels showed a considerable influence on the ratio of ions as well as the uptake content of individual minerals. Too low and too high EC would reduce yields, visual quality, phytochemical compounds and lead to a less attractive color and taste to consumers, and enhance the negative health effects due to nitrate accumulation [4]. Increasing conductivity in nutrient solution may reduce water absorption by plants and decrease photosynthesis [67]. Also, higher EC means plants are exposed to salinity stress and high levels of nutrients, which hinders nutrient uptake and induces osmotic stress, ion toxicity, nutrient imbalance, wastes nutrients, and increases the discharge of more nutrients into the environment, resulting in environmental pollution. At the extreme EC level, plants are not able to take up any more water, and water will move backward out of the nutrient solution, which makes plants withered. The elevated EC may have negative effects on yield but can also positively affect the quality of the fresh produce, thus compromising any yield losses through the production of products with a high added value [24]. As an example, the yield of tomatoes under the hydroponic system increased as EC of the nutrient solution increased from 0 to 3 dS m−1 and decreased as the EC increased from 3 to 5 dS m−1 due to an increase in water stress [68]. Lower EC values mean the supply of some nutrients to the crop may be inadequate are mostly accompanied by nutrient deficiencies and decreasing yield [69]. So, appropriate management of EC in hydroponics technique can give an effective tool for improving vegetable yield and quality [48].
EC is modified by plants as they absorb nutrients and water from the nutrient solution. When a nutrient solution is applied continuously, plants can uptake ions at very low concentrations, and a high proportion of the nutrients are not used by plants. However, in particular situations, too low concentrations do not cover the minimum demand for certain nutrients. On the other hand, high concentrated nutrient solutions lead to excessive nutrient uptake and therefore toxic effects may be expected. Therefore, a decrease in the concentration of some ions and an increase in the concentration of others is observed simultaneously, both in close and open systems. It was observed, in a closed hydroponic system with a rose crop, that the concentration of iron decreased very fast, while that of Ca2+, Mg2+, and Cl− increased; moreover, concentrations of K+, Ca2+, and SO42− did not reach critical levels [70]. Providing the most suitable nutrient solution and EC level for growing vegetables and crops in hydroponic systems helps to avoid the waste of nutrient solution, which contributes to saving production costs for growing crops in plant factories and preventing environmental pollution, and the value of EC is required to be controlled to ensure nutritional elements needed by plants is fulfilled.
Nutrient solution temperature is considered as one of the most important determining factors of crop yield and quality in hydroponic production systems [71]. The temperature of the nutrient solution affects the physiological process in the root, such as the absorption of water and nutrients, and the thermal regulation of hydroponic solution can contribute to improving and optimizing plant physiological processes [72]. Nutrient uptake for plants grown in glasshouses may be positively and adversely affected by manipulating the hydroponic solution temperature to the optimum level [73]. It is also possible that the increased temperature facilitated solubility of minerals and increase uptake since the rate of dissolving of solutes increases with increase in temperature [74], and the nutrient solution temperature tends to determine the concentration of nutrients absorbed by the plant, as more nutrients are dissolved at higher temperatures and less at lower temperatures, consequently influencing the efficiency of the photosynthetic apparatus [75]. Calatayud et al. [76] revealed that, in most plant species, nutrient uptake by roots decreased at low temperatures. Increasing nutrient temperatures increased nutrient uptake in cucumber and enhanced plant growth leading to a significant increase in yield [77]. The uptake rate of N, P, K, Na, Fe, Mn, and Zn in Jojoba was significantly reduced at low temperatures [78]. While, in cucumber, uptake of N, P, K, Ca, and Mg was increased when the temperature was raised in a closed hydroponic system from 12 to 20°C [77]. It has been reported that commercial growers experience a lower level of ornamental plant production in winter than in summer due to the low temperature of the solution [79, 80]. Also, the production of various plant metabolites is influenced by the temperature of the root zone in many plants, including leafy vegetables [67].
The chemical equilibrium of the solution is affected by nutrient temperature, and this is particularly crucial for areas where the over warming of the nutrient solution often occurs, impacting also all the physiological processes in the plant [81]. Generally, the cold solution increased NO3− uptake and thin-white roots production but decreased water uptake and it also influenced the photosynthetic apparatus. The temperature of the nutrient solution also has a direct relation to the amount of oxygen consumed by plants, and an inverse relation to the oxygen dissolved. It is of paramount importance to regulate hydroponic solution temperatures in situations whereby, plants are grown in a controlled environment during winter months. Optimizing solution temperature can be achieved by warming the nutrient solution and this showed success in a variety of crops [82, 83]. High temperature in the root zone is one of the most significant limiting factors for lettuce cultivation in tropical hydroponics. Instead of cooling the entire greenhouse air, the root zone cooling system could be an energy-efficient cooling system for a greenhouse for tropical hydroponics. Therefore, it is very important to study the optimum nutrient temperature requirements for different crops grown in climates with adverse winter conditions.
Maintaining enough dissolved O2 in a nutrient solution in a hydroponic system is crucial for plant health. Oxygen availability to roots grown in soilless culture can become limiting in case O2 demand exceeds O2 supply, inducing a reduction in root growth rate, ion, and water uptake, eventually reducing plant production [84]. Plants grown in hydroponic systems can quickly deplete the dissolved O2 in the nutrient solution resulting in poor root aeration, especially when greenhouse temperatures are high, Table 5 shows O2 solubility in pure water at different temperatures. Jong et al. [86] noticed that cucumber growth was significantly affected by root-zone aeration. Roosta et al. [87] found improve eggplant growth with rising O2 levels in the nutrient solution in floating hydroponic cultures and higher O2 levels seemed to alleviate signs of ammonium toxicity among the tested plants. Root respiration also decreases when O2 supply in the root environment falls below a critical O2 concentration [88]. The sensitivity of roots to low O2 concentration depends on its effect on mitochondrial respiration because it supplies most of the energy required for root function. Reduction in O2 levels in the nutrient solution could lead to poor roots, an increase in the incidence of diseases and pests, and a reduction in plant growth. Oxygen around a plant’s roots affects the beneficial microorganisms that provide protection from pathogens and improve nutrient uptake. Tomato plant roots would be much more susceptible to Pythium infection if root zone O2 dropped below 2.8 mg/L [89]. Dissolved O2 concentration, is strongly dependent on solution temperature and flow rate near the root zone, as well as on the growth rate of the crop, and may be influenced by the bacterial community present in the solution. The temperature has a direct relationship to the amount of oxygen consumed by the plant and a reverse relationship with dissolved oxygen from the nutrient solution. The consumption of O2 increases when the temperature of the nutrient solution increases. Consequently, it produces an increase in the relative concentration of CO2 in the root environment if the root aeration is not adequate [90]. For overcoming the limited oxygen exchange between the atmosphere and the nutrient solution in static deep water culture hydroponics, the nutrient solution is aerated by an air bubbler connecting with the pump to provide adequate root oxygenation [6]. Roots of loose-leaf lettuce grown in a floating raft hydroponic system were found to have a better condition with oxygen enrichment done in nutrient solution up to aeration pressure of 0.012 mPa and concentration of 600 ppm, with indicators of increasing length and total root surface area [68]. So, it is important to make sure the nutrient solution is properly aerated to maintain enough oxygen for the plant cells found in the root mass since this is crucial to the function of the plant’s cells and the microbial world.
Temperature (oC) | Oxygen solubility (mg L−1) |
---|---|
10 | 11.29 |
15 | 10.08 |
20 | 9.09 |
25 | 8.26 |
30 | 7.56 |
35 | 6.95 |
40 | 6.41 |
45 | 5.93 |
Solubility of oxygen in pure water at various temperatures.
Source: Trejo-Téllez et al. [85].
An optimized and well-balanced supply of nutrients is a prerequisite for efficient use of the resources by hydroponically grown vegetables, not only to ensure a high yield but also to guarantee the quality of the edible tissues. In hydroponics, because of the limited nutrient-buffering capacity of the system and the ability to make rapid changes, careful monitoring of the system is necessary. The frequency and volume of the nutrient solution applied depends on the type of substrate, the crop and growth stage, the size of the container, the irrigation systems used, and the prevailing climatic conditions. Depending on the stage of plant development, some elements in the nutrient solution will be depleted more quickly than others and as water evaporates from the nutrient solution, the fertilizer becomes more concentrated and can burn plant roots. In hydroponics, nutrient management is very important and must be done as highly efficient as possible to improve productivity without harming the environment. Nutrient management included- application the right fertilizers source (e.g., ammonium or nitrate as nitrogen source), balanced nutrient solution according to plants needs and according to plant growth stages and climatic conditions. The main principle of crop nutrient management is to prevent overapplication of nutrients, which prevents loss due to low yield from toxicities of some nutrients resulting from the unnecessary use of fertilizers. It was reported that the strong difference between the ion ratios presented in the nutrient solution and those absorbed by plants led to the accumulation of certain ions in the nutrient solution, which caused an imbalance of mineral elements in the nutrient solution and created more energy to absorb the suitable ions [6]. Recycling exhausted solutions may also represent an efficient strategy to prevent groundwater and environmental pollution. However, the main problem with the reuse of exhausted nutrient solutions is the shortage of some key macro and micronutrients [91] and their increased salinity [92] causing, in turn, problems for crops [93, 94]. Thus, it is very important to develop management practices/tools that reduce salinity in recycled solutions and/or minimize the physiological impact of salinity on plants. The salinity increase could be contrasted by treating the recycled water with appropriate osmotic systems, including forward and reverse osmosis.
In closed hydroponic systems, accumulation of potentially toxic organic compounds released by the roots of cultivated plants may occur and to overcome this issue, several treatment techniques have been proposed for root exudates degradation or removal. However, for the treatment to be effective, it should be able to remove root exudates without interfering with the inorganic mineral nutrients in the solution. As above-mentioned, the regulation of the solution flow rate in hydroponic production affects plant growth, which in turn affects crop yield and quality. The influence of nutrient solution flow rate on plant growth is related to the plants’ physical environment. The flow of nutrient solution not only promotes nutrient ion diffusion but also increases the kinetic energy available to plant roots Therefore, adjusting the flow rate can improve plant yield and a reasonable flow pattern must be carefully selected. Because increasing the flow means increasing electricity consumption, it increases the cost of operation. Therefore, it is important to balance plant yield, nutrient management, and energy utilization. According to Baiyin et al. [95], determining the ideal flow rate for hydroponic production may help to increase yield. However, such a determination requires a specific analysis of each crop and growing environment. The hydroponic nutrient solution is the sole source of nutrients to the plant; therefore, it is imperative that a balanced solution, containing all the right plant nutrients, is applied.
Hydroponic cultivation is revolutionizing agricultural crop production techniques all over the world owing to its minimal environmental footprint, enhanced pest control, and provide high crop yield. It allows more accurate control of environmental conditions that offer possibilities for increasing production and improving the quality of crops. The rapid development of computers and controllers has enabled the opportunity to apply the controller in hydroponics. The microcontroller could be used to control these nutrient solution parameters by using relevant sensors. It monitors the conductivity and pH throughout 24 h during the whole cycle of production. Also, it helps in monitoring temperature, nutrient atomization, EC, and pH fluctuations and level of nutrient solution in the nutrient reservoir. However, although the comprehension of the multi-level interactions among the various mineral elements is considered crucial to understanding the different sensing and signaling pathways induced by a single or multiple shortage/s, the impact of these nutrients’ interactions on crop performance is largely unknown [32].
Some hydroponic growers use more than the required amounts of nutrients for crop growth to minimize the chances of nutrient deficiency. But one of the most important factors for a successful hydroponics system is the use of the appropriate nutrient solution, and it is important to control the amount of nutrients to allow or deny plants the nutrient accumulation. While hydroponic systems are considered to represent a sustainable method for growing plants, the nutrient solution used in hydroponic systems is based on chemical fertilizers which are mined from scarce and non-renewable resources. Recently, there has been an increased interest in organic hydroponics, as the market for organic food continues to grow and some studies have reported the possibility of growing vegetables using an organic nutrient solution. For optimizing the utilization of organic waste for hydroponic plant growth, a solubilization step is required to break down organic matter and mobilize nutrients [96]. For example, the direct use of organic fertilizers in hydroponic systems may inhibit plant growth due to the high biological oxygen demand in the root zone caused by the presence of dissolved organic carbon compounds. Additionally, most of the nutrients in organic sources, such as waste material from the agricultural and aquacultural industry, are not in ionic forms and, hence, are not directly available for plants. Also, the last decade has seen increasing interest in using wastewater as a source of hydroponic nutrition. This aims at a dual benefit of optimizing water reuse as well as a practical end point for wastewater management. Untreated domestic rinse water obtained from washing machine second-cycle rinse can effectively be used for indoor hydroponic cultivation of plants without the need for any additional fertilizer. It also entails the benefits of significant savings in water use, sewage disposal, ecosystem protection, and the possibility to produce economically viable food crops [97]. Nowadays, hydroponic farming technology is extensively used in producing ornamental plants and flowers. Controllable application of fertilizers, the ability to change nutrients in different weather conditions and different plant growth stages, reduction of fertilizer leaching from the root zone, reduction of contamination, environmental protection, and enhancement of the quality and quantity of products are becoming some of the advantages of this technology.
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Additional details are presented related with the mechanical and functional integration of the GPR into the UAV system.",book:{id:"5905",slug:"robots-operating-in-hazardous-environments",title:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments",fullTitle:"Robots Operating in Hazardous Environments"},signatures:"Manuel Ricardo Pérez Cerquera, Julian David Colorado Montaño\nand Iván Mondragón",authors:[{id:"177422",title:"Dr.",name:"Julian",middleName:null,surname:"Colorado",slug:"julian-colorado",fullName:"Julian Colorado"},{id:"197884",title:"Prof.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Mondragon",slug:"ivan-mondragon",fullName:"Ivan Mondragon"},{id:"199958",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Perez",slug:"manuel-perez",fullName:"Manuel Perez"}]},{id:"15855",title:"Kinematics of AdeptThree Robot Arm",slug:"kinematics-of-adeptthree-robot-arm",totalDownloads:14625,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"152",slug:"robot-arms",title:"Robot Arms",fullTitle:"Robot Arms"},signatures:"Adelhard Beni Rehiara",authors:[{id:"29287",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelhard",middleName:"Beni",surname:"Rehiara",slug:"adelhard-rehiara",fullName:"Adelhard Rehiara"}]},{id:"62978",title:"Intelligent Robotic Perception Systems",slug:"intelligent-robotic-perception-systems",totalDownloads:2395,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Robotic perception is related to many applications in robotics where sensory data and artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) techniques are involved. Examples of such applications are object detection, environment representation, scene understanding, human/pedestrian detection, activity recognition, semantic place classification, object modeling, among others. Robotic perception, in the scope of this chapter, encompasses the ML algorithms and techniques that empower robots to learn from sensory data and, based on learned models, to react and take decisions accordingly. The recent developments in machine learning, namely deep-learning approaches, are evident and, consequently, robotic perception systems are evolving in a way that new applications and tasks are becoming a reality. Recent advances in human-robot interaction, complex robotic tasks, intelligent reasoning, and decision-making are, at some extent, the results of the notorious evolution and success of ML algorithms. This chapter will cover recent and emerging topics and use-cases related to intelligent perception systems in robotics.",book:{id:"7227",slug:"applications-of-mobile-robots",title:"Applications of Mobile Robots",fullTitle:"Applications of Mobile Robots"},signatures:"Cristiano Premebida, Rares Ambrus and Zoltan-Csaba Marton",authors:[{id:"203409",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Premebida",slug:"cristiano-premebida",fullName:"Cristiano Premebida"},{id:"254880",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",middleName:null,surname:"Ambrus",slug:"rares-ambrus",fullName:"Rares Ambrus"},{id:"254881",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan-Csaba",middleName:null,surname:"Marton",slug:"zoltan-csaba-marton",fullName:"Zoltan-Csaba Marton"}]},{id:"67705",title:"Advanced UAVs Nonlinear Control Systems and Applications",slug:"advanced-uavs-nonlinear-control-systems-and-applications",totalDownloads:1943,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Recent development of different control systems for UAVs has caught the attention of academic and industry, due to the wide range of their applications such as in surveillance, delivery, work assistant, and photography. In addition, arms, grippers, or tethers could be installed to UAVs so that they can assist in constructing, transporting, and carrying payloads. In this book chapter, the control laws of the attitude and position of a quadcopter UAV have been derived basically utilizing three methods including backstepping, sliding mode control, and feedback linearization incorporated with LQI optimal controller. The main contribution of this book chapter would be concluded in the strategy of deriving the control laws of the translational positions of a quadcopter UAV. The control laws for trajectory tracking using the proposed strategies have been validated by simulation using MATLAB®/Simulink and experimental results obtained from a quadcopter test bench. Simulation results show a comparison between the performances of each of the proposed techniques depending on the nonlinear model of the quadcopter system under investigation; the trajectory tracking has been achieved properly for different types of trajectories, i.e., spiral trajectory, in the presence of unknown disturbances. Moreover, the practical results coincided with the results of the simulation results.",book:{id:"7792",slug:"unmanned-robotic-systems-and-applications",title:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications",fullTitle:"Unmanned Robotic Systems and Applications"},signatures:"Abdulkader Joukhadar, Mohammad Alchehabi and Adnan Jejeh",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"22",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82223",title:"Biomechanical Design Principles Underpinning Anthropomorphic Manipulators",slug:"biomechanical-design-principles-underpinning-anthropomorphic-manipulators",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105434",abstract:"The biomechanical design of an artificial anthropomorphic manipulator is the focus of many researchers in diverse fields. Current electromechanical artificial hands are either in the research stage, expensive, have patents, lack severely in function, and/or are driven by robotic/mechanical principles, which tend to ignore the biological requirements of such designs. In response to the challenges addressed above this chapter discusses the potential of current technology and methods used in design to bridge the chasm that exists between robot manipulators and the human hand. This chapter elucidates artificial anthropomorphic manipulator design by outlining biomechanical concepts that contribute to the function, esthetics and performance of artificial manipulators. This chapter addresses joint stabilization, tendon structures and tendon excursion in artificial anthropomorphic manipulators.",book:{id:"11455",title:"Recent Advances in Robot Manipulators",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11455.jpg"},signatures:"Mahonri William Owen and Chikit Au"},{id:"82056",title:"Learning Robotic Ultrasound Skills from Human Demonstrations",slug:"learning-robotic-ultrasound-skills-from-human-demonstrations",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105069",abstract:"Robotic ultrasound system plays a vital role in assisting or even replacing sonographers in some cases. However, modeling and learning ultrasound skills from professional sonographers are still challenging tasks that hinder the development of ultrasound systems’ autonomy. To solve these problems, we propose a learning-based framework to acquire ultrasound scanning skills from human demonstrations1. First, ultrasound scanning skills are encapsulated into a high-dimensional multi-modal model, which takes ultrasound images, probe pose, and contact force into account. The model’s parameters can be learned from clinical ultrasound data demonstrated by professional sonographers. Second, the target function of autonomous ultrasound examinations is proposed, which can be solved roughly by the sampling-based strategy. The sonographers’ ultrasound skills can be represented by approximating the limit of the target function. Finally, the robustness of the proposed framework is validated with the experiments on ground-true data from sonographers.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Miao Li and Xutian Deng"},{id:"82057",title:"An Episodic-Procedural Semantic Memory Model for Continuous Topological Sensorimotor Map Building",slug:"an-episodic-procedural-semantic-memory-model-for-continuous-topological-sensorimotor-map-building",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104818",abstract:"For humans to understand the world around them, learning and memory are two cognitive processes of the human brain that are deeply connected. Memory allows information to retain and forms an experiences reservoir. Computational models replicating those memory attributes can lead to the practical use of robots in everyday human living environments. However, constantly acquiring environmental information in real-world, dynamic environments has remained a challenge for many years. This article proposes an episodic-procedure semantic memory model to continuously generate topological sensorimotor maps for robot navigation. The proposed model consists of two memory networks: i) episodic-procedural memory network (EPMN) and ii) semantic memory network (SMN). The EPMN comprises an Incremental Recurrent Kernel Machines (I-RKM) that clusters incoming input vectors as nodes and learns the activation patterns of the nodes for spatiotemporal encoding. The SMN then takes neuronal activity trajectories from the EPMN and task-relevant signals to update the SMN and produce more compact representations of episodic experience. Thus, both memory networks prevent catastrophic forgetting by constantly generating nodes when the network meets new inputs or updating node weights when the incoming input is similar to previously learned knowledge. In addition, idle or outlier nodes will be removed to preserve memory space.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Wei Hong Chin, Naoyuki Kubota and Chu Kiong Loo"},{id:"81922",title:"Skill Acquisition for Resource-Constrained Mobile Robots through Continuous Exploration",slug:"skill-acquisition-for-resource-constrained-mobile-robots-through-continuous-exploration",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104996",abstract:"We present a cognitive mobile robot that acquires knowledge, and autonomously learns higher-level abstract capabilities based on play instincts, inspired by human behavior. To this end, we (i) model skills, (ii) model the robot’s sensor and actuator space based on elementary physical properties, and (iii) propose algorithms inspired by humans’ play instincts that allow the robot to autonomously learn the skills based on its sensor and actuator capabilities. We model general knowledge in the form of competencies (skills) of the mobile robot based on kinematic properties using physical quantities. Thus, by design, our approach has the potential to cover very generic application domains. To connect desired skills to the primitive capabilities of the robot’s sensors and actuators, it playfully explores the effects of its actions on its sensory input, thus autonomously learning relations and dependencies and eventually the desired skill. KnowRob is used for knowledge representation and reasoning, and the robot’s operation is based on ROS. In the experiments, we use a millirobot, sized 2 cm2, equipped with two wheels, motion, and distance sensors. We show that our cognitive mobile robot can successfully and autonomously learn elementary motion skills based on a playful exploration of its wheels and sensors.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Markus D. Kobelrausch and Axel Jantsch"},{id:"81693",title:"The Neo-Mechanistic Model of Human Cognitive Computation and Its Major Challenges",slug:"the-neo-mechanistic-model-of-human-cognitive-computation-and-its-major-challenges",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104995",abstract:"The neo-mechanistic theory of human cognition is currently one of the most accepted major theories in fields, such as cognitive science and cognitive neuroscience. This proposal offers an account of human cognitive computation, and it has been considered by its proponents as revolutionary and capable of integrating research concerning human cognition with new evidence provided by fields of biology and neuroscience. However, some complex cognitive capacities still present a challenge for explanations constructed by using this theoretical structure. In this chapter, I make a presentation of some of the central tenets of this framework and show in what dimensions it helps our understanding of human cognition concerning aspects of capacities, such as visual perception and memory consolidation. My central goal, however, is to show that to understand and explain some particular human cognitive capacities, such as self-consciousness and some conscious informal reasoning and decision making, the framework shows substantial limitations. I conclude the chapter by suggesting that to fully understand human cognition we will need much more than what the neo-mechanistic framework is actually able to provide.",book:{id:"10823",title:"Cognitive Robotics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10823.jpg"},signatures:"Diego Azevedo Leite"},{id:"81719",title:"Service Robots in Healthcare Settings",slug:"service-robots-in-healthcare-settings",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104640",abstract:"Robots will play a part in all aspects of healthcare. The presence of service robots in healthcare demands special attention, whether it is in the automation of menial labour, prescription distribution, or offering comfort. In this chapter, we examine the several applications of healthcare-oriented robots in the acute, ambulatory and at-home settings. We discuss the role of robotics in reducing environmental dangers, as well as at the patient’s bedside and in the operating room, in the acute setting. We examine how robotics can protect and scale up healthcare services in the ambulatory setting. Finally, in the at-home scenario, we look at how robots can be employed for both rural/remote healthcare delivery and home-based care. In addition to assessing the current state of robotics at the interface of healthcare delivery, we describe critical problems for the future where such technology will be ubiquitous. Patients, health care workers, institutions, insurance companies, and governments will realize that service robots will deliver significant benefits in the future in terms of leverage and cost savings, while maintaining or improving access, equity, and high-quality health care.",book:{id:"10657",title:"Advances in Service Robots",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg"},signatures:"Rohit Singla and Christopher Nguan"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:7},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. By addressing hot topics in veterinary sciences, we aim to gather authoritative texts within each issue of this series, providing in-depth overviews and analysis for graduates, academics, and practitioners and foreseeing a deeper understanding of the subject. Forthcoming texts, written and edited by experienced researchers from both industry and academia, will also discuss scientific challenges faced today in Veterinary Medicine and Science. In brief, we hope that books in this series will provide accessible references for those interested or working in this field and encourage learning in a range of different topics.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/13.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. 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